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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Suppl. No. 299, by  Various
+
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+Title: Scientific American Suppl. No. 299
+
+Author:  Various
+
+Release Date: July, 2005  [EBook #8408]
+[This file was first posted on July 9, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
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+Language: English
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+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL. NO. 299 ***
+
+
+
+
+E-text prepared by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development
+     of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine
+     boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine
+     engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative
+     efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers
+
+     Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.--
+     Transverse and longitudinal sections
+
+     Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure
+
+     Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure
+
+     Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger
+
+     Railway Alarm Whistle
+
+     Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure
+
+     Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication
+     of manometer
+
+     Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal
+     metal moulding apparatus
+
+     Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's
+     wood pulp apparatus
+
+     Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address,
+     Convention of Mechanical Engineers
+
+     The Hoboken Drainage Problem
+
+II.  TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements
+     in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON
+
+     Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.--
+     I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating
+     apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures
+
+     How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON
+
+     The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational
+     Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's
+     apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold
+
+     The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases
+
+     New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure
+
+     Advance in the Price of Glycerine
+
+     Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes
+
+     Nitrate of Amyl
+
+III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery
+
+     Lightning and Telephone Wires
+
+     Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity
+
+     The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill
+
+     Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M.
+     A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.--
+     Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.--
+     Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum
+
+IV.  MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism.
+     By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D.
+
+     Method in Madness
+
+     Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD
+     BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the
+     upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot
+
+     Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus
+
+V.   AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture
+     of Powder
+
+     Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England
+
+     The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture
+
+     Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer
+
+     The Time Consuming Match
+
+VI.  ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art.
+     1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris
+
+     Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.--
+     6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans
+
+VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACHILLE DELESSE.
+
+
+The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting
+_resume_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take
+the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum
+of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school,
+Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he
+left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the
+student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which
+he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook
+then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and
+Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon
+arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by
+having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and
+geology in the Faculty at Besancon, where Delesse at the same time
+fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned
+to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy
+of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the
+conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued
+his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris.
+The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure
+mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the
+chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name
+was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied
+also, and with success, the interesting modifications called
+pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their
+magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided
+him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has
+rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin
+and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by
+investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent
+and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of
+analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived
+from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites
+and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study
+and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed
+further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of
+science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order
+of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The
+mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in
+the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention.
+The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed
+out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the
+principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance
+attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case
+the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below,
+to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks.
+
+It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that
+Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as
+well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published
+on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits
+which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of
+interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there,
+indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for
+in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents,
+they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products
+of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the
+results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of
+submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his
+own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des
+Progres de la Geologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines"
+for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a
+less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a
+discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications
+of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the
+under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of
+water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were
+represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form.
+His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of
+railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of
+daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse
+never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having
+in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had
+occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of
+drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established
+instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology
+at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of
+Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of
+France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which,
+to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons
+there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a
+citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department.
+
+His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th
+of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two
+years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society;
+he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to
+enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work.
+He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his
+intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the
+reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he
+addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness
+and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his
+profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were
+associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him
+esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th
+of March.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT,
+PARIS.
+
+(From The Workshop)]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY.
+
+
+On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging
+to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting
+ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals.
+In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson
+determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general
+appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful
+in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early
+resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for
+the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating
+the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial.
+Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical
+engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent
+lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on
+Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a
+large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West.
+Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were
+received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting
+the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the
+framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James
+Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth
+of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face,
+twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady
+flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired
+light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most
+systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in
+which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an
+outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong
+glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also
+connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight
+contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the
+effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite
+safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention
+was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or
+generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power
+was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the
+generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the
+roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at
+No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the
+workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the
+cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in
+diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe
+handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down
+the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the
+shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways
+and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one
+of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful
+inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed
+in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of
+Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the
+first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were
+then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they
+witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of
+course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing
+down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the
+party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES.
+
+
+M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingenieur-Conseil_ on the
+above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best
+and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be
+provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they
+terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they
+communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus
+of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however,
+important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of
+their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire
+to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of
+the induction coils, which it might fuse.
+
+Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to
+one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire.
+The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful
+current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M.
+Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the
+same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the
+wires, and been by them conveyed to earth.
+
+This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of
+attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that
+there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly
+upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells,
+or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel
+and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of
+electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron;
+consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick
+were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface
+of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square
+meters must be established.
+
+It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On
+the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the
+terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be
+absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds
+than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning
+conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of
+contact with the earth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the
+alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the
+influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged
+so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with
+positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed
+at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in
+negative flames.
+
+A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own
+conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and
+also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the
+flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these
+results:
+
+When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a
+metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface
+according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the
+point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform
+more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a
+conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame
+will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer,
+the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be
+attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the
+lower dark body of flame is also repulsed.
+
+This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire
+gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive
+flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small
+fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it.
+
+All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a
+stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame,
+and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be
+obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the
+influence of a long "Holtz" machine.
+
+A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the
+negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric
+intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar
+stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames
+rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen
+are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is
+more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar
+differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar
+conductivity of the substances.
+
+The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point
+of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by
+conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows
+similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive.
+Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two
+ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base
+of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with
+the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's
+theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further
+supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by
+Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative
+electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive
+electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in
+Wiedemanris Beiblaetter to Poggendorfs Annalen._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL.
+
+
+The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the
+various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent
+something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and
+quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed
+wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was
+given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble
+in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and
+during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway
+head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that
+where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but
+partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is
+magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the
+field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that
+should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or
+strand of the machine.
+
+This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is
+now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder,
+intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance,
+too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several
+thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied.
+
+This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a
+somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved,
+and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been
+made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and
+accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of
+which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in
+putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed,
+and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be
+un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been
+taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being
+non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the
+working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself.
+
+To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the
+railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the
+practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of
+this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from
+a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or
+whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and
+this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft.
+The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a
+half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power
+than a light-running sewing machine.
+
+One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod
+or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the
+other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity
+of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An
+armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a
+strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet
+wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or
+stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving
+belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by
+a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the
+case of a breakage of a thread or strand.
+
+As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with
+the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton
+is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet
+breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the
+calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a
+stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a
+number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used
+for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the
+card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver
+is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering
+cotton.
+
+In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage
+between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts;
+in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or
+in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either
+case a stoppage would be instantly produced.
+
+In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back
+can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of
+the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to
+the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or
+tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier.
+
+There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With
+mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple
+contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be
+had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical
+changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical
+attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France,
+and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more
+extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile
+Record_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE.
+
+[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical
+Engineers by F.C.Marshall.]
+
+
+The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting
+in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in
+Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound
+Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue
+the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and
+if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no
+we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick
+Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what
+direction we are to look for further development.
+
+From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher,
+the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much
+smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the
+same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to
+1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent.
+
+
+MARINE ENGINES.
+
+The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler.
+The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in
+the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1)
+The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at
+right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally
+the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other,
+but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one
+crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two
+pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently
+three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The
+system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the
+same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder
+intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two
+low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure
+cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure
+cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart
+round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the
+shaft.
+
+These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being
+manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the
+screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace
+nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be
+oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft.
+
+The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be
+said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the
+relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound
+expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of
+our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor
+of the latter.
+
+
+THE MARINE BOILER.
