diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/7029910.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/7029910.txt | 4881 |
1 files changed, 4881 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/7029910.txt b/old/7029910.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d93e6b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7029910.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4881 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Suppl. No. 299, by Various + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Suppl. No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8408] +[This file was first posted on July 9, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL. NO. 299 *** + + + + +E-text prepared by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299 + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + +[Illustration] + + + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development + of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine + boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine + engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative + efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers + + Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.-- + Transverse and longitudinal sections + + Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure + + Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure + + Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger + + Railway Alarm Whistle + + Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure + + Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication + of manometer + + Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal + metal moulding apparatus + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's + wood pulp apparatus + + Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address, + Convention of Mechanical Engineers + + The Hoboken Drainage Problem + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements + in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON + + Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.-- + I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating + apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures + + How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON + + The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational + Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's + apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold + + The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases + + New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure + + Advance in the Price of Glycerine + + Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes + + Nitrate of Amyl + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery + + Lightning and Telephone Wires + + Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity + + The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill + + Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M. + A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- + Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- + Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum + +IV. MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism. + By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D. + + Method in Madness + + Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD + BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the + upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot + + Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture + of Powder + + Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England + + The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture + + Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer + + The Time Consuming Match + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art. + 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris + + Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.-- + 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans + +VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHILLE DELESSE. + + +The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting +_resume_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take +the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum +of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, +Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he +left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the +student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which +he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon +arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by +having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and +geology in the Faculty at Besancon, where Delesse at the same time +fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned +to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy +of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the +conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued +his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. +The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name +was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied +also, and with success, the interesting modifications called +pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their +magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided +him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has +rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin +and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by +investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent +and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of +analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived +from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites +and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study +and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed +further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of +science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order +of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The +mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in +the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention. +The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed +out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the +principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance +attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case +the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks. + +It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that +Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as +well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published +on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits +which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of +interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there, +indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for +in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents, +they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products +of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of +submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his +own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des +Progres de la Geologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" +for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a +less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications +of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the +under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of +water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were +represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form. +His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of +railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of +daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse +never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having +in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had +occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of +drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology +at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of +Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of +France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which, +to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons +there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a +citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department. + +His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th +of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two +years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society; +he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to +enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work. +He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his +intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the +reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he +addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness +and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his +profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th +of March.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT, +PARIS. + +(From The Workshop)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY. + + +On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging +to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting +ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals. +In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson +determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general +appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful +in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early +resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for +the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating +the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. +Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical +engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent +lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a +large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West. +Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were +received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting +the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the +framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James +Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth +of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face, +twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady +flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired +light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most +systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in +which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an +outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also +connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight +contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the +effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite +safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention +was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or +generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power +was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the +generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the +roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at +No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the +workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the +cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in +diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe +handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down +the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the +shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways +and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one +of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful +inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed +in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of +Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the +first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were +then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they +witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of +course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing +down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the +party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES. + + +M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingenieur-Conseil_ on the +above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best +and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire +to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of +the induction coils, which it might fuse. + +Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to +one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire. +The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful +current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M. +Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the +same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the +wires, and been by them conveyed to earth. + +This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that +there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly +upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells, +or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel +and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of +electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron; +consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick +were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface +of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square +meters must be established. + +It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On +the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the +terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be +absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds +than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning +conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of +contact with the earth. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY. + + +The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the +alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the +influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged +so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with +positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed +at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in +negative flames. + +A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own +conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and +also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the +flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these +results: + +When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a +metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface +according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the +point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform +more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a +conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame +will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer, +the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be +attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the +lower dark body of flame is also repulsed. + +This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire +gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive +flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small +fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it. + +All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a +stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame, +and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be +obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the +influence of a long "Holtz" machine. + +A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the +negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric +intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar +stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames +rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen +are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is +more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar +differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar +conductivity of the substances. + +The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point +of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by +conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows +similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive. +Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two +ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base +of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with +the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's +theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further +supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by +Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative +electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive +electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in +Wiedemanris Beiblaetter to Poggendorfs Annalen._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL. + + +The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the +various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent +something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and +quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed +wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was +given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble +in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and +during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway +head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that +where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that +should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or +strand of the machine. + +This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is +now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder, +intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance, +too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several +thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied. + +This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a +somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved, +and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been +made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and +accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of +which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in +putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed, +and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be +un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been +taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the +working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself. + +To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the +railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the +practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of +this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from +a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or +whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and +this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft. +The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a +half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power +than a light-running sewing machine. + +One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod +or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the +other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity +of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An +armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a +strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet +wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or +stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving +belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by +a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the +case of a breakage of a thread or strand. + +As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with +the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton +is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet +breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the +calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a +stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a +number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used +for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the +card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver +is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering +cotton. + +In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage +between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts; +in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or +in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either +case a stoppage would be instantly produced. + +In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back +can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of +the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to +the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or +tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier. + +There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With +mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple +contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be +had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical +changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical +attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France, +and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more +extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile +Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE. + +[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical +Engineers by F.C.Marshall.] + + +The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting +in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in +Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound +Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue +the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and +if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no +we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick +Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what +direction we are to look for further development. + +From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher, +the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much +smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the +same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to +1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent. + + +MARINE ENGINES. + +The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler. +The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in +the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1) +The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at +right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally +the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other, +but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one +crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two +pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently +three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The +system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the +same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft. + +These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being +manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the +screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace +nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be +oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft. + +The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be +said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the +relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound +expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of +our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor +of the latter. + + +THE MARINE BOILER. + +The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it +was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and +sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers +under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The +double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically +efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the +writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large +power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more +room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and +therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found +in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their +length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the +top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large +part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now +been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention +given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler +itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the +feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful +management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of +larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more +perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is +that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, +but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the +variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the +furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening +afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction, +and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace +action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler +may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives +greater steam space. + +A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a +locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power +developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the +cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural +draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a +consumption of fuel not exceeding 21/2 lb. per indicated horse-power per +hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in +the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen +below 21/2 square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape +of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the +incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of +the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's +attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine +work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to +steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty +lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very +limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure +or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either +exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would +be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case +with our miners, must work under a pressure of air. + + +STEEL BOILERS. + +The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of +steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from +six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the +works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no +case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler, +either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode +of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch +to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before +rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting +the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints +treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after +rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length, +and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube +plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and +front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it +is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they +are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical +boilersmith. + + +CORROSION OF BOILERS. + +The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as +time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel +boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made; +and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting +or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very +carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace +anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in +washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence +of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the +other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use +zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one +of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, +exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty +indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc +we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months +or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no +corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have +taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with +them." + + +HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED. + +Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due +attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping +authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity +is worth on an average L10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming, +therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel +to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of +materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing +the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth L1,000 per annum more to +her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is +shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and +all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power: + + Lb. per I. H. P. + + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 + + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 + +The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of +the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much +reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working. +The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but +it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some +other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we +must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be +of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by +reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of +revolutions per minute. + +It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent +upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This +process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the +column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of +it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then +fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is +usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers +will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful +design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the +substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine +to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. +A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of +the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving +parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one +structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the +cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such +conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their +place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight +of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with +thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned. + + +CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES. + +Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving +has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table: + + Item. 1872. 1881. + + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 + +This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of +the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system +would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to +feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the +results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel +on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the +forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung +pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the +great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces +as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler. + +Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements +of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total +disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that, +according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to +20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total +disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will +represent to-day about L3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, +the cost would have been L3,750--showing a saving of L750, equal to a +dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost +of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 161/2d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d. + + +EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS. + +The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of +steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will +be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than +that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency +of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air +is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the +efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the +heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled, +while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used +in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the +ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as +follows: + +W = (P + 15) (S + D squared L) / C + +or W = 2S (P + 15) / C + +when S = D squared L, which is a common proportion. + + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. + +This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the +relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb. +and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency +10 per cent, as follows: + +Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C + +Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C + +Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5 + +In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two +and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel +of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power, +the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place +at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing +L1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel. + + +MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. + +Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler +for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced +by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of +water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of +7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212 deg. Fahr., with 2 in. of +water pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are +low, but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily +small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel +consequently high, ranging from 1,073 deg. at the first pressure, and +1,444 deg. at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive +practice the efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler +when working under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from +3 in. to 4 in., including funnel draught. + +It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently +with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results, +even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure +of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse +power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working +by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed. + +Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged +against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not +reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total +working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven +atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165 +lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a +gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into +play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of +the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the +cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages. + +In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing +the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages, +and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not +be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause +of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully +chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to +1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. +With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very +good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has +another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure +can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater +amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, +of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of +separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity. + +The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic +properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are, +it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all +that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as +an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use +10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power. + +Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a +definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is +stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver +class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with +scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the +framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine. + +It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface +of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface +one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2 +square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found +1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of +271/2 inches. + +Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin +screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each +case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating +1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without +stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or +had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these +engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and +connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 +lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout +of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In +comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the +double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as +follows: + + Double ended Type. Navy Type. + + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. + + +SCREW PROPELLERS. + +The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We +have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of +the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by +reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase +the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet +3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be +qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite +resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made +too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required +speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too +large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on +which a separate paper should be written. + +To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years, +and in the following particulars: + +1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2. +Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of +all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38 +per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much +less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly +all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for +20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much +increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now +being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard +pressure now required. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES. + + +The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are +doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description +of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Societe des +Anciens Eleves d'Arts et Metiers_: + +All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the +inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the +high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient +has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service +(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of +locomotion of the city. + +The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of +separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of +Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that +the problem would be successfully solved. + +There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to +the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply +of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a +central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered +on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except +the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the +central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs +for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best +utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls +and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy, +for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats. + +[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.] + +The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction +of all concerned, and especially to that of the public. + +The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed +of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions +are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 31/4 feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal +distance between the two shells is 71/4 feet. These hulls, having +absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat +iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to +support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the +engine-room. The engine-room, which is 191/2 feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak. +The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of +the escape of hot air. + +The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely +from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves +on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two +sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from +the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides. + +Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been +provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary. + +The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a +floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches, +is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or +for office purposes, if need be. + +The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows: + + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ + + Total...........................41,800 " + +or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum +draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 41/2 miles per hour, a +great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross +in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking +place therein. + +The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of +which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving +as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston +has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 31/4 feet diameter) +to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide +surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., +because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the +shaft. + +The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace +and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being +effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested +up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the +engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of +the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning, +and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun +indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the +engine-room. + +Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have +proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for +which they were built. + + * * * * * + + + + +OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK. + + +In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve +Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored +in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the +new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock +at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500 +ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. +wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount +of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south +quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. +long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 +ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to +8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about L300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234 +yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at +a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners, +whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of +Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of +their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the +"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales +Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer +Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, +accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing +through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which +a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping +forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the +gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh +Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a +battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a +party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having +gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His +Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the +officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded +to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion +was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News, +Aug. 6._ + +[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR. + + +The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of +grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted +with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by +diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or +lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be +elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to +the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway +truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable +bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain +their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the +bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing +machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before +it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its +means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability +to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the +claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the +advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DREDGER. + + +We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of +Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine +consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick. +This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as +shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through +about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with +mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be +imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick +jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge +and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam +engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of +these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow +water.