+
+The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it
+was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and
+sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers
+under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The
+double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically
+efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the
+writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large
+power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more
+room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and
+therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found
+in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their
+length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the
+top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and
+riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large
+part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now
+been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention
+given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler
+itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the
+feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful
+management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of
+larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more
+perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is
+that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages,
+but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate
+fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the
+variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the
+furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening
+afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction,
+and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace
+action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler
+may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives
+greater steam space.
+
+A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a
+locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power
+developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the
+cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural
+draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a
+consumption of fuel not exceeding 21/2 lb. per indicated horse-power per
+hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in
+the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen
+below 21/2 square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape
+of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the
+incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of
+the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the
+tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's
+attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine
+work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to
+steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty
+lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very
+limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure
+or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either
+exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would
+be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case
+with our miners, must work under a pressure of air.
+
+
+STEEL BOILERS.
+
+The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of
+steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from
+six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the
+works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no
+case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler,
+either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode
+of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch
+to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before
+rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting
+the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints
+treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after
+rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length,
+and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube
+plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and
+front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it
+is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled
+throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the
+thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the
+upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they
+are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical
+boilersmith.
+
+
+CORROSION OF BOILERS.
+
+The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as
+time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel
+boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made;
+and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting
+or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very
+carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace
+anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in
+washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence
+of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the
+other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use
+zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one
+of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers,
+exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty
+indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc
+we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three
+months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months
+or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no
+corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have
+taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with
+them."
+
+
+HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED.
+
+Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its
+efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of
+machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due
+attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping
+authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity
+is worth on an average L10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming,
+therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel
+to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of
+materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing
+the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth L1,000 per annum more to
+her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is
+shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships,
+the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and
+all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power:
+
+                                       Lb. per I. H. P.
+
+  Merchant steamers.......................... 480
+  Royal Navy................................. 300
+  Engines specially designed for light draught
+    vessels...................................280
+  Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr.
+    Wright).................................. 180
+  Modern locomotive.......................... 140
+  Torpedo vessels............................. 60
+
+  Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196
+  Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60
+
+The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of
+the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much
+reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working.
+The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but
+it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some
+other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we
+must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be
+of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by
+reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of
+revolutions per minute.
+
+It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent
+upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This
+process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the
+column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of
+it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then
+fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is
+usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers
+will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful
+design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the
+substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine
+to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr.
+A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr.
+Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of
+the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving
+parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one
+structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the
+cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such
+conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their
+place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight
+of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with
+thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned.
+
+
+CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES.
+
+Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving
+has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table:
+
+               Item.                       1872.       1881.
+
+  Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5        77.4
+  Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft....   4.64        3.919
+  Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376         467
+  Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb..............  2.11        1.828
+
+This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel
+consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of
+Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of
+the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system
+would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to
+feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the
+results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel
+on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the
+forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung
+pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the
+great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam
+production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces
+as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler.
+
+Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements
+of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total
+disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that,
+according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to
+20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total
+disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will
+represent to-day about L3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices,
+the cost would have been L3,750--showing a saving of L750, equal to a
+dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost
+of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at
+least 161/2d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d.
+
+
+EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS.
+
+The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of
+steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will
+be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than
+that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency
+of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air
+is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the
+efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the
+heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled,
+while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used
+in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the
+ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as
+follows:
+
+W = (P + 15) (S + D squared L) / C
+
+or W = 2S (P + 15) / C
+
+when S = D squared L, which is a common proportion.
+
+  Here W = weight in tons.
+       P = working pressure as on gauge.
+       S = heating surface, in square feet.
+       D = diameter, in feet.
+       L = length, in feet.
+       C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of
+           riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules,
+           and with iron shells having 75 per cent.
+           strength of solid plate, C = 13,200.
+
+This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the
+relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb.
+and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency
+10 per cent, as follows:
+
+Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C
+
+Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C
+
+Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5
+
+In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two
+and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel
+of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power,
+the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place
+at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing
+L1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel.
+
+
+MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
+
+Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler
+for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced
+by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of
+water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of
+7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212 deg. Fahr., with 2 in. of
+water pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are
+low, but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily
+small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel
+consequently high, ranging from 1,073 deg. at the first pressure, and
+1,444 deg. at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive
+practice the efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler
+when working under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from
+3 in. to 4 in., including funnel draught.
+
+It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently
+with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results,
+even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure
+of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse
+power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working
+by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed.
+
+Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged
+against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not
+reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total
+working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven
+atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165
+lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a
+gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into
+play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of
+the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the
+cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages.
+
+In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing
+the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages,
+and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not
+be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause
+of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully
+chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to
+1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned.
+With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very
+good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has
+another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure
+can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater
+amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam,
+of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off
+in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and
+the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of
+separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity.
+
+The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic
+properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are,
+it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all
+that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as
+an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use
+10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power.
+
+Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a
+definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is
+stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver
+class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with
+scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the
+framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine.
+
+It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface
+of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface
+one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2
+square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found
+1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of
+271/2 inches.
+
+Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin
+screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each
+case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating
+1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without
+stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or
+had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these
+engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and
+connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000
+lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout
+of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes
+drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In
+comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the
+double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as
+follows:
+
+                      Double ended Type.    Navy Type.
+
+  Weight, tons............   135 ...........  146
+  I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760
+  Draught................ Natural ......... Forced.
+
+
+SCREW PROPELLERS.
+
+The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We
+have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of
+the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by
+reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase
+the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet
+3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be
+qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite
+resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made
+too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required
+speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too
+large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first
+instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on
+which a separate paper should be written.
+
+To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years,
+and in the following particulars:
+
+1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2.
+Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of
+all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38
+per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much
+less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly
+all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for
+20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much
+increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now
+being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard
+pressure now required.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.
+
+
+The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are
+doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description
+of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Societe des
+Anciens Eleves d'Arts et Metiers_:
+
+All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the
+inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the
+high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient
+has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service
+(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of
+locomotion of the city.
+
+The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of
+separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of
+Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that
+the problem would be successfully solved.
+
+There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to
+the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply
+of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a
+central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered
+on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except
+the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the
+central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs
+for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best
+utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls
+and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy,
+for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats.
+
+[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.]
+
+The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction
+of all concerned, and especially to that of the public.
+
+The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed
+of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions
+are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 31/4 feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal
+distance between the two shells is 71/4 feet. These hulls, having
+absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat
+iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to
+support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the
+engine-room. The engine-room, which is 191/2 feet long by 5 feet wide, is
+constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak.
+The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of
+the escape of hot air.
+
+The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely
+from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves
+on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two
+sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from
+the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides.
+
+Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been
+provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary.
+
+The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a
+floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches,
+is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or
+for office purposes, if need be.
+
+The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows:
+
+  Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds,
+  Engine and boiler............... 6,600   "
+  Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900   "
+  Deck and superstructure......... 6,600   "
+  Hull and accessories............12,500   "
+                                  ______
+
+  Total...........................41,800   "
+
+or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum
+draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 41/2 miles per hour, a
+great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross
+in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking
+place therein.
+
+The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined
+perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of
+which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving
+as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston
+has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 31/4 feet diameter)
+to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide
+surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent.,
+because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the
+shaft.
+
+The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace
+and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being
+effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested
+up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the
+engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of
+the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning,
+and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun
+indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the
+engine-room.
+
+Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite
+handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have
+proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for
+which they were built.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.
+
+
+In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve
+Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored
+in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the
+new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock
+at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500
+ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft.
+wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount
+of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south
+quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft.
+long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775
+ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to
+8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about L300,000. Leith now
+possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234
+yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at
+a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners,
+whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of
+Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of
+their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the
+"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales
+Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer
+Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board,
+accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing
+through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which
+a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped
+asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping
+forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the
+gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh
+Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a
+battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a
+party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having
+gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His
+Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the
+officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded
+to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion
+was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News,
+Aug. 6._
+
+[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR.
+
+
+The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of
+grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted
+with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by
+diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or
+lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be
+elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to
+the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway
+truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable
+bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain
+their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the
+bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well
+known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the
+engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing
+machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before
+it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its
+means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability
+to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the
+claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the
+advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED DREDGER.
+
+
+We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of
+Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine
+consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick.
+This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as
+shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through
+about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with
+mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be
+imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick
+jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge
+and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam
+engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of
+these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow
+water.--_The Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE.
+
+
+In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or
+snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway
+Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which
+is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated
+metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a
+projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush
+when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the
+positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in
+communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire
+leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the
+brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal
+marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery
+in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over
+the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to
+be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON.
+
+
+Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur
+over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll
+brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible;
+but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial
+product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial
+purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for
+charcoal and pyrites for brimstone.
+
+The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith,
+have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical
+conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the
+retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction
+of the sulphur and carbon takes place.
+
+The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B,
+furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it
+descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the
+fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through
+the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided
+into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated
+by the fireplace, L'.
+
+[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.]
+
+The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the
+condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is
+deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the
+partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and
+V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the
+sulphide of carbon being regulated.
+
+The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without
+much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation.
+
+Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system
+recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the
+operation may be watched and conducted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER.
+
+
+Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing
+graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works
+during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system
+of piping.
+
+For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but,
+although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form
+and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and
+then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place.
+
+Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate
+indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being
+very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the
+hour at which the pressure is exerted.
+
+The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a
+circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in
+motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base,
+E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which
+supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in
+such a manner as not to impede its rotation.
+
+In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is
+connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I.
+These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes
+through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts
+the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of
+the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided
+with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose
+axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the
+middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each
+side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord
+is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is
+fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters
+the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the
+combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir.
+The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise.
+
+In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a
+sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as
+the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running
+horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to
+the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be
+in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be
+readily understood.
+
+[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.]
+
+When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and
+consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which
+carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the
+pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction.
+
+The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible
+curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the
+point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen,
+and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness.
+
+It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the
+tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the
+diameters of the pulleys, N and O.
+
+The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either
+in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to
+connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where
+the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber
+tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as
+glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the
+results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS.
+
+
+The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of
+Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects
+in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the
+nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is
+to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where
+it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or
+pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded
+or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic
+core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2,
+and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be
+cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g,
+g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty,
+and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the
+cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece
+and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of
+circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a
+flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting.
+As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are
+pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into
+the mould.
+
+[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.]
+
+The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows
+it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments,
+g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal
+cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact
+with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may,
+however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas
+into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting
+is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen,
+or hydrogen.
+
+This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which
+do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged
+eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the
+cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed
+at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the
+points where the radius is greater.
+
+Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The
+sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the
+axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal
+during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP.
+
+
+For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as
+represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical
+reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This
+reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which
+has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of
+tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of
+the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the
+boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine
+atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are
+provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube,
+D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of
+communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being
+interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an
+active circulation in both the tubing and boiler.
+
+[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1]
+
+[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2]
+
+To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and
+there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been
+divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is
+filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the
+incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there
+is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a
+perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when
+the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler
+is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B,
+are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a,
+the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature
+is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the
+incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not
+connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and
+B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the
+latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to
+allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100 deg.
+in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been
+allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected
+by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam
+under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the
+contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed
+with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a
+complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities
+of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes,
+and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily
+susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which
+is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied.
+
+In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of
+safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a
+thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and
+a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a
+gauge-cock, H.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE.
+
+
+The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an
+abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper.
+
+He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in
+Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to
+one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest
+engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the
+locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age
+to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and
+therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner.
+He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George
+Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the
+Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported
+by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the
+speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first
+president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the
+country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing
+and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the
+institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its
+members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has
+increased in strength and importance.
+
+The last twelve years have been marked by many very important
+changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of
+fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be
+mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which
+disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes
+must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by
+good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon
+the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an
+unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet
+such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to
+greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing
+that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at
+once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world.
+Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of
+mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is
+occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary
+imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting
+manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the
+benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have
+been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to
+increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of
+the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their
+exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance,
+beet-root sugar.
+
+One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it
+may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that
+whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost
+all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their
+excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England,
+they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine
+engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced
+by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American
+ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American
+merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in
+English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at
+sea.
+
+Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that
+several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their
+manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has
+now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many
+articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial
+province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring
+them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite
+iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried
+out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country.
+
+Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in
+our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry
+on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they
+be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and
+possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us
+to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to
+manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is
+of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most
+essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded.
+
+Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from
+sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the
+greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real
+or important from having been gradual, while the result to this
+neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great
+measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly
+of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher
+pressure.
+
+The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved,
+and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of
+traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the
+careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly
+the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is
+floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is
+pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the
+rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the
+melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance.
+
+No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely
+to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements
+of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and
+arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the
+use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year.
+
+Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in
+the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed
+during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory
+engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers"
+have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is
+very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole
+water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum
+without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only
+raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of
+its large volume.
+
+Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in
+machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher
+pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure.
+Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both
+for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be
+again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at
+continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles;
+we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion
+practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially
+the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting
+seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card
+between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out
+to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing,
+of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can
+see nothing else will want doing for some time."
+
+A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in
+reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the
+mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties
+and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the
+river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down
+grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment,
+thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great
+improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement
+was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the
+river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped
+that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to
+improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with
+comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a
+tunnel would involve.
+
+Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses
+by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr.
+Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed
+one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such
+numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its
+various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens
+of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St.
+Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses,
+and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the
+elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples
+of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the
+pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The
+lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power
+of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful
+electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between
+the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of
+the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will
+be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher
+percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become
+more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been
+obtained.
+
+The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field
+of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose
+of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very
+considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands
+of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in
+Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild
+steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam
+boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of
+purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door
+frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the
+manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging
+fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in
+1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany.
+Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of
+sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel
+sleepers should also be used for tramways.
+
+If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making
+a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig
+metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by
+several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets
+where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be
+afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the
+heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making
+tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking
+this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet.
+
+The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by
+hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are
+twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or
+3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the
+lead in a manufacture.
+
+Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly
+valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine,
+which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all;
+and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside
+of piers in water.
+
+In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical
+appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering,
+great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years.
+Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it
+being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine,"
+obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of
+producing the various brilliant dyes now so common.
+
+New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases
+by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at
+a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and
+water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves
+the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some
+steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has
+been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again,
+large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved
+glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is
+put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have
+cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely
+on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened
+glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved
+and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again
+been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly
+extended knowledge of the laws of optics.
+
+Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the
+various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent
+records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have
+been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural;
+for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme
+magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the
+architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent
+the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the
+naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings
+still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has
+always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last;
+and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope
+developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our
+Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite
+in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument
+alone.
+
+There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and
+it is this.
+
+When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors
+of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years,
+one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who
+have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers,
+should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For
+instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was,
+in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor
+Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from
+those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now
+encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent
+misunderstandings.
+
+It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been
+forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and
+among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir
+Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph
+Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir
+Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James
+Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir
+Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick
+Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an
+improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter
+part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of
+thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous
+small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of
+mankind.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM.
+
+
+Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a
+large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within
+the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river
+and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken.
+Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands
+or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh
+is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long,
+extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted
+vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass
+of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original
+tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for
+railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at
+Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by
+the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average
+level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot
+and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are
+but two feet above mean high water.
+
+During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high
+spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to
+cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water
+at high tide has been 41/2 feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot
+or more above the established grade of the streets.
+
+The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly
+habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm
+waters.
+
+The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago;
+since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other
+devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature
+in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed
+and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the
+Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann
+and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the
+City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in
+Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely
+to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the
+purpose of its construction.
+
+There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First,
+by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by
+making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by
+steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the
+cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of
+houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as
+being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same
+position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that
+the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested
+by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the
+problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system
+has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and
+First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where
+a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water
+(except during storms) by means of a private pump.
+
+The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates
+in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in
+contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal
+sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be
+about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will
+necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands
+to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of
+raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping
+system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water
+and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including
+interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on
+the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a
+year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve.
+
+According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report
+of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will
+ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the
+heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of
+sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount
+of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually
+as the marsh land is built upon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK."
+
+
+Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the
+sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of
+Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of
+well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the
+soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the
+ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such
+a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an
+ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over
+which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The
+drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external
+stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the
+garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged
+on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A
+tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are
+on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at
+the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used
+throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with
+ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge
+boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the
+principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front,
+over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself.
+The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and
+the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended
+its erection.--_Building News_.
+
+[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES.
+
+[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.]
+
+By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle.
+
+
+The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller
+number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes
+employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then
+briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam
+desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and
+in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of
+Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should
+commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means
+are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the
+Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the
+lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12
+in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a
+sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into
+the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently
+erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each
+pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two
+only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the
+pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover,
+with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried
+to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is
+placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each
+pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the
+lower pot. The mode of working is as follows:
+
+The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane.
+When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or
+working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation.
+
+When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in
+order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it
+setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced.
+
+To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate
+is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform
+distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of
+crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed
+to play on the surface of the lead.
+
+This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface;
+but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner
+in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition
+caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced
+up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time
+the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the
+charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in
+rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of
+the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it.
+
+Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when
+two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third
+liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the
+crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps
+out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the
+crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates.
+
+The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of
+the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed,
+they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of
+the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the
+lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is
+crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot,
+from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for
+tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes.
+
+Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with
+lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the
+liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a
+similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals,
+by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to
+run among the crystals.
+
+The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are
+so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for
+market.
+
+The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in
+a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent
+operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old
+six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a
+saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of
+calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of
+all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of
+two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger
+original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and
+repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with
+increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the
+last two or three years.
+
+The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs.
+Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them
+about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on
+the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of
+it:
+
+A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a
+point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or
+the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount
+of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the
+ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 11/2 per cent, of
+the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of
+this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the
+charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by
+continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is
+seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large
+proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that
+of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and
+carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being
+taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again
+applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a
+further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is
+added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is
+repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining
+portion--1/4 per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has
+been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely
+desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some
+works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but
+at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by
+subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc
+crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by
+allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are
+placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a
+portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in
+silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner.
+The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is
+as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used.
+
+Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains
+unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet
+the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead
+is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead
+into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into
+large blocks of 31/2 tons. These 31/2 ton blocks are taken on a bogie to
+the mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means
+of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single
+power only.
+
+Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large
+casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This
+block, weighing 101/2 tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same
+crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along
+to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging
+head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those
+of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always
+working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch
+and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines,
+in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time
+extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method
+there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines;
+but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear
+contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows:
+
+In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead
+sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before
+it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of
+the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars.
+
+In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is
+fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by
+power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine,
+or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired
+point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the
+knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic
+reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife
+1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent
+exactly.
+
+Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest
+improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives,
+which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at
+will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the
+longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but
+one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's
+opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet
+with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last
+length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane
+lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway
+communicating with the shipping quay.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES.
+
+I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION.
+
+
+The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty
+liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products
+are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and,
+therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden
+handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which
+can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring
+arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades
+formed like a ship's screw.
+
+The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of
+a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed
+by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine
+point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for
+it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream
+into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only
+necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up
+after a short time.
+
+Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the
+principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends
+the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest
+air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed
+to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great
+quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is
+retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon
+as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is
+emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle
+replaced in it.
+
+If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity
+of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be
+further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid
+being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed,
+nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing
+to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the
+emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations.
+
+
+II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.
+
+It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by
+boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which
+will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also
+be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates,
+as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the
+thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple
+contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through
+a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made
+air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas
+is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its
+deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether
+floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute
+opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least,
+the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas
+boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the
+shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until
+it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the
+power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out,
+being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support
+a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the
+opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By
+removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is
+raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes
+wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+
+III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS.
+
+The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented
+by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely
+dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a
+wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of
+which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in
+the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together
+by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron
+transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the
+crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring,
+n.
+
+The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of
+fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for
+working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped
+through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung
+upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops
+upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as
+possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is
+completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung,
+and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water.
+When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels
+like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed
+through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it
+will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the
+crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and
+q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s
+s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed
+through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small
+apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power
+that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass.
+
+
+IV.--WASHING APPARATUS.
+
+The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred
+to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent
+improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are
+incorporated. It may be described as follows:
+
+A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel,
+rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a
+double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes
+the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel
+upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at
+the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched
+at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon.
+The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the
+water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place
+the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus
+fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of
+the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the
+largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly
+adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the
+supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty.
+
+The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again,
+and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly
+to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel
+that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o
+p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent
+the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the
+sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the
+sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion,
+the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe,
+represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way
+every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing
+provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus
+fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly
+been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven
+up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and
+thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the
+moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of
+washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of
+water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever
+wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over
+and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a
+time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in
+a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed
+once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be
+withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously.
+In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is
+avoided, and there is no loss of material.
+
+This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities,
+since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of
+the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain
+that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not
+wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to
+the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour,
+of Photography_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER.
+
+By A. L. HENDERSON.
+
+
+Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the
+difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is
+very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather
+is the culprit.
+
+I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when
+emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down
+before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity,
+so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is
+impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice.
+
+I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92 deg. in the
+shade, and the washing water at 78 deg.) as follows:
+
+  Hard gelatine...............,...... 1/2   ounce.
+  Water..............................  2    ounces.
+  Alcohol............................  2      "
+  Bromide ammonia....................150    grains.
+  Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60    drops.
+
+When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120 deg. temperature, add,
+stirring all the time,
+
+  Nitrate silver..................... 60    grains,
+  Water.............................. 3/4   ounce.
+  Alcohol............................ 3/4     "
+
+Then again add,
+
+  Nitrate silver.....................140    grains.
+  Water..............................  1    ounce.
+  Alcohol............................  1      "
+
+Both solutions being warmed to about 120 deg..
+
+My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to
+many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of
+ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of
+the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added
+in a much more concentrated state.
+
+The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most
+important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It
+allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of
+alcohol (say about 10 ounces).
+
+After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in
+slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping
+the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the
+bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to
+pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small
+pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to
+ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating.
+
+By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about
+five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is
+devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers.
+
+One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of
+gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts;
+no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has
+been precipitated.--_Photographic News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF
+LOW TEMPERATURES.
+
+By RAOUL PICTET.
+
+
+The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based
+entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the
+maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence
+of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in
+presence of each other in an alembic.
+
+If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which
+succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with
+one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem
+becomes exceedingly complex.
+
+[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY
+COLD.]
+
+In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may
+be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of
+propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively
+constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of
+liquids.
+
+I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we
+calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of
+alcohol and water?
+
+Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we
+take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the
+value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results
+of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish
+the following laws:
+
+a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a
+mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure
+water and that of pure alcohol.
+
+b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol
+approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as
+the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the
+tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water.
+
+c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures
+of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one
+factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic
+solution.
+
+It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the
+greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and
+water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a
+certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade
+alcoholmeter.
+
+We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the
+laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the
+vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids,
+water and alcohol.
+
+II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes,
+what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it?
+
+In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of
+water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in
+the same proportion as the liquids?
+
+We have discovered the following laws:
+
+d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol
+varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not
+in simple proportion thereto.
+
+e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and
+alcohol varies according to the temperature.
+
+f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures
+that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of
+alcohol.
+
+g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two
+liquids tend to become equalized.
+
+We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and
+to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum
+tensions, in the following way:
+
+Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol
+and water, plunge it into water of 20 deg.C., and put its interior in
+hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump.
+
+We vaporize at 20 deg. a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors
+fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the
+interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be
+constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and
+with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of
+vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and
+communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first,
+plunged into the same water at 20 deg.. Care must be taken beforehand to
+create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube.
+
+On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously
+occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the
+same temperature as that at which they were formed.
+
+We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation
+of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very
+perceptibly risen.
+
+If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube,
+we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the
+first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the
+least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube.
+
+This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be
+attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of
+alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump,
+and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical
+work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this
+difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the
+condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete
+identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the
+tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of
+the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of
+equivalence.
+
+It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly
+regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water,
+and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid
+of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors.
+
+III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact:
+When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered,
+can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected
+with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated
+experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the
+following laws:
+
+If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected
+by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after
+driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the
+warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that:
+
+h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases
+with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers.
+
+i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is
+constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers,
+whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers.
+
+k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is
+proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say,
+to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their
+thickness.
+
+l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus
+throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a
+considerable degree, especially at low temperatures.
+
+Thus, water distilling between 100 deg. and 60 deg. will pass over as
+quickly as that which is distilling between 40 deg. and 0 deg.. Absolute
+temperature is without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign
+gas be got rid of.
+
+The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent
+air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are
+inevitable in practice.
+
+The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to
+make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one
+of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results
+simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar,
+and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of
+different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads:
+
+1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the
+alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of
+the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain
+quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile
+substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and
+bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of
+the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the
+essential oils.
+
+The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is
+to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils,
+water, ether, and foreign alcohols.
+
+The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely
+complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the
+present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between
+78.5 deg. and 100 deg.. The successive condensation and vaporization of the
+vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a
+partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively
+as products of rectification:
+
+1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and
+impure alcohols.
+
+2. Fine alcohol.
+
+3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils.
+
+Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and
+that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same
+lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations.
+Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine
+alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing,
+that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by
+the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely
+pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent.
+
+Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in
+rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which
+they must operate. Between 78 deg. and 100 deg. the tension of the vapors
+of all the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them;
+they all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of
+rectification.
+
+We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain
+that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is
+maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish
+some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render
+variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2),
+render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid.
+
+Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its
+ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition
+without changing such temperatures when once obtained.
+
+It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the
+apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles
+Industriels, at Paris.
+
+By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form
+a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at
+temperatures as low as -40 deg. or even -50 deg.. They verify
+experimentally, by their operation, the theoretical deductions which
+precede. The boilers, A, which, in an industrial application, may be
+more numerous, receive their supply of spirits from the country
+distilleries in the vicinity of the factory. There may even be
+introduced directly into them _vinasses_, or washes, that is to say,
+liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic fermentation.
+
+Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates
+inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser,
+which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by
+means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above.
+
+On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation
+pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a
+current of water which goes to the reservoir above.
+
+The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which
+are collected in the reservoir, E.
+
+When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir,
+and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over,
+the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding
+valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a
+communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The
+office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification
+is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the
+entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the
+liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be
+regulated in advance.
+
+The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum,
+according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller
+will have to be guided in this by practice alone.
+
+The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there
+the liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum.
+As we have before said, their temperature falls immediately and
+spontaneously. The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost
+solely pure alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the
+first distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging
+between -10 deg. and +5 deg.. Their temperature is shown by a
+thermometer running into the boiler, F.
+
+These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a
+second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H,
+filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those
+which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under
+the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a
+constant temperature of -25 deg. to -30 deg. in the refrigerator. The
+vapors of alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold
+liquid alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator.
+
+By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon
+the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising
+therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the
+reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir,
+L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine
+keeps up of itself alone the two operations.
+
+In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous
+anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the
+first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine
+keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the
+surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without
+necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current
+of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to
+pass into the worm of the boiler.
+
+We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by
+the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are
+performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are
+effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight
+of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one
+kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the
+liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires
+only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature
+in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of
+fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less
+quantity of water to be distilled.
+
+Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering
+on +50 deg. to +60 deg., and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily
+obtained a temperature of -30 deg. to -40 deg., there is at our disposal
+a range of temperature of nearly 100 deg., an immense difference
+compared with that which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus.
+Thanks to this powerful factor, which is manageable at will, we can
+take directly from the apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by
+the centigrade alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual
+methods.
+
+We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of
+alcohol is as active as at near 100 deg..
+
+For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator,
+the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the
+operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid
+condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler;
+and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect
+vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is
+to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such
+a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole
+apparatus; from 60 deg. to 20 deg. in the first operation, and from
+0 deg. to -40 deg. in the second. We may add that the regulation of the
+valve is extremely easy, because of the screw which actuates it.
+
+To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may
+say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a
+single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification,
+or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low
+temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even
+by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the
+temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols
+obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4.
+Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult
+to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being
+performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the
+same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of
+the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases
+entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the
+interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in
+_personnel_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS.
+
+[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a
+series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from
+the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the
+solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too
+much room for insertion in these columns.]
+
+By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B.,
+F.C.S.
+
+
+Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came
+into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this
+peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other
+metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the
+present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best
+effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt
+takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the
+precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the
+best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of
+certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of
+copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid
+in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of
+ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic
+decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully
+accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert
+them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the
+purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in
+quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the
+separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a
+nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other
+electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper,
+zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth,
+and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates,
+may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic
+methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF COBALT.
+
+Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt
+salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to
+electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed
+into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is
+deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the
+potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt
+carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic
+cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or
+dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the
+solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is
+repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic
+condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily
+and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the
+corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double
+salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just
+sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only
+slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the
+cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the
+ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three
+or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_
+solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt
+as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements,
+0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction
+has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small
+sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive
+electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off.
+The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess
+of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether.
+The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100 deg. C., and in the
+course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained.
+
+[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used
+for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative
+electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p.
+46.]
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF NICKEL.
+
+This process is precisely identical with the previously described method
+for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution,
+which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The
+separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel
+is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the
+electrode.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF IRON.
+
+For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the
+sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously
+described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a
+sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron
+compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright,
+steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be
+exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation
+taking place.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF ZINC.
+
+Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily
+and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc
+has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The
+separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is
+only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the
+dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE.
+
+It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from
+its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is
+only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount
+of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish
+without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into
+the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and
+submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be
+deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the
+complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide
+does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it
+and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4).
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH.
+
+This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal
+is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is
+always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated
+from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally,
+from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a
+surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then,
+if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol,
+and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small
+quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected
+on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an
+excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of
+bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the
+peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly
+disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the
+last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with
+alcohol and anhydrous ether.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF LEAD.
+
+The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When
+the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere
+firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode,
+it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the
+solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted.
+
+If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the
+lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly
+oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without
+decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of
+illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be
+recommended.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF COPPER.
+
+The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double
+ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate
+is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of
+this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such
+circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the
+electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of
+330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme
+metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM.
+
+When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the
+electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray
+coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but,
+however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF TIN.
+
+Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from
+its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium
+oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the
+ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation
+becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite
+pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid
+solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes
+place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the
+ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum
+dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on
+the electrode.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY.
+
+Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric
+acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode.
+If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the
+antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly
+to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating
+may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the
+separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be
+very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts.
+
+To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide
+is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with
+ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the
+addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a
+fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very
+firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly,
+_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong.
+
+When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured
+off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner.
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC.
+
+Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous
+hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been
+added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution,
+a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed
+through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time,
+all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3).
+
+
+SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE.
+
+If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is
+submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium
+oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes
+its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the
+positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When
+the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to
+separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a
+considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two
+metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide
+is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited.
+This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better
+still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both
+cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed
+by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however,
+disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater
+portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the
+coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins.
+
+Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three
+or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid,
+which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of
+manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very
+rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is
+more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a
+much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the
+two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in
+oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until
+the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its
+action.
+
+It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ
+too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only
+to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in
+consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve
+the peroxide.
+
+When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current
+to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly
+to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the
+liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the
+electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the
+determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium
+oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion
+of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to
+decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate
+is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the
+sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in
+a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such.
+
+
+SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM.
+
+The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many
+difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed
+by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum
+oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be
+submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be
+deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while
+the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity
+of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate
+produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place
+the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in
+which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium
+sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is
+observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in
+excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been
+neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid
+solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid
+ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to
+3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly
+submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been
+precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all
+the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter
+may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove.
+
+In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron
+from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously
+having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis
+is continued.
+
+In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from
+the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added,
+and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is
+determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less
+than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results.
+With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate
+of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the
+interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte
+der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER.
+
+
+In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the
+_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two
+species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to
+a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America.
+Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and
+directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of
+the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is
+obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall
+ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain.
+
+There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the
+insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many
+years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold
+at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a
+secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant,
+Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried
+and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing
+abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian
+province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the
+manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year
+the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the
+dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those
+countries.
+
+Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the
+Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is
+probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic
+species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far
+the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia.
+
+There is also very little information published regarding either the
+mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native
+home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they
+are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the
+contrary notwithstanding.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.]
+
+The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of
+Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living
+authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that
+region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus
+_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is
+nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our
+mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it
+appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native
+home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of
+Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to
+whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were
+not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one
+person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be
+gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants.
+
+As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native
+home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the
+fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information
+regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For
+similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small
+quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in
+other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people
+are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country
+becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of
+_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small
+quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several
+nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their
+catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant
+for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of
+Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in
+my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without
+any care much better than many other things. I should say from this
+experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself
+to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York,
+another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the
+plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation,
+either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of
+all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly
+hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this
+continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully
+grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents
+report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special
+mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious
+attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in
+France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best
+we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight
+omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of
+pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of
+clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of
+water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is
+the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is
+from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the
+weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds
+are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some
+vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five
+or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the
+germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants
+make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough
+they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other.
+Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a
+distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength.
+Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which,
+however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the
+pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and
+continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the
+plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even
+during severe winters.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrethre du Caucase (P.
+Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only
+a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's
+paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report
+of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp.
+223-331.]
+
+The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and
+as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet
+an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The
+plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of
+the garden or other perennial Compositae.
+
+As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a
+native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum
+cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the
+California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of
+"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to
+most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco
+gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more
+particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose,
+sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with
+dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake
+disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the
+bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury.
+After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When
+about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy
+soil during the rainy season of winter or spring."
+
+Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_
+in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we
+planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will
+perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we
+planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather
+stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr.
+Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants.
+
+In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be
+gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time
+when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the
+insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development.
+When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four
+inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the
+flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must
+be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun,
+or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and
+hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely
+pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more
+effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper
+pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a
+business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New
+York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own
+use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of
+pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be
+closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such
+as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a
+laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed
+one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which
+would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being
+deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and
+then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar
+and pulverized again.
+
+The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent
+covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American
+Naturalist_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES.
+
+
+In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein
+deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of
+the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the
+sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other
+sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so
+located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious
+vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American
+metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the
+roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr.
+Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc
+works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It
+was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of
+carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently
+in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower,
+they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per
+cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they
+held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is
+declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working,
+although he does not deny its value under special circumstances.
+
+The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from
+roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near
+Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower
+filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr
+Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced
+by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the
+following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures
+given are grammes per 1,000 liters:
+
+   BEFORE.              AFTER.
+ SO_2.   SO_3.       SO_2.   SO_3.
+ 8.24    0.63        5.74    0.00
+ 8.29    0.37        6.74    0.07
+ 9.36    0.69        6.96    0.00
+ 9.46    0.63        7.38    0.05
+10.03    1.08        7.69    0.09
+16.52    2.97       14.39    0.23
+17.90    1.97       13.32    0.11
+17.80    2.46       16.18    0.69
+
+The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three
+roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of
+the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces
+was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four
+hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baume, which flowed off
+with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baume. The quantity of acid
+condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of
+furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60
+degrees Baume per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous
+sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr
+Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime,
+in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too
+expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially
+successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to
+experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg,
+who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in
+some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus
+obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture
+of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made.
+Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania
+Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus
+far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the
+absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to
+carry the gases through it.
+
+The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to
+find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace
+gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of
+the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been
+equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general
+manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his
+experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr.
+E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful
+on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering
+and Mining Journal_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW GAS EXHAUSTER.
+
+
+In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes
+about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and
+requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking,
+at the following cost:
+
+                                     s.  d.
+Wages--2 men,  at 5s. 6d             11  0
+Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d              7  0
+                                     -----
+                                 L 0 18  0
+Oil, 1 gallon                      0  3  6
+Waste, 5 lb                        0  1  0
+                                  --------
+Total                            L 1  2  6
+
+for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler
+burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value,
+costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total
+cost of exhausting gas by the new system is--
+
+Fuel                         0.0174d
+Wages, oil, and waste        0.0540
+                             --------
+Total                        0.07l4d.
+
+per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be
+decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system,
+from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at
+the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of
+coke.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.]
+
+It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road
+are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum;
+while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to
+the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside,
+and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE
+
+
+The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite
+comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know
+exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a
+retrograde movement will probably be brought about.
+
+As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a
+combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great
+increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and
+the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been
+heretofore employed.
+
+In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various
+other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It
+has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the
+administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible
+with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it
+seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the
+rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies.
+The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for
+glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine.
+
+The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely
+what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance,
+quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its
+antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_
+butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the
+makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and
+refined glycerine.
+
+So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial
+butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as
+the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European
+revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an
+important article of pharmaceutical use.
+
+On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for
+the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off
+in the production.
+
+At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers
+of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of
+illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as
+well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the
+production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance,
+candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles
+of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial
+magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is
+coming into almost as universal use as here.
+
+To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the
+inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction
+than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is
+gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing
+supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this
+decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some
+time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries
+to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some
+substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be
+procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste
+lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in
+obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by
+any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment.
+
+We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in
+this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of
+glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his
+words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest
+soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for
+glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious
+commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857,
+when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little
+or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run
+into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and
+pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle
+factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine
+and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this
+fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of
+the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine
+as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES.
+
+
+Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according
+to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society,
+by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be
+divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda,
+potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and
+as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on
+substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact,
+it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils
+for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different
+substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of
+the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages
+of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are
+now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially
+of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are
+neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they
+are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be
+introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the
+ironwork over the flues.
+
+Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in
+combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of
+high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids
+being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or
+corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence
+does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called
+iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston,
+and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside
+the cylinder.
+
+When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of
+the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried
+over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is
+introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences
+action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the
+cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler
+and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming
+greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into
+absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly
+enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are
+liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases
+gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the
+pressure of the steam inside.
+
+The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal
+or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They
+take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight
+of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda
+combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming
+soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of
+caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness
+at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred
+to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with
+glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils
+at about 150 deg. to 180 deg. Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the
+neutral or unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no
+sand is used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap
+solution which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether,
+which dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of
+the liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the
+one case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the
+dissolved oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile
+liquids being separated by blowing a current of filtered air through
+the flask containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its
+percentage on the original sample calculated.
+
+All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per
+cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the
+result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception,
+because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half
+its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum
+spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after
+saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum
+spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of
+sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum
+or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive
+distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole
+of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is
+almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about
+half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NITRITE OF AMYL.
+
+
+Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the
+various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many
+families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It
+is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache
+(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus,
+of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else
+when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief
+in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the
+latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since
+in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It
+has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in
+chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise
+the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory
+conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or
+negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of
+the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of
+their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of
+amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia.
+Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and
+faintness occurring in anaemic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit
+from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by
+chloroform.
+
+It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in
+asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the
+induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of
+which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the
+concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries.
+
+One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is
+threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In
+such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics
+can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A
+single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was
+suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of
+appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief
+had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February,
+1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse
+became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as
+delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation
+and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles
+and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and
+champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up
+from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while
+the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per
+minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with
+perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then
+administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to
+twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without
+being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient
+rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was
+continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been
+used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis
+was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following
+day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year
+and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was
+quickly cut short by similar treatment.
+
+Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who
+was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had
+as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with
+fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks
+of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person
+attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of
+sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor
+was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but,
+none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a
+last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held
+before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed
+energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and
+more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These
+procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity
+of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept
+up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and
+requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less
+frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then,
+Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections
+when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is
+threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded
+circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in
+the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It
+is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic
+angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although
+in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable,
+provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired.
+
+As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not
+restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if
+necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when
+the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from
+three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has
+met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications,
+from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated
+in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions
+of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's
+Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM.
+
+By ALFRED STILLE, M.D.
+
+
+The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to
+palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly
+always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse
+yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines
+alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever
+invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot
+be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar
+emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by
+anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten
+the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness
+of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper
+diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon
+without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr.,
+of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a
+number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they
+made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases
+under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages
+in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever.
+We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In
+old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the
+time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will
+not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor
+of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be
+used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the
+patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to
+the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients
+packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was
+going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives
+are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are
+constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen
+such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative
+does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system.
+Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it
+diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease.
+Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well
+borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four
+hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour.
+Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate
+the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all
+remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have
+recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it
+must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy
+for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer
+large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large
+doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton,
+Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later
+still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral,
+Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of
+quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect,
+from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of
+twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses.
+Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old
+plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the
+way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of
+twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious
+medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge
+that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has
+also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse
+the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr.
+Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes
+perished from congestion of the lungs and brain.
+
+Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and
+viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been
+employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven
+itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such
+sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed,
+if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by
+mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not
+know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is
+just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis
+at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was
+treated with digitalis.
+
+Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape
+of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no
+personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first
+dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on
+which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory
+judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have
+sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the
+disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack
+be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur
+if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without
+influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends
+to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these
+gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of
+treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other
+hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in
+almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced
+ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively
+high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration,
+albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this
+anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to
+raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at
+110 deg. F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat,
+therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this
+medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far
+been tempted to employ it.
+
+It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies
+in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism,
+and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way,
+_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline.
+If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am
+obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be
+applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has
+decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the
+local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of
+fibrin in the blood.
+
+This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies
+neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies
+morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the
+course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects
+are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and
+becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the
+disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the
+cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must
+be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good
+combination of these remedies is the following:
+
+Rx. Sodae bicarb              3 iss.
+    Potas. acet               3 ss.
+    Acid. cit              f. 3 ss.
+    Aquae                  f. 3 ij. [1]
+
+[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.']
+
+S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the
+urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two
+grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies
+must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet
+should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food
+should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may
+with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum
+may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously
+protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between
+blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever,
+and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A
+long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon
+juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to
+so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the
+theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but
+cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of
+acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous
+and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as
+drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they
+become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be
+protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses
+of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To
+prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil
+and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this
+condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan
+of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued
+must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the
+peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METHOD IN MADNESS.
+
+
+No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible,
+to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the
+boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged
+in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be
+practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the
+development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the
+social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases
+the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad"
+suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the
+course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is
+the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which
+consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the
+accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even
+developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is
+true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement
+or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and
+nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a
+morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The
+consideration most practical to the community and germane to the
+question of public safety is, that in any and every population there
+must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in
+a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which
+powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the
+majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by
+the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They
+may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of
+public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own
+consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop
+individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment
+repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public
+excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are
+more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane."
+
+It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the
+man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of
+America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of
+these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants
+were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however,
+propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this
+juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is
+known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by
+disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the
+Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed
+"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of
+doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is
+"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the
+inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in
+the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the
+act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God
+or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an
+ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel
+or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply
+are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of
+English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle
+form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer
+supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the
+doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied
+that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their
+correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow
+an expression from the terminology of geological science,
+_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips
+off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and
+"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher
+moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of
+personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and
+social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity
+is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of
+man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the
+level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the
+lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far
+as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of
+dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has
+unfortunately received different designations as its several features
+have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the
+subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all
+sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The
+practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of
+insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and
+principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any
+of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well
+able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause.
+
+To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have
+said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the
+invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined
+by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on
+the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by
+educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise
+judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing
+between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in
+moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right
+thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on
+the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession
+of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of
+wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great
+question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or
+whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct
+fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act
+must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it
+sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as
+we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought,
+except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual
+function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness
+and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions.
+It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may
+not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical
+difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of
+disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the
+supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for
+wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in
+such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for
+every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be
+sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise.
+Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have
+been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which
+the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of
+brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example,
+when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust
+on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes
+by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived
+intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is
+important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between
+the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a
+crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense.
+There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and
+the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective,
+but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other
+it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be
+healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period.
+Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole
+do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the
+mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number
+or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain
+healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation
+concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more
+than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain.
+Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts
+of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to
+predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the
+special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and
+the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the
+present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are
+very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is
+all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter
+be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides
+of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and
+that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh
+as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of
+these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be
+more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are
+concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid
+element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the
+particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang.
+The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of
+scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be
+the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the
+facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise
+scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE.
+
+By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo.
+
+
+At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about
+any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner,
+as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and
+appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text
+books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or
+apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it
+refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before
+our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will
+therefore be well received.
+
+The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open
+wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery,
+but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to
+those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is
+astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to
+check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of
+pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight
+of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many
+times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a
+feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or
+otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look
+on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a
+run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has
+a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are
+likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles
+away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the
+right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one
+bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their
+assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition
+produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences,
+and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood
+possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one.
+
+Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office,
+who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps,
+the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of
+such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever
+in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional
+cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This,
+when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a
+non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the
+pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient
+prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection.
+
+Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and
+though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases,
+still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having
+systematized the following method:
+
+
+BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS).
+
+Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the
+back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt
+bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again
+in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin
+back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+"The illustrations will explain at a glance."
+
+
+BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM.
+
+Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper
+arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the
+joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also
+be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The
+bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+
+BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS).
+
+It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the
+hemorrhage from that region temporarily.
+
+Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as
+Fig. 3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et
+Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under
+the knee joint, or like Fig. 4.
+
+
+BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS).
+
+Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the
+front of the tibia.
+
+Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the
+pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced
+as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little
+uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it
+has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several
+days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete
+closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of
+arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery,
+neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the
+practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have
+to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by
+it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily
+applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be
+distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and
+certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures
+or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the
+rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost
+completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to
+apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply
+it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a
+wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the
+patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and
+anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured.
+
+I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their
+attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not
+possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact
+a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw,
+planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where
+the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a
+certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of
+men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every
+establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the
+bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and
+railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their
+respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to
+use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out
+should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows
+how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus
+be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana
+Medical Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS.
+
+
+Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to
+the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped
+in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55 deg.
+C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND.
+
+
+After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition
+of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding
+machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the
+Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th
+of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations,
+there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials
+already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the
+distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the
+interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though
+ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which
+unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural
+Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited
+them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into
+which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The
+published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as
+many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the
+rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for
+different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance
+for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines
+to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick
+Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs.
+Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company,
+and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show,
+except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of
+the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a
+weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley,
+and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an
+acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and
+engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was
+made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs.
+Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps,
+be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal
+in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the
+class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown
+into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a
+certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the
+driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely
+neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach
+great importance.
+
+It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every
+single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional
+miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with
+Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of
+the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop
+in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do
+with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to
+connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other
+machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr.
+Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and
+the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was
+almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went
+through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning
+the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than
+with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the
+gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced
+in these machines vary very much in weight.
+
+At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of
+the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs.
+Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We
+believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves
+were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no
+hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman &
+Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was
+not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines.
+Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were
+ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and
+assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which
+binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the
+sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the
+fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a
+tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied
+to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after
+the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been
+fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one
+could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf
+produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes
+this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn.
+Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till
+the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the
+ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy
+downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and
+through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have
+been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting
+would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the
+rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick
+Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood
+worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to
+bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the
+shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson
+and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble
+in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to
+be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather
+too tight.
+
+The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then
+attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a
+face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet
+condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the
+canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was
+the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of
+the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the
+Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine
+was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs.
+Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in
+the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent
+than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly
+were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must
+be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the
+crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought
+to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity
+of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be
+here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind
+at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so
+thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's
+machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven
+competitors.
+
+The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known
+on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver
+medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr.
+H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only
+gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G.
+Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this
+were made.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES.
+
+
+Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester,
+give the following directions for setting out and cultivating
+strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their
+recently issued Strawberry Catalogue:
+
+_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully
+grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden
+crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at
+least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for
+any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it
+must be thoroughly drained.
+
+_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for
+planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may
+then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until
+they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large
+plantations_.
+
+During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually
+hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage.
+With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted
+without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering,
+shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants,
+are thus in a great measure avoided.
+
+
+GARDEN CULTURE.
+
+_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting
+in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds
+will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches
+apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These
+beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without
+setting the feet upon them.
+
+_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the
+garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the
+runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may
+be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new
+crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have
+formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be
+expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the
+plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe
+or fork.
+
+_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow
+for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches
+of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be
+placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the
+middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal
+errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care
+must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the
+plants begin to grow.
+
+_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen,
+mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass
+mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep
+the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and
+thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch.
+
+A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be
+spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to
+take its place.
+
+
+FIELD CULTURE.
+
+The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection,
+and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large
+scale.
+
+_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its
+advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden.
+In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the
+plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much
+of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator.
+
+_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The
+number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may
+be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560)
+by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained
+by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the
+plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant
+three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER.
+
+
+Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses
+of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery
+alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and
+scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful
+how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants,
+except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are
+beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those
+only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21.
+
+Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise
+variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as
+different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom
+from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by
+division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place,
+their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine.
+
+Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its
+best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to
+follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of
+the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past,
+but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive
+alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day
+lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the
+undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale
+bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race,
+are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and
+faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough,
+but their leaves get "scorched."
+
+The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the
+Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are
+far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow
+anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season;
+some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium
+splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called
+stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_
+(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny
+places, and dislike artificial waterings.
+
+_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual
+bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory
+comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes,
+stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored
+flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are
+conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so
+profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition,
+notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of
+plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are
+past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced
+during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its
+massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once
+established it is hard to get rid of.
+
+Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the
+carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell,
+and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better
+results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No
+garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it
+the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is
+by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved
+and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise
+the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone
+flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in
+any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in
+perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many
+kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance;
+they love moist soil.
+
+In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in
+bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of
+thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six
+feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past,
+but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their
+prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials,
+bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and
+effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large
+purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple
+spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of
+yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and
+monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready
+growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest
+perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the
+ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent.
+It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening
+primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_,
+white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia,
+fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial,
+are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted
+by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It
+has hundreds of red spikes.
+
+Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe
+thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_,
+Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many
+others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds,
+stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum,
+morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers,
+verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single
+poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax,
+tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of
+seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame
+or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless
+garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH.
+
+
+Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham
+township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two
+match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily
+production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five
+thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one
+hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of
+the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case.
+In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the
+25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made
+in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is
+levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and
+used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to
+light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less
+time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in
+trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the
+360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000
+minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures
+up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of
+days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by
+the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking
+matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in
+each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite
+correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_.
+
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