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE. + + +In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or +snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway +Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which +is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated +metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a +projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush +when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the +positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in +communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire +leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the +brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery +in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over +the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to +be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON. + + +Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur +over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll +brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible; +but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial +product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial +purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for +charcoal and pyrites for brimstone. + +The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith, +have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical +conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the +retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction +of the sulphur and carbon takes place. + +The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B, +furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it +descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the +fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through +the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided +into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated +by the fireplace, L'. + +[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.] + +The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the +condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is +deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the +partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and +V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the +sulphide of carbon being regulated. + +The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without +much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation. + +Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system +recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the +operation may be watched and conducted. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER. + + +Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing +graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works +during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system +of piping. + +For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but, +although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form +and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and +then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place. + +Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being +very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the +hour at which the pressure is exerted. + +The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a +circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in +motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base, +E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which +supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in +such a manner as not to impede its rotation. + +In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes +through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts +the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of +the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided +with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose +axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the +middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each +side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord +is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is +fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters +the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the +combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. +The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise. + +In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a +sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as +the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running +horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to +the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be +in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be +readily understood. + +[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.] + +When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and +consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which +carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the +pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction. + +The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible +curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the +point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen, +and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness. + +It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the +tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the +diameters of the pulleys, N and O. + +The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either +in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to +connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where +the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber +tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as +glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the +results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared. + + * * * * * + + + + +CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS. + + +The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of +Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects +in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the +nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is +to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where +it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or +pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded +or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic +core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, +and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be +cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g, +g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty, +and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the +cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece +and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of +circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a +flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. +As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are +pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into +the mould. + +[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.] + +The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows +it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments, +g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal +cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact +with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may, +however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas +into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting +is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, +or hydrogen. + +This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which +do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged +eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the +cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed +at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the +points where the radius is greater. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The +sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the +axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal +during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP. + + +For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as +represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical +reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This +reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which +has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of +tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of +the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the +boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine +atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are +provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, +D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being +interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an +active circulation in both the tubing and boiler. + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2] + +To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and +there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been +divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is +filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the +incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there +is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a +perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when +the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler +is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, +are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, +the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature +is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the +incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and +B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the +latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to +allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100 deg. +in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been +allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected +by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam +under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the +contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed +with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a +complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities +of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, +and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which +is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied. + +In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of +safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a +thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and +a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a +gauge-cock, H. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. + + +The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an +abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper. + +He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in +Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to +one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest +engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the +locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age +to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and +therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner. +He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George +Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the +Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported +by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its +members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has +increased in strength and importance. + +The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of +fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be +mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which +disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes +must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by +good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon +the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an +unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet +such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to +greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing +that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at +once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. +Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is +occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary +imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting +manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the +benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have +been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to +increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of +the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their +exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, +beet-root sugar. + +One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it +may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that +whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost +all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their +excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England, +they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine +engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced +by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American +merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in +English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at +sea. + +Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their +manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has +now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many +articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial +province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring +them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite +iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried +out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country. + +Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in +our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry +on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they +be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and +possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us +to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to +manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is +of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most +essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded. + +Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from +sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the +greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real +or important from having been gradual, while the result to this +neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great +measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly +of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher +pressure. + +The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved, +and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of +traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the +careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly +the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is +floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is +pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the +rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the +melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance. + +No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely +to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements +of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and +arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the +use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year. + +Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in +the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed +during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory +engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers" +have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is +very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole +water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum +without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only +raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of +its large volume. + +Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in +machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher +pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure. +Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both +for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be +again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at +continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; +we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion +practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially +the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out +to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing, +of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can +see nothing else will want doing for some time." + +A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in +reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the +mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties +and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the +river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down +grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment, +thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great +improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement +was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the +river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped +that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to +improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with +comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a +tunnel would involve. + +Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses +by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr. +Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed +one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such +numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its +various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens +of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St. +Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses, +and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the +elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples +of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The +lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power +of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful +electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between +the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of +the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will +be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher +percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become +more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been +obtained. + +The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field +of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose +of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very +considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands +of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in +Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild +steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam +boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of +purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door +frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the +manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging +fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany. +Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of +sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel +sleepers should also be used for tramways. + +If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making +a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig +metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by +several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets +where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be +afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the +heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making +tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking +this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet. + +The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by +hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are +twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or +3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the +lead in a manufacture. + +Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly +valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine, +which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all; +and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside +of piers in water. + +In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years. +Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it +being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine," +obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of +producing the various brilliant dyes now so common. + +New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases +by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at +a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and +water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves +the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some +steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has +been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again, +large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved +glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have +cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely +on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened +glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved +and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again +been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly +extended knowledge of the laws of optics. + +Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the +various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent +records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have +been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural; +for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme +magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the +architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent +the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the +naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings +still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has +always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last; +and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope +developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our +Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite +in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone. + +There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and +it is this. + +When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors +of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years, +one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who +have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers, +should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For +instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was, +in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor +Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from +those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings. + +It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been +forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and +among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir +Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph +Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir +Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James +Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir +Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick +Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an +improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter +part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of +thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous +small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM. + + +Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a +large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within +the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river +and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken. +Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands +or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh +is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long, +extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted +vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass +of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original +tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at +Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by +the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average +level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot +and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are +but two feet above mean high water. + +During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high +spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to +cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water +at high tide has been 41/2 feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot +or more above the established grade of the streets. + +The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly +habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm +waters. + +The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago; +since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other +devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature +in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed +and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the +Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann +and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the +City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in +Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely +to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction. + +There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First, +by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by +making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by +steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the +cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of +houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as +being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same +position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that +the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested +by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system +has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and +First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where +a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water +(except during storms) by means of a private pump. + +The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates +in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in +contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal +sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be +about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will +necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands +to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of +raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping +system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water +and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including +interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on +the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve. + +According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report +of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will +ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the +heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of +sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount +of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually +as the marsh land is built upon. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK." + + +Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the +sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of +Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the +soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the +ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such +a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an +ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over +which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The +drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external +stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the +garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged +on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A +tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are +on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at +the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used +throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with +ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge +boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front, +over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself. +The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and +the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended +its erection.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES. + +[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle. + + +The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller +number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes +employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then +briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam +desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and +in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of +Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should +commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means +are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the +Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the +lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 +in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a +sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into +the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently +erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each +pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the +pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover, +with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried +to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is +placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each +pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the +lower pot. The mode of working is as follows: + +The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane. +When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or +working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation. + +When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in +order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it +setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced. + +To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate +is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform +distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of +crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed +to play on the surface of the lead. + +This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface; +but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner +in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition +caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced +up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time +the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the +charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in +rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of +the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it. + +Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third +liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the +crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps +out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the +crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates. + +The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of +the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed, +they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of +the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the +lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is +crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot, +from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for +tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes. + +Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with +lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the +liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a +similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals, +by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to +run among the crystals. + +The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are +so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for +market. + +The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in +a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent +operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old +six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a +saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of +calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of +all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of +two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger +original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and +repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with +increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the +last two or three years. + +The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs. +Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them +about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on +the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of +it: + +A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a +point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or +the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount +of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the +ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 11/2 per cent, of +the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of +this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the +charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by +continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is +seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that +of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and +carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being +taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again +applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a +further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is +added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is +repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining +portion--1/4 per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has +been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely +desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some +works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but +at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by +subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc +crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by +allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are +placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a +portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in +silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner. +The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is +as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used. + +Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet +the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead +is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead +into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into +large blocks of 31/2 tons. These 31/2 ton blocks are taken on a bogie to +the mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means +of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only. + +Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large +casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This +block, weighing 101/2 tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same +crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along +to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging +head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those +of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always +working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch +and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, +in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time +extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method +there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear +contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows: + +In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead +sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before +it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of +the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars. + +In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is +fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by +power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine, +or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired +point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the +knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic +reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife +1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent +exactly. + +Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest +improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives, +which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at +will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the +longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but +one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's +opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet +with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last +length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane +lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway +communicating with the shipping quay. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION. + + +The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty +liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products +are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and, +therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden +handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which +can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring +arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades +formed like a ship's screw. + +The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of +a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed +by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine +point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for +it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream +into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only +necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up +after a short time. + +Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed +to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great +quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is +retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon +as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is +emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle +replaced in it. + +If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity +of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be +further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid +being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed, +nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing +to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the +emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations. + + +II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. + +It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by +boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which +will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also +be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates, +as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the +thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple +contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through +a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made +air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas +is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its +deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether +floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute +opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, +the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the +shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until +it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the +power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out, +being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support +a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the +opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By +removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is +raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes +wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + +III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS. + +The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented +by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely +dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a +wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of +which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in +the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together +by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron +transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the +crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n. + +The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of +fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for +working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped +through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung +upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops +upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as +possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is +completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung, +and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water. +When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels +like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed +through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it +will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the +crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and +q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s +s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed +through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small +apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power +that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass. + + +IV.--WASHING APPARATUS. + +The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred +to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent +improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are +incorporated. It may be described as follows: + +A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel, +rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a +double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes +the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel +upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at +the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched +at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. +The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the +water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place +the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus +fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of +the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the +largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the +supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty. + +The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again, +and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly +to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel +that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o +p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent +the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the +sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the +sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, +the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, +represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way +every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing +provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus +fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly +been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and +thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the +moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of +washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of +water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever +wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over +and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a +time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in +a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed +once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be +withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. +In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is +avoided, and there is no loss of material. + +This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities, +since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of +the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain +that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not +wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to +the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, +of Photography_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER. + +By A. L. HENDERSON. + + +Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the +difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is +very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather +is the culprit. + +I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when +emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down +before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity, +so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is +impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice. + +I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92 deg. in the +shade, and the washing water at 78 deg.) as follows: + + Hard gelatine...............,...... 1/2 ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. + +When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120 deg. temperature, add, +stirring all the time, + + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. 3/4 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 3/4 " + +Then again add, + + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " + +Both solutions being warmed to about 120 deg.. + +My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to +many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of +ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of +the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added +in a much more concentrated state. + +The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most +important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It +allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of +alcohol (say about 10 ounces). + +After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in +slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping +the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the +bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to +pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small +pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to +ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating. + +By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about +five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is +devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers. + +One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of +gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts; +no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has +been precipitated.--_Photographic News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF +LOW TEMPERATURES. + +By RAOUL PICTET. + + +The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the +maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence +of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in +presence of each other in an alembic. + +If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which +succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with +one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem +becomes exceedingly complex. + +[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY +COLD.] + +In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may +be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of +propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively +constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of +liquids. + +I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we +calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of +alcohol and water? + +Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we +take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the +value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results +of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish +the following laws: + +a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a +mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure +water and that of pure alcohol. + +b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as +the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the +tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water. + +c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures +of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one +factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic +solution. + +It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and +water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a +certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. + +We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the +laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the +vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids, +water and alcohol. + +II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes, +what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it? + +In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of +water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in +the same proportion as the liquids? + +We have discovered the following laws: + +d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol +varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not +in simple proportion thereto. + +e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the temperature. + +f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures +that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of +alcohol. + +g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two +liquids tend to become equalized. + +We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and +to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum +tensions, in the following way: + +Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol +and water, plunge it into water of 20 deg.C., and put its interior in +hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump. + +We vaporize at 20 deg. a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors +fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the +interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be +constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and +with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of +vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and +communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first, +plunged into the same water at 20 deg.. Care must be taken beforehand to +create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube. + +On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the +same temperature as that at which they were formed. + +We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation +of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very +perceptibly risen. + +If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube, +we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the +first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the +least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube. + +This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be +attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of +alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump, +and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical +work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this +difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the +condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete +identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the +tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of +the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of +equivalence. + +It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water, +and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid +of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors. + +III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact: +When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered, +can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected +with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated +experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the +following laws: + +If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected +by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after +driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the +warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that: + +h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases +with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers. + +i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is +constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers, +whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers. + +k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say, +to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their +thickness. + +l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus +throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a +considerable degree, especially at low temperatures. + +Thus, water distilling between 100 deg. and 60 deg. will pass over as +quickly as that which is distilling between 40 deg. and 0 deg.. Absolute +temperature is without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign +gas be got rid of. + +The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are +inevitable in practice. + +The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to +make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one +of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results +simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar, +and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of +different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads: + +1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the +alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of +the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain +quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile +substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and +bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of +the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the +essential oils. + +The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is +to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils, +water, ether, and foreign alcohols. + +The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely +complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the +present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between +78.5 deg. and 100 deg.. The successive condensation and vaporization of the +vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a +partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively +as products of rectification: + +1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and +impure alcohols. + +2. Fine alcohol. + +3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils. + +Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and +that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same +lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations. +Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine +alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing, +that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by +the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely +pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent. + +Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in +rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which +they must operate. Between 78 deg. and 100 deg. the tension of the vapors +of all the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them; +they all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of +rectification. + +We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain +that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is +maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish +some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render +variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2), +render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid. + +Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its +ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition +without changing such temperatures when once obtained. + +It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles +Industriels, at Paris. + +By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form +a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at +temperatures as low as -40 deg. or even -50 deg.. They verify +experimentally, by their operation, the theoretical deductions which +precede. The boilers, A, which, in an industrial application, may be +more numerous, receive their supply of spirits from the country +distilleries in the vicinity of the factory. There may even be +introduced directly into them _vinasses_, or washes, that is to say, +liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic fermentation. + +Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates +inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser, +which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by +means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above. + +On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation +pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a +current of water which goes to the reservoir above. + +The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which +are collected in the reservoir, E. + +When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir, +and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over, +the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding +valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a +communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The +office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification +is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the +entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the +liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance. + +The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum, +according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller +will have to be guided in this by practice alone. + +The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there +the liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum. +As we have before said, their temperature falls immediately and +spontaneously. The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost +solely pure alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the +first distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging +between -10 deg. and +5 deg.. Their temperature is shown by a +thermometer running into the boiler, F. + +These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a +second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H, +filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those +which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under +the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a +constant temperature of -25 deg. to -30 deg. in the refrigerator. The +vapors of alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold +liquid alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator. + +By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon +the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising +therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the +reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir, +L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine +keeps up of itself alone the two operations. + +In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous +anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the +first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine +keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the +surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without +necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current +of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to +pass into the worm of the boiler. + +We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by +the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are +performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are +effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight +of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one +kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the +liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires +only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature +in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of +fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less +quantity of water to be distilled. + +Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering +on +50 deg. to +60 deg., and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily +obtained a temperature of -30 deg. to -40 deg., there is at our disposal +a range of temperature of nearly 100 deg., an immense difference +compared with that which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus. +Thanks to this powerful factor, which is manageable at will, we can +take directly from the apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by +the centigrade alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual +methods. + +We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of +alcohol is as active as at near 100 deg.. + +For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator, +the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the +operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid +condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler; +and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect +vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is +to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such +a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole +apparatus; from 60 deg. to 20 deg. in the first operation, and from +0 deg. to -40 deg. in the second. We may add that the regulation of the +valve is extremely easy, because of the screw which actuates it. + +To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may +say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a +single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification, +or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low +temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even +by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the +temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4. +Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult +to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being +performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the +same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of +the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases +entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the +interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in +_personnel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS. + +[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a +series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from +the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the +solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too +much room for insertion in these columns.] + +By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B., +F.C.S. + + +Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came +into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this +peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other +metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the +present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best +effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt +takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the +precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the +best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of +certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of +copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid +in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of +ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic +decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully +accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert +them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the +purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the +separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a +nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other +electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper, +zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth, +and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, +may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic +methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process. + + +DETERMINATION OF COBALT. + +Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt +salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to +electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed +into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is +deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the +potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt +carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic +cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or +dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is +repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic +condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily +and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the +corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double +salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just +sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only +slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the +cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the +ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three +or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_ +solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt +as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction +has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small +sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive +electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off. +The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess +of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether. +The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100 deg. C., and in the +course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained. + +[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used +for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative +electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p. +46.] + + +DETERMINATION OF NICKEL. + +This process is precisely identical with the previously described method +for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution, +which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The +separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel +is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the +electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF IRON. + +For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the +sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously +described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a +sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron +compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright, +steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be +exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation +taking place. + + +DETERMINATION OF ZINC. + +Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily +and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc +has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The +separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is +only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the +dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid. + + +DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE. + +It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from +its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is +only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount +of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish +without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into +the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and +submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be +deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the +complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide +does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4). + + +DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH. + +This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal +is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is +always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated +from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally, +from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a +surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then, +if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol, +and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small +quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected +on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an +excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of +bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the +peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the +last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with +alcohol and anhydrous ether. + + +DETERMINATION OF LEAD. + +The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When +the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere +firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode, +it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the +solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted. + +If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the +lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly +oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without +decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of +illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be +recommended. + + +DETERMINATION OF COPPER. + +The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double +ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate +is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of +this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such +circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the +electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of +330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme +metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes. + + +DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM. + +When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the +electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray +coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but, +however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing. + + +DETERMINATION OF TIN. + +Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from +its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium +oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the +ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation +becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite +pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid +solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes +place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the +ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum +dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on +the electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. + +Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric +acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode. +If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the +antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly +to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating +may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the +separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be +very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts. + +To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide +is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with +ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the +addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a +fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very +firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly, +_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong. + +When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured +off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner. + + +DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC. + +Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been +added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution, +a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed +through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time, +all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3). + + +SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE. + +If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium +oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes +its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the +positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When +the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to +separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a +considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two +metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide +is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited. +This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better +still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both +cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed +by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater +portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the +coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins. + +Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three +or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid, +which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of +manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very +rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is +more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a +much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the +two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in +oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until +the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action. + +It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ +too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only +to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in +consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve +the peroxide. + +When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current +to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly +to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the +liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the +electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the +determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium +oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion +of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to +decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate +is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in +a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such. + + +SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. + +The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many +difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed +by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum +oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be +submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be +deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while +the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity +of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate +produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place +the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in +which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is +observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in +excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been +neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid +solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid +ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to +3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly +submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been +precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all +the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter +may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove. + +In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron +from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously +having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis +is continued. + +In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from +the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added, +and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is +determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less +than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results. +With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate +of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the +interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte +der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER. + + +In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two +species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to +a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America. +Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and +directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of +the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is +obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall +ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain. + +There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many +years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold +at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a +secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant, +Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried +and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing +abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian +province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the +manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year +the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the +dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those +countries. + +Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is +probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far +the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia. + +There is also very little information published regarding either the +mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native +home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they +are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the +contrary notwithstanding.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.] + +The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of +Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living +authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that +region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus +_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is +nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our +mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it +appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native +home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of +Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to +whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were +not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one +person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be +gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants. + +As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native +home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the +fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information +regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For +similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small +quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in +other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people +are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country +becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of +_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant +for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of +Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in +my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without +any care much better than many other things. I should say from this +experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself +to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, +another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation, +either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of +all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly +hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this +continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully +grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents +report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special +mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious +attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in +France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best +we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of +pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of +clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of +water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is +the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is +from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the +weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds +are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some +vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five +or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the +germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants +make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough +they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength. +Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, +however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the +pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and +continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the +plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even +during severe winters. + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrethre du Caucase (P. +Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only +a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's +paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report +of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. +223-331.] + +The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and +as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet +an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The +plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of +the garden or other perennial Compositae. + +As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a +native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum +cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the +California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of +"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to +most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco +gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more +particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, +sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with +dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake +disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the +bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. +After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When +about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring." + +Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_ +in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we +planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will +perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we +planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather +stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. +Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants. + +In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be +gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time +when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the +insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development. +When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four +inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the +flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must +be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, +or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and +hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely +pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more +effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper +pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a +business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New +York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of +pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be +closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such +as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a +laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed +one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which +would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being +deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and +then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar +and pulverized again. + +The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent +covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American +Naturalist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES. + + +In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein +deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of +the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the +sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other +sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so +located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious +vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American +metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the +roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. +Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It +was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of +carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently +in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower, +they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per +cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they +held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is +declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working, +although he does not deny its value under special circumstances. + +The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced +by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the +following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures +given are grammes per 1,000 liters: + + BEFORE. AFTER. + SO_2. SO_3. SO_2. SO_3. + 8.24 0.63 5.74 0.00 + 8.29 0.37 6.74 0.07 + 9.36 0.69 6.96 0.00 + 9.46 0.63 7.38 0.05 +10.03 1.08 7.69 0.09 +16.52 2.97 14.39 0.23 +17.90 1.97 13.32 0.11 +17.80 2.46 16.18 0.69 + +The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three +roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of +the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces +was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four +hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baume, which flowed off +with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baume. The quantity of acid +condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of +furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 +degrees Baume per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime, +in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too +expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially +successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to +experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg, +who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in +some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus +obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made. +Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania +Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus +far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it. + +The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to +find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace +gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of +the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been +equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general +manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his +experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr. +E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful +on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering +and Mining Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS EXHAUSTER. + + +In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes +about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and +requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking, +at the following cost: + + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----- + L 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total L 1 2 6 + +for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler +burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value, +costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total +cost of exhausting gas by the new system is-- + +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. + +per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system, +from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at +the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of +coke. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.] + +It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road +are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum; +while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to +the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside, +and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE + + +The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite +comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know +exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a +retrograde movement will probably be brought about. + +As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a +combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great +increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and +the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been +heretofore employed. + +In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various +other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It +has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the +administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible +with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it +seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the +rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies. +The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for +glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine. + +The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely +what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance, +quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its +antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_ +butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the +makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and +refined glycerine. + +So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial +butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as +the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European +revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an +important article of pharmaceutical use. + +On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for +the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off +in the production. + +At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers +of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of +illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as +well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the +production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance, +candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles +of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial +magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is +coming into almost as universal use as here. + +To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the +inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction +than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is +gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing +supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this +decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some +time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries +to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some +substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in +obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by +any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment. + +We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in +this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of +glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his +words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest +soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for +glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious +commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, +when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little +or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run +into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle +factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine +and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this +fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of +the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine +as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES. + + +Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according +to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society, +by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be +divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda, +potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and +as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on +substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact, +it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils +for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different +substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of +the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages +of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are +now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially +of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are +neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they +are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be +introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the +ironwork over the flues. + +Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or +corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence +does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called +iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston, +and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside +the cylinder. + +When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of +the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried +over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is +introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences +action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the +cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler +and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming +greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into +absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly +enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are +liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases +gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the +pressure of the steam inside. + +The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal +or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They +take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight +of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda +combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming +soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of +caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness +at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred +to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with +glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils +at about 150 deg. to 180 deg. Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the +neutral or unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no +sand is used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap +solution which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether, +which dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of +the liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the +one case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the +dissolved oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile +liquids being separated by blowing a current of filtered air through +the flask containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its +percentage on the original sample calculated. + +All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per +cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the +result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception, +because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half +its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum +spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after +saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum +spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of +sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum +or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive +distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole +of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about +half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether. + + * * * * * + + + + +NITRITE OF AMYL. + + +Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the +various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many +families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It +is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache +(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, +of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else +when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief +in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since +in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It +has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in +chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise +the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory +conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or +negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of +the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of +amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia. +Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and +faintness occurring in anaemic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit +from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by +chloroform. + +It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in +asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the +induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of +which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the +concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries. + +One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In +such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics +can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A +single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was +suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of +appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief +had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February, +1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse +became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as +delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation +and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles +and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and +champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up +from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while +the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then +administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to +twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without +being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient +rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was +continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been +used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis +was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following +day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year +and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was +quickly cut short by similar treatment. + +Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who +was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had +as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with +fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks +of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person +attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of +sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor +was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, +none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held +before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed +energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and +more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These +procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity +of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept +up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and +requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less +frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then, +Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections +when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded +circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in +the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It +is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic +angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although +in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, +provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired. + +As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not +restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if +necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when +the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from +three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has +met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications, +from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated +in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions +of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM. + +By ALFRED STILLE, M.D. + + +The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to +palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly +always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse +yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines +alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever +invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot +be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar +emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by +anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten +the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness +of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper +diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon +without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., +of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a +number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they +made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages +in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever. +We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In +old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the +time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will +not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor +of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be +used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the +patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to +the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients +packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was +going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen +such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative +does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system. +Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it +diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease. +Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well +borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four +hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour. +Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate +the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all +remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have +recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it +must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy +for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer +large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large +doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton, +Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later +still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral, +Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of +quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect, +from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of +twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses. +Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old +plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the +way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of +twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge +that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has +also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse +the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr. +Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes +perished from congestion of the lungs and brain. + +Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and +viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been +employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven +itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such +sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed, +if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by +mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not +know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is +just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis +at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was +treated with digitalis. + +Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape +of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no +personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first +dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on +which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory +judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have +sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the +disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack +be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur +if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without +influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends +to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these +gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of +treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other +hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in +almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively +high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration, +albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this +anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to +raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at +110 deg. F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat, +therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this +medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far +been tempted to employ it. + +It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies +in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism, +and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way, +_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline. +If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am +obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be +applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has +decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the +local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of +fibrin in the blood. + +This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies +neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies +morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the +course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects +are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and +becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the +disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the +cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must +be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good +combination of these remedies is the following: + +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] + +[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.'] + +S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the +urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two +grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies +must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet +should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food +should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may +with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum +may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously +protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between +blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, +and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A +long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon +juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to +so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of +acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous +and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as +drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they +become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be +protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses +of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To +prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil +and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this +condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan +of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued +must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +METHOD IN MADNESS. + + +No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible, +to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the +boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged +in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be +practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the +development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the +social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases +the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" +suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the +course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is +the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which +consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even +developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is +true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement +or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and +nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a +morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The +consideration most practical to the community and germane to the +question of public safety is, that in any and every population there +must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in +a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which +powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the +majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by +the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of +public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own +consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop +individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment +repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public +excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are +more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane." + +It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the +man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of +America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of +these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants +were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however, +propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this +juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is +known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by +disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the +Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed +"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of +doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is +"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in +the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the +act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God +or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an +ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel +or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply +are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of +English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle +form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer +supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the +doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied +that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow +an expression from the terminology of geological science, +_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips +off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and +"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher +moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of +personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and +social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity +is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of +man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the +level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the +lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far +as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several features +have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the +subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all +sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The +practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of +insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and +principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any +of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well +able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause. + +To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have +said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the +invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined +by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on +the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by +educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise +judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing +between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in +moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right +thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on +the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession +of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great +question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or +whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct +fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act +must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it +sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as +we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought, +except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual +function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness +and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions. +It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may +not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical +difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of +disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the +supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for +wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in +such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be +sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise. +Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have +been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which +the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of +brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example, +when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust +on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes +by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived +intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is +important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense. +There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and +the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective, +but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other +it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be +healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period. +Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole +do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the +mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number +or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain +healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation +concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more +than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts +of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to +predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the +special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and +the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the +present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are +very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is +all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter +be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides +of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and +that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of +these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be +more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are +concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid +element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the +particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang. +The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of +scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be +the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the +facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise +scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents. + + * * * * * + + + + +SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE. + +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo. + + +At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about +any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner, +as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and +appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text +books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or +apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it +refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before +our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will +therefore be well received. + +The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open +wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery, +but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to +those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is +astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to +check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of +pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight +of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many +times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a +feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or +otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look +on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a +run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are +likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles +away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the +right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one +bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their +assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition +produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences, +and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood +possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one. + +Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office, +who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps, +the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of +such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever +in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional +cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, +when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the +pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient +prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection. + +Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and +though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases, +still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having +systematized the following method: + + +BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS). + +Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the +back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt +bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again +in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin +back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"The illustrations will explain at a glance." + + +BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM. + +Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper +arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the +joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also +be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The +bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + +BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS). + +It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the +hemorrhage from that region temporarily. + +Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as +Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et +Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under +the knee joint, or like Fig. 4. + + +BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS). + +Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the +front of the tibia. + +Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the +pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced +as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little +uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it +has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several +days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete +closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of +arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery, +neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the +practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have +to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by +it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily +applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be +distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures +or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the +rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost +completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to +apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply +it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a +wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the +patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and +anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured. + +I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their +attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not +possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact +a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw, +planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where +the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a +certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of +men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every +establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the +bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and +railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to +use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out +should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows +how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus +be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana +Medical Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS. + + +Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to +the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped +in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55 deg. +C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND. + + +After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition +of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding +machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the +Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th +of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations, +there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials +already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the +distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the +interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though +ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which +unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural +Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited +them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The +published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as +many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the +rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for +different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance +for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines +to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick +Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. +Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show, +except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of +the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley, +and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an +acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and +engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was +made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. +Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, +be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal +in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the +class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the +driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely +neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach +great importance. + +It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every +single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional +miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with +Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of +the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop +in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do +with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to +connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other +machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. +Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and +the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was +almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went +through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning +the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than +with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the +gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced +in these machines vary very much in weight. + +At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of +the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. +Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We +believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves +were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no +hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman & +Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was +not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines. +Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were +ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and +assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which +binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the +sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the +fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied +to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after +the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been +fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one +could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf +produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes +this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till +the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the +ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy +downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and +through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have +been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting +would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the +rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick +Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood +worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to +bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the +shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson +and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble +in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to +be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather +too tight. + +The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then +attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a +face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet +condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the +canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was +the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of +the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the +Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine +was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. +Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in +the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly +were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must +be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the +crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought +to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity +of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be +here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind +at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so +thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's +machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors. + +The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known +on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver +medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr. +H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only +gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G. +Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this +were made.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES. + + +Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester, +give the following directions for setting out and cultivating +strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their +recently issued Strawberry Catalogue: + +_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully +grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden +crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at +least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for +any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it +must be thoroughly drained. + +_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for +planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may +then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until +they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large +plantations_. + +During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually +hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage. +With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted +without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering, +shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants, +are thus in a great measure avoided. + + +GARDEN CULTURE. + +_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting +in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds +will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches +apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These +beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without +setting the feet upon them. + +_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the +garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the +runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may +be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new +crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have +formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be +expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the +plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe +or fork. + +_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow +for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches +of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be +placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the +middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal +errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care +must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the +plants begin to grow. + +_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen, +mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass +mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep +the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and +thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch. + +A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be +spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to +take its place. + + +FIELD CULTURE. + +The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection, +and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large +scale. + +_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its +advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden. +In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the +plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much +of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator. + +_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The +number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may +be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) +by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained +by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the +plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant +three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER. + + +Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful +how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants, +except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are +beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those +only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21. + +Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise +variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as +different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom +from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by +division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place, +their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine. + +Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its +best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to +follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of +the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past, +but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive +alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day +lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough, +but their leaves get "scorched." + +The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the +Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are +far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow +anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season; +some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium +splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called +stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_ +(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny +places, and dislike artificial waterings. + +_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual +bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory +comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes, +stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored +flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are +conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so +profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition, +notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of +plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are +past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its +massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once +established it is hard to get rid of. + +Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the +carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell, +and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better +results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No +garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it +the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is +by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved +and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise +the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in +any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many +kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance; +they love moist soil. + +In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in +bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of +thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six +feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past, +but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their +prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials, +bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and +effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large +purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple +spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of +yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the +ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent. +It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening +primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_, +white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia, +fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial, +are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted +by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It +has hundreds of red spikes. + +Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_, +Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many +others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, +stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, +morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, +verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single +poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of +seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame +or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless +garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH. + + +Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham +township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two +match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily +production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five +thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one +hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of +the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. +In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the +25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made +in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and +used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to +light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less +time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in +trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the +360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000 +minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures +up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of +days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by +the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking +matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in +each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK, N. Y. + + * * * * * + + + + +PATENTS. + + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 35 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents +are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions +patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the +Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is +directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction +often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free +of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN +& Co. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats. +Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for procuring +advances on inventions. Address + +MUNN & CO., 37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. + +Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL. NO. 299 *** + +This file should be named 7029910.txt or 7029910.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7029911.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7029910a.txt + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +http://gutenberg.net or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext05 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext05 + +Or /etext04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, +91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + + PROJECT GUTENBERG LITERARY ARCHIVE FOUNDATION + 809 North 1500 West + Salt Lake City, UT 84116 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information online at: + +http://www.gutenberg.net/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this eBook's header and trailer may be reprinted only +when distributed free of all fees. Copyright (C) 2001, 2002 by +Michael S. Hart. Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be +used in any sales of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be +they hardware or software or any other related product without +express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + |