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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/8408-8.txt b/8408-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..931cdf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/8408-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4917 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 299, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8408] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 9, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 299 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299 + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + +[Illustration] + + + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development + of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine + boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine + engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative + efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers + + Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.-- + Transverse and longitudinal sections + + Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure + + Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure + + Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger + + Railway Alarm Whistle + + Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure + + Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication + of manometer + + Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal + metal moulding apparatus + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's + wood pulp apparatus + + Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address, + Convention of Mechanical Engineers + + The Hoboken Drainage Problem + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements + in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON + + Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.-- + I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating + apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures + + How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON + + The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational + Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's + apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold + + The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases + + New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure + + Advance in the Price of Glycerine + + Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes + + Nitrate of Amyl + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery + + Lightning and Telephone Wires + + Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity + + The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill + + Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M. + A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- + Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- + Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum + +IV. MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism. + By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D. + + Method in Madness + + Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD + BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the + upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot + + Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture + of Powder + + Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England + + The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture + + Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer + + The Time Consuming Match + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art. + 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris + + Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.-- + 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans + +VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHILLE DELESSE. + + +The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting +_résumé_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take +the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum +of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, +Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he +left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the +student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which +he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon +arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by +having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and +geology in the Faculty at Besançon, where Delesse at the same time +fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned +to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy +of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the +conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued +his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. +The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name +was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied +also, and with success, the interesting modifications called +pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their +magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided +him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has +rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin +and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by +investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent +and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of +analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived +from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites +and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study +and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed +further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of +science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order +of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The +mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in +the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention. +The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed +out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the +principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance +attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case +the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks. + +It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that +Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as +well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published +on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits +which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of +interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there, +indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for +in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents, +they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products +of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of +submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his +own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des +Progrès de la Géologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" +for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a +less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications +of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the +under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of +water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were +represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form. +His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of +railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of +daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse +never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having +in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had +occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of +drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology +at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of +Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of +France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which, +to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons +there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a +citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department. + +His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th +of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two +years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society; +he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to +enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work. +He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his +intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the +reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he +addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness +and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his +profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th +of March.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT, +PARIS. + +(From The Workshop)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY. + + +On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging +to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting +ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals. +In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson +determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general +appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful +in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early +resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for +the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating +the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. +Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical +engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent +lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a +large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West. +Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were +received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting +the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the +framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James +Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth +of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face, +twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady +flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired +light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most +systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in +which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an +outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also +connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight +contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the +effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite +safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention +was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or +generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power +was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the +generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the +roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at +No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the +workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the +cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in +diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe +handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down +the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the +shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways +and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one +of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful +inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed +in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of +Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the +first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were +then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they +witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of +course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing +down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the +party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES. + + +M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingénieur-Conseil_ on the +above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best +and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire +to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of +the induction coils, which it might fuse. + +Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to +one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire. +The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful +current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M. +Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the +same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the +wires, and been by them conveyed to earth. + +This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that +there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly +upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells, +or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel +and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of +electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron; +consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick +were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface +of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square +meters must be established. + +It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On +the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the +terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be +absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds +than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning +conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of +contact with the earth. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY. + + +The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the +alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the +influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged +so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with +positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed +at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in +negative flames. + +A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own +conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and +also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the +flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these +results: + +When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a +metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface +according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the +point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform +more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a +conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame +will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer, +the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be +attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the +lower dark body of flame is also repulsed. + +This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire +gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive +flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small +fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it. + +All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a +stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame, +and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be +obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the +influence of a long "Holtz" machine. + +A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the +negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric +intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar +stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames +rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen +are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is +more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar +differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar +conductivity of the substances. + +The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point +of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by +conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows +similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive. +Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two +ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base +of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with +the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's +theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further +supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by +Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative +electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive +electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in +Wiedemanris Beiblätter to Poggendorfs Annalen._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL. + + +The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the +various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent +something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and +quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed +wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was +given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble +in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and +during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway +head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that +where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that +should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or +strand of the machine. + +This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is +now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder, +intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance, +too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several +thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied. + +This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a +somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved, +and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been +made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and +accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of +which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in +putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed, +and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be +un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been +taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the +working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself. + +To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the +railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the +practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of +this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from +a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or +whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and +this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft. +The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a +half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power +than a light-running sewing machine. + +One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod +or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the +other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity +of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An +armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a +strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet +wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or +stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving +belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by +a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the +case of a breakage of a thread or strand. + +As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with +the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton +is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet +breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the +calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a +stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a +number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used +for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the +card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver +is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering +cotton. + +In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage +between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts; +in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or +in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either +case a stoppage would be instantly produced. + +In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back +can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of +the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to +the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or +tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier. + +There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With +mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple +contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be +had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical +changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical +attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France, +and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more +extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile +Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE. + +[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical +Engineers by F.C.Marshall.] + + +The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting +in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in +Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound +Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue +the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and +if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no +we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick +Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what +direction we are to look for further development. + +From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher, +the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much +smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the +same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to +1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent. + + +MARINE ENGINES. + +The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler. +The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in +the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1) +The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at +right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally +the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other, +but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one +crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two +pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently +three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The +system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the +same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft. + +These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being +manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the +screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace +nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be +oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft. + +The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be +said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the +relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound +expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of +our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor +of the latter. + + +THE MARINE BOILER. + +The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it +was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and +sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers +under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The +double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically +efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the +writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large +power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more +room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and +therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found +in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their +length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the +top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large +part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now +been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention +given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler +itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the +feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful +management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of +larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more +perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is +that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, +but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the +variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the +furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening +afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction, +and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace +action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler +may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives +greater steam space. + +A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a +locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power +developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the +cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural +draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a +consumption of fuel not exceeding 2½ lb. per indicated horse-power per +hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in +the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen +below 2½ square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape +of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the +incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of +the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's +attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine +work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to +steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty +lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very +limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure +or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either +exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would +be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case +with our miners, must work under a pressure of air. + + +STEEL BOILERS. + +The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of +steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from +six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the +works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no +case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler, +either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode +of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch +to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before +rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting +the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints +treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after +rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length, +and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube +plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and +front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it +is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they +are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical +boilersmith. + + +CORROSION OF BOILERS. + +The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as +time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel +boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made; +and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting +or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very +carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace +anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in +washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence +of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the +other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use +zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one +of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, +exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty +indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc +we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months +or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no +corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have +taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with +them." + + +HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED. + +Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due +attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping +authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity +is worth on an average £10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming, +therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel +to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of +materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing +the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth £1,000 per annum more to +her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is +shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and +all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power: + + Lb. per I. H. P. + + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 + + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 + +The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of +the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much +reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working. +The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but +it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some +other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we +must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be +of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by +reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of +revolutions per minute. + +It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent +upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This +process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the +column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of +it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then +fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is +usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers +will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful +design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the +substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine +to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. +A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of +the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving +parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one +structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the +cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such +conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their +place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight +of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with +thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned. + + +CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES. + +Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving +has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table: + + Item. 1872. 1881. + + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 + +This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of +the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system +would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to +feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the +results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel +on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the +forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung +pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the +great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces +as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler. + +Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements +of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total +disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that, +according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to +20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total +disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will +represent to-day about £3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, +the cost would have been £3,750--showing a saving of £750, equal to a +dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost +of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 16½d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d. + + +EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS. + +The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of +steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will +be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than +that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency +of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air +is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the +efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the +heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled, +while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used +in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the +ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as +follows: + +W = (P + 15) (S + D² L) / C + +or W = 2S (P + 15) / C + +when S = D² L, which is a common proportion. + + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. + +This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the +relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb. +and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency +10 per cent, as follows: + +Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C + +Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C + +Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5 + +In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two +and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel +of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power, +the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place +at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing +£1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel. + + +MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. + +Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler +for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced +by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of +water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of +7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212° Fahr., with 2 in. of water +pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are low, +but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily +small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel +consequently high, ranging from 1,073° at the first pressure, and 1,444° +at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive practice the +efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler when working +under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from 3 in. to 4 in., +including funnel draught. + +It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently +with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results, +even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure +of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse +power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working +by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed. + +Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged +against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not +reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total +working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven +atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165 +lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a +gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into +play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of +the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the +cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages. + +In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing +the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages, +and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not +be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause +of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully +chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to +1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. +With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very +good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has +another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure +can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater +amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, +of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of +separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity. + +The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic +properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are, +it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all +that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as +an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use +10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power. + +Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a +definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is +stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver +class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with +scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the +framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine. + +It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface +of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface +one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2 +square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found +1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of +27½ inches. + +Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin +screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each +case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating +1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without +stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or +had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these +engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and +connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 +lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout +of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In +comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the +double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as +follows: + + Double ended Type. Navy Type. + + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. + + +SCREW PROPELLERS. + +The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We +have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of +the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by +reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase +the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet +3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be +qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite +resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made +too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required +speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too +large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on +which a separate paper should be written. + +To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years, +and in the following particulars: + +1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2. +Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of +all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38 +per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much +less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly +all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for +20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much +increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now +being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard +pressure now required. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES. + + +The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are +doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description +of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Société des +Anciens Elèves d'Arts et Metiers_: + +All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the +inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the +high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient +has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service +(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of +locomotion of the city. + +The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of +separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of +Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that +the problem would be successfully solved. + +There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to +the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply +of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a +central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered +on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except +the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the +central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs +for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best +utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls +and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy, +for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats. + +[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.] + +The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction +of all concerned, and especially to that of the public. + +The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed +of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions +are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 3¼ feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal +distance between the two shells is 7¼ feet. These hulls, having +absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat +iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to +support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the +engine-room. The engine-room, which is 19½ feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak. +The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of +the escape of hot air. + +The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely +from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves +on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two +sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from +the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides. + +Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been +provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary. + +The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a +floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches, +is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or +for office purposes, if need be. + +The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows: + + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ + + Total...........................41,800 " + +or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum +draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 4½ miles per hour, a +great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross +in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking +place therein. + +The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of +which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving +as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston +has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 3¼ feet diameter) +to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide +surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., +because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the +shaft. + +The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace +and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being +effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested +up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the +engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of +the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning, +and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun +indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the +engine-room. + +Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have +proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for +which they were built. + + * * * * * + + + + +OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK. + + +In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve +Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored +in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the +new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock +at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500 +ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. +wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount +of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south +quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. +long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 +ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to +8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about £300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234 +yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at +a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners, +whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of +Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of +their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the +"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales +Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer +Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, +accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing +through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which +a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping +forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the +gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh +Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a +battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a +party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having +gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His +Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the +officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded +to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion +was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News, +Aug. 6._ + +[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR. + + +The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of +grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted +with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by +diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or +lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be +elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to +the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway +truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable +bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain +their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the +bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing +machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before +it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its +means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability +to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the +claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the +advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DREDGER. + + +We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of +Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine +consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick. +This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as +shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through +about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with +mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be +imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick +jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge +and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam +engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of +these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow +water.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE. + + +In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or +snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway +Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which +is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated +metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a +projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush +when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the +positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in +communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire +leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the +brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery +in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over +the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to +be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON. + + +Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur +over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll +brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible; +but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial +product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial +purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for +charcoal and pyrites for brimstone. + +The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith, +have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical +conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the +retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction +of the sulphur and carbon takes place. + +The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B, +furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it +descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the +fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through +the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided +into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated +by the fireplace, L'. + +[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.] + +The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the +condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is +deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the +partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and +V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the +sulphide of carbon being regulated. + +The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without +much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation. + +Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system +recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the +operation may be watched and conducted. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER. + + +Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing +graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works +during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system +of piping. + +For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but, +although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form +and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and +then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place. + +Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being +very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the +hour at which the pressure is exerted. + +The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a +circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in +motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base, +E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which +supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in +such a manner as not to impede its rotation. + +In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes +through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts +the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of +the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided +with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose +axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the +middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each +side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord +is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is +fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters +the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the +combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. +The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise. + +In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a +sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as +the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running +horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to +the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be +in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be +readily understood. + +[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.] + +When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and +consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which +carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the +pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction. + +The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible +curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the +point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen, +and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness. + +It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the +tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the +diameters of the pulleys, N and O. + +The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either +in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to +connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where +the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber +tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as +glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the +results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared. + + * * * * * + + + + +CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS. + + +The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of +Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects +in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the +nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is +to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where +it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or +pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded +or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic +core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, +and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be +cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g, +g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty, +and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the +cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece +and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of +circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a +flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. +As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are +pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into +the mould. + +[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.] + +The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows +it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments, +g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal +cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact +with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may, +however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas +into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting +is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, +or hydrogen. + +This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which +do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged +eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the +cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed +at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the +points where the radius is greater. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The +sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the +axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal +during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP. + + +For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as +represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical +reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This +reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which +has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of +tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of +the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the +boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine +atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are +provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, +D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being +interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an +active circulation in both the tubing and boiler. + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2] + +To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and +there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been +divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is +filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the +incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there +is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a +perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when +the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler +is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, +are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, +the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature +is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the +incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and +B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the +latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to +allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100° +in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been +allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected +by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam +under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the +contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed +with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a +complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities +of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, +and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which +is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied. + +In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of +safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a +thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and +a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a +gauge-cock, H. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. + + +The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an +abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper. + +He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in +Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to +one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest +engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the +locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age +to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and +therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner. +He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George +Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the +Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported +by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its +members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has +increased in strength and importance. + +The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of +fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be +mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which +disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes +must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by +good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon +the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an +unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet +such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to +greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing +that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at +once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. +Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is +occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary +imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting +manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the +benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have +been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to +increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of +the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their +exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, +beet-root sugar. + +One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it +may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that +whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost +all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their +excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England, +they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine +engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced +by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American +merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in +English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at +sea. + +Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their +manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has +now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many +articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial +province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring +them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite +iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried +out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country. + +Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in +our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry +on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they +be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and +possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us +to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to +manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is +of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most +essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded. + +Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from +sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the +greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real +or important from having been gradual, while the result to this +neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great +measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly +of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher +pressure. + +The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved, +and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of +traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the +careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly +the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is +floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is +pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the +rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the +melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance. + +No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely +to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements +of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and +arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the +use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year. + +Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in +the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed +during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory +engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers" +have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is +very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole +water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum +without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only +raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of +its large volume. + +Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in +machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher +pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure. +Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both +for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be +again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at +continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; +we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion +practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially +the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out +to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing, +of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can +see nothing else will want doing for some time." + +A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in +reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the +mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties +and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the +river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down +grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment, +thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great +improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement +was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the +river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped +that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to +improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with +comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a +tunnel would involve. + +Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses +by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr. +Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed +one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such +numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its +various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens +of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St. +Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses, +and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the +elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples +of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The +lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power +of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful +electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between +the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of +the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will +be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher +percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become +more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been +obtained. + +The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field +of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose +of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very +considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands +of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in +Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild +steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam +boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of +purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door +frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the +manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging +fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany. +Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of +sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel +sleepers should also be used for tramways. + +If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making +a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig +metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by +several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets +where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be +afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the +heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making +tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking +this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet. + +The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by +hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are +twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or +3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the +lead in a manufacture. + +Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly +valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine, +which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all; +and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside +of piers in water. + +In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years. +Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it +being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine," +obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of +producing the various brilliant dyes now so common. + +New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases +by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at +a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and +water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves +the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some +steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has +been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again, +large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved +glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have +cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely +on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened +glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved +and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again +been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly +extended knowledge of the laws of optics. + +Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the +various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent +records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have +been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural; +for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme +magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the +architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent +the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the +naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings +still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has +always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last; +and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope +developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our +Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite +in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone. + +There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and +it is this. + +When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors +of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years, +one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who +have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers, +should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For +instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was, +in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor +Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from +those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings. + +It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been +forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and +among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir +Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph +Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir +Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James +Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir +Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick +Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an +improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter +part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of +thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous +small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM. + + +Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a +large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within +the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river +and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken. +Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands +or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh +is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long, +extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted +vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass +of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original +tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at +Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by +the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average +level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot +and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are +but two feet above mean high water. + +During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high +spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to +cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water +at high tide has been 4½ feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot +or more above the established grade of the streets. + +The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly +habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm +waters. + +The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago; +since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other +devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature +in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed +and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the +Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann +and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the +City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in +Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely +to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction. + +There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First, +by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by +making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by +steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the +cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of +houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as +being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same +position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that +the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested +by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system +has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and +First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where +a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water +(except during storms) by means of a private pump. + +The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates +in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in +contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal +sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be +about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will +necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands +to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of +raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping +system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water +and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including +interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on +the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve. + +According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report +of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will +ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the +heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of +sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount +of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually +as the marsh land is built upon. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK." + + +Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the +sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of +Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the +soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the +ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such +a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an +ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over +which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The +drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external +stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the +garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged +on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A +tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are +on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at +the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used +throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with +ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge +boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front, +over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself. +The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and +the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended +its erection.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES. + +[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle. + + +The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller +number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes +employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then +briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam +desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and +in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of +Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should +commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means +are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the +Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the +lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 +in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a +sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into +the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently +erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each +pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the +pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover, +with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried +to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is +placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each +pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the +lower pot. The mode of working is as follows: + +The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane. +When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or +working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation. + +When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in +order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it +setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced. + +To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate +is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform +distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of +crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed +to play on the surface of the lead. + +This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface; +but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner +in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition +caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced +up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time +the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the +charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in +rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of +the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it. + +Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third +liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the +crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps +out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the +crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates. + +The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of +the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed, +they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of +the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the +lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is +crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot, +from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for +tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes. + +Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with +lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the +liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a +similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals, +by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to +run among the crystals. + +The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are +so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for +market. + +The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in +a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent +operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old +six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a +saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of +calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of +all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of +two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger +original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and +repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with +increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the +last two or three years. + +The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs. +Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them +about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on +the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of +it: + +A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a +point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or +the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount +of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the +ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 1½ per cent, of +the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of +this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the +charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by +continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is +seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that +of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and +carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being +taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again +applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a +further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is +added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is +repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining +portion--¼ per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has +been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely +desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some +works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but +at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by +subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc +crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by +allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are +placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a +portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in +silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner. +The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is +as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used. + +Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet +the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead +is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead +into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into +large blocks of 3½ tons. These 3½ ton blocks are taken on a bogie to the +mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means +of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only. + +Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large +casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This +block, weighing 10½ tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same +crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along +to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging +head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those +of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always +working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch +and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, +in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time +extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method +there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear +contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows: + +In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead +sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before +it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of +the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars. + +In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is +fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by +power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine, +or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired +point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the +knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic +reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife +1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent +exactly. + +Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest +improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives, +which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at +will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the +longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but +one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's +opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet +with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last +length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane +lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway +communicating with the shipping quay. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION. + + +The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty +liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products +are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and, +therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden +handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which +can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring +arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades +formed like a ship's screw. + +The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of +a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed +by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine +point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for +it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream +into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only +necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up +after a short time. + +Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed +to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great +quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is +retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon +as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is +emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle +replaced in it. + +If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity +of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be +further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid +being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed, +nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing +to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the +emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations. + + +II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. + +It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by +boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which +will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also +be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates, +as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the +thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple +contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through +a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made +air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas +is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its +deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether +floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute +opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, +the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the +shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until +it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the +power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out, +being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support +a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the +opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By +removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is +raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes +wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + +III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS. + +The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented +by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely +dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a +wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of +which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in +the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together +by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron +transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the +crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n. + +The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of +fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for +working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped +through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung +upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops +upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as +possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is +completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung, +and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water. +When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels +like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed +through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it +will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the +crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and +q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s +s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed +through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small +apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power +that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass. + + +IV.--WASHING APPARATUS. + +The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred +to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent +improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are +incorporated. It may be described as follows: + +A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel, +rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a +double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes +the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel +upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at +the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched +at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. +The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the +water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place +the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus +fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of +the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the +largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the +supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty. + +The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again, +and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly +to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel +that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o +p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent +the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the +sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the +sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, +the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, +represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way +every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing +provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus +fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly +been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and +thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the +moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of +washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of +water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever +wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over +and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a +time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in +a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed +once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be +withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. +In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is +avoided, and there is no loss of material. + +This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities, +since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of +the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain +that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not +wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to +the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, +of Photography_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER. + +By A. L. HENDERSON. + + +Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the +difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is +very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather +is the culprit. + +I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when +emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down +before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity, +so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is +impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice. + +I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92° in the +shade, and the washing water at 78°) as follows: + + Hard gelatine...............,...... ½ ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. + +When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120° temperature, add, +stirring all the time, + + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. ¾ ounce. + Alcohol............................ ¾ " + +Then again add, + + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " + +Both solutions being warmed to about 120°. + +My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to +many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of +ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of +the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added +in a much more concentrated state. + +The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most +important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It +allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of +alcohol (say about 10 ounces). + +After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in +slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping +the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the +bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to +pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small +pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to +ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating. + +By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about +five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is +devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers. + +One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of +gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts; +no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has +been precipitated.--_Photographic News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF +LOW TEMPERATURES. + +By RAOUL PICTET. + + +The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the +maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence +of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in +presence of each other in an alembic. + +If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which +succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with +one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem +becomes exceedingly complex. + +[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY +COLD.] + +In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may +be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of +propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively +constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of +liquids. + +I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we +calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of +alcohol and water? + +Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we +take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the +value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results +of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish +the following laws: + +a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a +mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure +water and that of pure alcohol. + +b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as +the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the +tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water. + +c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures +of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one +factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic +solution. + +It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and +water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a +certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. + +We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the +laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the +vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids, +water and alcohol. + +II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes, +what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it? + +In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of +water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in +the same proportion as the liquids? + +We have discovered the following laws: + +d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol +varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not +in simple proportion thereto. + +e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the temperature. + +f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures +that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of +alcohol. + +g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two +liquids tend to become equalized. + +We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and +to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum +tensions, in the following way: + +Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol +and water, plunge it into water of 20°C., and put its interior in +hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump. + +We vaporize at 20° a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors +fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the +interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be +constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and +with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of +vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and +communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first, +plunged into the same water at 20°. Care must be taken beforehand to +create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube. + +On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the +same temperature as that at which they were formed. + +We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation +of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very +perceptibly risen. + +If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube, +we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the +first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the +least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube. + +This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be +attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of +alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump, +and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical +work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this +difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the +condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete +identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the +tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of +the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of +equivalence. + +It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water, +and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid +of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors. + +III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact: +When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered, +can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected +with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated +experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the +following laws: + +If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected +by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after +driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the +warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that: + +h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases +with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers. + +i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is +constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers, +whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers. + +k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say, +to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their +thickness. + +l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus +throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a +considerable degree, especially at low temperatures. + +Thus, water distilling between 100° and 60° will pass over as quickly +as that which is distilling between 40° and 0°. Absolute temperature is +without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign gas be got rid +of. + +The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are +inevitable in practice. + +The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to +make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one +of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results +simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar, +and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of +different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads: + +1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the +alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of +the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain +quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile +substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and +bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of +the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the +essential oils. + +The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is +to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils, +water, ether, and foreign alcohols. + +The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely +complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the +present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between +78.5° and 100°. The successive condensation and vaporization of the +vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a +partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively +as products of rectification: + +1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and +impure alcohols. + +2. Fine alcohol. + +3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils. + +Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and +that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same +lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations. +Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine +alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing, +that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by +the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely +pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent. + +Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in +rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which +they must operate. Between 78° and 100° the tension of the vapors of all +the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them; they +all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of +rectification. + +We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain +that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is +maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish +some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render +variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2), +render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid. + +Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its +ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition +without changing such temperatures when once obtained. + +It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles +Industriels, at Paris. + +By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form +a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at +temperatures as low as -40° or even -50°. They verify experimentally, by +their operation, the theoretical deductions which precede. The boilers, +A, which, in an industrial application, may be more numerous, receive +their supply of spirits from the country distilleries in the vicinity of +the factory. There may even be introduced directly into them _vinasses_, +or washes, that is to say, liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic +fermentation. + +Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates +inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser, +which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by +means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above. + +On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation +pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a +current of water which goes to the reservoir above. + +The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which +are collected in the reservoir, E. + +When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir, +and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over, +the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding +valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a +communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The +office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification +is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the +entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the +liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance. + +The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum, +according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller +will have to be guided in this by practice alone. + +The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there the +liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum. As we +have before said, their temperature falls immediately and spontaneously. +The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost solely pure +alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the first +distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging between -10° +and +5°. Their temperature is shown by a thermometer running into the +boiler, F. + +These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a +second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H, +filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those +which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under +the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a +constant temperature of -25° to -30° in the refrigerator. The vapors of +alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold liquid +alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator. + +By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon +the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising +therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the +reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir, +L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine +keeps up of itself alone the two operations. + +In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous +anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the +first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine +keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the +surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without +necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current +of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to +pass into the worm of the boiler. + +We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by +the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are +performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are +effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight +of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one +kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the +liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires +only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature +in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of +fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less +quantity of water to be distilled. + +Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering +on +50° to +60°, and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily obtained +a temperature of -30° to -40°, there is at our disposal a range of +temperature of nearly 100°, an immense difference compared with that +which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus. Thanks to this powerful +factor, which is manageable at will, we can take directly from the +apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual methods. + +We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of +alcohol is as active as at near 100°. + +For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator, +the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the +operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid +condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler; +and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect +vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is +to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such +a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole +apparatus; from 60° to 20° in the first operation, and from 0° to -40° +in the second. We may add that the regulation of the valve is extremely +easy, because of the screw which actuates it. + +To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may +say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a +single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification, +or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low +temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even +by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the +temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4. +Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult +to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being +performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the +same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of +the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases +entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the +interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in +_personnel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS. + +[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a +series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from +the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the +solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too +much room for insertion in these columns.] + +By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B., +F.C.S. + + +Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came +into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this +peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other +metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the +present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best +effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt +takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the +precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the +best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of +certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of +copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid +in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of +ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic +decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully +accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert +them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the +purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the +separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a +nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other +electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper, +zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth, +and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, +may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic +methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process. + + +DETERMINATION OF COBALT. + +Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt +salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to +electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed +into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is +deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the +potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt +carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic +cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or +dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is +repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic +condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily +and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the +corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double +salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just +sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only +slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the +cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the +ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three +or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_ +solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt +as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction +has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small +sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive +electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off. +The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess +of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether. +The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100° C., and in the +course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained. + +[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used +for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative +electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p. +46.] + + +DETERMINATION OF NICKEL. + +This process is precisely identical with the previously described method +for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution, +which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The +separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel +is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the +electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF IRON. + +For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the +sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously +described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a +sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron +compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright, +steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be +exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation +taking place. + + +DETERMINATION OF ZINC. + +Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily +and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc +has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The +separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is +only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the +dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid. + + +DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE. + +It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from +its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is +only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount +of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish +without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into +the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and +submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be +deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the +complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide +does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4). + + +DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH. + +This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal +is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is +always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated +from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally, +from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a +surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then, +if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol, +and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small +quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected +on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an +excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of +bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the +peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the +last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with +alcohol and anhydrous ether. + + +DETERMINATION OF LEAD. + +The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When +the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere +firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode, +it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the +solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted. + +If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the +lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly +oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without +decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of +illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be +recommended. + + +DETERMINATION OF COPPER. + +The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double +ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate +is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of +this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such +circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the +electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of +330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme +metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes. + + +DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM. + +When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the +electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray +coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but, +however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing. + + +DETERMINATION OF TIN. + +Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from +its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium +oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the +ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation +becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite +pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid +solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes +place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the +ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum +dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on +the electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. + +Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric +acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode. +If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the +antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly +to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating +may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the +separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be +very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts. + +To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide +is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with +ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the +addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a +fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very +firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly, +_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong. + +When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured +off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner. + + +DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC. + +Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been +added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution, +a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed +through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time, +all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3). + + +SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE. + +If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium +oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes +its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the +positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When +the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to +separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a +considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two +metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide +is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited. +This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better +still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both +cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed +by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater +portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the +coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins. + +Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three +or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid, +which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of +manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very +rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is +more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a +much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the +two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in +oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until +the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action. + +It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ +too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only +to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in +consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve +the peroxide. + +When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current +to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly +to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the +liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the +electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the +determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium +oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion +of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to +decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate +is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in +a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such. + + +SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. + +The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many +difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed +by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum +oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be +submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be +deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while +the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity +of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate +produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place +the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in +which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is +observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in +excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been +neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid +solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid +ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to +3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly +submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been +precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all +the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter +may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove. + +In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron +from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously +having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis +is continued. + +In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from +the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added, +and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is +determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less +than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results. +With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate +of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the +interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte +der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER. + + +In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two +species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to +a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America. +Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and +directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of +the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is +obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall +ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain. + +There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many +years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold +at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a +secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant, +Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried +and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing +abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian +province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the +manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year +the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the +dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those +countries. + +Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is +probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far +the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia. + +There is also very little information published regarding either the +mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native +home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they +are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the +contrary notwithstanding.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.] + +The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of +Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living +authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that +region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus +_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is +nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our +mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it +appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native +home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of +Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to +whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were +not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one +person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be +gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants. + +As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native +home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the +fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information +regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For +similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small +quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in +other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people +are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country +becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of +_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant +for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of +Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in +my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without +any care much better than many other things. I should say from this +experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself +to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, +another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation, +either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of +all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly +hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this +continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully +grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents +report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special +mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious +attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in +France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best +we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of +pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of +clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of +water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is +the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is +from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the +weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds +are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some +vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five +or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the +germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants +make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough +they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength. +Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, +however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the +pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and +continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the +plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even +during severe winters. + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrèthre du Caucase (P. +Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only +a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's +paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report +of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. +223-331.] + +The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and +as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet +an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The +plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of +the garden or other perennial Compositae. + +As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a +native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum +cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the +California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of +"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to +most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco +gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more +particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, +sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with +dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake +disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the +bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. +After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When +about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring." + +Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_ +in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we +planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will +perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we +planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather +stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. +Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants. + +In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be +gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time +when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the +insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development. +When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four +inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the +flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must +be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, +or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and +hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely +pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more +effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper +pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a +business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New +York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of +pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be +closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such +as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a +laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed +one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which +would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being +deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and +then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar +and pulverized again. + +The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent +covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American +Naturalist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES. + + +In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein +deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of +the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the +sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other +sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so +located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious +vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American +metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the +roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. +Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It +was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of +carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently +in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower, +they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per +cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they +held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is +declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working, +although he does not deny its value under special circumstances. + +The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced +by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the +following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures +given are grammes per 1,000 liters: + + BEFORE. AFTER. + SO_2. SO_3. SO_2. SO_3. + 8.24 0.63 5.74 0.00 + 8.29 0.37 6.74 0.07 + 9.36 0.69 6.96 0.00 + 9.46 0.63 7.38 0.05 +10.03 1.08 7.69 0.09 +16.52 2.97 14.39 0.23 +17.90 1.97 13.32 0.11 +17.80 2.46 16.18 0.69 + +The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three +roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of +the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces +was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four +hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baumé, which flowed off +with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baumé. The quantity of acid +condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of +furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 +degrees Baumé per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime, +in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too +expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially +successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to +experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg, +who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in +some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus +obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made. +Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania +Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus +far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it. + +The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to +find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace +gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of +the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been +equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general +manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his +experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr. +E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful +on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering +and Mining Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS EXHAUSTER. + + +In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes +about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and +requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking, +at the following cost: + + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----- + £ 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total £ 1 2 6 + +for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler +burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value, +costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total +cost of exhausting gas by the new system is-- + +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. + +per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system, +from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at +the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of +coke. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.] + +It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road +are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum; +while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to +the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside, +and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE + + +The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite +comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know +exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a +retrograde movement will probably be brought about. + +As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a +combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great +increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and +the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been +heretofore employed. + +In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various +other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It +has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the +administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible +with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it +seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the +rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies. +The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for +glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine. + +The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely +what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance, +quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its +antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_ +butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the +makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and +refined glycerine. + +So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial +butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as +the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European +revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an +important article of pharmaceutical use. + +On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for +the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off +in the production. + +At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers +of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of +illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as +well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the +production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance, +candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles +of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial +magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is +coming into almost as universal use as here. + +To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the +inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction +than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is +gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing +supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this +decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some +time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries +to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some +substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in +obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by +any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment. + +We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in +this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of +glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his +words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest +soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for +glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious +commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, +when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little +or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run +into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle +factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine +and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this +fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of +the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine +as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES. + + +Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according +to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society, +by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be +divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda, +potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and +as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on +substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact, +it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils +for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different +substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of +the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages +of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are +now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially +of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are +neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they +are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be +introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the +ironwork over the flues. + +Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or +corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence +does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called +iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston, +and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside +the cylinder. + +When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of +the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried +over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is +introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences +action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the +cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler +and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming +greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into +absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly +enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are +liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases +gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the +pressure of the steam inside. + +The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal +or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They +take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight +of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda +combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming +soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of +caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness +at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred +to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with +glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils +at about 150° to 180° Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the neutral or +unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no sand is +used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap solution +which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether, which +dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of the +liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the one +case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the dissolved +oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile liquids being +separated by blowing a current of filtered air through the flask +containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its percentage on +the original sample calculated. + +All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per +cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the +result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception, +because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half +its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum +spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after +saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum +spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of +sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum +or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive +distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole +of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about +half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether. + + * * * * * + + + + +NITRITE OF AMYL. + + +Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the +various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many +families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It +is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache +(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, +of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else +when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief +in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since +in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It +has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in +chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise +the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory +conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or +negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of +the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of +amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia. +Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and +faintness occurring in anæmic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit +from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by +chloroform. + +It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in +asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the +induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of +which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the +concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries. + +One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In +such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics +can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A +single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was +suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of +appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief +had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February, +1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse +became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as +delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation +and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles +and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and +champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up +from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while +the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then +administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to +twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without +being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient +rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was +continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been +used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis +was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following +day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year +and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was +quickly cut short by similar treatment. + +Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who +was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had +as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with +fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks +of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person +attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of +sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor +was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, +none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held +before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed +energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and +more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These +procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity +of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept +up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and +requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less +frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then, +Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections +when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded +circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in +the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It +is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic +angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although +in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, +provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired. + +As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not +restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if +necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when +the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from +three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has +met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications, +from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated +in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions +of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM. + +By ALFRED STILLÉ, M.D. + + +The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to +palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly +always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse +yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines +alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever +invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot +be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar +emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by +anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten +the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness +of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper +diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon +without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., +of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a +number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they +made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages +in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever. +We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In +old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the +time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will +not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor +of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be +used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the +patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to +the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients +packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was +going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen +such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative +does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system. +Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it +diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease. +Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well +borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four +hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour. +Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate +the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all +remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have +recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it +must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy +for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer +large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large +doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton, +Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later +still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral, +Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of +quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect, +from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of +twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses. +Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old +plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the +way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of +twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge +that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has +also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse +the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60° to 98° Fahr. +Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes +perished from congestion of the lungs and brain. + +Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and +viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been +employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven +itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such +sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed, +if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by +mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not +know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is +just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis +at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was +treated with digitalis. + +Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape +of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no +personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first +dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on +which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory +judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have +sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the +disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack +be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur +if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without +influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends +to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these +gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of +treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other +hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in +almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively +high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration, +albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this +anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to +raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at +110° F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat, +therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this +medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far +been tempted to employ it. + +It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies +in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism, +and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way, +_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline. +If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am +obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be +applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has +decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the +local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of +fibrin in the blood. + +This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies +neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies +morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the +course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects +are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and +becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the +disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the +cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must +be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good +combination of these remedies is the following: + +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] + +[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.'] + +S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the +urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two +grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies +must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet +should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food +should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may +with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum +may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously +protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between +blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, +and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A +long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon +juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to +so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of +acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous +and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as +drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they +become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be +protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses +of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To +prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil +and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this +condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan +of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued +must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +METHOD IN MADNESS. + + +No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible, +to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the +boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged +in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be +practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the +development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the +social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases +the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" +suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the +course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is +the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which +consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even +developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is +true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement +or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and +nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a +morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The +consideration most practical to the community and germane to the +question of public safety is, that in any and every population there +must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in +a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which +powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the +majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by +the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of +public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own +consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop +individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment +repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public +excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are +more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane." + +It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the +man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of +America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of +these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants +were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however, +propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this +juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is +known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by +disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the +Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed +"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of +doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is +"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in +the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the +act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God +or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an +ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel +or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply +are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of +English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle +form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer +supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the +doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied +that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow +an expression from the terminology of geological science, +_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips +off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and +"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher +moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of +personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and +social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity +is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of +man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the +level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the +lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far +as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several features +have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the +subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all +sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The +practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of +insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and +principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any +of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well +able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause. + +To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have +said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the +invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined +by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on +the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by +educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise +judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing +between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in +moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right +thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on +the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession +of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great +question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or +whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct +fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act +must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it +sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as +we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought, +except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual +function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness +and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions. +It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may +not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical +difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of +disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the +supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for +wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in +such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be +sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise. +Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have +been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which +the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of +brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example, +when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust +on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes +by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived +intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is +important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense. +There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and +the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective, +but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other +it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be +healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period. +Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole +do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the +mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number +or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain +healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation +concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more +than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts +of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to +predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the +special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and +the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the +present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are +very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is +all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter +be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides +of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and +that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of +these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be +more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are +concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid +element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the +particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang. +The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of +scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be +the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the +facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise +scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents. + + * * * * * + + + + +SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE. + +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo. + + +At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about +any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner, +as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and +appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text +books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or +apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it +refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before +our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will +therefore be well received. + +The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open +wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery, +but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to +those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is +astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to +check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of +pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight +of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many +times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a +feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or +otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look +on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a +run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are +likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles +away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the +right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one +bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their +assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition +produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences, +and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood +possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one. + +Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office, +who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps, +the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of +such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever +in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional +cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, +when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the +pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient +prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection. + +Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and +though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases, +still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having +systematized the following method: + + +BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS). + +Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the +back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt +bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again +in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin +back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"The illustrations will explain at a glance." + + +BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM. + +Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper +arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the +joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also +be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The +bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + +BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS). + +It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the +hemorrhage from that region temporarily. + +Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as +Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et +Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under +the knee joint, or like Fig. 4. + + +BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS). + +Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the +front of the tibia. + +Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the +pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced +as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little +uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it +has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several +days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete +closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of +arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery, +neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the +practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have +to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by +it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily +applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be +distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures +or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the +rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost +completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to +apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply +it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a +wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the +patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and +anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured. + +I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their +attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not +possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact +a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw, +planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where +the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a +certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of +men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every +establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the +bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and +railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to +use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out +should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows +how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus +be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana +Medical Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS. + + +Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to +the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped +in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55° +C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND. + + +After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition +of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding +machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the +Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th +of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations, +there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials +already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the +distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the +interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though +ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which +unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural +Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited +them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The +published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as +many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the +rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for +different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance +for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines +to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick +Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. +Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show, +except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of +the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley, +and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an +acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and +engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was +made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. +Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, +be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal +in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the +class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the +driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely +neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach +great importance. + +It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every +single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional +miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with +Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of +the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop +in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do +with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to +connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other +machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. +Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and +the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was +almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went +through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning +the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than +with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the +gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced +in these machines vary very much in weight. + +At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of +the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. +Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We +believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves +were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no +hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman & +Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was +not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines. +Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were +ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and +assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which +binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the +sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the +fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied +to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after +the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been +fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one +could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf +produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes +this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till +the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the +ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy +downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and +through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have +been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting +would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the +rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick +Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood +worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to +bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the +shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson +and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble +in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to +be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather +too tight. + +The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then +attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a +face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet +condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the +canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was +the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of +the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the +Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine +was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. +Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in +the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly +were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must +be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the +crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought +to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity +of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be +here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind +at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so +thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's +machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors. + +The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known +on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver +medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr. +H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only +gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G. +Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this +were made.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES. + + +Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester, +give the following directions for setting out and cultivating +strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their +recently issued Strawberry Catalogue: + +_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully +grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden +crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at +least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for +any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it +must be thoroughly drained. + +_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for +planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may +then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until +they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large +plantations_. + +During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually +hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage. +With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted +without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering, +shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants, +are thus in a great measure avoided. + + +GARDEN CULTURE. + +_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting +in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds +will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches +apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These +beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without +setting the feet upon them. + +_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the +garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the +runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may +be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new +crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have +formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be +expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the +plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe +or fork. + +_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow +for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches +of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be +placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the +middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal +errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care +must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the +plants begin to grow. + +_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen, +mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass +mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep +the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and +thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch. + +A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be +spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to +take its place. + + +FIELD CULTURE. + +The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection, +and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large +scale. + +_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its +advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden. +In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the +plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much +of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator. + +_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The +number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may +be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) +by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained +by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the +plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant +three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER. + + +Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful +how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants, +except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are +beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those +only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21. + +Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise +variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as +different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom +from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by +division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place, +their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine. + +Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its +best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to +follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of +the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past, +but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive +alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day +lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough, +but their leaves get "scorched." + +The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the +Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are +far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow +anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season; +some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium +splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called +stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_ +(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny +places, and dislike artificial waterings. + +_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual +bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory +comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes, +stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored +flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are +conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so +profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition, +notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of +plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are +past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its +massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once +established it is hard to get rid of. + +Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the +carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell, +and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better +results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No +garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it +the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is +by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved +and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise +the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in +any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many +kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance; +they love moist soil. + +In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in +bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of +thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six +feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past, +but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their +prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials, +bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and +effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large +purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple +spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of +yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the +ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent. +It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening +primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_, +white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia, +fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial, +are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted +by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It +has hundreds of red spikes. + +Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_, +Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many +others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, +stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, +morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, +verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single +poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of +seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame +or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless +garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH. + + +Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham +township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two +match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily +production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five +thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one +hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of +the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. +In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the +25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made +in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and +used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to +light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less +time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in +trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the +360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000 +minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures +up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of +days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by +the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking +matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in +each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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No. 299</TITLE> +<META HTTP-EQUIV="content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> + +</HEAD> +<BODY> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 299, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8408] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 9, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 299 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.png" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and +development of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine +boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine +engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative +efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 +figures.-- Transverse and longitudinal sections</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper +dredger</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Railway Alarm Whistle</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. +1 figure</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 +figure.--Gas indication of manometer</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 +figures.--Centrifugal metal moulding apparatus</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 +figures.--Dresel's wood pulp apparatus</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Recent Progress of Industrial +Science.--Presidential address, Convention of Mechanical +Engineers</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">The Hoboken Drainage Problem</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#13">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent +Improvements in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of +Gelatine Plates.-- I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive +apparatus.--III. Triturating apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 +figures</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. +HENDERSON</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by +the Rational Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 +figure.--Pictet's apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by +cold</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting +Furnace Gases</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">Advance in the Price of Glycerine</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for +Lubricating Purposes</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Nitrate of Amyl</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#22">ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock +Colliery</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">Lightning and Telephone Wires</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of +Electricity</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton +Mill</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#26">Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By +ALEX, and M. A. VON REIS.--Determination of +cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- +Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- +Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from +Aluminum</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#27">MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute +Rheumatism. By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Method in Madness</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in +the upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the +foot</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#30">Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and +Trismus</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#31">AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum +and Manufacture of Powder</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, +England</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#33">The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden +culture.--Field culture</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#34">Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#35">The Time Consuming Match</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#36">ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in +Decorative Art. 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#37">Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, +Surrey, Eng.-- 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and +plans</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#38">OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist +and mineralogist</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="38"></a></p> + +<h2>ACHILLE DELESSE.</h2> + +<p>The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An +interesting <i>résumé</i> of his labors by M. Daubree +has appeared, from which we take the following facts. After a +training in his native town at the Lyceum of Metz, which furnished +so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, Delesse was admitted at +the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he left to enter the +Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the student +engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which he was +to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He +soon arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in +1845, by having conferred to him by the university the course of +mineralogy and geology in the Faculty at Besançon, where +Delesse at the same time fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. +Five years later he returned to Paris, where he continued his +university duties, at first as deputy of the course of geology at +the Sorbonne, then as master of the conferences at the Superior +Normal School. Besides this, he continued his profession of +engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. The first +original researches of the young <i>savant</i> concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his +name was appended to one of the species which he defined. He +studied also, and with success, the interesting modifications +called pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well +as their magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical +mineralogist aided him greatly in the culture of a branch of +geology to which Delesse has rendered eminent services, in the +recognition of rocks of igneous origin and of others allied to +them. He studied in the field, as well as by investigations in the +laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent and +indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds +of analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge +derived from which threw light upon the principles of science, from +granites and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years +of study and progress, other <i>savants</i>, without differing from +him, progressed further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the +historian of science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor +of this order of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do +him honor. The mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks +have undergone in the mass are the permanent witnesses which +attracted all his attention. The chemical comparison of the +metamorphic with the normal rock pointed out distinctly the nature +of the substances acquired or lost. One of the principal results of +these analyses has been to lessen the importance attributed until +then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case the +intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks.</p> + +<p>It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks +that Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of +water, as well as his volume relating to the materials of +construction, published on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. +The nature of the deposits which operate continually at the bottom +of the sea offers points of interest which well repay the labor of +the geologist. He finds there, indeed, a precious field to be +compared with stratified deposits; for in spite of the enormous +depth to which they form a part of continents, they are of +analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products of the +innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful +atlas of submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never +slackened in his own especial work, he made much of the work of +others. The "Revue des Progrès de la Géologie," with +which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" for twenty years, would +have been sufficient to engross the time of a less active +scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the +applications of science: the nature and the changes of the layers +which form the under earth; the course and the depth of the +subterraneous sheets of water; the mineralogical composition of the +earth's vegetation, were represented by him on several charts and +plans drawn out in proper form. His maps which follow the route of +many of the great French lines of railway explain the kind of soil +upon which they are laid, and are of daily use. In the pursuit of +his numerous scientific works, Delesse never failed in discharging +his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having in 1864 quitted the +service of the Government of Paris, which he had occupied for +eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of drainage, +and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of +geology at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be +Inspector-General of Mines in 1878, and charged with the division +of the south east of France, he preserved to the end of his life +these new duties, for which, to the regret of the School of Mines, +he gave up his excellent lessons there. During the year of 1870 +Delesse fulfilled his duties as a citizen, as engineer in +preparation of cartridges in the department.</p> + +<p>His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on +the 6th of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He +was for two years President of the Central Commission of the +Geographical Society; he was also President of the Geological +Society. He was not long to enjoy the noble position acquired by +his intelligence and his work. He suffered from a serious malady, +which, however, did not weaken his intellect, and he continued from +his bed of suffering to prepare the reports for the Council-General +of Mines, and that which recently he addressed to the Academy on +the occasion of his election. The greatness and the rectitude of +mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his profound +knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the +24th of March.--<i>The Engineer.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="36"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src= +"images/1b_th.png" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY +ODIOT, PARIS.<br> +<br> +(From The Workshop)</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY.</h2> + +<p>On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, +belonging to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an +interesting ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in +mining annals. In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his +estate, Mr. Watson determined that, in respect of fittings, +machinery, and general appointments, it should be a model, and he +has been highly successful in giving practical effect to his aims. +Among other things, he early resolved to, if at all practicable, +substitute the electric light for the ordinary mode of illuminating +the workings, and after investigating the various systems, he +decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. Accordingly, since +April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical engineers, +Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent lamp, +with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of +a large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and +the West. Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the +visitors were received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent +in inspecting the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the +Guibal fan, and the framework for screening the coal, they were +conducted by Mr. James Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings +in the ell seam at a depth of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, +in the roads and at the face, twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, +giving forth a brilliant, steady flame, the luminosity of which, +while sufficient to supply the desired light, had none of the +disagreeable intensity associated with most systems of electric +lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in which the glowing +or incandescence is carried on <i>in vacuo</i>, there is an outer +lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was +also connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety +air tight contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the +current, the effect of which, it is believed, would be to render +the lamps quite safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At +first the intention was to employ the fan-engine to drive the +dynamo-electric machine or generator, but this was departed from, +and an engine of 12 horse-power was erected in the workshops on the +surface for the purpose. From the generator the electric cables, +two in number, are conducted along the roof of the workshops over +ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at No. 2 shaft, and thence +down into the workings. From the ridge of the workshops to the +pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the cables consist of +ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in diameter; inside +the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe handling, +they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down the +shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of +the shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal +roadways and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being +carried into one of the sections of the mine a distance of +half-a-mile. After a careful inspection of the lamps at the pit +bottom, the party were photographed in three groups, with the aid +of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of Glasgow, who may well be +credited with the distinction of being the first to exercise his +skill in the bowels of the earth. They were then led to the haulage +engine-room and into the workings, where they witnessed the effects +of the light. At the latter point, while, of course, the visitors +were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing down a large +mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the party +returned to the surface.--<i>Colliery Guardian</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES.</h2> + +<p>M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in +<i>L'Ingénieur-Conseil</i> on the above subject. He +considers that a system of such wires forms the best and most +complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission +wire to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the +fine wires of the induction coils, which it might fuse.</p> + +<p>Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate +attached to one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached +to the other wire. The copper even of such a conductor has been +melted by the powerful current which it has carried away. In +telephonic central offices, M. Bede has seen all the signals of one +row of telephone wires fall at the same moment, proving that an +electric discharge had fallen upon the wires, and been by them +conveyed to earth.</p> + +<p>This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered +that there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede +insists strongly upon the uselessness of terminating lightning +conductors in wells, or even larger pieces of water. The +experiments of MM. Becquerel and Pouillet proved that the +resistance of water to the passage of electricity is one thousand +million times greater than that of iron; consequently, if the +current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick were to be carried +off by water without increased resistance, a surface of contact +between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square meters +must be established.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply +useless. On the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of +escape to the terrestrial electricity; according to the older +views, it would be absolutely dangerous, by attracting more +electricity from the clouds than it could dispose of. The author +advocates connecting lightning conductors with water or gas pipes, +which have an immense surface of contact with the earth.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY.</h2> + +<p>The experiments of the author have been principally directed to +the alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under +the influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were +arranged so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When +charged with positive electricity the flame became more blue, +narrower, and pointed at the top, while little or nothing of the +result was observed in negative flames.</p> + +<p>A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to +its own conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the +electricity, and also depending on the width of the burner, this +turning back of the flame is either intermittent or constant. Most +noticeable are these results:</p> + +<p>When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning +round a metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the +metallic surface according to the intensity of electricity in an +arc or angle, while the point of the flame divides into two +branches, which separately perform more or less equal movements. If +a body connected to the earth by a conducting wire is held opposite +the flame at some distance, the flame will in all cases bend toward +it; as the body is brought closer, the flame, if negative, will be +repulsed, and, if positive, will be attracted, at least the upper +luminous part of the flame, while the lower dark body of flame is +also repulsed.</p> + +<p>This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through +wire gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The +positive flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will +drive a small fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move +it.</p> + +<p>All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas +flame, a stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a +spirit flame, and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They +may not only be obtained with flames electrified direct, but also +when placed under the influence of a long "Holtz" machine.</p> + +<p>A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends +toward the negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point +of electric intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, +exhibiting a peculiar stratification. Since these phenomena are +also least observed in flames rich in oxygen, it appears to be a +general law that carbon and hydrogen are more strongly attracted by +the negative pole, while oxygen is more attracted by the positive +pole, probably like in all polar differentially attractions, in +consequence of a peculiar unipolar conductivity of the +substances.</p> + +<p>The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The +point of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it +receives by conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large +ball shows similar movements when its free end is pointed and made +conductive. Why principally the negative flame returns may be +explained in two ways--either the point of the flame loses much by +radiation, or the base of the flame is a bad conductor. The former +explanation would agree with the experiments made by Wiedemann and +Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's theory of unipolar conductivity +of flames. This theory is still further supported by the resistance +on the negative electrodes noticed by Hittorf, which almost +explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative electricity +enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive electricity +must leave a flame with difficulty.--<i>W. Holtz, in Wiedemanris +Beiblätter to Poggendorfs Annalen.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL.</h2> + +<p>The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about +the various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain +extent something like the search after perpetual motion. Very +available and quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of +years been employed wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted +so that strength was given it to resist a slight amount of +friction, but the main trouble in the mill has been done after the +sliver leaves the railway head and during its transit in the +various processes employed between the railway head and the +spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that where an +injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion +that should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every +sliver or strand of the machine.</p> + +<p>This invention was solved practically about two years since, and +is now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, +speeder, intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical +appliance, too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, +where several thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already +supplied.</p> + +<p>This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although +in a somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially +improved, and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many +attempts have been made to apply a stop motion, which should be +quick in its movement and accurate in its result, to carding +engines or the card, not one of which, until the application of +electricity, was worth the time spent in putting it on. With the +electric motion, however, all this is changed, and the electric +attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be un-mechanical +or to be not practical. The advantage has also been taken, in a +mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with +the working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton +itself.</p> + +<p>To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from +the railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by +the practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The +principle of this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric +current from a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, +speeder, or whatever machine it may be applied to which generates +the current, and this machine is driven by a small belt from the +main driving shaft. The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, +and can be driven by a half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and +requires a little more power than a light-running sewing +machine.</p> + +<p>One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means +of a rod or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, +and the other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of +conductivity of current, which means stretching the wire from one +to the other. An armature is arranged so that when a thread is +broken or a sliver or a strand of roving, the armature drops into a +ratchet wheel; this ratchet wheel is made to revolve by the belt, +and whenever it is impeded or stopped in its course it acts upon +mechanism which throws the driving belt of the machine upon the +loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by a very simple +contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the case of a +breakage of a thread or strand.</p> + +<p>As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one +with the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver +of cotton is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but +if the sheet breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, +the moment the calender rolls come in contact the electrical +attachment operates and a stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with +the American system, where a number of cards are used in a railway, +this electric contact may be used for either one of two purposes-to +stop the feeding of cotton into the card, or to ring a bell sharply +and continue ringing it until the sliver is put between the +calender rolls again and the card set to delivering cotton.</p> + +<p>In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a +breakage between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric +machine acts; in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end +of the roll, or in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of +the machine, in either case a stoppage would be instantly +produced.</p> + +<p>In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front +or back can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of +either one of the strands, if the machine was running two into one, +from the creel to the roller, would cause the stoppage of the +machine, or the breaking or tangling of ends between the front roll +and the nose of the flier.</p> + +<p>There are many other places where this motion can be applied. +With mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we +require simple contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and +this can always be had by letting the cotton drop out from between +the rollers; no radical changes are necessary, and we are glad to +find that this electrical attachment is meeting with a very good +success in England, France, and, so far, in the United States, and, +undoubtedly, further and more extended opportunity will be found +for this application.--<i>Textile Record</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of +Mechanical Engineers by F.C.Marshall.]</p> + +<p>The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool +meeting in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress +effected in Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in +Relation to Compound Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" +then proceeded to continue the subject from the date of that +meeting, to trace out whether any, and if so what, progress had +been made; further, to consider whether or no we have reached the +finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick Bramwell in the +discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what direction we are +to look for further development.</p> + +<p>From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much +higher, the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders +are much smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in +1872; and at the same time the average consumption of fuel is +reduced from 2.11 lb. to 1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent.</p> + +<h3>MARINE ENGINES.</h3> + +<p>The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and +boiler. The three great types of compound engines may be placed as +follows in the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning +community: (1) The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound +engine, having cranks at right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the +tandem form, having generally the high-pressure and low-pressure +cylinders in line with each other, but occasionally alongside, and +always communicating their power to one crank. Such a pair of +engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two pairs together, +working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently three +pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The system +affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the same +propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft.</p> + +<p>These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now +being manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam +vessels by the screw propeller. In their leading principles they +also embrace nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the +cylinders be oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the +shaft.</p> + +<p>The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may +now be said to be universally adopted in this country; and the +question of the relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, +and of compound expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated +the minds of some of our leading engineers ten years ago, is now +practically solved in favor of the latter.</p> + +<h3>THE MARINE BOILER.</h3> + +<p>The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same +as it was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, +three, and sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for +all powers under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally +adopted. The double-ended form is largely used. It has been found +more economically efficient than the single-ended form, by as much +as ten per cent, in the writer's own experience. It is generally +adopted for engines of large power, but for small power is +inconvenient, owing to its occupying more room lengthwise in the +vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and therefore more +supervision. At one time great difficulty was found in keeping the +bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their length, the +unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the top and +bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a +large part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This +difficulty has now been to a large extent got over, in consequence +of the greater attention given to the form and direction of the +water spaces in the boiler itself, so as to induce circulation of +water; the introduction of the feed-water at the top instead of +near the bottom; the more careful management now usual on the part +of engineers; and lastly, the use of larger plates, welded +horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more perfect workmanship +throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is that +introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, but +is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to +the variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The +separation of the furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting +through the opening afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage +in the same direction, and avoids almost entirely the racking +strains due to irregular furnace action. The weight of water +carried is less, and that of the boiler may also be made less; +while the elliptical form of the two ends gives greater steam +space.</p> + +<p>A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat +like a locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight +and power developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated +horse-power in the cylinders for every three square feet of heating +surface, under natural draught and with a very moderate height of +funnel; and this with a consumption of fuel not exceeding 2½ +lb. per indicated horse-power per hour under a working pressure of +60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in the funnel, the heating +surface per indicated horse-power has fallen below 2½ square +feet. The large water surface afforded for escape of steam secures +almost entire freedom from priming, without the incumbrance of +steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of the +thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the +writer's attention, with a view to its more definite introduction +into marine work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way +of applying it to steamers going long voyages are very great. The +principal difficulty lies in the necessity of burning a large +quantity of fuel in a very limited space and time. This can only be +done either by direct pressure or exhaust action applied at the +furnace. In other words, we must either exhaust the funnel, which +will absorb a large amount of power, but would be comparatively +easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case with our +miners, must work under a pressure of air.</p> + +<h3>STEEL BOILERS.</h3> + +<p>The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and +working of steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of +sizes varying from six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches +diameter have left the works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the +first was made; and in no case has there been a failure of a plate +after being put into a boiler, either in the process of manufacture +or in working at sea. The mode of working is as follows: For shell +plates, from five-eighths inch to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm +each to a dark red heat before rolling, having previously drilled a +few holes to template for bolting the strakes together; the +longitudinal seams are usually lap joints treble riveted, requiring +the corners to be thinned, which is done after rolling. The furnace +plates are generally welded two plates in length, and flanged to +form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube plate; the +back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and front +and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it is +annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before +they are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the +practical boilersmith.</p> + +<h3>CORROSION OF BOILERS.</h3> + +<p>The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being +answered as time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. +Some steel boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among +the first made; and the superintending engineer reports: "There is +no sign of pitting or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the +boilers are washed out very carefully every voyage, and very +carefully examined, and I cannot trace anything either leaking or +eating away. No zinc is used, only care in washing out, drying out, +and managing the water." This is the evidence of an engineer with a +large number of vessels in his charge. On the other hand, some of +the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use zinc, and take +care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one of them is as +follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, exposing not +less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty indicated +horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc we +find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve +months or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no +pitting and no corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior +surfaces appear to have taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, +and we have no trouble with them."</p> + +<h3>HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED.</h3> + +<p>Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had +due attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best +shipping authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead +weight capacity is worth on an average £10 per annum as +earning freight. Assuming, therefore, the weight of the machinery +and water of any ordinary vessel to be 300 tons, and that, by +careful design and judicious use of materials, the engineer can +reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing the cost of working, he +makes the vessel worth £1,000 per annum more to her owners. +That there is much room for improvement in this direction is shown +by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, +and all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse +power:</p> + +<pre> + Lb. per I. H. P. +<br> + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 +<br> + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 +</pre> + +<p>The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the +regulations of the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does +not admit of much reduction in the weight of material or of water +carried when working. The introduction of steel has reduced the +weight by about one-tenth; but it will be the alteration of form to +the locomotive, tubulous, or some other type, combined with some +method of forced draught, to which we must look for such reductions +in weight of material and water as will be of any great commercial +value. The engine may be reduced in weight by reducing its size, +and this can only be done by increasing the number of revolutions +per minute.</p> + +<p>It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as +dependent upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed +required. This process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter +depends on the column of water behind necessary to overcome the +resistance in front of it due to the properties of the vessel. This +fixed, the speed will then fix the number of revolutions, which +will be found much greater than is usual in practice, and from this +the size of the engines and boilers will be determined. Great +saving in weight can be effected by careful design and judicious +selection and adaptation of materials, also by the substitution of +trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine to the +structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. A. +C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and +columns of the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said +of the moving parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as +much as possible one structure; rigidity in one place and +elasticity in others are the cause of most of the accidents so +costly to the ship-owner; under such conditions mass and solidity +cease to be virtues, and the sooner their place is taken by careful +design, and the use of the smallest weight of material--of the very +best kind for the purpose--consistent with thorough efficiency, the +better for all concerned.</p> + +<h3>CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES.</h3> + +<p>Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a +considerable saving has been effected in nine years, as shown in +the following table:</p> + +<pre> + Item. 1872. 1881. +<br> + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 +</pre> + +<p>This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke +favorably of the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that +the compound system would ere long be abandoned for the simple +engine. He is endeavoring to feel his way to using the steam in one +cylinder only, and so far the results have been encouraging, and he +is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel on that system. He is also +endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the forward end of the +screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung pin. This +experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the great +improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler +produces as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat +boiler.</p> + +<p>Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor +disbursements of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals +bear to the total disbursements, but from other reliable sources +Mr. Marshall found that, according to the direction of the voyage, +it varies from 16 to 20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per +cent.--of the total disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of +2,500 tons. This will represent to-day about £3,000 per +annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, the cost would have been +£3,750--showing a saving of £750, equal to a dividend +of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost of +coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 16½d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d.</p> + +<h3>EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS.</h3> + +<p>The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the +quantity of steam used be considered in relation to the increased +pressure, it will be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if +anymore efficient than that of ten years ago. The present boiler +has an evaporative efficiency of about 75 per cent., and cannot be +much improved so long as air is supplied to the furnace by the +natural draught. To increase the efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per +cent. would require about double the heating surface, the weight of +boiler and water being also doubled, while the gain would be only +10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used in Mr. Marshall's works +for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the ordinary type, and +for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as follows:</p> + +<p>W = (P + 15) (S + D² L) / C</p> + +<p>or W = 2S (P + 15) / C</p> + +<p>when S = D² L, which is a common proportion.</p> + +<pre> + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. +</pre> + +<p>This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would +give the relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, +for 105 lb. and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to +increase the efficiency 10 per cent, as follows:</p> + +<p>Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C</p> + +<p>Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C</p> + +<p>Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5</p> + +<p>In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would +weigh two and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the +case of a vessel of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 +indicated horse power, the introduction of locomotive boilers with +forced draught would place at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of +cargo space, representing £1,500 per annum in addition to the +present earnings of such a vessel.</p> + +<h3>MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of +boiler for his steam launches, working them under an air +pressure--produced by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of +from 1 in. to 6 in. of water, as may be required. The experiments +made gave an evaporation of 7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at +212° Fahr., with 2 in. of water pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 +in. of pressure. These results are low, but it is to be remembered +that the heating surface is necessarily small, in order to save +weight, and the temperature of the funnel consequently high, +ranging from 1,073° at the first pressure, and 1,444° at +the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive practice the +efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler when working +under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from 3 in. to 4 +in., including funnel draught.</p> + +<p>It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels +recently with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. +The results, even under unfavorable conditions, were very +satisfactory. The pressure of air would be represented by 2 in. of +water, and the indicated horse power given out by the engines was +2,800, as against 1,875 when working by natural draught, or exactly +50 per cent. gain in power developed.</p> + +<p>Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be +urged against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we +need not reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that +the total working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or +equal to seven atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven +atmospheres, or 165 lb., were to be the standard working pressure, +the result would be a gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no +counteracting influence came into play. Of course, there are forces +which war against the attainment of the full extent of this +advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the cylinders and loss +in the receiver or passages.</p> + +<p>In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by +steamjacketing the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning +the steam passages, and giving a due amount of compression in both +cylinders, this may not be reduced far below the generally received +notion; and the latter cause of loss may be considerably reduced in +its effect by a more carefully chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio +usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to 1, whether the pressure be 70 +lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. With a cylinder ratio of +2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very good, and equal to any +with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has another advantage +of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure can be much +reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater amount +of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, of +course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use +of separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that +necessity.</p> + +<p>The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher +economic properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on +board ship, are, it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be +to the interest of all that they should be firmly and determinedly +met. It may be accepted as an average result that the Woolf engine, +as usually arranged, will use 10 per cent. more steam than the +receiver engine for the same power.</p> + +<p>Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to +form a definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the +Arizona is stated to be as good, economically, as any of the +two-cylinder receiver class. The surface condenser remains as it +was ten years ago, with scarcely a detail altered. In most engines +it remains a portion of the framing, and as such adds greatly to +the weight of the engine.</p> + +<p>It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the +surface of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make +the surface one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, +equal to about 2 square feet per indicated horse power. In +practice, the writer has found 1.4 square feet per indicated horse +power to maintain a steady vacuum of 27½ inches.</p> + +<p>Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three +twin screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and +has in each case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, +while indicating 1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to +fifteen hours without stopping; and in no case has a single bearing +or crank pin warmed or had water applied, the surfaces on +examination being perfect. In these engines all working bolts, +pins, and rods, except the piston and connecting rods, are of +steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 lb. per square +inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout of +Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. +In comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of +the double ended type, they weigh, including water and all +appurtenances, as follows:</p> + +<pre> + Double ended Type. Navy Type. +<br> + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. +</pre> + +<h3>SCREW PROPELLERS.</h3> + +<p>The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved +problem. We have no definite rule by which we can fix the most +important factor of the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has +pointed out that by reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral +friction, we can increase the efficiency; and this is confirmed by +cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet 3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 +feet. This must, of course, be qualified by other considerations. +The ship has by her form a definite resistance, and a certain speed +is required; if the propeller be made too small in diameter, the +ship will not be driven at the required speed, except at serious +loss in other directions. This question was too large and +complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, +on which a separate paper should be written.</p> + +<p>To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine +years, and in the following particulars:</p> + +<p>1. The power of the engines made and making show a great +increase. 2. Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be +possible in vessels of all the various classes. 3. The consumption +of fuel is reduced by 13.38 per cent. on the average; and numbers +of vessels are now working on much less coal than that average, +while the quality of the coal is in nearly all cases very inferior, +so that it is not unfair to take credit for 20 per cent. reduction. +4. The working pressures of steam are much increased on the +average, and are still increasing; many steamers now being built +for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard pressure +now required.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.</h2> + +<p>The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut +are doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following +description of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the +<i>Bulletin de la Société des Anciens Elèves +d'Arts et Metiers</i>:</p> + +<p>All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles +know the inconvenience of communication between one shore and the +other, and the high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate +this, Captain Advient has been struck with the happy idea of +creating a cheap steam service (fare one cent), thus supplying a +genuine want in the modes of locomotion of the city.</p> + +<p>The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the +use of separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos +& Co., of Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a +sufficient guarantee that the problem would be successfully +solved.</p> + +<p>There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these +related to the stability of boats such as this, having their +engine, boiler, supply of coal, forty passengers who might all +occupy one side of the vessel, a central superstructure, with roof; +and, finally, all the weight centered on five feet of the deck, +with nothing below to counterbalance it except the hollow hulls and +two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the central portion +of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs for the steam +generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best utilization +possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls and +upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by +analogy, for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry +boats.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4a.png"><img src= +"images/4a_th.png" alt= +"STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.</p> + +<p>The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the +satisfaction of all concerned, and especially to that of the +public.</p> + +<p>The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are +constructed of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. +Their dimensions are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 3¼ feet; and +depth, 5 feet. The internal distance between the two shells is +7¼ feet. These hulls, having absolutely water-tight decks, +are connected below by tie bars of flat iron, and above by vertical +stays 1 foot in length, which serve to support the floor-planks of +the deck and boilerplate flooring of the engine-room. The +engine-room, which is 19½ feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of +teak. The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator +to allow of the escape of hot air.</p> + +<p>The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about +freely from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat +themselves on the benches running along the inside of the guard +railing on the two sides of the vessel. They are protected from +rain by a roof, and from the rays of the sun by a curtain extending +along the sides.</p> + +<p>Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways +have been provided at the sides for side-landing should it become +necessary.</p> + +<p>The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to +that of a floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided +with benches, is provided for the use of those passengers who might +be taken sick, or for office purposes, if need be.</p> + +<p>The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as +follows:</p> + +<pre> + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ +<br> + Total...........................41,800 " +</pre> + +<p>or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a +maximum draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or +4½ miles per hour, a great velocity being unnecessary, owing +to the small distance to cross in a port often obstructed by the +general movement of vessels taking place therein.</p> + +<p>The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity +of which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay +serving as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, +and the piston has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which +is 3¼ feet diameter) to make 200 revolutions per minute. The +screw, although it has a wide surface of thrust, gives, +nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., because of its +location between the hulls and its oblique action on the shaft.</p> + +<p>The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal +fireplace and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the +draught being effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, +which is tested up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a +pump actuated by the engine. The feed pumps take water successively +from one or the other of the reservoirs in the hulls. The +reservoirs are filled in the morning, and their level is +ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun indicators, the +dials of which are placed against the walls of the engine-room.</p> + +<p>Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they +have proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active +population for which they were built.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.</h2> + +<p>In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval +Reserve Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth +and anchored in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the +ceremony of opening the new dock at Leith, which has been named +after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock at Leith, which was commenced in +1874, consists of a center basin 500 ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and +two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. wide, separated by a jetty +having a width of 250 ft. The total amount of masonry in the wet +docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south quays are each +1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. long each, +having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 ft. The +walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to 8 ft. +The new dock will cost altogether about £300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, +1,234 yards of which is the old portion. These works have been +constructed, at a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith +Dock Commissioners, whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an +address to the Duke of Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. +Hercules, giving an account of their affairs. The other docks at +Leith are named the "Old Dock," the "Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," +the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales Dock." The opening ceremony +was arranged to consist of the steamer Berlin, with his Royal +Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, accompanied by Sir +Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing through the +entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which a blue +ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, +stepping forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have +now the gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it +the Edinburgh Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was +conveyed to a battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new +dock, from which a party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal +salute. The steamer, having gone round the new dock, was brought up +at the quay at the west. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, +with Prince Henry of Prussia, the officers of the fleet, and the +Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded to the saloon in the new +dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion was given by the +Leith Dock Commissioners.--<i>Illustrated London News, Aug. +6.</i></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4b.png"><img src= +"images/4b_th.png" alt="OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR.</h2> + +<p>The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a +cargo of grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating +band fitted with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the +engraving by diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be +shortened or lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the +position the grain to be elevated occupies in the ship or barge. +When the grain is elevated to the point whence it is to be +transferred to the granary, railway truck, or other destination, +the band travels horizontally on suitable bearings, the buckets +being so constructed that in traveling they retain their load +intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the bucket +band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic +weighing machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is +delivered, before it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be +again transferred by its means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, +efficiency, and adaptability to any position in which elevators of +this class are desirable, are the claims the patentees, Messrs. +Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the advantages of their +apparatus.--<i>London Miller</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5a.png"><img src= +"images/5a_th.png" alt="IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED DREDGER.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. +Rennie, of Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains +itself. The machine consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which +is erected a derrick. This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the +end of a lever. The spoon, as shown, is at its lowest position. It +will make a forward stroke, through about one-sixth of a +revolution, and will thus become filled with mud and be lifted +above the surface of the water. The motion will be imparted to it +by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick jib. The +jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge and +its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the +steam engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made +several of these little dredgers, which are found very useful and +handy in shallow water.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5b.png" alt= +"SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE.</h2> + +<p>In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog +or snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern +Railway Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam +whistle, which is controlled by the signal. The whistle is +connected with an insulated metallic brush placed under the engine. +Between the rails there is a projecting contact bar, faced with +copper, which is swept by the brush when the train passes. This +contact piece is connected with the positive pole of a voltaic +battery, the negative pole of which is in communication with a +commutator on the signal post, from which a wire leads to the +ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the brush +over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the +battery in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush +passes over the contact the completion of the electric current +causes the whistle to be sounded, so as to alarm the +driver.--<i>L'Ingen. Univ.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON.</h2> + +<p>Sulphide of carbon (CS<sub>2</sub>) is prepared by passing the +vapors of sulphur over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, +charcoal and roll brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a +product as possible; but sulphide of carbon having now become so +important a commercial product, and being employed for so large a +number of industrial purposes, it has been found more economical to +substitute coke for charcoal and pyrites for brimstone.</p> + +<p>The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented +herewith, have had in view the manufacture of this product under as +economical conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected +fireplaces the retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that +in which the reaction of the sulphur and carbon takes place.</p> + +<p>The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, +B, furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From +thence it descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the +heat of the fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of +vapor passes through the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal +retort, G', which is divided into two parts by the partition, <i>g +g'</i>, of refractory clay, and heated by the fireplace, L'.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5c.png" alt= +"LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE."></p> + +<p class="ctr">LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.</p> + +<p>The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of +vapor to the condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is +carried along is deposited in the first part of the retort by the +arrangement of the partition, which permits of passage only below. +The registers, V and V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur +vapor and the exit of the sulphide of carbon being regulated.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied +without much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation.</p> + +<p>Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the +system recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility +with which the operation may be watched and conducted.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER.</h2> + +<p>Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for +showing graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at +the works during the course of manufacture, or at any point +whatever in the system of piping.</p> + +<p>For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; +but, although the indications given by these are very accurate, +their form and weight are such as to render them not easily +transportable; and then, again, considerable care is necessary in +putting them in place.</p> + +<p>Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of +being very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it +inscribes the hour at which the pressure is exerted.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which +carries a circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the +latter being put in motion by a clock which is wound up by means of +a button under the base, E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F +F, carry a crosspiece which supports a disk that closes freely the +aperture of the drum, A B, in such a manner as not to impede its +rotation.</p> + +<p>In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure +comes through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which +counteracts the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, +and the bottom of the reservoir. The latter carries also a small +rod, K, which is provided with a cord made of braided silk. This +cord runs over a pulley, N, whose axle carries at its other end a +still larger pulley, O. Toward the middle of the latter is fixed a +silken cord which hangs down on each side, after making several +turns around the pulley. To the front cord is attached a slide, Q, +moving in a vertical direction, and to which is fixed an inscribing +style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters the hollow +upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the combined +weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. The +upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise.</p> + +<p>In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, +A B, a sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many +parts as the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The +divisions running horizontally represent centimeters of water or of +mercury, according to the strength of the spring, M, which should +be so constructed as to be in relation with the pressure. The +operation of the apparatus may be readily understood.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6a.png" alt= +"GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.</p> + +<p>When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, +contracts, and consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes +the cord, O, which carries the slide and writing style, to wind +around the pulley. When the pressure diminishes, the movement takes +place in an opposite direction.</p> + +<p>The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving +indelible curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The +position of the point is determined in such a way as to annul the +friction of the pen, and consequently to give it greater +sensitiveness.</p> + +<p>It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is +amplified in the tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according +to the ratio of the diameters of the pulleys, N and O.</p> + +<p>The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, +either in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only +necessary to connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near +the place where the variations of pressure are to be observed) by +means of rubber tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the +same circumstances as glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the +further advantage that the results are registered, and consequently +can be more easily compared.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the +invention of Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for +casting metallic objects in annular form, its arrangement being +slightly varied according to the nature of the objects to be cast. +In all cases where a special form is to be given to the outer or +inner circumference of the object, or where it is desired to exert +a pressure on the circumference, such form or pressure is obtained +by the introduction of a core which may be expanded or contracted +as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic core is +employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, and +which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to +be cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the +pieces, g, g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses +with difficulty, and which are placed in the revolving mould in +such a way that after the cooling of the pieces the parts, g, +recede by the shrinkage of the piece and thus free the core. The +parts, g, of the core are in the shape of circular segments, and +are united at their external circumference by a flange, along with +which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. As a consequence +of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are pressed by +centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into the +mould.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6b.png"><img src= +"images/6b_th.png" alt= +"CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and +allows it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the +segments, g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The +molten metal cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut +off from contact with the external air by the cap, C, which covers +it. Oxidation may, however, be further prevented by passing some +deoxidizing or neutral gas into the mould. For this purpose the +mould is filled before the casting is done with some such gas as +illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, or hydrogen.</p> + +<p>This improved process of casting may also be employed for +objects which do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds +are then arranged eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve +rapidly during the cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are +less strongly compressed at the places where they are nearest the +center of rotation than a the points where the radius is +greater.</p> + +<p>Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this +kind. The sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves +about the axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which +press the metal during rotation and thereby produce compact +pieces.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP.</h2> + +<p>For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such +as represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright +cylindrical reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of +trunnions, z. This reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is +furnished with a cover, D, which has in its center a piece of +tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of tubes, R, whose diameter and +length are proportioned to the volume of the boiler, A, is filled +with the liquid which is contained in the boiler, so as always to +be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine atmospheres or more +by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are provided with a +cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, D. By means +of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler +being interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, +causes an active circulation in both the tubing and boiler.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6c.png"><img src= +"images/6c_th.png" alt= +"DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6d.png"><img src= +"images/6d_th.png" alt= +"DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2</p> + +<p>To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first +unscrewed, and there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of +wood, which has been divided up by a cutting machine of special +form. Then the boiler is filled to the proper height with the +liquid necessary to dissolve the incrusting materials, the cocks, +B, being closed. Afterwards there is fixed immediately beneath the +angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a perforated iron plate upon which +the contents of the boiler rest when the latter is turned up. Then +the cover is fastened down and the boiler is put in communication +with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, are opened, so that +the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, the boiler, A, +and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature is reached for +converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the incrusting +matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E +and B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the +boiler, the latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened +in order to allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has +descended to 100° in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, +after the liquid has been allowed to flow out through the cock, C. +Next, lixiviation is effected by connecting the cock, C, with the +steam pipe, P, and causing steam under pressure to enter the +boiler, A. The action of the steam on the contents of the latter, +which are now converted into cellulose, mixed with a large quantity +of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a complete washing and +permits of the recovery of considerable quantities of useful +chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, and +completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S +(which is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler +emptied.</p> + +<p>In order to have the operations under control, and for the +purpose of safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, +containing a thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a +pressure-gauge, M, and a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is +ascertained by means of a gauge-cock, H.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE.</h2> + +<p>The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of +Mechanical Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The +following is an abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. +A. Cowper.</p> + +<p>He began by stating that as members of the Institution of +Mechanical Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and +friends here in Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they +came as it were to one of their natural homes; certainly to the +home of one of the greatest engineers that England has ever +produced, and the birthplace of the locomotive, which has done more +than any other improvement, of our age to lessen the cost of +materials to the men who have to use them, and therefore to cheapen +and extend production in the most wonderful manner. He then went on +to say that it seems but a few years ago since George Stephenson, +at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the Institution +of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported by a +large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among +its members mechanical engineers in every large town in the +country, and has increased in strength and importance.</p> + +<p>The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes +of fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) +must be mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign +wars, which disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some +years. Such causes must be considered as extraneous to the sphere +of influence possessed by good or bad manufacturing or engineering. +Mr. Cowper does not look upon the very great expense of improved +war material and implements as an unmixed evil for this country; +for it so happens that we can better meet such outlay than any +other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to greater power and +security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing that we are not +an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at once to the +progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. Having +referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present +moment is occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, +namely, the arbitrary imposition of duties and bounties for the +professed object of protecting manufactures, while in fact they +constitute taxes on a nation for the benefit of a few individuals. +In some countries excessive duties have been imposed, as against +our manufactures, and it is even proposed to increase them; while +in other cases bounties are actually paid out of the public purse +to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their exporting to +this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, beet-root +sugar.</p> + +<p>One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high +duties--which it may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the +American public--is, that whereas our cousins on the other side of +the water used to build almost all the American "liners" of wood, +they now find that, with their excessive duties against the +importation of iron and steel from England, they cannot compete +with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine engineers. +This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced by +excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the +American merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their +merchandise in English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain +protective duties at sea.</p> + +<p>Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend +their manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the +fact--which has now been for some years growing to its present +importance--that many articles which in years gone by we thought it +to be our especial province to supply, are now produced in the very +countries requiring them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage +of producing hematite iron from her own excellent ores, with +English and Welsh coke carried out in the same ships that bring +Spanish ores to this country.</p> + +<p>Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation +eclipsing us in our manufactures, he would say at once that any +such successful rivalry on their part is far worse than the effect +of any duties, even if they be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in +the markets of the world, and possibly in our own markets here at +home. Therefore it behooves us to put our house in order, and see +in what way we may be enabled to manufacture better and with +greater economy. Mechanical engineering is of such extreme +importance in advancing civilization, that it is most essential +that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the +change from sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, +has been one of the greatest improvements of recent times, and it +is none the less real or important from having been gradual, while +the result to this neighborhood has been most beneficial. This +change has been due in great measure to the introduction of very +economical marine engines, chiefly of the compound type, together +with better boilers carrying a higher pressure.</p> + +<p>The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly +improved, and one small scientific improvement has added much to +the safety of traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high +speed--namely, the careful and continual use of a good thermometer, +to ascertain constantly the temperature of the sea-water at the +surface. For if an iceberg is floating within a quarter of a +mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is pretty smooth--the surface +water will be several degrees colder than the rest of the sea; +since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the melting +iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance.</p> + +<p>No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most +largely to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good +arrangements of water ballast have also proved very useful; and +steam cranes and arrangements for loading and discharging cargo +have greatly promoted the use of steam colliers, enabling them to +make more voyages in the year.</p> + +<p>Closely connected with marine engineering is the great +improvement in the economy of stationary engines, which has become +more fully developed during recent years, both in reference to +waterworks engines and factory engines. In aid of stationary +engines, "surface evaporator condensers" have been found very +useful, particularly where the supply of water is very limited; and +at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole water pumped +through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum without the +expenditure of any water, and with the result of only raising the +temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of its +large volume.</p> + +<p>Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general +improvement in machinery. The boilers are better made, and are +safer at the higher pressures now carried than they were formerly +with a low pressure. Several new valve gears of great promise have +been brought forward, both for locomotives and marine engines. +Among them Joy's motion should be again noticed. Mr. Webb says: +"The engine shown at Barrow has been at continuous work ever since +the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; we had it in for +examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion practically as +good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially the +slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been +sent out to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The +first thing, of course, that will require doing will be the tires; +as far as I can see nothing else will want doing for some +time."</p> + +<p>A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in +America in reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the +channel at the mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the +river by jetties and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may +now go up the river--there being plenty of deep water above the +mouth--and bring down grain cargoes, without the expense and +inconvenience of transshipment, thus reducing the freight of corn +to this country. This great improvement is the work of Captain +Eads. A somewhat similar improvement was the blowing up of about +50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the river at the narrow pass of +Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped that these good +examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to improve their +harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with comfort to the +passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a tunnel would +involve.</p> + +<p>Great improvements have been made in the illumination of +lighthouses by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been +produced by Mr. Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such +lights will be placed one above the other, where required. The +electric light has made such numerous and rapid strides that it is +impossible even to notice its various applications; but on the one +hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens of four miles of dock frontage at +the Albert Dock of the London and St. Katherine Dock Company, +together with the railway behind the warehouses, and the warehouses +and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the elegant and +steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples of the +two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. +The lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the +great power of a single electric light on the arc principle. The +most powerful electric light in the world is situated near here on +the coast, between the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even +probable, that one of the great uses to which electric force will +be applied eventually, will be simple conveyance of power by means +of large wires; and as a higher percentage of power is gradually +being realized, this method will become more economical. I may +mention that 60 per cent. has already been obtained.</p> + +<p>The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very +large field of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available +for the purpose of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids +fair to make very considerable alterations in the steel-making +trade, and in the hands of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made +a great success, while in Germany there are several works also +using the process largely. Mild steel is now being used to a great +extent for the construction of steam boilers as well as of ships, +and in steel castings for a variety of purposes, such as spur +wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door frames, etc., etc. +Among the uses to which steel may be put is the manufacture of +steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging fact that +there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in +Germany. Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising +arrangement of sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron +or steel. Steel sleepers should also be used for tramways.</p> + +<p>If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task +of making a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased +demand for pig metal would be enormous. It has nearly been +accomplished already, by several different modes of construction; +and there are very many streets where the luxury of wood pavement, +which wears very rapidly, cannot be afforded, and where +macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the heavy traffic. +The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making tin-plates +is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking this +metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet.</p> + +<p>The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those +made by hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's +machines. There are twelve factories already established abroad, +some turning out 2,000 or 3,000 casks a week. This is a good case +of English invention taking the lead in a manufacture.</p> + +<p>Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be +highly valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the +excavating machine, which answers well for certain soils and +situations, though not for all; and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce +& Batho, for excavating from the inside of piers in water.</p> + +<p>In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty +years. Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large +extent, it being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. +"Anthracine," obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely +for the purpose of producing the various brilliant dyes now so +common.</p> + +<p>New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some +cases by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some +hours, at a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, +neutral grease and water, when the water takes up the base, viz., +glycerine, and leaves the grease as an acid grease. This same +effect has been noticed in some steam boilers, where the same +water, without admixture of fresh, has been used over and over +again with surface condensers. Then, again, large rotating chemical +furnaces have been introduced; and improved glass +furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other +end--have cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being +worked largely on the Continent, and to some extent in this +neighborhood. Toughened glass has made some progress for certain +purposes. Besides the improved and extended use of glass in +lighthouse illumination, it has again been pressed into our service +for other purposes, through our greatly extended knowledge of the +laws of optics.</p> + +<p>Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs +of the various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as +permanent records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge +should have been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, +is but natural; for the lens is at once the means by which we +discover the extreme magnitude of some portion of the infinite +works of the Almighty in the architecture of the heavens, and by +which we appreciate to some extent the extremely minute markings of +a diatom that one cannot see with the naked eye. At the same time +we feel sure that there are other markings still smaller, as every +increase in the power of the microscope has always rendered visible +some markings still smaller than the last; and in like manner has +every increase in the power of the telescope developed more worlds +and suns far away from our system and beyond our Milky Way. An +approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite in +magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone.</p> + +<p>There was but one further observation that he would venture to +make, and it is this.</p> + +<p>When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and +benefactors of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last +hundred years, one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those +scientific men, who have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our +greatest discoverers, should have striven to carry out their +discoveries into practice. For instance, take Faraday's beautiful +discoveries in electricity. It was, in a manner, left to Sir +Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor Wheatstone, +Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from those +discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings.</p> + +<p>It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not +been forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished +men; and among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John +Rennie, Sir Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William +Armstrong, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, +Sir William Thomson, Sir Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, +Sir Charles Bright, Sir James Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir +George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel +Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick Bramwell. With many +noble examples before us, and with signs of an improvement in many +branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter part of the +present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of thought and +enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous small +improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM.</h2> + +<p>Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, +has a large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 +acres within the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable +height above the river and constitute what are known as the knoll +or uplands of Hoboken. Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge +lie 450 acres of marsh lands or meadows, 140 acres of which have +already been built upon. The marsh is about half a mile wide, and +something like a mile and a half long, extending southward into +Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted vegetation and +roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass of blue +clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original tidal +flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice +way at Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin +constructed by the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 +feet long. The average level of the marsh land is three feet above +mean low water and a foot and a half below mean high water. In the +part built upon the streets are but two feet above mean high +water.</p> + +<p>During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times +of high spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often +such as to cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several +occasions the water at high tide has been 4½ feet above the +level of the meadows, and a foot or more above the established +grade of the streets.</p> + +<p>The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them +properly habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides +and storm waters.</p> + +<p>The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen +years ago; since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal +sewers and other devices, and several acts have been passed by the +New Jersey Legislature in furtherance of the work. An extended +review of the plans proposed and the experiments made thus far is +given in a report presented to the Board of Health and Vital +Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann and Brush. Ten years +ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the City Council to +prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in Ferry +street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely to +the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction.</p> + +<p>There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end +desired: First, by raising the grade sufficient to give a good +drainage; second, by making reservoirs and forcing the drainage +matter out into the river by steam pumps. The first method he found +impracticable on account of the cost of filling in so large an area +and of raising the large number of houses already on the low +ground. The second plan was recommended as being much cheaper and +entirely practicable. Substantially the same position is taken in +the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that the superior +economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested by +several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping +system has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, +between Ferry and First streets, and more recently in the southern +part of the city, where a number of property owners have kept +twenty-five acres free from water (except during storms) by means +of a private pump.</p> + +<p>The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by +estimates in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such +a system in contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and +introducing tidal sewers. Under both systems the cost of the +ordinary sewers will be about the same. A proper system of tidal +sewers, it is claimed, will necessitate the raising of the grade of +the streets on the low lands to a height at least ten feet above +mean high water. The extra cost of raising the streets is estimated +at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping system, with machinery and +power sufficient to remove all storm water and sewage, is put at +$150,000, while the running expenses, including interest on the +first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on the +preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve.</p> + +<p>According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his +report of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a +day will ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements +during the heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million +gallons a day of sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more +than half that amount of pumping will be required at first, the +increase to be made gradually as the marsh land is built upon.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="37"></a></p> + +<h2>ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK."</h2> + +<p>Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., +the sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south +of Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and +the soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out +of the ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation +for such a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, +with an ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, +over which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is +secured. The drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the +garden by an external stair, under which is a covered garden seat. +A balcony overlooking the garden leads also from the drawing-room, +and a billiard room is arranged on the basement level with a +separate entrance from the porch. A tradesmen's entrance is +provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are on the lower floor +level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at the rear. Red +brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used throughout +for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with ornamental +tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge boards, and +the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance +front, over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm +himself. The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of +Betchworth, and the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, +F.S.A., who superintended its erection.--<i>Building News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.png" alt="ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical +Engineers.]</p> + +<h3>By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle.</h3> + +<p>The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a +smaller number of changes been made during recent years, in the +processes employed, than in that of lead smelting and +manufacturing. He then briefly noted what these changes are, and +went on to describe the "steam desilverizing process," as used in +the works of the writer's firm, and in other works licensed by +them, which process is the invention of Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, +of Marseilles. It is one which should commend itself especially to +engineers, as in it mechanical means are employed, instead of the +large amount of hand-labor used in the Pattinson process. It +consists in using two pots only, of which the lower is placed at +such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 in. to 15 in. above +the floor level, while the upper is placed at a sufficiently high +level to enable the lead to be run out of it into the lower pot. +The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently erected, is +thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each pot is +placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging +the pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a +cover, with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is +carried to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the +two pots is placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it +can plumb each pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at +either side of the lower pot. The mode of working is as +follows:</p> + +<p>The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the +crane. When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the +lower, or working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous +operation.</p> + +<p>When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; +and in order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, +and prevent it setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of +steam is introduced.</p> + +<p>To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a +disk-plate is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a +baffle-plate; and uniform distribution of the steam is the result. +To quicken the formation of crystals, and thus hasten the +operation, small jets of water are allowed to play on the surface +of the lead.</p> + +<p>This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the +surface; but the violent action of the steam acts in the most +effectual manner in causing the regular formation of crystals. +Owing to the ebullition caused by this action of the steam, small +quantities of lead are forced up, and set on the upper edges and +cover of the pot. From time to time the valve controlling the thin +stream of water playing on the top of the charge is closed, and the +workman, opening the doors of the cover in rotation, breaks off +this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of the charge, and +instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it.</p> + +<p>Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and +one-third liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of +ladling out the crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old +Pattinson process, he taps out the liquid lead by means of two +pipes, controlled by valves, the crystals being retained in the pot +by means of perforated plates.</p> + +<p>The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either +side of the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks +thus formed, they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To +give some idea of the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned +that from the time the lead is melted and fit to work in the big +pot, to the time that it is crystallized and ready for tapping, is, +in the case of a 36 ton pot, from thirty-five to forty-five +minutes; and the time required for tapping the liquid lead into the +large moulds is about eight minutes.</p> + +<p>Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged +with lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when +the liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is +replaced by a similar amount of lead of the same richness as the +remaining crystals, by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and +allowing the contents to run among the crystals.</p> + +<p>The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the +crystals are so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and +run into pigs for market.</p> + +<p>The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the +crane in a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the +subsequent operations. The advantages of the steam process, as +compared to the old six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the +writer's firm, are: (1) a saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; +(2) the saving of cost of calcination of the lead to the extent of +at least four-fifths of all that is used; (3) above all, a saving +in labor to the extent of two-thirds. The process has its +disadvantages, and these are a larger original outlay for plant, +and a constant expense in renewals and repairs. This is principally +caused by the breakage of pots; but with increased experience this +item has been very much reduced during the last two or three +years.</p> + +<p>The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by +Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form +adopted by them about fourteen years since. The action of this +process is dependent on the affinity of zinc for silver. The +following is a brief description of it:</p> + +<p>A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated +to a point considerably above that which is used in either the +Pattinson or the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is +regulated by the amount of silver contained in the lead; but for +lead containing 50 oz. to the ton, the quantity of zinc used is in +most cases about 1½ per cent, of the charge of lead. The +lead being melted as described, a portion of this zinc, usually +about half of the total quantity required for the charge, is added +to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by continued +stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is seen +gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above +that of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken +up and carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, +care being taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The +fire is again applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is +sufficiently heated, a further quantity of zinc, about one-third of +the whole quantity used, is added, when the same process of cooling +and removing the zinc crust is repeated. This operation is gone +through a third time with the remaining portion--¼ per +cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has been carefully +carried out, the lead will be found to be completely desilverized, +and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some works this +trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but at +Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed +by subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The +zinc crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the +lead by allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which +the crusts are placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is +distilled off, and a portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, +which is extremely rich in silver, is then taken to the refinery, +and treated in the usual manner. The writer is given to understand +that the quantity of zinc recovered is as high as from 50 to 60 per +cent. of the total quantity used.</p> + +<p>Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was +established, yet the writer's firm have introduced many important +improvements. When lead is required for sheet making, instead of +running out the market lead into the usual pigs of about one +hundredweight each, it is run into large blocks of 3½ tons. +These 3½ ton blocks are taken on a bogie to the mill-house, +where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means of a +double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only.</p> + +<p>Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to +a large casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. +thick. This block, weighing 10½ tons, is lifted on to the +mill table by the same crane as fills the pot, but using the double +power; and is moved along to the rolls in the usual manner by means +of a rope working on a surging head. The mill itself, as regards +the roll, is much the same as those of other firms; but instead of +an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always working in one direction, +and connected to the rolls by double clutch and gearing, the work +is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, in connection +with which there is a very simple, and at the same time extremely +effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method there +is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing +gear contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as +follows:</p> + +<p>In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the +lead sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, +and before it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on +either side of the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls +with crowbars.</p> + +<p>In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or +block is fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which +are driven by power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet +by the guillotine, or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block +being moved to the desired point by hand-labor, the subsidiary +driven rolls work it up to the knife; and such perfect control does +the engine with its hydraulic reversing gear possess, that should +the sheet overshoot the knife 1/8 in., or even less, the engine +would bring it back to this extent exactly.</p> + +<p>Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the +greatest improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with +circular knives, which can be set to any desired width, and put in +or out of gear at will; and which are used for dressing up the +finished sheet in the longitudinal direction. This is a simple +mechanical arrangement, but one which is found to be of immense +benefit, and which, in the writer's opinion, is far superior to the +usual practice of marking off the sheet with a chalk line, and then +dressing off with hand knives. The last length of the mill table +forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane lifts the sheet from it +either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway communicating with +the shipping quay.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE +PLATES.</h2> + +<h3>I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION.</h3> + +<p>The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing +twenty liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose +products are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling +vessel, and, therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with +the wooden handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal +lid, which can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports +a stirring arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion +and has blades formed like a ship's screw.</p> + +<p>The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest +consists of a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, +which is closed by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a +funnel running to a fine point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into +an opening specially made for it in the lid of the kettle, and +while revolving sends a fine stream into the gelatine. When it is +wished to interrupt it, it is only necessary to raise the glass +stopper in order to see the stream dry up after a short time.</p> + +<p>Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is +allowed to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a +great quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient +heat is retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take +place. As soon as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed +the water bath is emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced +water, and the kettle replaced in it.</p> + +<p>If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large +quantity of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. +It may be further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being +black, the lid being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being +firmly closed, nearly the whole process can be conducted by +daylight, from the mixing to the stiffening, so that it is very +convenient to be able to keep the emulsion in the same vessel +during all these operations.</p> + +<h3>II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.</h3> + +<p>It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their +emulsion by boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a +regulator which will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an +apparatus would also be very useful for warming the emulsion for +the preparation of plates, as then one would have no further +occasion to pay attention to the thermometer and gas stove. In the +accompanying diagram a simple contrivance is shown. The gas which +feeds the stove passes through a narrow glass tube, a b, into the +wider tube, c d e, which is made air-tight at e. This latter tube +has an exit tube at f, by which the gas is supplied to the gas +stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its deepest part it +contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether floats in the +hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute opening in +the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, the +under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor +in the shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer +tube until it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and +thereby impedes the power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen +burner does not go out, being always fed by the small opening, i, +with sufficient gas to support a small flame until the water bath +has so far cooled as to leave the opening at b free, when the +burner again burns with a strong flame. By removing the cork, c, +from the tube the temperature of the water bath is raised, while by +pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes wrong, and is +very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/9a.png" alt="FIG. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p> + +<h3>III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS.</h3> + +<p>The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was +invented by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly +adapted for finely dividing large quantities of emulsion. It +consists essentially of a wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large +stone pot, to the under side of which two strong trapezoid pieces +of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in the under part of which +semicircular incisions are cut and held together by two leather +straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron transverse bar, +g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the crank, m, +passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n.</p> + +<p>The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made +of fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is +used for working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then +slipped through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open +end is slung upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the +ribbons, r1. The loops upon the iron bar are then pushed as close +together in the middle as possible, and the stone vessel is filled +with water until o p q r is completely covered. The crank is then +turned, by which the bag is wrung, and the emulsion squeezed +through the meshes immediately into the water. When this process is +continued until the purse between n and g h feels like a metal rod, +the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed through, and if one +now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it will be found +that the loss of emulsion is almost <i>nil</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/9b.png" alt="FIG. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception +of the crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the +corners, r and q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by +the dotted line, s s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there +without being squeezed through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod +may be used for small apparatus; but for large apparatus it is +indispensable, as the power that requires to be exerted would be +far too great for glass.</p> + +<h3>IV.--WASHING APPARATUS.</h3> + +<p>The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first +occurred to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the +subsequent improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, +and others are incorporated. It may be described as follows:</p> + +<p>A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a +funnel, rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a +lid, having a double edge closing it light-tight. Through the +center of the lid passes the tube, g h, by which the water enters. +In the interior of the vessel upon iron hooks stands a wooden +vessel saturated with paraffine, open at the ends, and over one end +of which the finest hair cloth is stretched at o p. The water which +enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. The proceedings are +as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the water in which it +is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place the lid upon +the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus fills with +water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of the siphon +be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the largest +apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in +through the supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely +empty.</p> + +<p>The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills +again, and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right +down nearly to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep +into the vessel that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands +high enough above o p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous +motion. In order to prevent the finest particles of the emulsion +from stopping up the pores of the sieve too much, and thereby +incurring the danger of the water in the sieve overflowing its +upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, the tube, g h, is +now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, represented in +the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way every possibility +of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing provided. Then +when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus fills again, +every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly been +pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, +and thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10a.png" alt= +"FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From +the moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The +method of washing in moving water is combined with that of complete +change of water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. +4. Whoever wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the +washing is over and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the +emulsion to drip for a time, and then to lift out the sieve and its +contents and place it in a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. +The latter should be changed once, and when sufficient water has +been extracted the sieve should be withdrawn from the vessel and +the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. In this way all trouble +occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is avoided, and there +is no loss of material.</p> + +<p>This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large +quantities, since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords +perfect certainty of the emulsion being well washed. It may not be +unnecessary to maintain that the difficulties of perfect +washing--particularly if one do not wash with running +water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to the quantity of +emulsion manipulated.--<i>Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, of +Photography</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER.</h2> + +<h3>By A. L. HENDERSON.</h3> + +<p>Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of +the difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating +plates; one is very likely to blame everything but the right, but +doubtless the weather is the culprit.</p> + +<p>I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, +even when emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and +cooled down before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the +smaller quantity, so that when mixed it contaminates the whole +mass; moreover, it is impossible to set and wash the gelatine +without the aid of ice.</p> + +<p>I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at +92° in the shade, and the washing water at 78°) as +follows:</p> + +<pre> + Hard gelatine...............,...... ½ ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. +</pre> + +<p>When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120° +temperature, add, stirring all the time,</p> + +<pre> + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. ¾ ounce. + Alcohol............................ ¾ " +<br> +Then again add, +<br> + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " +<br> +Both solutions being warmed to about 120°. +</pre> + +<p>My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious +to many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate +of ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the +bulk of the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver +may be added in a much more concentrated state.</p> + +<p>The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a +most important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. +(2) It allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller +quantity of alcohol (say about 10 ounces).</p> + +<p>After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I +pour in slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the +time, and keeping the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to +the stirring-rod and the bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and +all that is now required is to pour away the alcohol, allow the +emulsion to cool, tear it into small pieces, wash in several +changes of cold water, make up the quantity to ten ounces, and +strain; it is then ready for coating.</p> + +<p>By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set +in about five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a +better method is devised," I intend to adopt it in all +weathers.</p> + +<p>One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the +decomposition of gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the +presence of foreign salts; no flocculent deposit is noticed in the +alcohol after the emulsion has been precipitated.--<i>Photographic +News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL +USE OF LOW TEMPERATURES.</h2> + +<h3>By RAOUL PICTET.</h3> + +<p>The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of +the maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the +influence of temperature upon those different elements which find +themselves in presence of each other in an alembic.</p> + +<p>If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the +phenomena which succeed one another in a rectifying column, and +which are connected with one another by a continuous chain of +reciprocal influences, the problem becomes exceedingly complex.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/10b.png"><img src= +"images/10b_th.png" alt= +"PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY COLD."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL +BY COLD.</p> + +<p>In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of +heat may be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a +series of propositions, which we shall examine separately, and +which collectively constitutes in its general features the +methodical rectification of liquids.</p> + +<p>I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, +can we calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture +whatever of alcohol and water?</p> + +<p>Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, +provided we take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, +which increases the value of the total latent heat of evaporation +of the liquid. The results of the calculation are fully confirmed +by experience. We thus establish the following laws:</p> + +<p>a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the +vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised +between that of pure water and that of pure alcohol.</p> + +<p>b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion +as the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, +the tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of +water.</p> + +<p>c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all +mixtures of alcohol and water are represented by the same general +formula, one factor only of which is a function of the richness of +the alcoholic solution.</p> + +<p>It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol +and water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off +at a certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the +centigrade alcoholmeter.</p> + +<p>We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, +the laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total +pressure of the vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of +the two liquids, water and alcohol.</p> + +<p>II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal +volumes, what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from +it?</p> + +<p>In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite +mixture of water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water +and alcohol in the same proportion as the liquids?</p> + +<p>We have discovered the following laws:</p> + +<p>d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, +but is not in simple proportion thereto.</p> + +<p>e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of +water and alcohol varies according to the temperature.</p> + +<p>f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low +temperatures that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the +largest proportion of alcohol.</p> + +<p>g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the +two liquids tend to become equalized.</p> + +<p>We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, +and to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of +maximum tensions, in the following way:</p> + +<p>Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of +alcohol and water, plunge it into water of 20°C., and put its +interior in hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial +air-pump.</p> + +<p>We vaporize at 20° a certain quantity of the liquid, and the +vapors fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the +gases in the interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this +pressure should be constant if care is taken to act upon a +sufficient mass of liquid and with moderate speed. When the +receiver of the air-pump is full of vapors, communication between +it and the test-tube is shut off, and communication is effected +with a second test-tube, like the first, plunged into the same +water at 20°. Care must be taken beforehand to create a perfect +vacuum in this test-tube.</p> + +<p>On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube +at the same temperature as that at which they were formed.</p> + +<p>We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an +elevation of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol +has very perceptibly risen.</p> + +<p>If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second +test-tube, we leave the first communication open, the vapors +recondense in the first test-tube without any elevation of +pressure; and we do not see the least trace of liquid forming in +the second test tube.</p> + +<p>This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments +must be attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on +the vapors of alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the +work of the pump, and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the +difference of mechanical work represented in kilogrammeters. What +is remarkable is that this difference is absolutely the equivalent +of the heat disengaged when the condensed liquid and the old liquid +are remixed; there is a complete identity. Thus the affinity of the +water for the alcohol modifies the tension of the vapors which form +or condense upon the free surface of the mixture. The two phenomena +are closely connected by the law of equivalence.</p> + +<p>It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and +water, and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to +obtain a liquid of a desired richness by the condensation of these +vapors.</p> + +<p>III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important +fact: When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably +lowered, can the distillation of a given weight of this substance +be effected with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? +Repeated experiments with a host of volatile liquids have +demonstrated the following laws:</p> + +<p>If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers +connected by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different +temperatures after driving out all the air from the apparatus, the +liquid distills from the warmer into the cooler receiver, and we +ascertain that:</p> + +<p>h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time +increases with the deviation of temperature between the two +receivers.</p> + +<p>i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time +is constant for a same deviation of temperature between the +receivers, whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the +receivers.</p> + +<p>k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to +say, to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through +their thickness.</p> + +<p>l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the +apparatus throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks +distillation to a considerable degree, especially at low +temperatures.</p> + +<p>Thus, water distilling between 100° and 60° will pass +over as quickly as that which is distilling between 40° and +0°. Absolute temperature is without influence, provided every +trace of air or foreign gas be got rid of.</p> + +<p>The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which +are inevitable in practice.</p> + +<p>The following is the industrial application that we have +endeavored to make of these theoretical views: The rectification of +alcohols is one of the most complex of operations; it looks toward +several results simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the +fermentation of grain, sugar, and of all starchy matters in +general, contains an innumerable host of different products, which +may be grouped under four principal heads:</p> + +<p>1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of +the alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total +mass of the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. +A certain quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of +volatile substances, composed in great part of ethers, different +alcohols, and bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect +the quality of the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different +from that of the essential oils.</p> + +<p>The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; +that is to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding +it of oils, water, ether, and foreign alcohols.</p> + +<p>The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an +absolutely complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in +operation at the present day are based on the use of high +temperatures varying between 78.5° and 100°. The successive +condensation and vaporization of the vapors issuing from the +spirits effect in the rectifying columns a partial separation of +these liquids, and there are received successively as products of +rectification:</p> + +<p>1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers +and impure alcohols.</p> + +<p>2. Fine alcohol.</p> + +<p>3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic +oils.</p> + +<p>Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, +and that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes +from a same lot of spirits, and to make a large number of +successive distillations. Hence the large expenses attending +rectification, which produce fine alcohols necessarily at an +elevated price. We may remark, in passing, that the toxic action of +commercial alcohols is in great part caused by the presence of +essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely pure +alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent.</p> + +<p>Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results +in rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature +at which they must operate. Between 78° and 100° the +tension of the vapors of all the liquids mixed in the spirits is +considerable for each of them; they all pass over, then, in certain +proportions during the operation of rectification.</p> + +<p>We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to +ascertain that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a +mixture is maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should +seek to establish some arrangement which can realize the following +conditions: (1) Render variable, at will, the temperature of the +boiling liquid; and (2), render variable the pressure of the vapors +which act on the liquid.</p> + +<p>Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to +cause its ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the +ebullition without changing such temperatures when once +obtained.</p> + +<p>It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue +Immeubles Industriels, at Paris.</p> + +<p>By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, +they form a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of +alcohols at temperatures as low as -40° or even -50°. They +verify experimentally, by their operation, the theoretical +deductions which precede. The boilers, A, which, in an industrial +application, may be more numerous, receive their supply of spirits +from the country distilleries in the vicinity of the factory. There +may even be introduced directly into them <i>vinasses</i>, or +washes, that is to say, liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic +fermentation.</p> + +<p>Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of +superposed plates inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a +tubular condenser, which serves to effect the retrogression of the +first condensation by means of a current of water supplied by the +reservoir placed above.</p> + +<p>On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped +condensation pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally +condensed by a current of water which goes to the reservoir +above.</p> + +<p>The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, +which are collected in the reservoir, E.</p> + +<p>When the first products have been thus introduced into the +reservoir, and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is +passing over, the liquid produced is directed into the second +boiler, F. The sliding valve, operated by a screw having a very +fine pitch, establishes a communication between the refrigerator, +C, and the second boiler, F. The office of this valve we shall +learn further on. This first rectification is performed in a +vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the entire +apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the liquids +shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance.</p> + +<p>The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete +vacuum, according to the nature of the products to be rectified. +The distiller will have to be guided in this by practice alone.</p> + +<p>The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and +there the liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute +vacuum. As we have before said, their temperature falls immediately +and spontaneously. The vapors which issue from this liquid contain +almost solely pure alcohol. The other substances, which passed over +in the first distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures +ranging between -10° and +5°. Their temperature is shown by +a thermometer running into the boiler, F.</p> + +<p>These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise +into a second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the +refrigerator, H, filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This +refrigerator is like those which we employ in our sulphurous +anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under the action of a special pump, +M, this liquid produces and maintains a constant temperature of +-25° to -30° in the refrigerator. The vapors of alcohol +condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold liquid +alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator.</p> + +<p>By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls +upon the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors +are rising therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows +into the reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into +the reservoir, L, during all the remainder of the rectification. +The ice-making machine keeps up of itself alone the two +operations.</p> + +<p>In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the +sulphurous anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates +through the first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the +frigorific machine keeps up the second rectification, which was +brought about below the surrounding temperature, and which for this +reason takes place without necessitating any combustion of coal. It +suffices to cause the current of water which issues from the +condenser of the frigorific machine to pass into the worm of the +boiler.</p> + +<p>We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced +by the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations +are performed <i>in vacuo</i>, and we know that under these +conditions they are effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this +fact, likewise, the weight of the water that must be evaporated +diminishes just so much. Now, one kilogramme of water requires 636 +heat units to cause it to pass from the liquid to the gaseous +state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires only 230 heat units +to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature in rectification +has for an immediate corollary an important economy of fuel, which +is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less quantity +of water to be distilled.</p> + +<p>Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature +bordering on +50° to +60°, and the refrigerator, H, in +which is easily obtained a temperature of -30° to -40°, +there is at our disposal a range of temperature of nearly 100°, +an immense difference compared with that which can be made use of +in ordinary apparatus. Thanks to this powerful factor, which is +manageable at will, we can take directly from the apparatus +alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by the centigrade alcoholmeter. +Such results are unobtainable by the usual methods.</p> + +<p>We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the +ebullition of alcohol is as active as at near 100°.</p> + +<p>For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the +refrigerator, the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is +constant. By the operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to +allow all the liquid condensed in the first refrigerator to pass +into the second boiler; and thus the second rectification, which is +effected in a more perfect vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The +object of this valve, then, is to allow the liquid to pass, and yet +to cut off the pressure in such a way as to have a double fall of +temperature throughout the whole apparatus; from 60° to 20° +in the first operation, and from 0° to -40° in the second. +We may add that the regulation of the valve is extremely easy, +because of the screw which actuates it.</p> + +<p>To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, +we may say that it realizes the following <i>desiderata</i>: 1. +With the cost of a single distillation we have, at once, +distillation and rectification, or a single expense for two +results. 2. With one operation at a low temperature we obtain +products which are almost impossible to get even by an indefinite +number of rectifications at a high temperature, the temperature +having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without +danger. 4. Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra +value difficult to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The +whole operation being performed in closed vessels, there is +absolutely no waste. 6. For the same reason there is scarcely any +danger of fire. 7. The management of the works and the service are +performed by the pressure of the gases entirely; there are only a +few cocks to be turned to perform all the interior maneuvers, empty +and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in <i>personnel</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied +by a series of results in which the practical determinations +obtained from the method described were compared with the +theoretical contents of the solutions of the various elements. +These, however, would take up too much room for insertion in these +columns.]</p> + +<h3>By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, +Ph.B., F.C.S.</h3> + +<p>Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper +came into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt +this peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of +other metals. According to the experiments which have been made up +to the present time, it has been found that the separation of +copper is best effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of +nickel and cobalt takes place most readily in an ammoniacal +solution, and for the precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium +cyanide solution is the best. The accuracy of the results depend +chiefly upon the following of certain fixed rules, such as, for +instance, that the precipitation of copper only takes place when +there is a definite amount of nitric acid in the solution; that of +cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of ammonium hydrate and +ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic decomposition of the +chlorides has not yet been successfully accomplished, so that prior +to the operation it is necessary to convert them into sulphates. +The experiments which have been made for the purpose of +investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being +the separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated +from a nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at +the other electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which +follows, that copper, zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, +manganese, cadmium, bismuth, and tin, whether they be present as +sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, may be precipitated and +separated from each other by electrolytic methods much more rapidly +than by any previously known process.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF COBALT.</h3> + +<p>Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of +a cobalt salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate +submitted to electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution +is soon changed into a dark green; the latter diminishing in +intensity as the metal is deposited at the negative electrode. The +electric current decomposes the potassium oxalate into the +carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt carbonate is +simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic cobalt. +This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or dilute +sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with +acid is repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its +metallic condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much +more easily and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is +substituted by the corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms +a soluble double salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium +oxalate added is just sufficient to form the double salt, a red +cobalt oxalate (<i>which is only slowly reduced by the current</i>) +will separate out in addition to the cobalt. In order to obviate +this difficulty, the solution to which the ammonium oxalate had +been added in excess is heated, and then three or four grammes more +of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The <i>hot</i> solution, when +exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt as a +closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the +reduction has been completed, and this is best determined by +testing a small sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium +sulphide, the positive electrode[1] is removed from the solution, +and the liquid poured off. The dish is immediately rinsed several +times with water, and the excess of water removed at first with +alcohol, and then with absolute ether. The cobalt in the dish is +dried in the air bath at 100° C., and in the course of a few +minutes a constant weight is obtained.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is +used for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the +negative electrode.--<i>Vide</i> "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," +3d Edition, p. 46.]</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF NICKEL.</h3> + +<p>This process is precisely identical with the previously +described method for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in +excess to the solution, which is then heated, and four more grammes +of the solid salt added. The separation of the nickel is as rapid +as that of the cobalt. The nickel is precipitated as a gray, +compact mass, tightly adhering to the electrode.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF IRON.</h3> + +<p>For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those +of the sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner +previously described. The electrolysis is best effected in the +presence of a sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no +separation of any iron compound takes place. The iron is deposited +in the form of a bright, steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the +platinum dish. The iron may be exposed to the air for several days +without any noticeable oxidation taking place.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF ZINC.</h3> + +<p>Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully +as easily and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The +reduced zinc has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the +electrode. The separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids +and heating. It is only removed with difficulty, and generally +leaves a dark coating on the dish, which is separated by repeated +ignitions and treatment with acid.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE.</h3> + +<p>It is already known that manganese may be separated as the +peroxide from its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the +precipitation is only completely effected when the quantity present +is small; the amount of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is +necessary to wash the dish without interrupting the current. If the +manganese is converted into the soluble double salt, prepared by +adding an excess of potassium, and submitted to the electric +current, the whole of the manganese will be deposited at the +positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the complete +precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide does +not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide +(Mn<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>).</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH.</h3> + +<p>This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the +metal is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The +bismuth is always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it +is precipitated from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium +oxalate, or, finally, from a solution to which potassium tartrate +has been added. As large a surface as possible must be used, and +the dish piled to the rim; then, if the quantity of bismuth is +small, the washing with water, alcohol, and ether may be effected +without any loss of the element. If small quantities of the metal +separate from the dish, they must be collected on a tared filter, +and determined separately. In our experiments, an excess of +ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of bismuth. +During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the peroxide +was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, +the last traces of water are completely removed by repeated +washings with alcohol and anhydrous ether.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF LEAD.</h3> + +<p>The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. +When the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not +adhere firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the +negative electrode, it becomes impossible to complete the +estimation without loss from the solution of the peroxide, and the +results cannot be accepted.</p> + +<p>If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of +the lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so +rapidly oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be +dried without decomposition even when the operation is conducted in +a current of illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this +element cannot be recommended.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF COPPER.</h3> + +<p>The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the +double ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of +ammonium oxalate is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for +the determination of this element when it is present in large +quantities, for under such circumstances the metal does not adhere +with sufficient firmness to the electrode. We employed a current +which corresponded to an evolution of 330 c.c. of gas per hour, and +we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme metallic copper in about +twenty-five minutes.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM.</h3> + +<p>When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of +the electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a +gray coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, +but, however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful +washing.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF TIN.</h3> + +<p>Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated +from its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with +ammonium oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the +platinum. When the ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium +salt, the operation becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is +formed at the opposite pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin +is separated from an acid solution, the current must not be +interrupted while the washing takes place, a precaution which it is +not necessary to follow when the ammonium oxalate is used. When the +tin is dissolved from the platinum dish, it acts like the zinc; +that is to say, a black coating is left on the electrode.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY.</h3> + +<p>Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a +hydrochloric acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to +the electrode. If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the +trichloride, the antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal +adheres still less firmly to the electrode than it did in the first +instance. An adherent coating may be obtained by adding an alkaline +tartrate, but in that case the separation takes place too slowly. +The precipitation of antimony may be very readily effected from +solutions of its sulpho salts.</p> + +<p>To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen +sulphide is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and +saturated with ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be +accelerated by the addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony +separates out as a fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, +and which adheres very firmly, provided the precipitation has not +been carried on too rapidly, <i>i. e.</i>, if the current employed +for the reduction was not too strong.</p> + +<p>When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is +poured off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner.</p> + +<h3>DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC.</h3> + +<p>Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has +been added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate +solution, a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the +current is passed through its hydrochloric acid solution for a +sufficient length of time, all the arsenic will be volatilized as +arsenious hydride (AsH<sub>3</sub>).</p> + +<h3>SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE.</h3> + +<p>If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of +ammonium oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid +immediately makes its appearance, and the peroxide gradually +precipitates itself on the positive, while the iron is deposited on +the negative electrode. When the examination is made in the above +manner, it is impossible to separate the two metals, for the +peroxide will bring down with it a considerable quantity of ferric +hydrate. The separation of the two metals is only possible when the +precipitation of the manganese peroxide is prevented, until the +greater portion of the iron has been deposited. This result may be +attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better still, by the +addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both cases the +characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed by the +action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the +greater portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into +carbonate, the coloration and necessarily the formation of +manganese peroxide begins.</p> + +<p>Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; +then three or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved +in the liquid, which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. +When the amount of manganese is small, the separation of the two +elements takes place very rapidly, and the results are accurate. If +the amount of manganese is more than double that of iron, the +separation of the latter will take a much longer time. Then, in +order to effect a complete separation of the two elements, it is +necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in oxalic acid (the +acid is added, without interrupting the current, until the liquid +becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action.</p> + +<p>It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to +employ too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and +only to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, +in consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to +redissolve the peroxide.</p> + +<p>When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the +current to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may +adhere firmly to the iron, and the latter (after previously having +poured off the liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is +to say, the electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already +mentioned in the determination of manganese as peroxide, its +precipitation from ammonium oxalate is not complete. The solution +which contains the greater portion of manganese, suspended as +peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to decompose the +ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate is +neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then +ignited in a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such.</p> + +<h3>SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM.</h3> + +<p>The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which +presented many difficulties according to the older methods, may be +easily performed by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium +oxalate and aluminum oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium +oxalate has been added, be submitted to the action of the electric +current, the iron will be deposited as a firmly adhering coat on +the negative electrode, while the aluminum oxide remains in +solution, just so long as the quantity of ammonium oxalate is in +excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate produced. When, +finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place the liquid +is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in which +the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction +is observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium +oxalate in excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one +which has been neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a +hydrochloric acid solution is not well adapted for this purpose); +then as much more solid ammonium oxalate is added until for every +0.1 gramme there is 2 to 3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot +solution is then directly submitted to the action of the electric +current. After the iron has been precipitated, it is best to stop +the action of the current before all the aluminum oxide is thrown +down, for otherwise a portion of the latter may adhere firmly to +the iron, and be difficult to remove.</p> + +<p>In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of +iron from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after +previously having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then +the electrolysis is continued.</p> + +<p>In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum +oxide from the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium +hydrate is added, and the solution boiled for some time, and then +the aluminum oxide is determined in the usual manner. When the +quantity of aluminum is less than that of iron, this method may be +relied upon to give exact results. With the reverse (<i>i. e.</i>, +an excess of iron) the precipitate of aluminum oxide must be +dissolved in oxalic acid (without the interruption of the current), +and the electrolysis continued.--<i>Berichte der Deutschen +Chemischen Gesellschaft</i>, 14, 1662.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE +POWDER.</h2> + +<p>In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +<i>Naturalist</i>, the editor of this department has sent out the +seed of two species of pyrethrum, viz. <i>P. roseum</i> and <i>P. +cinerarioefolium</i>, to a large number of correspondents in +different parts of North America. Every mail brings us some +inquiries for further particulars and directions to guide in the +cultivation of the plant and preparation of the powder. We have +concluded, therefore, that such information as is obtainable on +these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall ask +Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain.</p> + +<p>There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for +many years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It +was sold at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept +its nature a secret until the beginning of this century, when an +Armenian merchant, Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was +obtained from the dried and pulverized flower-heads of certain +species of pyrethrum growing abundantly in the mountain region of +what is now known as the Russian province of Transcaucasia. The son +of Mr. Jumtikoff began the manufacture of the article on a large +scale in 1828, after which year the pyrethrum industry steadily +grew, until to-day the export of the dried flower-heads represents +an important item in the revenue of those countries.</p> + +<p>Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (<i>P. cinerarioefolum</i>), but it +is probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered +by far the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>There is also very little information published regarding either +the mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their +native home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe +that they are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, +statements to the contrary notwithstanding.[1]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. +130.]</p> + +<p>The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum +of Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest +living authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of +that region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its +genus <i>Pyrethrum roseum</i>, which gives a good, effective insect +powder, is nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine +zone of our mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." +From this it appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated +in its native home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a +communication of Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. +at Moscow, Russia, to whom we applied for seed of this species. He +writes that his agents were not able to get more than about half a +pound of the seed from any one person. From this statement it may +be inferred that the seeds have to be gathered from the wild and +not from the cultivated plants.</p> + +<p>As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in +its native home, but we can get no definite information on this +score, owing to the fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to +give any information regarding a plant the product of which they +wish to monopolize. For similar reasons we have found great +difficulty in obtaining even small quantities of the seed of <i>P. +cinerarioefolium</i> that was not baked or in other ways tampered +with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people are so jealous of +their plant that to send the seed out of the country becomes a +serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of <i>Pyrethrum +roseum</i> is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden +plant for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas +Meehan, of Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of +<i>Pyrethrum roseum</i> in my herbaceous garden for many years +past, and it holds its own without any care much better than many +other things. I should say from this experience that it was a plant +which will very easily accommodate itself to culture anywhere in +the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, another +well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest +cultivation, either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a +great variety of all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and +single, perfectly hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly +everywhere on this continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., +has also successfully grown <i>P. roseum</i> and many varieties +thereof, and other correspondents report similar favorable +experience. None of them have found a special mode of cultivation +necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious attempt to +introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in France. As +his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best we know of +we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed +of pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the +presence of clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive +to an excess of water, and would in such case immediately perish. A +southern exposure is the most favorable. The best time for putting +the seeds in the ground is from March to April. It can be done even +in the month of February if the weather will permit it. After the +soil has been prepared and the seeds are sown they are covered by a +stratum of ground mixed with some vegetable mould, when the roller +is slightly applied to it. Every five or six days the watering is +to be renewed, in order to facilitate the germination. At the end +of about thirty or forty days the young plants make their +appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough they +are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their +strength. Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, +which, however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming +of the pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, +and continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states +that the plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no +shelter, even during severe winters.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant <i>Pyrèthre du +Caucase (P. Willemoti.</i> Duchartre), but it is more than probable +that this is only a synonym of <i>P. roseum</i>. We have drawn +liberally from Mr. Willemot's paper on the subject, a translation +of which may be found in the Report of the Commissioner of Patents +for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. 223-331.]</p> + +<p>The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of +France, and as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North +America is yet an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment +must be used. The plants should be treated in the same manner as +the ordinary Asters of the garden or other perennial +Compositae.</p> + +<p>As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. +Milco, a native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully +cultivated <i>Pyrethrum cinerarioefolium</i> near Stockton, Cal., +and the powder from the California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco +has given the name of "Buhach," retains all the insecticide +qualities and is far superior to most of the imported powder, as we +know from experience. Mr. Milco gives the following advice about +planting--advice which applies more particularly to the Pacific +coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, sandy, loamy soil, +slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with dry sand and sow +carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake disturb the +surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the bed every +evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. After it +is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When about a +month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring."</p> + +<p>Our own experience with <i>P. roseum</i> as well as <i>P. +cinerarioefolium</i> in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite +satisfactory. Some that we planted last year in the fall came up +quite well in the spring and will perhaps bloom the present year. +The plants from sound seed which we planted this spring are also +doing finely, and as the soil is a rather stiff clay and the rains +have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. Willemot has +overstated the delicacy of the plants.</p> + +<p>In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should +be gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at +the time when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that +gives the insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest +development. When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut +within about four inches from the ground and utilized, being ground +and mixed with the flowers in the proportion of one-third of their +weight. Great care must be taken not to expose the flowers to +moisture, or the rays of the sun, or still less to artificial heat. +They should be dried under cover and hermetically closed up in +sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely pulverization. The finer +the flower-heads are pulverized the more effectually the powder +acts and the more economical in its use. Proper pulverization in +large quantities is best done by those who make a business of it +and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New York, +have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple +method of pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that +the mortar be closed, and a piece of leather through which the +pestle moves, such as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic +substances in a laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be +pulverized should not exceed one pound at a time, thus avoiding too +high a degree of heat, which would be injurious to the quality of +the powder. The pulverization being deemed sufficient, the +substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and then the remainder, +with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar and pulverized +again.</p> + +<p>The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with +patent covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin +box.--<i>American Naturalist</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES.</h2> + +<p>In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the +<i>Verein deutscher Ingenieure</i>, Herr Robert Hasenclever +presents a summary of the results obtained with various methods for +the absorption of the sulphurous acid generated during the roasting +of zinc-blende and other sulphurets. Though most of our own +metallurgical works are not so located as to be forced to pay much +attention to the removal of noxious vapors, the efforts made abroad +possess some interest for American metallurgists. Besides +containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the roasting furnaces +hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. Bernoulli +describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. +It was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption +of carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very +efficiently in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before +entering the tower, they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of +sulphurous acid and 2.45 per cent. of carbonic acid; while, after +their passage through it, they held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, +respectively. The process, however, is declared by Herr Hasenclever +to be too costly for ordinary working, although he does not deny +its value under special circumstances.</p> + +<p>The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is +replaced by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as +shown by the following analyses of the gases before and after +treatment. The figures given are grammes per 1,000 liters:</p> + +<center> +<table summary="removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid" border="0" +cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" align="center">BEFORE.</td> +<td></td> +<td colspan="2" align="center">AFTER.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>SO<sub>2</sub>.</td> +<td>SO<sub>3</sub>.</td> +<td></td> +<td>SO<sub>2</sub>.</td> +<td>SO<sub>3</sub>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">8.24</td> +<td align="right">0.63</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">5.74</td> +<td align="right">0.00</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">8.29</td> +<td align="right">0.37</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">6.74</td> +<td align="right">0.07</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">9.36</td> +<td align="right">0.69</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">6.96</td> +<td align="right">0.00</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">9.46</td> +<td align="right">0.63</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">7.38</td> +<td align="right">0.05</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">10.03</td> +<td align="right">1.08</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">7.69</td> +<td align="right">0.09</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">16.52</td> +<td align="right">2.97</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">14.39</td> +<td align="right">0.23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">17.90</td> +<td align="right">1.97</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">13.32</td> +<td align="right">0.11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">17.80</td> +<td align="right">2.46</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right">16.18</td> +<td align="right">0.69</td> +</tr> +</table> +</center> + +<p>The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when +three roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per +cent. of the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or +five furnaces was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged +per twenty-four hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees +Baumé, which flowed off with a density of from 56 to 58 +degrees Baumé. The quantity of acid condensed varied +according to the nature of the ores and the number of furnaces +working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 degrees +Baumé per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with +lime, in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would +prove too expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime +proved partially successful; but it was not followed up, because it +was decided to experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. +Winkler, of Freiberg, who proposes to pass the gases through a +tower filled with iron in some suitable shape, over which water +trickles. From the solution thus obtained, sulphurous acid pure +enough to be used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphur, +and a solution of green vitriol is made. Experiments with this +process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania Works, near +Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus far is, +that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it.</p> + +<p>The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it +is to find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from +furnace gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far +the value of the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid +has not been equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. +Landsberg, who is general manager of the Stolberg Company, has had +similar experience, though his experiments were made to test +methods suggested at various times by Dr. E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. +Both are very ingenious, and were successful on a small scale, but +failed when tried in actual working.--<i>Engineering and Mining +Journal</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>NEW GAS EXHAUSTER.</h2> + +<p>In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road +passes about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four +hours, and requires the attention of two men and two boys for +driving and stoking, at the following cost:</p> + +<pre> + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----£ 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total £ 1 2 6 +</pre> + +<p>for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The +boiler burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of +small value, costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; +therefore the total cost of exhausting gas by the new system +is--</p> + +<pre> +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. +</pre> + +<p>per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older +system, from the friction being so much less. The feed water +evaporated is at the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and +7.5 lb. per pound of coke.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13a.png" alt= +"IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent +Road are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a +minimum; while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the +night, attend to the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also +to the pumps outside, and stoke the boiler as well.--<i>Journal of +Gas Lighting</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE</h2> + +<p>The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to +excite comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems +to know exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by +what means a retrograde movement will probably be brought +about.</p> + +<p>As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by +a combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a +great increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses +for it, and the extension of the branches of manufactures in which +it has been heretofore employed.</p> + +<p>In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in +various other branches of manufacture the same tendency is +observable. It has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a +vehicle for the administration of various medicinal substances, is +so easily miscible with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant +to the taste, that it seems almost a wonder that it should have +been so long in attaining the rank among the articles of the +<i>Materia Medica</i> which it now occupies. The two manufactures, +however, which seem to lead in the demand for glycerine are of +nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine.</p> + +<p>The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but +precisely what the latter could want of the article is not, at +first glance, quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it +is valued for its antiseptic properties, and also for its softening +effect on the <i>quasi</i> butter. Be this as it may, it seems that +both here and in Europe the makers of these two articles are buying +largely of both crude and refined glycerine.</p> + +<p>So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat +artificial butter, and the progress in schemes for internal +improvement, such as the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say +nothing of the European revolutionists, are responsible to a great +extent for the scarcity of an important article of pharmaceutical +use.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the +demand for the article, there is a gradual but very sure and +noticeable falling off in the production.</p> + +<p>At present the supply for the whole world comes from the +candlemakers of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as +improved methods of illumination push candles out of the drawing +rooms of the wealthier as well as the cabins of the poor, and +consequently out of the markets, the production of glycerine +naturally grows less. In France, for instance, candles are coming +to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles of luxury, and +are lighted only for display at festivals of especial magnificence +and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is coming into +almost as universal use as here.</p> + +<p>To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we +believe, the inevitable <i>bougie</i>, but even that is fast +becoming more of a fiction than ever. Even in the churches, it is +said, the use of candles is gradually falling off. To these causes +must be attributed the decreasing supply of the crude material, but +it may be doubted whether this decrease would be sufficient to +materially affect the price for some time to come were it not for +the increased demand for the two industries to which we have +alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some substitute +for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded +in obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly +contains by any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its +profitable employment.</p> + +<p>We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented +much in this direction that it is impossible to recover a +marketable article of glycerine from the lees of soap in which +resin is an ingredient. In his words, it "kills the glycerine," +and, as none but a few of the finest soaps are now made without +resin, it would seem that the search for glycerine in this +direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious commentary in the +present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, when candles +were largely manufactured in this country, there was little or no +demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run into +the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the +candle factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the +mingled glycerine and water which constituted the waste from the +candles. Yet with this fact under their noses, as it were, it is +only recently that members of the medical profession have begun to +recommend the same use of glycerine as a substitute for cod liver +oil.--<i>Pharmacist</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING +PURPOSES.</h2> + +<p>Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, +may--according to the substance of a paper recently read before the +Chemical Society, by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. +Thomson, of Manchester--be divided into two great classes, viz., +those which combine with soda, potash, or other alkalies to form +soaps, and those which do not; and as those two classes of bodies +differ materially in their actions on substances such as iron, +copper, etc., with which they come in contact, it often becomes a +question of great importance to the users of oils for lubricating +purposes to know what proportions of these different substances are +contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of the authors +was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages of +these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils +are now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and +especially of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, +because they are neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; +and, second, that they are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if +they should happen to be introduced with the condensed water so as +to produce burning of the ironwork over the flues.</p> + +<p>Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon +or corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable +influence does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble +compounds called iron soaps, which increase the friction between +the cylinder and piston, and in some cases gradually collect into +the form of hard balls inside the cylinder.</p> + +<p>When the water is used over and over again a considerable +proportion of the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the +piston is carried over with the steam and is found in the condensed +water which is introduced into the boiler along with the water. +Here it commences action, which proves quite as injurious to the +boiler as it does to the cylinder, but in a different way. It acts +upon the iron of the boiler and on some of the lime salts which +constitute the incrustation, forming greasy iron and lime soaps, +which prevent the water from coming into absolute contact with it. +Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly enough by the water, and +the plates thus coated above the flues are liable to become +burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases gone on to +such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the pressure of +the steam inside.</p> + +<p>The authors give two different processes for the determination +of animal or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other +neutral oils. They take a certain weight of the sample and boil it +with twice its weight of an eight per cent, solution of caustic +soda in alcohol. The soda combines with the fatty acids of the +animal or vegetable oils forming soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then +added to neutralize the excess of caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; +and the whole is evaporated to dryness at the temperature of +boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred to a large glass +tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with glass wool to +act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils at about +150° to 180° Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the neutral +or unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no +sand is used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the +soap solution which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated +with ether, which dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to +the surface of the liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, +and the ether in the one case and petroleum spirit in the other are +separated from the dissolved oils by distillation, the last traces +of these volatile liquids being separated by blowing a current of +filtered air through the flask containing the neutral oil, which is +then weighed and its percentage on the original sample +calculated.</p> + +<p>All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one +per cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted +from the result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an +exception, because from its peculiar chemical constitution it +yields nearly half its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or +to the petroleum spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from +sperm oil after saponification has the appearance of jelly, when +the ether or petroleum spirit solution is concentrated and allowed +to cool, and the presence of sperm oil can thus be readily +detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum or paraffin oils, and +rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive distillation of +rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole of the +amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield +about half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>NITRITE OF AMYL.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so +useful in the various aches and pains of every-day life that he has +persuaded many families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a +domestic remedy. It is an excellent external application for +stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache (whether nervous or arising from +caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, of the cervico-brachial +plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else when inhaled in +so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief in the +individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, +since in this affection the drug would be physiologically +contraindicated. It has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, +especially when occurring in chlorotic girls; in mild cases +external applications suffice, otherwise the drug should be inhaled +(when complicated with inflammatory conditions of the uterus or +appendages the results were doubtful or negative). Its +physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of the +muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite +of amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral +anaemia. Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of +dizziness and faintness occurring in anæmic individuals, as +also in a fainting-fit from renal colic, and in several cases of +collapse during anaesthesia by chloroform.</p> + +<p>It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and +in asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these +cases is the induction of artificial respiration, after the +successful initiation of which inhalations of nitrite of amyl +doubtless assist in overcoming the concomitant spasm of the smaller +arteries.</p> + +<p>One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. +In such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and +alcoholics can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands +pre-eminent. A single case in point will suffice to illustrate +this. The patient was suffering from mitral insufficiency, with +irregular pulse, loss of appetite, enlargement of the liver, and +mild jaundice. Temporary relief had been several times afforded by +infusion of digitalis. In February, 1879, the condition of the +patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse became very irregular +and intermittent. The condition described as delirium cordis +presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation and vomiting. +Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles and sinapisms +to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and champagne, +when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up from +seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while the +beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was +then administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; +then, ten to twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the +handkerchief without being measured. During each inhalation the +condition of the patient rapidly improved, but as quickly grew +worse, so that the drug was continued at short intervals all night, +ten grammes in all having been used. In the morning the patient was +better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis was then given in infusion per +rectum, and repeated on the following day, after which the patient +remained comparatively well until a year and a half later, when a +second attack of the kind just described was quickly cut short by +similar treatment.</p> + +<p>Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty +years, who was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The +patient had as many as one hundred watery evacuations in +forty-eight hours, with fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves +of the legs, two attacks of general convulsions--in short, he +presented the picture of a person attacked with cholera. Opium, +champagne, hypodermic injections of sulphuric ether, +counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor was on the +point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, none +being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and +held before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also +rubbed energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became +deeper and more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the +wrist. These procedures were repeated again and again, without +regard to the quantity of the drug used, as soon as the radial +pulse became weaker, and kept up until the patient complained of a +sense of fullness in the head, and requested the discontinuance of +the drug. The evacuations became less frequent, and in a week the +patient was able to be up. Resuming then, Kurz concludes that +nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections when the +capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of +impeded circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, +particularly in the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) +of children. It is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic +seizures, and in tonic angiospasms such as occur during the chill +of malarial fevers, although in the last-mentioned condition +pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, provided the energy of the +heart be unimpaired.</p> + +<p>As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need +not restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be +increased, if necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show +themselves, when the drug should be momentarily or permanently +discontinued. Usually from three to five or ten drops are +sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has met with no unpleasant +consequences, much less serious complications, from the application +of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated in cases +associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions of +the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--<i>Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM.</h2> + +<h3>By ALFRED STILLÉ, M.D.</h3> + +<p>The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be +abandoned to palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such +cases nearly always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and +disabuse yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon +medicines alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No +treatment was ever invented which stopped a case of acute articular +rheumatism. It cannot be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or +purging, by niter, by tartar emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by +salines, by salicylic acid, or by anything else. The physician can +palliate the pain and perhaps shorten the attack, can control and +perhaps prevent complications and stiffness of the joints, but he +cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper diet, and warmth are +enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon without as with the +use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., of New York, in +support of this statement, subjected some patients, a number of +years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they made +just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all +ages in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be +a fever. We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of +a theory. In old times they thought that the system ought to be +reduced. Before the time of purgatives depletion was employed. This +mode of treatment I will not even discuss. There is no evidence of +which I am cognizant in favor of purgatives. There are very good +reasons indeed why they should not be used: (1) Because they cannot +possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the patient to make painful +movements; and (3) because they expose him to the dangers of cold. +A celebrated London physician had all his patients packed in +blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was going +to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never +seen such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a +purgative does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain +in the system. Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was +claimed that it diminished the tendency to complications in the +course of the disease. Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large +doses of opium were well borne--say from four to twelve grains in +the course of twenty-four hours, or sometimes he advised giving as +much as one grain every hour. Opium so employed does not produce +narcotism, and does not constipate the bowels. More recent +experience has shown that opium, of all remedies, is the most +likely to cause heart complications. Some have recommended +colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it must, +therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy for +rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to +administer large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of +these large doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, +Morton, Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this +method. Later still, a number of noted French physicians, among +them Briquet, Andral, Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this +medicine in the form of quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, +seeking only its tonic effect, from five to fifteen grains being +administered in the course of twenty-four hours, and then it was +still continued in smaller doses. Still more recently, quinia +taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old plan of administering +large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the way up to one +hundred grains have been administered in the course of twenty-four +hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to +acknowledge that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I +believe that it has also been fashionable in the so called cases of +hyperpyrexia to immerse the patient in a bath varying in +temperature from 60° to 98° Fahr. Although patients thus +treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes perished from +congestion of the lungs and brain.</p> + +<p>Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album +and viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, +been employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only +proven itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed +it. Such sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the +disease. Indeed, if it is possible to prove the absurdity of +anything more clearly by mere enumeration of these medicines as +cures for rheumatism, I do not know of it. Do digitalis and aconite +act in the same manner? This is just one expression of the folly +which surrounded the use of digitalis at the time of its discovery. +Then every affection of the heart was treated with digitalis.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in +the shape of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I +possess no personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I +was at first dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against +the grounds on which they were recommended, and more recently by +the contradictory judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable +mischief they have sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, +the arrest of the disease is secured by them within four or five +days, whether the attack be febrile or not; its mortality was +diminished; relapses do not occur if the medicine is continued +until full convalescence; it is without influence on the heart +complications already existing, but it tends to prevent them as +well as other serious inflammations. One of these gentlemen assures +us that to say it far excels any other method of treatment would be +to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other hand, it is +accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in almost +all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an +excessively high temperature, panting respiration, profuse +perspiration, albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one +published case this anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the +contrary, seemed actually to raise the temperature so high that +immediately after death it stood at 110° F. Many, very many, +analogous cases have been published. I repeat, therefore, that I am +personally unacquainted with the effects of this medicine in acute +articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far been tempted to +employ it.</p> + +<p>It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and +alkalies in their power to influence the course of acute articular +rheumatism, and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and +in the same way, <i>i. e.</i>, by altering the condition of the +blood from acid to alkaline. If you ask me to explain to you how +blisters act in this way I am obliged to confess my ignorance. To +produce this result they must be applied over all the affected +joints. Experience, if not science, has decided conclusively in +their favor. They do effect a cessation of the local symptoms, +render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of fibrin in the +blood.</p> + +<p>This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. +Alkalies neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the +<i>materies morbi</i>. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable +to influence the course of the disease; but when given in very +large doses their effects are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine +is increased in quantity and becomes alkaline, and the inflammation +subsides. The symptoms of the disease are moderated, the duration +of the attack is shortened, and the cardiac complications are +prevented. The dose of the alkalies must be increased until the +acid secretions are neutralized. A very good combination of these +remedies is the following:</p> + +<pre> +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] +</pre> + +<p>[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.']</p> + +<p>S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until +the urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active +symptoms two grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each +dose. The alkalies must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia +continued. The diet should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread +and milk; no solid food should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened +with alkaline solutions, may with advantage be applied to the +affected joints. To these laudanum may be added for its anodyne +effect. The patient must be sedulously protected from vicissitudes +of the temperature and be in bed between blankets. The alkaline +treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, and saves the heart +by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A long time ago Dr. +Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon juice. This +remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to so help +elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage +of acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of +farinaceous and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and +carbonic acid water as drinks. The cloths applied to the joints +should be changed when they become saturated with sweat, and in +changing them the patient should be protected from the air. The +sweating may be controlled by small doses of atropia, from the +one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To prevent subsequent +stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil and chloroform, +and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this condition +is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan of +treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued must +vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--<i>Medical Gazette</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>METHOD IN MADNESS.</h2> + +<p>No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is +impossible, to define <i>madness</i>, or to give a clearly marked +indication of the boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental +soundness is merged in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which +are so small as to be practically inappreciable. It is with the +mind-state which precedes the development of recognized form of +insanity the therapeutist and the social philosopher are chiefly +interested. Although in individual cases the subject of mental +derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" suddenly, speaking +generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the course of disease, +and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is the expression +has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which consist in +a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or +even developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; +although it is true, and in an important sense, that these passing +storms of excitement or spells of moody depression may--acting +reflexly on the cerebral and nervous centers, as all mind-states +and mind-movements react--exert a morbific influence and lay the +physical bases of mental disease. The consideration most practical +to the community and germane to the question of public safety is, +that in any and every population there must exist a dangerously +large proportion of persons who are always in a condition of mind +to be injuriously influenced by any force which powerfully affects +them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the majority of +such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by the +opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time +of public commotions, but while these are in progress they link +their own consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency +to develop individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby +for the moment repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of +great public excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of +criminals who are more or less reasonably suspected of being +"insane."</p> + +<p>It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, +or the man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United +States of America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection +with each of these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that +the assailants were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We +do not, however, propose to discuss these features of the +respective cases at this juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, +ascertained; but enough is known to warrant an endeavor to clear +the way for future remark by disposing of the objection that the +suspected perpetrator of the Brighton outrage and the would-be +assassin of the President both showed "forethought" and "method." +It is a common formula for the expression of doubt as to the +irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is "method in +his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not +in the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious +of the act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law +of God or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under +an ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or +devil, angel or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these +presumptions apply are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. +Prichard was among the first of English medico-psychologists to +recognize the existence of a more subtle form of disease, which he +termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer supplied the key-note to +this mystery of madness when he propounded the doctrine of +"dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied that +hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow an +expression from the terminology of geological science, +<i>denuding</i>--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to +say, strips off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," +"principle," and "nature," which compose the character. First in +order go the higher moral qualities of the mind; next those which +are the result of personally formed habits; then the inherited +principles of personal and social life; at length the polish which +civilization gives to humanity is lost, and in the process of +denudation the evolutionary elements of man's nature are +progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the level of a +creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the lower +brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far as +it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several +features have been recognized and studied apart. The difference +between the subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, +who has lost all sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is +one of degree. The practical difficulty is to convince the mere +observer that forms of insanity which seem to consist in the loss +of moral qualities and principles <i>only</i>, may be as directly +the effect of brain disease as any of those grosser varieties of +mental disorder which he is perfectly well able to recognize, and +fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause.</p> + +<p>To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we +have said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted +by the invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case +be determined by laws or conditions governing the progress of +disease, perhaps on the lines and in the directions which have been +least well guarded by educationary influences. A man may lose his +faculty of forming a wise judgment long before he is deprived of +the power of distinguishing between right and wrong. This is so +because it is a higher attainment in moral culture to do right +advisedly, than simply to perceive the right thing to do. The +application of principle to conduct is an advance on the mere +recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession of +virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the +great question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole +being, or whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or +error, the direct fruit of limited or special disease. In short, +the insanity of the act must be inferred from the morbid condition +of the brain from which it sprang, rather than from the act itself. +A partially disorganized--or as we prefer to say "denuded"--brain +may be fully capable of sane thought, except on some one topic, and +able to exercise every intellectual function except of a particular +order. Or there may be mental weakness and neurotic susceptibility +in regard to a special class of impressions. It would be difficult +to name any form of act or submission which may not be the outcome +of incipient or limited disease. The practical difficulty is to +avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of disease as willful +offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the supposition or +presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for wrongdoing. +It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in such +madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act +may be sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took +its rise. Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, +there may have been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the +process by which the crime was planned and carried out, and yet +insanity, the effect of brain disease, in the idea by which the +deed was suggested. For example, when a man is suffering from +morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust on some individual, +purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes by which he lays +his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived intention, are +performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is important +to recognize this. There is no difference in <i>nature</i> between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like +offense. There may be as much <i>method</i> in the one instance as +in the other, and the faculties which exhibit this method may be as +sound and effective, but in the one case the idea behind the act is +sane, while in the other it is insane. The brain is not one large +homogeneous organ to be healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, +throughout at any one period. Inflammations, and diseases +generally, which affect the brain as a whole do not commonly cause +insanity properly so called. The organ of the mind is a composite, +or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number or series of which +may be affected with disease while the rest remain healthy. At +present we are only on the threshold of investigation concerning +the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more than +recognize the possibility of <i>molecular</i> disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure +facts of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical +psychologist to predicate disease of recognized classes of brain +elements from the special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is +the line of inquiry, and the result, to which the progress already +made distinctly tends. For the present, the inferences we can +surely draw from known facts are very few; but prominent among the +number are certain which it is all-important to recognize in view +of the judgment which must hereafter be formed on the two cases now +engaging public attention on both sides of the Atlantic. The +existence of method in madness is no marvel, and that +characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The +perpetrators of these heinous offenses against common right and +public safety may be more or less responsible for their acts, and, +so far as these are concerned, more or less sane or insane. The +measure of the morbid element in their individual cases will be the +health or disease of the particular part or element of the brain +from which the offense sprang. The ultimate judgment formed must be +determined upon the basis of scientific tests to be applied to the +action of the brain alleged to be the subject of partial or +incipient disease. There is nothing in the facts as they stand to +supply the materials for a judgment. Precise scientific inquiry can +alone solve the enigma each case presents.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE.</h2> + +<h3>By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo.</h3> + +<p>At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a +word about any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the +practitioner, as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different +manipulations and appliances for the purpose, and enough may be +obtained from the text books. Nevertheless, to call attention to +some useful, or old, or apparently forgotten matter occasionally, +seems not to be amiss, for it refreshes our memory, stimulates us +to think about and keeps before our eyes important subjects. A few +hints on the above, I hope, will therefore be well received.</p> + +<p>The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same +from open wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis +of surgery, but it is also of great importance to the laity, and +especially to those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being +injured. It is astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, +with any method to check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even +the most simple method of pressure is in the majority of such +accidents not resorted to. The sight of a little blood does not +alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many times the strongest of +men; and why? because it naturally creates a feeling of awe and +detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or otherwise, a +crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look on the +poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a run +in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they +are likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid +trickles away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, +but none the right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen +that any one bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming +to their assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic +condition produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe +consequences, and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To +save all the blood possible ought to be apprehended as an important +matter by every one.</p> + +<p>Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my +office, who has been badly injured in some way; he has been +bleeding, perhaps, the distance of several blocks, and arrives +almost faint. In the most of such cases they have something tied +around their wounds, but hardly ever in any manner so as to be +equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional cases you find a +tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, when applied by a +surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that +the pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the +patient prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great +objection.</p> + +<p>Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible +flexion; and though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons +in isolated cases, still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due +the credit of first having systematized the following method:</p> + +<h3>BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS).</h3> + +<p>Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together +upon the back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let +a doppelt bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the +bandages again in front, let one end run over the left, the other +over the right groin back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1)</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15a.png" alt= +"Fig. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>"The illustrations will explain at a glance."</p> + +<h3>BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM.</h3> + +<p>Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon +the upper arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the +arteries near the joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, +then the hand must also be brought into flexion, and secured by a +bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The bandage must always be wrapped around +the wound first.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15b.png" alt= +"Fig. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.</p> + +<h3>BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS).</h3> + +<p>It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of +stopping the hemorrhage from that region temporarily.</p> + +<p>Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), +same as Fig. 3.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15c.png" alt= +"FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis +Post, et Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or +compress under the knee joint, or like Fig. 4.</p> + +<h3>BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS).</h3> + +<p>Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon +the front of the tibia.</p> + +<p>Objections might also be raised to the above method on account +of the pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be +so forced as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be +a little uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. +Furthermore, it has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed +position for several days, "nine by some authors," without any +injury, and with a complete closure of the arteries. We do not +expect, however, that this method of arresting hemorrhage will ever +be adopted as "the" method in surgery, neither will it be necessary +here to point out any cases where the practitioner can have and +under certain circumstances be obliged to have to resort to this +simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by it, for it is +certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily applied in +cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be distant +from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular +lectures or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage +temporarily.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15d.png" alt= +"Fig. 4."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 4.</p> + +<p>The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is +the rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet +almost completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical +knowledge to apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. +Any one can apply it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest +the hemorrhage from a wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage +produces but little pain; the patient is comparatively comfortable +and out of immediate danger and anxiety; while in the meantime the +proper attention can be secured.</p> + +<p>I think it would be well if our health officers would direct +their attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they +do not possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper +tribunal to enact a law that would compel all owners and +corporations of factories, saw, planing, and rolling mills, and, in +fact, every establishment where the laborers are constantly in +danger of accidents, to keep on hand a certain number of strong +rubber bandages, according to the number of men employed, and that +at least several of the men, if not all in every establishment of +that kind, be instructed in the application of the bandage. +Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and railroad +companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know +how to use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that +goes out should have some bandages on board in care of some +employe, who knows how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of +precious blood may thus be saved, and danger to life from this +cause be averted.--<i>Indiana Medical Reporter</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS.</h2> + +<p>Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely +applying to the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces +of flannel dipped in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to +the hand (50-55° C.).--<i>Allg. med. cent. Zeit</i>., January +15, 1881.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND.</h2> + +<p>After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe +condition of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of +sheaf-binding machines, using any other binding material than wire, +instituted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on +Monday morning, the 8th of August. By nine o'clock, the time +appointed for beginning operations, there was a very large number +of gentlemen interested in these trials already collected on the +farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the distances that many of them +had come testified to the importance of the interests involved. The +morning was perfect for reaping, though ominous clouds in the +southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which unfortunately +turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural Society +would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited them +so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and +dry. The published list of the competitors contained twenty +entries, not by as many firms, however, for many names appeared +more than once; but the rules of the society, which objects to +different machines being used for different kinds of corn in these +trials, together with non-attendance for unknown reasons, had +reduced the actual list of competing machines to seven. These were +as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick Harvesting Machine +Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. Samuelson & +Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the +show, except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding +of the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, +barley, and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were +about half an acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, +the judges and engineers of the society having arrived upon the +ground, a start was made upon the oats by the three machines +belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson & Co., and the +Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, be mentioned that +the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal in different +parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the class +which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of +the driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were +extremely neat and well separated from each other, a point to which +farmers attach great importance.</p> + +<p>It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of +every single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an +occasional miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out +unbound. However, with Messrs Samuelson's machine this was +extremely rare, and the neatness of the sheaves produced was +remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop in the portion +allotted to this machine may have had something to do with this, as +a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to connect two +sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other machines +is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. Wood's +machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and the +hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and +was almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester +went through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except +at turning the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a +shorter time than with the other machines. Notwithstanding the +automatic character of the gear for binding, we believe it will be +found that the sheaves produced in these machines vary very much in +weight.</p> + +<p>At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those +of the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and +Messrs. Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the +automatic trip. We believe it made no miss in binding during this +trial, and the sheaves were neat, though, perhaps, rather too +tightly bound. There was no hanging together or check in this run. +The machine of Messrs. Aultman & Co. was not so successful in +separating the sheaves, though this was not so often followed by an +unbound sheaf as in some other machines. Sometimes as many as three +sheaves, clinging closely together, were ejected at one time. To +avoid this a man walked by the machine, and assisted the delivery +of the sheaf. The tension of the string which binds the sheaves +varies a good deal in this machine, some of the sheaves being +rather too loosely held together, while at other times the fault is +in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not +accompanied to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King +attempted a run after the three last had finished their plots; but +his machinery had not been fully adjusted, and after one course the +trial stopped. As far as one could judge from this short +performance, the chief fault in the sheaf produced was the +uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes this was near +the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped +till the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check +to the ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a +heavy downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop +through and through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the +experiments should have been continued at all under circumstances +in which practical harvesting would have been out of the question. +However, after a short lull in the rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, +Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick Harvesting Company went into +the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood worked most rapidly, but +the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to bind were again very +apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the shortest and +most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson and the +McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble in +this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed +to be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was +rather too tight.</p> + +<p>The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, +then attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too +smooth a face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the +gear in the wet condition of the ground. The damp weather had no +doubt tightened up the canvas carriers, and thereby added to the +work to be done; but this was the only machine that was found +incapacitated through the action of the rain. Unfortunately the +plots assigned to this machine and to the Johnston harvester were +in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine was blocked by the +former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. Aultman alone +went through with its work. There was no improvement in the +separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued +singly were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley +trials must be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the +condition of the crop, and it is to be hoped that before the +investigations are brought to a conclusion all these machines may +have a more favorable opportunity of demonstrating the advantages +which are claimed for them. It may be here said that throughout +these trials there has been as yet no wind at all, which, as the +investigations are in other respects to be so thoroughly carried +out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's machine was +as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors.</p> + +<p>The following are the awards of the judges, which were made +known on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. +Silver medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly +commended--Mr. H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating +sheaves. The only gleaning binding machine which entered the field +was that of Mr. J. G. Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but +no official trials of this were made.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="33"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES.</h2> + +<p>Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at +Rochester, give the following directions for setting out and +cultivating strawberries, the result of long and successful +experience, in their recently issued Strawberry Catalogue:</p> + +<p><i>The Soil and Its Preparation</i>.--The strawberry may be +successfully grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary +field or garden crops. The ground should be <i>well</i> prepared, +by trenching or plowing at least eighteen to twenty inches deep, +and be <i>properly enriched</i> as for any garden crop. It is +unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it must be thoroughly +drained.</p> + +<p><i>Season for Transplanting</i>.--In the Northern States, the +season for planting in the spring is during the months of April and +May. It may then be done with safety from the time the plants begin +to grow until they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for +setting out <i>large plantations</i>.</p> + +<p>During the months of August and September, when the weather is +usually hot and dry, <i>pot-grown</i> plants may be planted to the +best advantage. With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they +can be transplanted without any failures, and the trouble and +annoyance of watering, shading, etc., which are indispensable to +the success of layer plants, are thus in a great measure +avoided.</p> + +<h3>GARDEN CULTURE.</h3> + +<p><i>To Cultivate the Strawberry</i>.--For family use, we +recommend planting in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet +wide between. These beds will accommodate three rows of plants, +which may stand fifteen inches apart each way, and the outside row +nine inches from the alley. These beds can be kept clean, and the +fruit can be gathered from them without setting the feet upon +them.</p> + +<p><i>Culture in Hills</i>.--This is the best mode that can be +adopted for the garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored +fruit, pinch off the runners as fast as they appear, repeating the +operation as often as may be necessary during the summer. Every +runner thus removed produces a new crown at the center of the +plant, and in the fall the plants will have formed large bushes or +stools, on which the finest strawberries may be expected the +following season. In the meantime, the ground among the plants +should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe or +fork.</p> + +<p><i>Covering in Winter</i>.--Where the winters are severe, with +little snow for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, +or the branches of evergreens, will be of great service. This +covering should not be placed over the plants till after the ground +is frozen, usually from the middle of November till the first of +December in this locality. Fatal errors are often made by putting +on <i>too much</i> and <i>too early</i>. Care must also be taken to +remove the covering in spring just as soon as the plants begin to +grow.</p> + +<p><i>Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean</i>.--Before the fruit +begins to ripen, mulch the ground among the plants with short hay +or straw, or grass mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. +This will not only keep the fruit clean, but will prevent the +ground from drying and baking, and thus lengthen the fruiting +season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch.</p> + +<p>A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should +then be spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the +meantime prepared to take its place.</p> + +<h3>FIELD CULTURE.</h3> + +<p>The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, +protection, and mulching, as given above, are applicable when +planting on a large scale.</p> + +<p><i>The Matted Row System</i>.--The mode of growing usually +pursued has its advantages for field culture, but cannot be +recommended for the garden. In the field we usually plant in rows +three to four feet apart, and the plants a foot to a foot and a +half apart in the row. In this case much of the labor is performed +with the horse and cultivator.</p> + +<p><i>How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an +Acre</i>.--The number of plants required for an acre, at any given +distance apart, may be ascertained by dividing the number of square +feet in an acre (43,560) by the number of square feet given to each +plant, which is obtained by multiplying the distance between rows +by the distance between the plants. Thus strawberries planted three +feet by one foot give each plant three square feet, or 14,520 +plants to the acre.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="34"></a></p> + +<h2>SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER.</h2> + +<p>Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is +wonderful how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As +tender plants, except the few that may have been wintered in +windows and cellars, are beyond the reach of most of our country +folks, I will consider those only that are perfectly hardy and in +full blossom now, July 21.</p> + +<p>Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and +otherwise variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their +race, and as different varieties succeed one another, they may be +had in bloom from June till August. They are easily raised from +seed or by division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly +shaded place, their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine.</p> + +<p>Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is +at its best; <i>speciosum</i>, tiger, and American Turk's cap +lilies are yet to follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done +better this year than any of the other sorts in open places. Most +of the yellow day lilies are past, but the tawny one is at its +best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive alike in wild or +cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day lily) has pale +bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well +enough, but their leaves get "scorched."</p> + +<p>The European meadow sweet (<i>Spiraea ulmaria</i>), two feet +high, and the Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the +double varieties are far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the +single ones. They will grow anywhere. There are many fine kinds of +sedum or liveforever in season; some of them like <i>album</i> +(white), <i>pulchellum</i> (pink), <i>spurium splendens</i> (pink), +<i>hispanicum</i> (white), may more properly be called stonecups, +but the stronger-growing sorts, as <i>S. warscewiczii</i> (yellow), +should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny places, +and dislike artificial waterings.</p> + +<p><i>Dicentra eximia</i> (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and +a perpetual bloomer, as is also <i>Corydalis lutea</i> (yellow). +The climbing fumitory comes up of itself from seed every year, and +is now running over bushes, stakes, and strings, and is full of +fern-like leaves and flesh-colored flowers. The long, scarlet wands +of <i>Pentstemon barbatus</i> are conspicuous in the borders; this +should be in every garden, it is so profuse and hardy. Many +speedwells still remain in fine condition, notably <i>Veronica +longifolia;</i> they are a hardy and a showy race of plants, and +will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are past, +but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; +its massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, +and once established it is hard to get rid of.</p> + +<p>Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as +the carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common +harebell, and vase harebell. In the case of many of the +tall-growing kinds, better results are obtained by treating them as +biennials than perennials. No garden should be without the double +white feverfew; the more you cut it the more it blooms. <i>Anthemis +tinctoria</i>, yellow or white, the yellow is by far the best, and +the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved and eared +coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise the +yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in any +ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. +Many kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful +appearance; they love moist soil.</p> + +<p>In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant +in bloom than the tall bugbane (<i>Cimicifuga racemosa</i>); from a +bunch of thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy +white, and six feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many +varieties are nearly past, but the large-flowered, Haag's, and +others of that section, are in their prime, and showy plants they +are. They are true and lasting perennials, bloom well the first +season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and effective; any ordinary +garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large purple heads; the +false dragonhead (<i>Physostegia</i>), pale rose-purple spikes; +centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of yellow, +blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of +the ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any +extent. It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the +evening primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; +<i>speciosa</i>, white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; +<i>glauca, riparia, fruticera</i>, and <i>linearis</i>, all yellow; +many others, though perennial, are best treated as annual or +biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted by the water's edge of a +pond is far finer than in the garden border. It has hundreds of red +spikes.</p> + +<p>Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, <i>Scabiosa, +Gallium</i>, Chinese <i>Astilbe</i>, various kinds of loosestrife +(<i>Lysimachia</i>), and many others as perennials, and +<i>Coreopsis</i>, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, stocks, Swan river +daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, morning glories, +larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, verbenas, +petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single poppies, +snapdragons, <i>Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia</i>, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue <i>Anchusa, Gaillardia</i>, and a multitude +besides of seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily +without a frame or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for +having a flowerless garden in midsummer?--<i>William Falconer, in +Country Gentleman</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="35"></a></p> + +<h2>THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH.</h2> + +<p>Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, +Buckingham township, is authority for the statement that there are +about twenty-two match factories in the United States and Canada, +and that the daily production--and consequent daily consumption--is +about twenty-five thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer +statement to make that one hundred thousand hours of each +successive day are spent by the people of the two countries in +striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. In each gross +of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the 25,000 +gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made in +the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches +produced and used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it +takes a second to light each match--and it is questionable whether +it can be done in less time than that, while some men occupy +several minutes sometimes in trying to strike a light, particularly +when boozy--to light the 360,000,000 would take just that number of +seconds. This gives 6,000,000 minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of +twenty-four hours each it figures up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven +years and five months with a couple of days extra, as the time +occupied during every twenty-four hours, by the people of North +America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking matches. +Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in each year. +The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--<i>Ottawa Free Press</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>37 Park Row, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +35 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for +procuring advances on inventions. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8408] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 9, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 299 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299 + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + +[Illustration] + + + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development + of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine + boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine + engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative + efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers + + Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.-- + Transverse and longitudinal sections + + Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure + + Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure + + Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger + + Railway Alarm Whistle + + Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure + + Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication + of manometer + + Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal + metal moulding apparatus + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's + wood pulp apparatus + + Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address, + Convention of Mechanical Engineers + + The Hoboken Drainage Problem + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements + in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON + + Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.-- + I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating + apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures + + How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON + + The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational + Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's + apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold + + The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases + + New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure + + Advance in the Price of Glycerine + + Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes + + Nitrate of Amyl + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery + + Lightning and Telephone Wires + + Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity + + The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill + + Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M. + A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- + Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- + Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum + +IV. MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism. + By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D. + + Method in Madness + + Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD + BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the + upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot + + Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture + of Powder + + Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England + + The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture + + Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer + + The Time Consuming Match + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art. + 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris + + Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.-- + 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans + +VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHILLE DELESSE. + + +The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting +_resume_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take +the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum +of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, +Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he +left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the +student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which +he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon +arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by +having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and +geology in the Faculty at Besancon, where Delesse at the same time +fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned +to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy +of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the +conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued +his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. +The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name +was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied +also, and with success, the interesting modifications called +pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their +magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided +him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has +rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin +and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by +investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent +and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of +analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived +from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites +and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study +and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed +further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of +science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order +of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The +mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in +the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention. +The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed +out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the +principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance +attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case +the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks. + +It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that +Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as +well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published +on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits +which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of +interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there, +indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for +in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents, +they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products +of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of +submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his +own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des +Progres de la Geologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" +for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a +less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications +of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the +under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of +water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were +represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form. +His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of +railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of +daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse +never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having +in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had +occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of +drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology +at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of +Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of +France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which, +to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons +there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a +citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department. + +His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th +of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two +years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society; +he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to +enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work. +He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his +intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the +reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he +addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness +and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his +profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th +of March.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT, +PARIS. + +(From The Workshop)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY. + + +On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging +to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting +ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals. +In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson +determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general +appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful +in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early +resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for +the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating +the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. +Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical +engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent +lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a +large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West. +Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were +received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting +the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the +framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James +Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth +of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face, +twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady +flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired +light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most +systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in +which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an +outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also +connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight +contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the +effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite +safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention +was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or +generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power +was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the +generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the +roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at +No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the +workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the +cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in +diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe +handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down +the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the +shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways +and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one +of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful +inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed +in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of +Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the +first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were +then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they +witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of +course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing +down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the +party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES. + + +M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingenieur-Conseil_ on the +above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best +and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire +to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of +the induction coils, which it might fuse. + +Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to +one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire. +The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful +current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M. +Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the +same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the +wires, and been by them conveyed to earth. + +This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that +there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly +upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells, +or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel +and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of +electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron; +consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick +were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface +of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square +meters must be established. + +It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On +the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the +terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be +absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds +than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning +conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of +contact with the earth. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY. + + +The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the +alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the +influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged +so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with +positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed +at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in +negative flames. + +A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own +conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and +also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the +flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these +results: + +When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a +metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface +according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the +point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform +more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a +conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame +will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer, +the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be +attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the +lower dark body of flame is also repulsed. + +This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire +gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive +flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small +fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it. + +All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a +stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame, +and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be +obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the +influence of a long "Holtz" machine. + +A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the +negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric +intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar +stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames +rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen +are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is +more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar +differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar +conductivity of the substances. + +The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point +of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by +conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows +similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive. +Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two +ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base +of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with +the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's +theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further +supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by +Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative +electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive +electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in +Wiedemanris Beiblaetter to Poggendorfs Annalen._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL. + + +The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the +various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent +something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and +quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed +wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was +given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble +in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and +during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway +head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that +where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that +should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or +strand of the machine. + +This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is +now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder, +intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance, +too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several +thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied. + +This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a +somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved, +and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been +made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and +accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of +which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in +putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed, +and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be +un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been +taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the +working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself. + +To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the +railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the +practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of +this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from +a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or +whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and +this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft. +The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a +half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power +than a light-running sewing machine. + +One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod +or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the +other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity +of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An +armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a +strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet +wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or +stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving +belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by +a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the +case of a breakage of a thread or strand. + +As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with +the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton +is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet +breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the +calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a +stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a +number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used +for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the +card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver +is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering +cotton. + +In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage +between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts; +in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or +in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either +case a stoppage would be instantly produced. + +In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back +can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of +the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to +the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or +tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier. + +There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With +mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple +contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be +had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical +changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical +attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France, +and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more +extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile +Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE. + +[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical +Engineers by F.C.Marshall.] + + +The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting +in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in +Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound +Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue +the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and +if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no +we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick +Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what +direction we are to look for further development. + +From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher, +the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much +smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the +same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to +1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent. + + +MARINE ENGINES. + +The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler. +The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in +the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1) +The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at +right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally +the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other, +but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one +crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two +pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently +three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The +system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the +same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft. + +These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being +manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the +screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace +nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be +oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft. + +The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be +said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the +relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound +expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of +our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor +of the latter. + + +THE MARINE BOILER. + +The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it +was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and +sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers +under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The +double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically +efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the +writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large +power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more +room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and +therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found +in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their +length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the +top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large +part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now +been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention +given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler +itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the +feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful +management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of +larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more +perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is +that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, +but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the +variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the +furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening +afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction, +and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace +action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler +may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives +greater steam space. + +A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a +locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power +developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the +cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural +draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a +consumption of fuel not exceeding 21/2 lb. per indicated horse-power per +hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in +the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen +below 21/2 square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape +of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the +incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of +the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's +attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine +work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to +steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty +lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very +limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure +or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either +exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would +be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case +with our miners, must work under a pressure of air. + + +STEEL BOILERS. + +The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of +steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from +six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the +works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no +case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler, +either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode +of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch +to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before +rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting +the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints +treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after +rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length, +and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube +plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and +front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it +is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they +are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical +boilersmith. + + +CORROSION OF BOILERS. + +The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as +time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel +boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made; +and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting +or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very +carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace +anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in +washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence +of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the +other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use +zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one +of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, +exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty +indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc +we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months +or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no +corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have +taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with +them." + + +HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED. + +Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due +attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping +authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity +is worth on an average L10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming, +therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel +to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of +materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing +the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth L1,000 per annum more to +her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is +shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and +all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power: + + Lb. per I. H. P. + + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 + + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 + +The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of +the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much +reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working. +The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but +it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some +other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we +must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be +of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by +reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of +revolutions per minute. + +It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent +upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This +process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the +column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of +it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then +fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is +usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers +will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful +design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the +substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine +to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. +A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of +the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving +parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one +structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the +cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such +conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their +place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight +of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with +thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned. + + +CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES. + +Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving +has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table: + + Item. 1872. 1881. + + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 + +This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of +the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system +would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to +feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the +results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel +on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the +forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung +pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the +great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces +as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler. + +Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements +of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total +disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that, +according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to +20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total +disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will +represent to-day about L3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, +the cost would have been L3,750--showing a saving of L750, equal to a +dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost +of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 161/2d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d. + + +EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS. + +The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of +steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will +be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than +that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency +of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air +is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the +efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the +heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled, +while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used +in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the +ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as +follows: + +W = (P + 15) (S + D squared L) / C + +or W = 2S (P + 15) / C + +when S = D squared L, which is a common proportion. + + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. + +This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the +relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb. +and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency +10 per cent, as follows: + +Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C + +Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C + +Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5 + +In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two +and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel +of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power, +the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place +at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing +L1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel. + + +MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. + +Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler +for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced +by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of +water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of +7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212 deg. Fahr., with 2 in. of water +pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are low, +but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily +small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel +consequently high, ranging from 1,073 deg. at the first pressure, and 1,444 deg. +at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive practice the +efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler when working +under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from 3 in. to 4 in., +including funnel draught. + +It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently +with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results, +even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure +of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse +power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working +by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed. + +Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged +against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not +reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total +working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven +atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165 +lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a +gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into +play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of +the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the +cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages. + +In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing +the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages, +and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not +be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause +of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully +chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to +1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. +With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very +good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has +another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure +can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater +amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, +of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of +separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity. + +The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic +properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are, +it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all +that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as +an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use +10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power. + +Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a +definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is +stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver +class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with +scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the +framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine. + +It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface +of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface +one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2 +square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found +1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of +271/2 inches. + +Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin +screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each +case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating +1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without +stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or +had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these +engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and +connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 +lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout +of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In +comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the +double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as +follows: + + Double ended Type. Navy Type. + + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. + + +SCREW PROPELLERS. + +The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We +have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of +the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by +reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase +the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet +3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be +qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite +resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made +too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required +speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too +large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on +which a separate paper should be written. + +To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years, +and in the following particulars: + +1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2. +Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of +all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38 +per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much +less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly +all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for +20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much +increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now +being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard +pressure now required. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES. + + +The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are +doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description +of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Societe des +Anciens Eleves d'Arts et Metiers_: + +All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the +inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the +high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient +has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service +(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of +locomotion of the city. + +The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of +separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of +Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that +the problem would be successfully solved. + +There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to +the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply +of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a +central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered +on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except +the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the +central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs +for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best +utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls +and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy, +for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats. + +[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.] + +The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction +of all concerned, and especially to that of the public. + +The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed +of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions +are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 31/4 feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal +distance between the two shells is 71/4 feet. These hulls, having +absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat +iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to +support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the +engine-room. The engine-room, which is 191/2 feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak. +The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of +the escape of hot air. + +The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely +from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves +on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two +sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from +the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides. + +Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been +provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary. + +The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a +floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches, +is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or +for office purposes, if need be. + +The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows: + + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ + + Total...........................41,800 " + +or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum +draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 41/2 miles per hour, a +great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross +in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking +place therein. + +The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of +which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving +as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston +has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 31/4 feet diameter) +to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide +surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., +because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the +shaft. + +The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace +and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being +effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested +up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the +engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of +the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning, +and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun +indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the +engine-room. + +Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have +proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for +which they were built. + + * * * * * + + + + +OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK. + + +In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve +Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored +in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the +new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock +at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500 +ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. +wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount +of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south +quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. +long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 +ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to +8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about L300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234 +yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at +a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners, +whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of +Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of +their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the +"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales +Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer +Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, +accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing +through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which +a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping +forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the +gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh +Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a +battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a +party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having +gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His +Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the +officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded +to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion +was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News, +Aug. 6._ + +[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR. + + +The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of +grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted +with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by +diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or +lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be +elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to +the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway +truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable +bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain +their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the +bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing +machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before +it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its +means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability +to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the +claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the +advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DREDGER. + + +We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of +Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine +consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick. +This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as +shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through +about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with +mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be +imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick +jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge +and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam +engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of +these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow +water.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE. + + +In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or +snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway +Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which +is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated +metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a +projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush +when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the +positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in +communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire +leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the +brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery +in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over +the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to +be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON. + + +Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur +over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll +brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible; +but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial +product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial +purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for +charcoal and pyrites for brimstone. + +The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith, +have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical +conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the +retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction +of the sulphur and carbon takes place. + +The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B, +furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it +descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the +fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through +the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided +into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated +by the fireplace, L'. + +[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.] + +The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the +condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is +deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the +partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and +V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the +sulphide of carbon being regulated. + +The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without +much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation. + +Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system +recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the +operation may be watched and conducted. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER. + + +Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing +graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works +during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system +of piping. + +For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but, +although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form +and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and +then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place. + +Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being +very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the +hour at which the pressure is exerted. + +The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a +circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in +motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base, +E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which +supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in +such a manner as not to impede its rotation. + +In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes +through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts +the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of +the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided +with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose +axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the +middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each +side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord +is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is +fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters +the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the +combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. +The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise. + +In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a +sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as +the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running +horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to +the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be +in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be +readily understood. + +[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.] + +When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and +consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which +carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the +pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction. + +The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible +curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the +point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen, +and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness. + +It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the +tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the +diameters of the pulleys, N and O. + +The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either +in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to +connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where +the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber +tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as +glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the +results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared. + + * * * * * + + + + +CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS. + + +The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of +Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects +in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the +nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is +to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where +it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or +pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded +or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic +core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, +and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be +cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g, +g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty, +and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the +cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece +and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of +circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a +flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. +As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are +pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into +the mould. + +[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.] + +The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows +it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments, +g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal +cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact +with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may, +however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas +into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting +is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, +or hydrogen. + +This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which +do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged +eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the +cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed +at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the +points where the radius is greater. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The +sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the +axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal +during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP. + + +For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as +represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical +reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This +reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which +has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of +tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of +the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the +boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine +atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are +provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, +D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being +interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an +active circulation in both the tubing and boiler. + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2] + +To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and +there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been +divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is +filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the +incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there +is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a +perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when +the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler +is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, +are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, +the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature +is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the +incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and +B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the +latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to +allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100 deg. +in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been +allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected +by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam +under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the +contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed +with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a +complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities +of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, +and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which +is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied. + +In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of +safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a +thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and +a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a +gauge-cock, H. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. + + +The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an +abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper. + +He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in +Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to +one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest +engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the +locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age +to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and +therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner. +He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George +Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the +Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported +by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its +members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has +increased in strength and importance. + +The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of +fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be +mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which +disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes +must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by +good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon +the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an +unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet +such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to +greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing +that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at +once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. +Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is +occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary +imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting +manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the +benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have +been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to +increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of +the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their +exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, +beet-root sugar. + +One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it +may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that +whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost +all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their +excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England, +they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine +engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced +by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American +merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in +English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at +sea. + +Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their +manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has +now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many +articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial +province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring +them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite +iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried +out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country. + +Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in +our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry +on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they +be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and +possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us +to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to +manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is +of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most +essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded. + +Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from +sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the +greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real +or important from having been gradual, while the result to this +neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great +measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly +of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher +pressure. + +The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved, +and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of +traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the +careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly +the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is +floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is +pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the +rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the +melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance. + +No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely +to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements +of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and +arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the +use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year. + +Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in +the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed +during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory +engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers" +have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is +very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole +water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum +without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only +raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of +its large volume. + +Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in +machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher +pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure. +Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both +for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be +again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at +continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; +we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion +practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially +the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out +to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing, +of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can +see nothing else will want doing for some time." + +A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in +reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the +mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties +and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the +river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down +grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment, +thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great +improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement +was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the +river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped +that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to +improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with +comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a +tunnel would involve. + +Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses +by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr. +Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed +one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such +numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its +various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens +of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St. +Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses, +and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the +elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples +of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The +lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power +of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful +electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between +the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of +the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will +be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher +percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become +more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been +obtained. + +The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field +of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose +of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very +considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands +of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in +Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild +steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam +boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of +purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door +frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the +manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging +fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany. +Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of +sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel +sleepers should also be used for tramways. + +If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making +a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig +metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by +several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets +where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be +afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the +heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making +tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking +this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet. + +The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by +hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are +twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or +3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the +lead in a manufacture. + +Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly +valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine, +which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all; +and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside +of piers in water. + +In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years. +Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it +being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine," +obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of +producing the various brilliant dyes now so common. + +New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases +by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at +a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and +water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves +the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some +steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has +been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again, +large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved +glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have +cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely +on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened +glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved +and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again +been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly +extended knowledge of the laws of optics. + +Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the +various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent +records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have +been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural; +for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme +magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the +architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent +the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the +naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings +still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has +always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last; +and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope +developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our +Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite +in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone. + +There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and +it is this. + +When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors +of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years, +one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who +have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers, +should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For +instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was, +in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor +Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from +those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings. + +It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been +forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and +among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir +Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph +Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir +Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James +Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir +Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick +Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an +improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter +part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of +thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous +small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM. + + +Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a +large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within +the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river +and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken. +Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands +or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh +is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long, +extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted +vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass +of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original +tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at +Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by +the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average +level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot +and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are +but two feet above mean high water. + +During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high +spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to +cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water +at high tide has been 41/2 feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot +or more above the established grade of the streets. + +The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly +habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm +waters. + +The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago; +since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other +devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature +in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed +and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the +Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann +and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the +City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in +Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely +to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction. + +There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First, +by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by +making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by +steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the +cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of +houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as +being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same +position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that +the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested +by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system +has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and +First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where +a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water +(except during storms) by means of a private pump. + +The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates +in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in +contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal +sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be +about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will +necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands +to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of +raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping +system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water +and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including +interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on +the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve. + +According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report +of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will +ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the +heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of +sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount +of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually +as the marsh land is built upon. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK." + + +Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the +sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of +Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the +soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the +ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such +a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an +ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over +which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The +drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external +stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the +garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged +on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A +tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are +on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at +the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used +throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with +ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge +boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front, +over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself. +The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and +the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended +its erection.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES. + +[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle. + + +The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller +number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes +employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then +briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam +desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and +in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of +Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should +commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means +are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the +Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the +lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 +in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a +sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into +the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently +erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each +pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the +pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover, +with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried +to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is +placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each +pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the +lower pot. The mode of working is as follows: + +The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane. +When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or +working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation. + +When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in +order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it +setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced. + +To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate +is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform +distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of +crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed +to play on the surface of the lead. + +This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface; +but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner +in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition +caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced +up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time +the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the +charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in +rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of +the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it. + +Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third +liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the +crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps +out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the +crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates. + +The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of +the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed, +they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of +the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the +lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is +crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot, +from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for +tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes. + +Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with +lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the +liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a +similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals, +by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to +run among the crystals. + +The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are +so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for +market. + +The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in +a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent +operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old +six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a +saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of +calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of +all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of +two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger +original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and +repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with +increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the +last two or three years. + +The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs. +Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them +about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on +the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of +it: + +A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a +point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or +the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount +of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the +ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 11/2 per cent, of +the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of +this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the +charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by +continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is +seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that +of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and +carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being +taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again +applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a +further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is +added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is +repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining +portion--1/4 per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has +been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely +desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some +works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but +at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by +subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc +crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by +allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are +placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a +portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in +silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner. +The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is +as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used. + +Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet +the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead +is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead +into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into +large blocks of 31/2 tons. These 31/2 ton blocks are taken on a bogie to the +mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means +of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only. + +Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large +casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This +block, weighing 101/2 tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same +crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along +to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging +head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those +of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always +working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch +and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, +in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time +extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method +there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear +contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows: + +In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead +sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before +it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of +the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars. + +In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is +fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by +power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine, +or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired +point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the +knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic +reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife +1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent +exactly. + +Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest +improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives, +which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at +will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the +longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but +one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's +opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet +with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last +length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane +lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway +communicating with the shipping quay. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION. + + +The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty +liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products +are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and, +therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden +handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which +can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring +arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades +formed like a ship's screw. + +The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of +a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed +by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine +point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for +it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream +into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only +necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up +after a short time. + +Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed +to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great +quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is +retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon +as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is +emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle +replaced in it. + +If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity +of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be +further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid +being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed, +nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing +to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the +emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations. + + +II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. + +It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by +boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which +will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also +be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates, +as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the +thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple +contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through +a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made +air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas +is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its +deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether +floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute +opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, +the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the +shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until +it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the +power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out, +being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support +a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the +opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By +removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is +raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes +wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + +III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS. + +The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented +by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely +dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a +wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of +which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in +the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together +by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron +transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the +crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n. + +The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of +fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for +working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped +through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung +upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops +upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as +possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is +completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung, +and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water. +When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels +like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed +through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it +will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the +crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and +q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s +s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed +through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small +apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power +that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass. + + +IV.--WASHING APPARATUS. + +The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred +to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent +improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are +incorporated. It may be described as follows: + +A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel, +rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a +double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes +the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel +upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at +the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched +at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. +The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the +water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place +the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus +fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of +the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the +largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the +supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty. + +The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again, +and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly +to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel +that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o +p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent +the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the +sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the +sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, +the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, +represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way +every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing +provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus +fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly +been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and +thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the +moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of +washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of +water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever +wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over +and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a +time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in +a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed +once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be +withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. +In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is +avoided, and there is no loss of material. + +This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities, +since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of +the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain +that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not +wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to +the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, +of Photography_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER. + +By A. L. HENDERSON. + + +Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the +difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is +very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather +is the culprit. + +I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when +emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down +before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity, +so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is +impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice. + +I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92 deg. in the +shade, and the washing water at 78 deg.) as follows: + + Hard gelatine...............,...... 1/2 ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. + +When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120 deg. temperature, add, +stirring all the time, + + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. 3/4 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 3/4 " + +Then again add, + + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " + +Both solutions being warmed to about 120 deg. + +My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to +many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of +ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of +the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added +in a much more concentrated state. + +The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most +important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It +allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of +alcohol (say about 10 ounces). + +After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in +slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping +the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the +bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to +pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small +pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to +ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating. + +By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about +five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is +devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers. + +One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of +gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts; +no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has +been precipitated.--_Photographic News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF +LOW TEMPERATURES. + +By RAOUL PICTET. + + +The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the +maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence +of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in +presence of each other in an alembic. + +If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which +succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with +one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem +becomes exceedingly complex. + +[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY +COLD.] + +In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may +be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of +propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively +constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of +liquids. + +I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we +calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of +alcohol and water? + +Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we +take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the +value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results +of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish +the following laws: + +a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a +mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure +water and that of pure alcohol. + +b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as +the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the +tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water. + +c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures +of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one +factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic +solution. + +It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and +water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a +certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. + +We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the +laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the +vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids, +water and alcohol. + +II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes, +what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it? + +In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of +water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in +the same proportion as the liquids? + +We have discovered the following laws: + +d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol +varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not +in simple proportion thereto. + +e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the temperature. + +f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures +that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of +alcohol. + +g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two +liquids tend to become equalized. + +We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and +to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum +tensions, in the following way: + +Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol +and water, plunge it into water of 20 deg.C., and put its interior in +hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump. + +We vaporize at 20 deg. a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors +fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the +interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be +constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and +with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of +vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and +communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first, +plunged into the same water at 20 deg. Care must be taken beforehand to +create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube. + +On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the +same temperature as that at which they were formed. + +We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation +of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very +perceptibly risen. + +If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube, +we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the +first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the +least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube. + +This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be +attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of +alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump, +and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical +work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this +difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the +condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete +identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the +tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of +the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of +equivalence. + +It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water, +and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid +of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors. + +III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact: +When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered, +can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected +with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated +experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the +following laws: + +If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected +by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after +driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the +warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that: + +h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases +with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers. + +i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is +constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers, +whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers. + +k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say, +to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their +thickness. + +l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus +throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a +considerable degree, especially at low temperatures. + +Thus, water distilling between 100 deg. and 60 deg. will pass over as quickly +as that which is distilling between 40 deg. and 0 deg. Absolute temperature is +without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign gas be got rid +of. + +The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are +inevitable in practice. + +The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to +make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one +of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results +simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar, +and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of +different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads: + +1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the +alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of +the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain +quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile +substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and +bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of +the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the +essential oils. + +The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is +to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils, +water, ether, and foreign alcohols. + +The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely +complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the +present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between +78.5 deg. and 100 deg. The successive condensation and vaporization of the +vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a +partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively +as products of rectification: + +1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and +impure alcohols. + +2. Fine alcohol. + +3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils. + +Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and +that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same +lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations. +Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine +alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing, +that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by +the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely +pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent. + +Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in +rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which +they must operate. Between 78 deg. and 100 deg. the tension of the vapors of all +the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them; they +all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of +rectification. + +We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain +that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is +maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish +some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render +variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2), +render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid. + +Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its +ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition +without changing such temperatures when once obtained. + +It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles +Industriels, at Paris. + +By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form +a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at +temperatures as low as -40 deg. or even -50 deg. They verify experimentally, by +their operation, the theoretical deductions which precede. The boilers, +A, which, in an industrial application, may be more numerous, receive +their supply of spirits from the country distilleries in the vicinity of +the factory. There may even be introduced directly into them _vinasses_, +or washes, that is to say, liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic +fermentation. + +Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates +inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser, +which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by +means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above. + +On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation +pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a +current of water which goes to the reservoir above. + +The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which +are collected in the reservoir, E. + +When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir, +and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over, +the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding +valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a +communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The +office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification +is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the +entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the +liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance. + +The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum, +according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller +will have to be guided in this by practice alone. + +The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there the +liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum. As we +have before said, their temperature falls immediately and spontaneously. +The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost solely pure +alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the first +distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging between -10 deg. +and +5 deg. Their temperature is shown by a thermometer running into the +boiler, F. + +These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a +second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H, +filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those +which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under +the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a +constant temperature of -25 deg. to -30 deg. in the refrigerator. The vapors of +alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold liquid +alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator. + +By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon +the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising +therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the +reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir, +L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine +keeps up of itself alone the two operations. + +In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous +anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the +first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine +keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the +surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without +necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current +of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to +pass into the worm of the boiler. + +We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by +the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are +performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are +effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight +of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one +kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the +liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires +only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature +in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of +fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less +quantity of water to be distilled. + +Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering +on +50 deg. to +60 deg., and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily obtained +a temperature of -30 deg. to -40 deg., there is at our disposal a range of +temperature of nearly 100 deg., an immense difference compared with that +which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus. Thanks to this powerful +factor, which is manageable at will, we can take directly from the +apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual methods. + +We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of +alcohol is as active as at near 100 deg. + +For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator, +the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the +operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid +condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler; +and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect +vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is +to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such +a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole +apparatus; from 60 deg. to 20 deg. in the first operation, and from 0 deg. to -40 deg. +in the second. We may add that the regulation of the valve is extremely +easy, because of the screw which actuates it. + +To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may +say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a +single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification, +or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low +temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even +by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the +temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4. +Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult +to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being +performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the +same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of +the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases +entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the +interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in +_personnel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS. + +[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a +series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from +the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the +solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too +much room for insertion in these columns.] + +By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B., +F.C.S. + + +Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came +into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this +peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other +metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the +present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best +effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt +takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the +precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the +best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of +certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of +copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid +in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of +ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic +decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully +accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert +them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the +purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the +separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a +nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other +electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper, +zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth, +and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, +may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic +methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process. + + +DETERMINATION OF COBALT. + +Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt +salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to +electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed +into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is +deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the +potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt +carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic +cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or +dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is +repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic +condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily +and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the +corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double +salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just +sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only +slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the +cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the +ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three +or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_ +solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt +as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction +has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small +sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive +electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off. +The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess +of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether. +The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100 deg. C., and in the +course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained. + +[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used +for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative +electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p. +46.] + + +DETERMINATION OF NICKEL. + +This process is precisely identical with the previously described method +for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution, +which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The +separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel +is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the +electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF IRON. + +For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the +sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously +described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a +sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron +compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright, +steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be +exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation +taking place. + + +DETERMINATION OF ZINC. + +Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily +and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc +has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The +separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is +only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the +dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid. + + +DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE. + +It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from +its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is +only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount +of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish +without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into +the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and +submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be +deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the +complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide +does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4). + + +DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH. + +This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal +is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is +always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated +from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally, +from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a +surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then, +if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol, +and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small +quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected +on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an +excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of +bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the +peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the +last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with +alcohol and anhydrous ether. + + +DETERMINATION OF LEAD. + +The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When +the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere +firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode, +it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the +solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted. + +If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the +lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly +oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without +decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of +illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be +recommended. + + +DETERMINATION OF COPPER. + +The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double +ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate +is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of +this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such +circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the +electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of +330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme +metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes. + + +DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM. + +When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the +electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray +coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but, +however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing. + + +DETERMINATION OF TIN. + +Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from +its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium +oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the +ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation +becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite +pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid +solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes +place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the +ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum +dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on +the electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. + +Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric +acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode. +If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the +antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly +to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating +may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the +separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be +very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts. + +To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide +is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with +ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the +addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a +fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very +firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly, +_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong. + +When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured +off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner. + + +DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC. + +Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been +added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution, +a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed +through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time, +all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3). + + +SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE. + +If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium +oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes +its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the +positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When +the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to +separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a +considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two +metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide +is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited. +This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better +still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both +cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed +by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater +portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the +coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins. + +Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three +or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid, +which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of +manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very +rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is +more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a +much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the +two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in +oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until +the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action. + +It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ +too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only +to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in +consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve +the peroxide. + +When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current +to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly +to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the +liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the +electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the +determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium +oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion +of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to +decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate +is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in +a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such. + + +SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. + +The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many +difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed +by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum +oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be +submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be +deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while +the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity +of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate +produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place +the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in +which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is +observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in +excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been +neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid +solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid +ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to +3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly +submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been +precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all +the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter +may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove. + +In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron +from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously +having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis +is continued. + +In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from +the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added, +and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is +determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less +than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results. +With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate +of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the +interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte +der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER. + + +In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two +species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to +a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America. +Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and +directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of +the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is +obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall +ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain. + +There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many +years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold +at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a +secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant, +Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried +and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing +abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian +province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the +manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year +the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the +dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those +countries. + +Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is +probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far +the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia. + +There is also very little information published regarding either the +mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native +home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they +are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the +contrary notwithstanding.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.] + +The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of +Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living +authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that +region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus +_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is +nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our +mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it +appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native +home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of +Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to +whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were +not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one +person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be +gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants. + +As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native +home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the +fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information +regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For +similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small +quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in +other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people +are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country +becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of +_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant +for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of +Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in +my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without +any care much better than many other things. I should say from this +experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself +to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, +another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation, +either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of +all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly +hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this +continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully +grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents +report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special +mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious +attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in +France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best +we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of +pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of +clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of +water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is +the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is +from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the +weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds +are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some +vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five +or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the +germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants +make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough +they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength. +Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, +however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the +pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and +continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the +plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even +during severe winters. + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrethre du Caucase (P. +Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only +a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's +paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report +of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. +223-331.] + +The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and +as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet +an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The +plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of +the garden or other perennial Compositae. + +As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a +native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum +cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the +California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of +"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to +most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco +gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more +particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, +sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with +dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake +disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the +bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. +After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When +about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring." + +Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_ +in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we +planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will +perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we +planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather +stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. +Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants. + +In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be +gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time +when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the +insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development. +When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four +inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the +flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must +be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, +or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and +hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely +pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more +effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper +pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a +business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New +York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of +pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be +closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such +as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a +laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed +one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which +would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being +deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and +then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar +and pulverized again. + +The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent +covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American +Naturalist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES. + + +In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein +deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of +the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the +sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other +sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so +located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious +vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American +metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the +roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. +Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It +was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of +carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently +in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower, +they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per +cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they +held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is +declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working, +although he does not deny its value under special circumstances. + +The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced +by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the +following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures +given are grammes per 1,000 liters: + + BEFORE. AFTER. + SO_2. SO_3. SO_2. SO_3. + 8.24 0.63 5.74 0.00 + 8.29 0.37 6.74 0.07 + 9.36 0.69 6.96 0.00 + 9.46 0.63 7.38 0.05 +10.03 1.08 7.69 0.09 +16.52 2.97 14.39 0.23 +17.90 1.97 13.32 0.11 +17.80 2.46 16.18 0.69 + +The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three +roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of +the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces +was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four +hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baume, which flowed off +with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baume. The quantity of acid +condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of +furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 +degrees Baume per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime, +in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too +expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially +successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to +experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg, +who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in +some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus +obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made. +Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania +Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus +far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it. + +The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to +find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace +gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of +the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been +equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general +manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his +experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr. +E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful +on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering +and Mining Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS EXHAUSTER. + + +In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes +about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and +requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking, +at the following cost: + + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----- + L 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total L 1 2 6 + +for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler +burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value, +costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total +cost of exhausting gas by the new system is-- + +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. + +per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system, +from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at +the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of +coke. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.] + +It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road +are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum; +while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to +the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside, +and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE + + +The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite +comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know +exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a +retrograde movement will probably be brought about. + +As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a +combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great +increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and +the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been +heretofore employed. + +In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various +other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It +has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the +administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible +with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it +seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the +rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies. +The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for +glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine. + +The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely +what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance, +quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its +antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_ +butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the +makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and +refined glycerine. + +So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial +butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as +the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European +revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an +important article of pharmaceutical use. + +On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for +the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off +in the production. + +At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers +of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of +illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as +well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the +production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance, +candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles +of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial +magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is +coming into almost as universal use as here. + +To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the +inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction +than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is +gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing +supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this +decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some +time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries +to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some +substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in +obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by +any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment. + +We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in +this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of +glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his +words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest +soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for +glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious +commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, +when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little +or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run +into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle +factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine +and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this +fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of +the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine +as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES. + + +Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according +to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society, +by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be +divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda, +potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and +as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on +substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact, +it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils +for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different +substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of +the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages +of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are +now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially +of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are +neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they +are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be +introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the +ironwork over the flues. + +Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or +corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence +does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called +iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston, +and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside +the cylinder. + +When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of +the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried +over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is +introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences +action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the +cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler +and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming +greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into +absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly +enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are +liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases +gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the +pressure of the steam inside. + +The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal +or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They +take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight +of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda +combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming +soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of +caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness +at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred +to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with +glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils +at about 150 deg. to 180 deg. Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the neutral or +unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no sand is +used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap solution +which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether, which +dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of the +liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the one +case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the dissolved +oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile liquids being +separated by blowing a current of filtered air through the flask +containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its percentage on +the original sample calculated. + +All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per +cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the +result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception, +because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half +its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum +spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after +saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum +spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of +sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum +or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive +distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole +of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about +half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether. + + * * * * * + + + + +NITRITE OF AMYL. + + +Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the +various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many +families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It +is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache +(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, +of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else +when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief +in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since +in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It +has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in +chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise +the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory +conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or +negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of +the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of +amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia. +Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and +faintness occurring in anaemic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit +from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by +chloroform. + +It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in +asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the +induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of +which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the +concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries. + +One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In +such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics +can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A +single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was +suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of +appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief +had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February, +1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse +became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as +delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation +and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles +and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and +champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up +from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while +the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then +administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to +twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without +being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient +rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was +continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been +used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis +was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following +day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year +and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was +quickly cut short by similar treatment. + +Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who +was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had +as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with +fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks +of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person +attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of +sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor +was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, +none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held +before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed +energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and +more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These +procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity +of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept +up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and +requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less +frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then, +Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections +when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded +circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in +the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It +is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic +angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although +in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, +provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired. + +As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not +restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if +necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when +the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from +three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has +met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications, +from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated +in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions +of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM. + +By ALFRED STILLE, M.D. + + +The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to +palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly +always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse +yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines +alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever +invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot +be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar +emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by +anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten +the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness +of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper +diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon +without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., +of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a +number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they +made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages +in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever. +We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In +old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the +time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will +not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor +of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be +used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the +patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to +the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients +packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was +going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen +such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative +does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system. +Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it +diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease. +Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well +borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four +hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour. +Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate +the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all +remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have +recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it +must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy +for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer +large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large +doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton, +Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later +still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral, +Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of +quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect, +from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of +twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses. +Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old +plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the +way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of +twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge +that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has +also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse +the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr. +Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes +perished from congestion of the lungs and brain. + +Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and +viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been +employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven +itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such +sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed, +if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by +mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not +know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is +just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis +at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was +treated with digitalis. + +Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape +of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no +personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first +dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on +which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory +judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have +sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the +disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack +be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur +if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without +influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends +to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these +gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of +treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other +hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in +almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively +high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration, +albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this +anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to +raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at +110 deg. F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat, +therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this +medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far +been tempted to employ it. + +It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies +in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism, +and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way, +_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline. +If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am +obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be +applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has +decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the +local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of +fibrin in the blood. + +This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies +neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies +morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the +course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects +are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and +becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the +disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the +cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must +be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good +combination of these remedies is the following: + +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] + +[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.'] + +S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the +urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two +grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies +must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet +should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food +should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may +with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum +may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously +protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between +blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, +and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A +long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon +juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to +so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of +acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous +and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as +drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they +become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be +protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses +of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To +prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil +and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this +condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan +of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued +must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +METHOD IN MADNESS. + + +No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible, +to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the +boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged +in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be +practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the +development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the +social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases +the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" +suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the +course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is +the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which +consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even +developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is +true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement +or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and +nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a +morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The +consideration most practical to the community and germane to the +question of public safety is, that in any and every population there +must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in +a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which +powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the +majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by +the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of +public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own +consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop +individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment +repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public +excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are +more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane." + +It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the +man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of +America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of +these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants +were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however, +propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this +juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is +known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by +disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the +Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed +"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of +doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is +"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in +the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the +act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God +or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an +ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel +or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply +are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of +English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle +form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer +supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the +doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied +that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow +an expression from the terminology of geological science, +_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips +off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and +"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher +moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of +personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and +social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity +is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of +man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the +level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the +lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far +as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several features +have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the +subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all +sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The +practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of +insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and +principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any +of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well +able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause. + +To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have +said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the +invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined +by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on +the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by +educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise +judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing +between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in +moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right +thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on +the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession +of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great +question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or +whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct +fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act +must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it +sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as +we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought, +except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual +function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness +and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions. +It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may +not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical +difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of +disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the +supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for +wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in +such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be +sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise. +Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have +been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which +the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of +brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example, +when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust +on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes +by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived +intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is +important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense. +There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and +the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective, +but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other +it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be +healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period. +Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole +do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the +mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number +or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain +healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation +concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more +than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts +of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to +predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the +special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and +the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the +present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are +very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is +all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter +be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides +of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and +that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of +these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be +more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are +concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid +element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the +particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang. +The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of +scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be +the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the +facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise +scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents. + + * * * * * + + + + +SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE. + +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo. + + +At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about +any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner, +as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and +appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text +books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or +apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it +refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before +our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will +therefore be well received. + +The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open +wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery, +but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to +those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is +astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to +check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of +pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight +of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many +times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a +feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or +otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look +on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a +run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are +likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles +away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the +right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one +bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their +assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition +produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences, +and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood +possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one. + +Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office, +who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps, +the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of +such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever +in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional +cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, +when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the +pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient +prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection. + +Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and +though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases, +still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having +systematized the following method: + + +BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS). + +Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the +back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt +bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again +in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin +back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"The illustrations will explain at a glance." + + +BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM. + +Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper +arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the +joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also +be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The +bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + +BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS). + +It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the +hemorrhage from that region temporarily. + +Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as +Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et +Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under +the knee joint, or like Fig. 4. + + +BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS). + +Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the +front of the tibia. + +Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the +pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced +as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little +uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it +has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several +days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete +closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of +arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery, +neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the +practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have +to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by +it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily +applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be +distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures +or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the +rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost +completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to +apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply +it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a +wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the +patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and +anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured. + +I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their +attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not +possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact +a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw, +planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where +the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a +certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of +men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every +establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the +bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and +railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to +use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out +should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows +how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus +be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana +Medical Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS. + + +Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to +the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped +in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55 deg. +C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND. + + +After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition +of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding +machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the +Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th +of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations, +there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials +already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the +distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the +interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though +ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which +unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural +Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited +them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The +published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as +many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the +rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for +different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance +for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines +to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick +Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. +Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show, +except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of +the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley, +and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an +acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and +engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was +made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. +Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, +be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal +in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the +class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the +driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely +neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach +great importance. + +It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every +single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional +miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with +Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of +the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop +in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do +with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to +connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other +machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. +Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and +the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was +almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went +through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning +the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than +with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the +gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced +in these machines vary very much in weight. + +At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of +the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. +Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We +believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves +were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no +hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman & +Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was +not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines. +Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were +ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and +assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which +binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the +sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the +fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied +to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after +the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been +fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one +could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf +produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes +this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till +the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the +ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy +downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and +through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have +been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting +would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the +rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick +Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood +worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to +bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the +shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson +and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble +in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to +be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather +too tight. + +The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then +attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a +face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet +condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the +canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was +the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of +the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the +Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine +was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. +Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in +the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly +were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must +be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the +crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought +to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity +of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be +here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind +at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so +thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's +machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors. + +The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known +on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver +medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr. +H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only +gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G. +Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this +were made.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES. + + +Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester, +give the following directions for setting out and cultivating +strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their +recently issued Strawberry Catalogue: + +_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully +grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden +crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at +least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for +any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it +must be thoroughly drained. + +_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for +planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may +then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until +they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large +plantations_. + +During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually +hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage. +With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted +without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering, +shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants, +are thus in a great measure avoided. + + +GARDEN CULTURE. + +_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting +in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds +will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches +apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These +beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without +setting the feet upon them. + +_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the +garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the +runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may +be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new +crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have +formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be +expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the +plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe +or fork. + +_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow +for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches +of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be +placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the +middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal +errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care +must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the +plants begin to grow. + +_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen, +mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass +mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep +the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and +thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch. + +A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be +spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to +take its place. + + +FIELD CULTURE. + +The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection, +and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large +scale. + +_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its +advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden. +In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the +plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much +of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator. + +_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The +number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may +be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) +by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained +by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the +plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant +three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER. + + +Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful +how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants, +except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are +beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those +only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21. + +Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise +variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as +different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom +from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by +division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place, +their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine. + +Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its +best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to +follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of +the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past, +but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive +alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day +lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough, +but their leaves get "scorched." + +The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the +Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are +far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow +anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season; +some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium +splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called +stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_ +(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny +places, and dislike artificial waterings. + +_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual +bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory +comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes, +stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored +flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are +conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so +profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition, +notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of +plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are +past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its +massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once +established it is hard to get rid of. + +Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the +carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell, +and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better +results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No +garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it +the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is +by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved +and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise +the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in +any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many +kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance; +they love moist soil. + +In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in +bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of +thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six +feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past, +but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their +prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials, +bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and +effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large +purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple +spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of +yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the +ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent. +It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening +primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_, +white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia, +fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial, +are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted +by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It +has hundreds of red spikes. + +Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_, +Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many +others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, +stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, +morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, +verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single +poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of +seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame +or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless +garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH. + + +Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham +township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two +match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily +production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five +thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one +hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of +the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. +In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the +25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made +in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and +used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to +light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less +time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in +trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the +360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000 +minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures +up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of +days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by +the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking +matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in +each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Suppl. No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8408] +[This file was first posted on July 9, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL. NO. 299 *** + + + + +E-text prepared by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299 + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + +[Illustration] + + + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development + of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine + boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine + engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative + efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers + + Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.-- + Transverse and longitudinal sections + + Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure + + Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure + + Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger + + Railway Alarm Whistle + + Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure + + Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication + of manometer + + Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal + metal moulding apparatus + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's + wood pulp apparatus + + Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address, + Convention of Mechanical Engineers + + The Hoboken Drainage Problem + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements + in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON + + Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.-- + I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating + apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures + + How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON + + The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational + Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's + apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold + + The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases + + New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure + + Advance in the Price of Glycerine + + Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes + + Nitrate of Amyl + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery + + Lightning and Telephone Wires + + Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity + + The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill + + Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M. + A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- + Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- + Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum + +IV. MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism. + By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D. + + Method in Madness + + Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD + BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the + upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot + + Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture + of Powder + + Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England + + The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture + + Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer + + The Time Consuming Match + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art. + 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris + + Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.-- + 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans + +VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHILLE DELESSE. + + +The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting +_resume_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take +the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum +of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, +Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he +left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the +student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which +he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon +arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by +having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and +geology in the Faculty at Besancon, where Delesse at the same time +fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned +to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy +of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the +conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued +his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. +The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name +was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied +also, and with success, the interesting modifications called +pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their +magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided +him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has +rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin +and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by +investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent +and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of +analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived +from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites +and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study +and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed +further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of +science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order +of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The +mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in +the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention. +The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed +out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the +principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance +attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case +the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks. + +It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that +Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as +well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published +on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits +which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of +interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there, +indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for +in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents, +they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products +of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of +submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his +own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des +Progres de la Geologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" +for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a +less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications +of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the +under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of +water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were +represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form. +His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of +railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of +daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse +never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having +in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had +occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of +drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology +at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of +Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of +France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which, +to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons +there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a +citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department. + +His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th +of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two +years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society; +he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to +enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work. +He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his +intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the +reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he +addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness +and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his +profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th +of March.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT, +PARIS. + +(From The Workshop)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY. + + +On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging +to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting +ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals. +In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson +determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general +appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful +in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early +resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for +the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating +the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. +Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical +engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent +lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a +large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West. +Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were +received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting +the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the +framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James +Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth +of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face, +twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady +flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired +light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most +systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in +which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an +outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also +connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight +contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the +effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite +safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention +was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or +generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power +was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the +generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the +roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at +No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the +workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the +cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in +diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe +handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down +the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the +shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways +and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one +of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful +inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed +in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of +Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the +first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were +then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they +witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of +course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing +down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the +party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES. + + +M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingenieur-Conseil_ on the +above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best +and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire +to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of +the induction coils, which it might fuse. + +Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to +one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire. +The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful +current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M. +Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the +same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the +wires, and been by them conveyed to earth. + +This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that +there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly +upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells, +or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel +and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of +electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron; +consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick +were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface +of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square +meters must be established. + +It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On +the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the +terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be +absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds +than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning +conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of +contact with the earth. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY. + + +The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the +alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the +influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged +so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with +positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed +at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in +negative flames. + +A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own +conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and +also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the +flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these +results: + +When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a +metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface +according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the +point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform +more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a +conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame +will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer, +the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be +attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the +lower dark body of flame is also repulsed. + +This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire +gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive +flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small +fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it. + +All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a +stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame, +and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be +obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the +influence of a long "Holtz" machine. + +A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the +negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric +intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar +stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames +rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen +are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is +more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar +differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar +conductivity of the substances. + +The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point +of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by +conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows +similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive. +Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two +ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base +of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with +the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's +theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further +supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by +Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative +electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive +electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in +Wiedemanris Beiblaetter to Poggendorfs Annalen._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL. + + +The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the +various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent +something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and +quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed +wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was +given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble +in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and +during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway +head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that +where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that +should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or +strand of the machine. + +This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is +now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder, +intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance, +too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several +thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied. + +This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a +somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved, +and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been +made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and +accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of +which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in +putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed, +and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be +un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been +taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the +working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself. + +To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the +railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the +practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of +this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from +a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or +whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and +this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft. +The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a +half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power +than a light-running sewing machine. + +One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod +or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the +other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity +of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An +armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a +strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet +wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or +stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving +belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by +a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the +case of a breakage of a thread or strand. + +As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with +the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton +is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet +breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the +calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a +stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a +number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used +for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the +card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver +is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering +cotton. + +In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage +between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts; +in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or +in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either +case a stoppage would be instantly produced. + +In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back +can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of +the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to +the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or +tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier. + +There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With +mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple +contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be +had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical +changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical +attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France, +and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more +extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile +Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE. + +[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical +Engineers by F.C.Marshall.] + + +The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting +in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in +Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound +Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue +the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and +if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no +we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick +Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what +direction we are to look for further development. + +From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher, +the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much +smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the +same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to +1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent. + + +MARINE ENGINES. + +The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler. +The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in +the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1) +The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at +right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally +the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other, +but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one +crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two +pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently +three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The +system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the +same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft. + +These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being +manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the +screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace +nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be +oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft. + +The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be +said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the +relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound +expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of +our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor +of the latter. + + +THE MARINE BOILER. + +The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it +was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and +sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers +under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The +double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically +efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the +writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large +power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more +room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and +therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found +in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their +length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the +top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large +part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now +been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention +given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler +itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the +feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful +management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of +larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more +perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is +that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, +but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the +variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the +furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening +afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction, +and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace +action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler +may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives +greater steam space. + +A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a +locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power +developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the +cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural +draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a +consumption of fuel not exceeding 21/2 lb. per indicated horse-power per +hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in +the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen +below 21/2 square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape +of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the +incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of +the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's +attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine +work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to +steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty +lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very +limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure +or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either +exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would +be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case +with our miners, must work under a pressure of air. + + +STEEL BOILERS. + +The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of +steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from +six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the +works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no +case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler, +either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode +of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch +to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before +rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting +the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints +treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after +rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length, +and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube +plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and +front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it +is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they +are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical +boilersmith. + + +CORROSION OF BOILERS. + +The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as +time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel +boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made; +and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting +or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very +carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace +anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in +washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence +of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the +other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use +zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one +of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, +exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty +indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc +we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months +or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no +corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have +taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with +them." + + +HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED. + +Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due +attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping +authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity +is worth on an average L10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming, +therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel +to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of +materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing +the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth L1,000 per annum more to +her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is +shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and +all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power: + + Lb. per I. H. P. + + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 + + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 + +The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of +the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much +reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working. +The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but +it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some +other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we +must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be +of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by +reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of +revolutions per minute. + +It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent +upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This +process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the +column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of +it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then +fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is +usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers +will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful +design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the +substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine +to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. +A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of +the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving +parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one +structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the +cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such +conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their +place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight +of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with +thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned. + + +CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES. + +Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving +has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table: + + Item. 1872. 1881. + + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 + +This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of +the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system +would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to +feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the +results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel +on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the +forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung +pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the +great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces +as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler. + +Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements +of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total +disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that, +according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to +20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total +disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will +represent to-day about L3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, +the cost would have been L3,750--showing a saving of L750, equal to a +dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost +of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 161/2d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d. + + +EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS. + +The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of +steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will +be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than +that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency +of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air +is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the +efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the +heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled, +while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used +in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the +ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as +follows: + +W = (P + 15) (S + D squared L) / C + +or W = 2S (P + 15) / C + +when S = D squared L, which is a common proportion. + + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. + +This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the +relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb. +and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency +10 per cent, as follows: + +Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C + +Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C + +Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5 + +In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two +and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel +of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power, +the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place +at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing +L1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel. + + +MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. + +Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler +for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced +by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of +water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of +7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212 deg. Fahr., with 2 in. of +water pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are +low, but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily +small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel +consequently high, ranging from 1,073 deg. at the first pressure, and +1,444 deg. at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive +practice the efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler +when working under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from +3 in. to 4 in., including funnel draught. + +It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently +with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results, +even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure +of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse +power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working +by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed. + +Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged +against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not +reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total +working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven +atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165 +lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a +gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into +play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of +the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the +cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages. + +In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing +the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages, +and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not +be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause +of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully +chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to +1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. +With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very +good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has +another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure +can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater +amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, +of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of +separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity. + +The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic +properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are, +it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all +that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as +an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use +10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power. + +Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a +definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is +stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver +class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with +scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the +framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine. + +It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface +of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface +one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2 +square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found +1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of +271/2 inches. + +Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin +screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each +case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating +1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without +stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or +had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these +engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and +connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 +lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout +of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In +comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the +double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as +follows: + + Double ended Type. Navy Type. + + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. + + +SCREW PROPELLERS. + +The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We +have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of +the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by +reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase +the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet +3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be +qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite +resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made +too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required +speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too +large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on +which a separate paper should be written. + +To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years, +and in the following particulars: + +1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2. +Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of +all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38 +per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much +less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly +all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for +20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much +increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now +being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard +pressure now required. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES. + + +The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are +doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description +of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Societe des +Anciens Eleves d'Arts et Metiers_: + +All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the +inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the +high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient +has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service +(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of +locomotion of the city. + +The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of +separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of +Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that +the problem would be successfully solved. + +There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to +the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply +of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a +central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered +on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except +the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the +central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs +for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best +utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls +and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy, +for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats. + +[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.] + +The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction +of all concerned, and especially to that of the public. + +The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed +of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions +are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 31/4 feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal +distance between the two shells is 71/4 feet. These hulls, having +absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat +iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to +support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the +engine-room. The engine-room, which is 191/2 feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak. +The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of +the escape of hot air. + +The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely +from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves +on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two +sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from +the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides. + +Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been +provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary. + +The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a +floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches, +is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or +for office purposes, if need be. + +The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows: + + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ + + Total...........................41,800 " + +or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum +draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 41/2 miles per hour, a +great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross +in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking +place therein. + +The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of +which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving +as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston +has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 31/4 feet diameter) +to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide +surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., +because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the +shaft. + +The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace +and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being +effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested +up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the +engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of +the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning, +and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun +indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the +engine-room. + +Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have +proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for +which they were built. + + * * * * * + + + + +OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK. + + +In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve +Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored +in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the +new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock +at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500 +ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. +wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount +of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south +quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. +long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 +ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to +8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about L300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234 +yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at +a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners, +whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of +Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of +their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the +"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales +Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer +Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, +accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing +through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which +a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping +forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the +gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh +Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a +battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a +party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having +gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His +Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the +officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded +to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion +was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News, +Aug. 6._ + +[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR. + + +The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of +grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted +with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by +diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or +lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be +elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to +the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway +truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable +bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain +their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the +bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing +machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before +it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its +means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability +to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the +claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the +advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DREDGER. + + +We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of +Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine +consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick. +This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as +shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through +about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with +mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be +imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick +jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge +and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam +engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of +these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow +water.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE. + + +In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or +snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway +Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which +is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated +metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a +projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush +when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the +positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in +communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire +leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the +brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery +in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over +the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to +be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON. + + +Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur +over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll +brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible; +but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial +product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial +purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for +charcoal and pyrites for brimstone. + +The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith, +have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical +conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the +retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction +of the sulphur and carbon takes place. + +The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B, +furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it +descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the +fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through +the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided +into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated +by the fireplace, L'. + +[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.] + +The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the +condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is +deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the +partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and +V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the +sulphide of carbon being regulated. + +The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without +much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation. + +Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system +recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the +operation may be watched and conducted. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER. + + +Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing +graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works +during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system +of piping. + +For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but, +although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form +and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and +then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place. + +Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being +very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the +hour at which the pressure is exerted. + +The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a +circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in +motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base, +E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which +supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in +such a manner as not to impede its rotation. + +In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes +through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts +the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of +the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided +with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose +axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the +middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each +side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord +is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is +fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters +the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the +combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. +The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise. + +In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a +sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as +the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running +horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to +the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be +in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be +readily understood. + +[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.] + +When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and +consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which +carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the +pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction. + +The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible +curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the +point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen, +and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness. + +It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the +tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the +diameters of the pulleys, N and O. + +The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either +in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to +connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where +the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber +tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as +glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the +results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared. + + * * * * * + + + + +CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS. + + +The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of +Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects +in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the +nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is +to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where +it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or +pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded +or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic +core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, +and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be +cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g, +g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty, +and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the +cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece +and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of +circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a +flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. +As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are +pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into +the mould. + +[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.] + +The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows +it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments, +g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal +cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact +with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may, +however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas +into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting +is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, +or hydrogen. + +This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which +do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged +eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the +cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed +at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the +points where the radius is greater. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The +sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the +axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal +during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP. + + +For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as +represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical +reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This +reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which +has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of +tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of +the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the +boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine +atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are +provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, +D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being +interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an +active circulation in both the tubing and boiler. + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2] + +To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and +there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been +divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is +filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the +incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there +is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a +perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when +the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler +is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, +are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, +the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature +is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the +incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and +B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the +latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to +allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100 deg. +in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been +allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected +by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam +under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the +contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed +with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a +complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities +of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, +and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which +is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied. + +In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of +safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a +thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and +a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a +gauge-cock, H. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. + + +The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an +abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper. + +He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in +Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to +one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest +engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the +locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age +to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and +therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner. +He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George +Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the +Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported +by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its +members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has +increased in strength and importance. + +The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of +fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be +mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which +disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes +must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by +good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon +the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an +unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet +such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to +greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing +that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at +once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. +Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is +occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary +imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting +manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the +benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have +been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to +increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of +the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their +exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, +beet-root sugar. + +One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it +may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that +whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost +all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their +excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England, +they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine +engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced +by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American +merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in +English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at +sea. + +Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their +manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has +now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many +articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial +province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring +them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite +iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried +out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country. + +Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in +our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry +on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they +be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and +possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us +to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to +manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is +of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most +essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded. + +Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from +sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the +greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real +or important from having been gradual, while the result to this +neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great +measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly +of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher +pressure. + +The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved, +and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of +traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the +careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly +the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is +floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is +pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the +rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the +melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance. + +No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely +to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements +of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and +arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the +use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year. + +Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in +the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed +during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory +engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers" +have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is +very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole +water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum +without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only +raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of +its large volume. + +Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in +machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher +pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure. +Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both +for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be +again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at +continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; +we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion +practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially +the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out +to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing, +of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can +see nothing else will want doing for some time." + +A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in +reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the +mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties +and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the +river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down +grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment, +thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great +improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement +was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the +river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped +that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to +improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with +comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a +tunnel would involve. + +Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses +by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr. +Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed +one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such +numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its +various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens +of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St. +Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses, +and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the +elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples +of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The +lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power +of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful +electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between +the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of +the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will +be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher +percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become +more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been +obtained. + +The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field +of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose +of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very +considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands +of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in +Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild +steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam +boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of +purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door +frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the +manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging +fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany. +Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of +sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel +sleepers should also be used for tramways. + +If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making +a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig +metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by +several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets +where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be +afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the +heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making +tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking +this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet. + +The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by +hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are +twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or +3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the +lead in a manufacture. + +Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly +valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine, +which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all; +and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside +of piers in water. + +In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years. +Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it +being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine," +obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of +producing the various brilliant dyes now so common. + +New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases +by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at +a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and +water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves +the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some +steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has +been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again, +large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved +glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have +cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely +on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened +glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved +and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again +been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly +extended knowledge of the laws of optics. + +Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the +various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent +records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have +been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural; +for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme +magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the +architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent +the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the +naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings +still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has +always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last; +and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope +developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our +Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite +in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone. + +There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and +it is this. + +When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors +of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years, +one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who +have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers, +should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For +instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was, +in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor +Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from +those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings. + +It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been +forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and +among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir +Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph +Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir +Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James +Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir +Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick +Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an +improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter +part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of +thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous +small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM. + + +Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a +large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within +the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river +and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken. +Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands +or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh +is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long, +extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted +vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass +of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original +tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at +Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by +the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average +level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot +and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are +but two feet above mean high water. + +During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high +spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to +cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water +at high tide has been 41/2 feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot +or more above the established grade of the streets. + +The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly +habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm +waters. + +The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago; +since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other +devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature +in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed +and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the +Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann +and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the +City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in +Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely +to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction. + +There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First, +by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by +making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by +steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the +cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of +houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as +being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same +position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that +the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested +by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system +has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and +First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where +a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water +(except during storms) by means of a private pump. + +The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates +in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in +contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal +sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be +about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will +necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands +to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of +raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping +system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water +and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including +interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on +the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve. + +According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report +of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will +ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the +heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of +sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount +of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually +as the marsh land is built upon. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK." + + +Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the +sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of +Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the +soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the +ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such +a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an +ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over +which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The +drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external +stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the +garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged +on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A +tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are +on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at +the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used +throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with +ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge +boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front, +over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself. +The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and +the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended +its erection.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES. + +[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle. + + +The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller +number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes +employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then +briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam +desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and +in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of +Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should +commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means +are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the +Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the +lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 +in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a +sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into +the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently +erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each +pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the +pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover, +with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried +to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is +placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each +pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the +lower pot. The mode of working is as follows: + +The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane. +When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or +working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation. + +When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in +order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it +setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced. + +To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate +is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform +distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of +crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed +to play on the surface of the lead. + +This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface; +but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner +in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition +caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced +up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time +the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the +charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in +rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of +the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it. + +Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third +liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the +crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps +out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the +crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates. + +The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of +the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed, +they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of +the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the +lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is +crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot, +from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for +tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes. + +Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with +lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the +liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a +similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals, +by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to +run among the crystals. + +The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are +so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for +market. + +The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in +a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent +operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old +six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a +saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of +calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of +all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of +two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger +original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and +repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with +increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the +last two or three years. + +The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs. +Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them +about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on +the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of +it: + +A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a +point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or +the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount +of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the +ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 11/2 per cent, of +the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of +this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the +charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by +continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is +seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that +of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and +carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being +taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again +applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a +further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is +added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is +repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining +portion--1/4 per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has +been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely +desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some +works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but +at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by +subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc +crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by +allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are +placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a +portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in +silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner. +The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is +as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used. + +Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet +the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead +is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead +into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into +large blocks of 31/2 tons. These 31/2 ton blocks are taken on a bogie to +the mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means +of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only. + +Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large +casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This +block, weighing 101/2 tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same +crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along +to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging +head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those +of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always +working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch +and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, +in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time +extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method +there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear +contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows: + +In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead +sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before +it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of +the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars. + +In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is +fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by +power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine, +or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired +point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the +knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic +reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife +1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent +exactly. + +Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest +improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives, +which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at +will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the +longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but +one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's +opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet +with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last +length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane +lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway +communicating with the shipping quay. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION. + + +The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty +liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products +are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and, +therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden +handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which +can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring +arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades +formed like a ship's screw. + +The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of +a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed +by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine +point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for +it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream +into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only +necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up +after a short time. + +Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed +to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great +quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is +retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon +as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is +emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle +replaced in it. + +If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity +of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be +further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid +being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed, +nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing +to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the +emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations. + + +II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. + +It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by +boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which +will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also +be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates, +as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the +thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple +contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through +a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made +air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas +is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its +deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether +floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute +opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, +the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the +shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until +it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the +power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out, +being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support +a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the +opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By +removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is +raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes +wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + +III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS. + +The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented +by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely +dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a +wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of +which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in +the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together +by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron +transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the +crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n. + +The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of +fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for +working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped +through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung +upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops +upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as +possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is +completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung, +and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water. +When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels +like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed +through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it +will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the +crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and +q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s +s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed +through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small +apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power +that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass. + + +IV.--WASHING APPARATUS. + +The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred +to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent +improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are +incorporated. It may be described as follows: + +A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel, +rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a +double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes +the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel +upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at +the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched +at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. +The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the +water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place +the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus +fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of +the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the +largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the +supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty. + +The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again, +and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly +to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel +that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o +p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent +the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the +sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the +sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, +the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, +represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way +every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing +provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus +fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly +been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and +thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the +moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of +washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of +water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever +wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over +and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a +time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in +a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed +once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be +withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. +In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is +avoided, and there is no loss of material. + +This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities, +since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of +the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain +that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not +wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to +the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, +of Photography_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER. + +By A. L. HENDERSON. + + +Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the +difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is +very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather +is the culprit. + +I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when +emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down +before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity, +so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is +impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice. + +I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92 deg. in the +shade, and the washing water at 78 deg.) as follows: + + Hard gelatine...............,...... 1/2 ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. + +When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120 deg. temperature, add, +stirring all the time, + + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. 3/4 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 3/4 " + +Then again add, + + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " + +Both solutions being warmed to about 120 deg.. + +My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to +many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of +ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of +the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added +in a much more concentrated state. + +The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most +important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It +allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of +alcohol (say about 10 ounces). + +After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in +slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping +the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the +bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to +pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small +pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to +ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating. + +By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about +five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is +devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers. + +One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of +gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts; +no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has +been precipitated.--_Photographic News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF +LOW TEMPERATURES. + +By RAOUL PICTET. + + +The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the +maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence +of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in +presence of each other in an alembic. + +If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which +succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with +one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem +becomes exceedingly complex. + +[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY +COLD.] + +In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may +be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of +propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively +constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of +liquids. + +I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we +calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of +alcohol and water? + +Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we +take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the +value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results +of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish +the following laws: + +a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a +mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure +water and that of pure alcohol. + +b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as +the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the +tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water. + +c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures +of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one +factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic +solution. + +It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and +water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a +certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. + +We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the +laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the +vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids, +water and alcohol. + +II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes, +what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it? + +In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of +water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in +the same proportion as the liquids? + +We have discovered the following laws: + +d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol +varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not +in simple proportion thereto. + +e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the temperature. + +f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures +that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of +alcohol. + +g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two +liquids tend to become equalized. + +We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and +to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum +tensions, in the following way: + +Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol +and water, plunge it into water of 20 deg.C., and put its interior in +hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump. + +We vaporize at 20 deg. a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors +fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the +interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be +constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and +with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of +vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and +communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first, +plunged into the same water at 20 deg.. Care must be taken beforehand to +create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube. + +On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the +same temperature as that at which they were formed. + +We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation +of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very +perceptibly risen. + +If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube, +we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the +first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the +least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube. + +This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be +attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of +alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump, +and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical +work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this +difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the +condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete +identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the +tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of +the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of +equivalence. + +It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water, +and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid +of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors. + +III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact: +When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered, +can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected +with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated +experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the +following laws: + +If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected +by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after +driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the +warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that: + +h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases +with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers. + +i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is +constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers, +whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers. + +k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say, +to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their +thickness. + +l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus +throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a +considerable degree, especially at low temperatures. + +Thus, water distilling between 100 deg. and 60 deg. will pass over as +quickly as that which is distilling between 40 deg. and 0 deg.. Absolute +temperature is without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign +gas be got rid of. + +The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are +inevitable in practice. + +The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to +make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one +of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results +simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar, +and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of +different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads: + +1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the +alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of +the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain +quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile +substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and +bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of +the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the +essential oils. + +The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is +to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils, +water, ether, and foreign alcohols. + +The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely +complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the +present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between +78.5 deg. and 100 deg.. The successive condensation and vaporization of the +vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a +partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively +as products of rectification: + +1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and +impure alcohols. + +2. Fine alcohol. + +3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils. + +Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and +that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same +lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations. +Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine +alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing, +that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by +the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely +pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent. + +Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in +rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which +they must operate. Between 78 deg. and 100 deg. the tension of the vapors +of all the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them; +they all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of +rectification. + +We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain +that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is +maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish +some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render +variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2), +render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid. + +Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its +ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition +without changing such temperatures when once obtained. + +It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles +Industriels, at Paris. + +By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form +a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at +temperatures as low as -40 deg. or even -50 deg.. They verify +experimentally, by their operation, the theoretical deductions which +precede. The boilers, A, which, in an industrial application, may be +more numerous, receive their supply of spirits from the country +distilleries in the vicinity of the factory. There may even be +introduced directly into them _vinasses_, or washes, that is to say, +liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic fermentation. + +Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates +inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser, +which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by +means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above. + +On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation +pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a +current of water which goes to the reservoir above. + +The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which +are collected in the reservoir, E. + +When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir, +and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over, +the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding +valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a +communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The +office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification +is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the +entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the +liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance. + +The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum, +according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller +will have to be guided in this by practice alone. + +The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there +the liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum. +As we have before said, their temperature falls immediately and +spontaneously. The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost +solely pure alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the +first distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging +between -10 deg. and +5 deg.. Their temperature is shown by a +thermometer running into the boiler, F. + +These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a +second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H, +filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those +which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under +the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a +constant temperature of -25 deg. to -30 deg. in the refrigerator. The +vapors of alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold +liquid alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator. + +By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon +the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising +therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the +reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir, +L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine +keeps up of itself alone the two operations. + +In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous +anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the +first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine +keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the +surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without +necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current +of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to +pass into the worm of the boiler. + +We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by +the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are +performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are +effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight +of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one +kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the +liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires +only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature +in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of +fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less +quantity of water to be distilled. + +Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering +on +50 deg. to +60 deg., and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily +obtained a temperature of -30 deg. to -40 deg., there is at our disposal +a range of temperature of nearly 100 deg., an immense difference +compared with that which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus. +Thanks to this powerful factor, which is manageable at will, we can +take directly from the apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by +the centigrade alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual +methods. + +We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of +alcohol is as active as at near 100 deg.. + +For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator, +the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the +operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid +condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler; +and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect +vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is +to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such +a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole +apparatus; from 60 deg. to 20 deg. in the first operation, and from +0 deg. to -40 deg. in the second. We may add that the regulation of the +valve is extremely easy, because of the screw which actuates it. + +To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may +say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a +single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification, +or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low +temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even +by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the +temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4. +Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult +to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being +performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the +same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of +the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases +entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the +interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in +_personnel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS. + +[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a +series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from +the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the +solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too +much room for insertion in these columns.] + +By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B., +F.C.S. + + +Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came +into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this +peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other +metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the +present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best +effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt +takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the +precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the +best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of +certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of +copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid +in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of +ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic +decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully +accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert +them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the +purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the +separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a +nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other +electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper, +zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth, +and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, +may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic +methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process. + + +DETERMINATION OF COBALT. + +Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt +salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to +electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed +into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is +deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the +potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt +carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic +cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or +dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is +repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic +condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily +and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the +corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double +salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just +sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only +slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the +cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the +ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three +or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_ +solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt +as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction +has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small +sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive +electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off. +The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess +of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether. +The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100 deg. C., and in the +course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained. + +[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used +for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative +electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p. +46.] + + +DETERMINATION OF NICKEL. + +This process is precisely identical with the previously described method +for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution, +which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The +separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel +is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the +electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF IRON. + +For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the +sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously +described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a +sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron +compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright, +steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be +exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation +taking place. + + +DETERMINATION OF ZINC. + +Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily +and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc +has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The +separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is +only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the +dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid. + + +DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE. + +It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from +its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is +only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount +of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish +without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into +the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and +submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be +deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the +complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide +does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4). + + +DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH. + +This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal +is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is +always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated +from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally, +from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a +surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then, +if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol, +and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small +quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected +on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an +excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of +bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the +peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the +last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with +alcohol and anhydrous ether. + + +DETERMINATION OF LEAD. + +The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When +the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere +firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode, +it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the +solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted. + +If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the +lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly +oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without +decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of +illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be +recommended. + + +DETERMINATION OF COPPER. + +The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double +ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate +is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of +this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such +circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the +electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of +330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme +metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes. + + +DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM. + +When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the +electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray +coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but, +however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing. + + +DETERMINATION OF TIN. + +Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from +its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium +oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the +ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation +becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite +pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid +solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes +place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the +ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum +dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on +the electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. + +Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric +acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode. +If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the +antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly +to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating +may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the +separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be +very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts. + +To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide +is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with +ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the +addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a +fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very +firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly, +_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong. + +When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured +off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner. + + +DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC. + +Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been +added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution, +a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed +through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time, +all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3). + + +SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE. + +If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium +oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes +its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the +positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When +the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to +separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a +considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two +metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide +is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited. +This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better +still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both +cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed +by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater +portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the +coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins. + +Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three +or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid, +which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of +manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very +rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is +more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a +much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the +two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in +oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until +the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action. + +It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ +too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only +to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in +consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve +the peroxide. + +When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current +to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly +to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the +liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the +electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the +determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium +oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion +of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to +decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate +is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in +a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such. + + +SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. + +The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many +difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed +by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum +oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be +submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be +deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while +the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity +of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate +produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place +the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in +which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is +observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in +excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been +neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid +solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid +ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to +3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly +submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been +precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all +the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter +may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove. + +In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron +from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously +having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis +is continued. + +In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from +the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added, +and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is +determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less +than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results. +With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate +of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the +interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte +der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER. + + +In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two +species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to +a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America. +Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and +directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of +the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is +obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall +ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain. + +There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many +years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold +at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a +secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant, +Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried +and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing +abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian +province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the +manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year +the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the +dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those +countries. + +Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is +probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far +the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia. + +There is also very little information published regarding either the +mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native +home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they +are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the +contrary notwithstanding.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.] + +The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of +Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living +authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that +region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus +_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is +nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our +mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it +appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native +home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of +Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to +whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were +not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one +person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be +gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants. + +As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native +home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the +fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information +regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For +similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small +quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in +other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people +are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country +becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of +_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant +for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of +Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in +my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without +any care much better than many other things. I should say from this +experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself +to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, +another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation, +either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of +all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly +hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this +continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully +grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents +report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special +mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious +attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in +France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best +we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of +pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of +clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of +water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is +the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is +from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the +weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds +are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some +vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five +or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the +germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants +make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough +they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength. +Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, +however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the +pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and +continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the +plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even +during severe winters. + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrethre du Caucase (P. +Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only +a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's +paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report +of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. +223-331.] + +The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and +as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet +an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The +plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of +the garden or other perennial Compositae. + +As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a +native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum +cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the +California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of +"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to +most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco +gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more +particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, +sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with +dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake +disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the +bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. +After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When +about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring." + +Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_ +in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we +planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will +perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we +planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather +stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. +Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants. + +In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be +gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time +when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the +insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development. +When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four +inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the +flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must +be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, +or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and +hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely +pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more +effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper +pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a +business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New +York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of +pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be +closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such +as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a +laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed +one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which +would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being +deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and +then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar +and pulverized again. + +The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent +covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American +Naturalist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES. + + +In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein +deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of +the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the +sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other +sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so +located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious +vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American +metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the +roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. +Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It +was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of +carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently +in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower, +they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per +cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they +held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is +declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working, +although he does not deny its value under special circumstances. + +The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced +by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the +following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures +given are grammes per 1,000 liters: + + BEFORE. AFTER. + SO_2. SO_3. SO_2. SO_3. + 8.24 0.63 5.74 0.00 + 8.29 0.37 6.74 0.07 + 9.36 0.69 6.96 0.00 + 9.46 0.63 7.38 0.05 +10.03 1.08 7.69 0.09 +16.52 2.97 14.39 0.23 +17.90 1.97 13.32 0.11 +17.80 2.46 16.18 0.69 + +The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three +roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of +the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces +was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four +hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baume, which flowed off +with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baume. The quantity of acid +condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of +furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 +degrees Baume per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime, +in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too +expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially +successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to +experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg, +who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in +some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus +obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made. +Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania +Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus +far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it. + +The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to +find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace +gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of +the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been +equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general +manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his +experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr. +E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful +on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering +and Mining Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS EXHAUSTER. + + +In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes +about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and +requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking, +at the following cost: + + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----- + L 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total L 1 2 6 + +for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler +burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value, +costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total +cost of exhausting gas by the new system is-- + +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. + +per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system, +from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at +the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of +coke. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.] + +It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road +are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum; +while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to +the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside, +and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE + + +The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite +comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know +exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a +retrograde movement will probably be brought about. + +As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a +combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great +increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and +the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been +heretofore employed. + +In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various +other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It +has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the +administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible +with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it +seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the +rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies. +The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for +glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine. + +The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely +what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance, +quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its +antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_ +butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the +makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and +refined glycerine. + +So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial +butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as +the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European +revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an +important article of pharmaceutical use. + +On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for +the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off +in the production. + +At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers +of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of +illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as +well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the +production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance, +candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles +of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial +magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is +coming into almost as universal use as here. + +To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the +inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction +than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is +gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing +supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this +decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some +time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries +to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some +substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in +obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by +any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment. + +We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in +this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of +glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his +words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest +soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for +glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious +commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, +when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little +or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run +into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle +factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine +and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this +fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of +the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine +as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES. + + +Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according +to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society, +by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be +divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda, +potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and +as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on +substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact, +it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils +for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different +substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of +the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages +of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are +now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially +of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are +neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they +are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be +introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the +ironwork over the flues. + +Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or +corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence +does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called +iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston, +and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside +the cylinder. + +When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of +the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried +over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is +introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences +action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the +cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler +and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming +greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into +absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly +enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are +liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases +gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the +pressure of the steam inside. + +The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal +or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They +take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight +of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda +combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming +soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of +caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness +at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred +to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with +glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils +at about 150 deg. to 180 deg. Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the +neutral or unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no +sand is used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap +solution which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether, +which dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of +the liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the +one case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the +dissolved oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile +liquids being separated by blowing a current of filtered air through +the flask containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its +percentage on the original sample calculated. + +All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per +cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the +result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception, +because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half +its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum +spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after +saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum +spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of +sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum +or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive +distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole +of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about +half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether. + + * * * * * + + + + +NITRITE OF AMYL. + + +Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the +various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many +families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It +is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache +(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, +of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else +when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief +in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since +in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It +has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in +chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise +the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory +conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or +negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of +the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of +amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia. +Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and +faintness occurring in anaemic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit +from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by +chloroform. + +It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in +asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the +induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of +which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the +concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries. + +One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In +such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics +can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A +single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was +suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of +appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief +had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February, +1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse +became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as +delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation +and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles +and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and +champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up +from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while +the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then +administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to +twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without +being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient +rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was +continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been +used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis +was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following +day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year +and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was +quickly cut short by similar treatment. + +Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who +was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had +as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with +fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks +of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person +attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of +sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor +was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, +none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held +before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed +energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and +more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These +procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity +of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept +up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and +requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less +frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then, +Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections +when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded +circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in +the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It +is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic +angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although +in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, +provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired. + +As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not +restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if +necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when +the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from +three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has +met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications, +from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated +in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions +of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM. + +By ALFRED STILLE, M.D. + + +The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to +palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly +always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse +yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines +alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever +invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot +be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar +emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by +anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten +the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness +of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper +diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon +without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., +of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a +number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they +made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages +in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever. +We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In +old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the +time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will +not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor +of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be +used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the +patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to +the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients +packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was +going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen +such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative +does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system. +Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it +diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease. +Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well +borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four +hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour. +Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate +the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all +remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have +recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it +must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy +for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer +large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large +doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton, +Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later +still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral, +Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of +quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect, +from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of +twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses. +Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old +plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the +way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of +twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge +that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has +also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse +the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr. +Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes +perished from congestion of the lungs and brain. + +Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and +viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been +employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven +itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such +sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed, +if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by +mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not +know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is +just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis +at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was +treated with digitalis. + +Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape +of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no +personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first +dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on +which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory +judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have +sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the +disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack +be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur +if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without +influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends +to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these +gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of +treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other +hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in +almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively +high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration, +albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this +anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to +raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at +110 deg. F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat, +therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this +medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far +been tempted to employ it. + +It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies +in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism, +and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way, +_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline. +If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am +obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be +applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has +decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the +local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of +fibrin in the blood. + +This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies +neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies +morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the +course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects +are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and +becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the +disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the +cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must +be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good +combination of these remedies is the following: + +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] + +[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.'] + +S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the +urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two +grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies +must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet +should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food +should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may +with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum +may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously +protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between +blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, +and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A +long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon +juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to +so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of +acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous +and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as +drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they +become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be +protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses +of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To +prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil +and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this +condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan +of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued +must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +METHOD IN MADNESS. + + +No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible, +to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the +boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged +in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be +practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the +development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the +social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases +the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" +suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the +course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is +the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which +consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even +developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is +true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement +or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and +nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a +morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The +consideration most practical to the community and germane to the +question of public safety is, that in any and every population there +must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in +a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which +powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the +majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by +the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of +public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own +consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop +individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment +repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public +excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are +more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane." + +It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the +man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of +America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of +these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants +were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however, +propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this +juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is +known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by +disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the +Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed +"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of +doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is +"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in +the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the +act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God +or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an +ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel +or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply +are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of +English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle +form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer +supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the +doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied +that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow +an expression from the terminology of geological science, +_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips +off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and +"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher +moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of +personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and +social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity +is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of +man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the +level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the +lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far +as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several features +have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the +subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all +sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The +practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of +insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and +principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any +of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well +able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause. + +To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have +said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the +invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined +by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on +the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by +educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise +judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing +between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in +moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right +thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on +the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession +of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great +question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or +whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct +fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act +must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it +sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as +we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought, +except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual +function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness +and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions. +It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may +not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical +difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of +disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the +supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for +wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in +such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be +sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise. +Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have +been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which +the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of +brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example, +when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust +on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes +by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived +intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is +important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense. +There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and +the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective, +but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other +it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be +healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period. +Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole +do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the +mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number +or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain +healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation +concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more +than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts +of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to +predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the +special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and +the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the +present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are +very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is +all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter +be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides +of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and +that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of +these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be +more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are +concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid +element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the +particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang. +The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of +scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be +the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the +facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise +scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents. + + * * * * * + + + + +SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE. + +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo. + + +At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about +any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner, +as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and +appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text +books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or +apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it +refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before +our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will +therefore be well received. + +The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open +wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery, +but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to +those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is +astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to +check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of +pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight +of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many +times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a +feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or +otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look +on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a +run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are +likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles +away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the +right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one +bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their +assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition +produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences, +and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood +possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one. + +Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office, +who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps, +the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of +such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever +in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional +cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, +when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the +pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient +prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection. + +Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and +though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases, +still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having +systematized the following method: + + +BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS). + +Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the +back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt +bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again +in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin +back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"The illustrations will explain at a glance." + + +BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM. + +Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper +arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the +joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also +be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The +bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + +BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS). + +It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the +hemorrhage from that region temporarily. + +Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as +Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et +Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under +the knee joint, or like Fig. 4. + + +BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS). + +Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the +front of the tibia. + +Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the +pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced +as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little +uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it +has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several +days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete +closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of +arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery, +neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the +practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have +to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by +it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily +applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be +distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures +or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the +rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost +completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to +apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply +it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a +wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the +patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and +anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured. + +I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their +attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not +possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact +a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw, +planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where +the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a +certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of +men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every +establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the +bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and +railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to +use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out +should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows +how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus +be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana +Medical Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS. + + +Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to +the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped +in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55 deg. +C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND. + + +After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition +of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding +machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the +Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th +of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations, +there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials +already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the +distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the +interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though +ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which +unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural +Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited +them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The +published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as +many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the +rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for +different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance +for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines +to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick +Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. +Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show, +except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of +the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley, +and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an +acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and +engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was +made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. +Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, +be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal +in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the +class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the +driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely +neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach +great importance. + +It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every +single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional +miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with +Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of +the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop +in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do +with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to +connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other +machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. +Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and +the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was +almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went +through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning +the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than +with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the +gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced +in these machines vary very much in weight. + +At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of +the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. +Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We +believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves +were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no +hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman & +Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was +not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines. +Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were +ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and +assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which +binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the +sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the +fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied +to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after +the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been +fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one +could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf +produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes +this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till +the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the +ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy +downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and +through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have +been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting +would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the +rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick +Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood +worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to +bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the +shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson +and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble +in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to +be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather +too tight. + +The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then +attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a +face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet +condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the +canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was +the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of +the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the +Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine +was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. +Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in +the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly +were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must +be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the +crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought +to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity +of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be +here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind +at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so +thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's +machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors. + +The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known +on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver +medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr. +H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only +gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G. +Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this +were made.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES. + + +Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester, +give the following directions for setting out and cultivating +strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their +recently issued Strawberry Catalogue: + +_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully +grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden +crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at +least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for +any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it +must be thoroughly drained. + +_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for +planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may +then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until +they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large +plantations_. + +During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually +hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage. +With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted +without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering, +shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants, +are thus in a great measure avoided. + + +GARDEN CULTURE. + +_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting +in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds +will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches +apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These +beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without +setting the feet upon them. + +_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the +garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the +runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may +be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new +crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have +formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be +expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the +plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe +or fork. + +_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow +for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches +of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be +placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the +middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal +errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care +must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the +plants begin to grow. + +_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen, +mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass +mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep +the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and +thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch. + +A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be +spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to +take its place. + + +FIELD CULTURE. + +The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection, +and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large +scale. + +_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its +advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden. +In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the +plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much +of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator. + +_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The +number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may +be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) +by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained +by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the +plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant +three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER. + + +Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful +how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants, +except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are +beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those +only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21. + +Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise +variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as +different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom +from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by +division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place, +their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine. + +Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its +best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to +follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of +the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past, +but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive +alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day +lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough, +but their leaves get "scorched." + +The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the +Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are +far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow +anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season; +some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium +splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called +stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_ +(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny +places, and dislike artificial waterings. + +_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual +bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory +comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes, +stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored +flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are +conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so +profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition, +notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of +plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are +past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its +massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once +established it is hard to get rid of. + +Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the +carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell, +and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better +results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No +garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it +the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is +by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved +and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise +the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in +any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many +kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance; +they love moist soil. + +In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in +bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of +thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six +feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past, +but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their +prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials, +bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and +effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large +purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple +spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of +yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the +ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent. +It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening +primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_, +white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia, +fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial, +are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted +by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It +has hundreds of red spikes. + +Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_, +Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many +others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, +stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, +morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, +verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single +poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of +seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame +or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless +garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH. + + +Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham +township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two +match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily +production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five +thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one +hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of +the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. +In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the +25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made +in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and +used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to +light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less +time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in +trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the +360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000 +minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures +up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of +days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by +the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking +matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in +each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Suppl. No. 299 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8408] +[This file was first posted on July 9, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: iso-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL. NO. 299 *** + + + + +E-text prepared by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 299 + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII, No. 299. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + +[Illustration] + + + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--On the Progress and development + of the Marine Engine.--Marine engines.--The marine + boiler.--Steel boilers.--Corrosion of boilers.--How the marine + engine may be improved.--Consumption of fuel.--Evaporative + efficiency of marine locomotive boilers.--Screw propellers + + Steam Ferry Boats of the Port of Marseilles.--2 figures.-- + Transverse and longitudinal sections + + Opening of a New English Dock. 1 figure + + Improved Grain Elevator. 1 figure + + Improved Dredger. 1 figure.--Single bucket dipper dredger + + Railway Alarm Whistle + + Furnace for the Manufacture of Sulphide of Carbon. 1 figure + + Brouardel's Dry Inscribing Manometer. 1 figure.--Gas indication + of manometer + + Centrifugal Apparatus for Casting Metals. 4 figures.--Centrifugal + metal moulding apparatus + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Wood Pulp. 2 figures.--Dresel's + wood pulp apparatus + + Recent Progress of Industrial Science.--Presidential address, + Convention of Mechanical Engineers + + The Hoboken Drainage Problem + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY--On some Recent Improvements + in Lead Processes. By NORMAN C. COOKSON + + Apparatus Used in Berlin for the Preparation of Gelatine Plates.-- + I. Mixing apparatus.--II. Digestive apparatus.--III. Triturating + apparatus--IV. Washing apparatus--3 figures + + How To Make Emulsions In Hot Weather. By A. L. HENDERSON + + The Distillation and Rectification of Alcohols by the Rational + Use of Low Temperatures. By RAOUL PICTET.--1 figure.--Pictet's + apparatus for the rectification of alcohol by cold + + The Removal of Noxious Vapors from Roasting Furnace Gases + + New Gas Exhauster. 1 figure + + Advance in the Price of Glycerine + + Analysis of Oils or Mixtures of Oils Used for Lubricating Purposes + + Nitrate of Amyl + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--The Electric Light in Earnock Colliery + + Lightning and Telephone Wires + + Conditions of Flames Under the Influence of Electricity + + The Electric Stop-Motion in the Cotton Mill + + Electrolytic Determinations and Separations. By ALEX, and M. + A. VON REIS.--Determination of cobalt.--Nickel--Iron.--Zinc.-- + Manganese.--Bismuth.--Lead.--Copper.--Cadmium.--Tin.--Antimony.-- + Arsenic.--Separation of iron from manganese.--Iron from Aluminum + +IV. MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC.--Treatment of Acute Rheumatism. + By ALFRED M. STILLE, M.D. + + Method in Madness + + Simple Methods to Staunch Accidental Hemorrhage. By EDWARD + BORCK, M.D.--Bleeding from upper arm.--From arteries in the + upper third of the arm.--From the thigh.--From the foot + + Hot Water Compresses in Tetanus and Trismus + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--The Cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture + of Powder + + Trials of String Sheaf Binders at Derby, England + + The Culture of Strawberries.--Garden culture.--Field culture + + Some Hardy Flowers for Midsummer + + The Time Consuming Match + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Suggestions in Decorative Art. + 1 figure.--Silver ewer by Odiot, Paris + + Artists' Homes. No. l4.--Bent's Brook, Holmwood, Surrey, Eng.-- + 6 figures.--Perspective, elevations, and plans + +VII. OBITUARY.--Achille Delesse, eminent as geologist and mineralogist + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHILLE DELESSE. + + +The death of this distinguished man must be recorded. An interesting +_résumé_ of his labors by M. Daubree has appeared, from which we take +the following facts. After a training in his native town at the Lyceum +of Metz, which furnished so many scholars to the Polytechnic school, +Delesse was admitted at the age of twenty to this school. In 1839 he +left to enter the Corps des Mines. From the beginning of his career the +student engineer applied himself with ardor to the sciences to which +he was to devote his entire existence. The journeys which he undertook +then, and continued later, in France, Germany, Poland, England, and +Ireland, helped to confirm and develop the bent of his mind. He soon +arrived at important scientific results, and was rewarded, in 1845, by +having conferred to him by the university the course of mineralogy and +geology in the Faculty at Besançon, where Delesse at the same time +fulfilled the duties of engineer of mines. Five years later he returned +to Paris, where he continued his university duties, at first as deputy +of the course of geology at the Sorbonne, then as master of the +conferences at the Superior Normal School. Besides this, he continued +his profession of engineer of mines as inspector of the roads of Paris. +The first original researches of the young _savant_ concern pure +mineralogy; he studied a certain number of species, of which the +chemical nature was yet uncertain or altogether unknown, and his name +was appended to one of the species which he defined. He studied +also, and with success, the interesting modifications called +pseudomorphism--the mode of association of minerals, as well as their +magnetic properties. The attributes of a practical mineralogist aided +him greatly in the culture of a branch of geology to which Delesse has +rendered eminent services, in the recognition of rocks of igneous origin +and of others allied to them. He studied in the field, as well as by +investigations in the laboratory, for fifteen years, with an intelligent +and indefatigable perseverance, and, aided by the results of hundreds of +analyses, eruptive masses of the most varied kind, the knowledge derived +from which threw light upon the principles of science, from granites +and syenites to melaphyres and basalts. After thirty years of study +and progress, other _savants_, without differing from him, progressed +further in the intimate knowledge of rocks; but the historian of +science will not forget that Delesse was the precursor of this order +of research. His studies of metamorphism will long do him honor. The +mineralogical modifications which the eruptive rocks have undergone in +the mass are the permanent witnesses which attracted all his attention. +The chemical comparison of the metamorphic with the normal rock pointed +out distinctly the nature of the substances acquired or lost. One of the +principal results of these analyses has been to lessen the importance +attributed until then to heat alone, and to show in more than one case +the intervention of thermal sources and of other emanations from below, +to which the eruptive rocks have simply opened up tracks. + +It is not only upon subjects relating to the history of rocks that +Delesse has touched. Witness his work on the infiltration of water, as +well as his volume relating to the materials of construction, published +on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1855. The nature of the deposits +which operate continually at the bottom of the sea offers points of +interest which well repay the labor of the geologist. He finds there, +indeed, a precious field to be compared with stratified deposits; for +in spite of the enormous depth to which they form a part of continents, +they are of analogous origin. Delesse laboriously studied the products +of the innumerable soundings taken in most of the seas. He arranged the +results in a work which has become classical with the beautiful atlas of +submarine drawings which accompany it. Though he never slackened in his +own especial work, he made much of the work of others. The "Revue des +Progrès de la Géologie," with which he enriched the "Annales des Mines" +for twenty years, would have been sufficient to engross the time of a +less active scientific man, and one less ready to grasp the opening of a +discovery. This indefatigable theorist never neglected the applications +of science: the nature and the changes of the layers which form the +under earth; the course and the depth of the subterraneous sheets of +water; the mineralogical composition of the earth's vegetation, were +represented by him on several charts and plans drawn out in proper form. +His maps which follow the route of many of the great French lines of +railway explain the kind of soil upon which they are laid, and are of +daily use. In the pursuit of his numerous scientific works, Delesse +never failed in discharging his duties in the Corps des Mines. Having +in 1864 quitted the service of the Government of Paris, which he had +occupied for eighteen years, he was made professor of agriculture, of +drainage, and irrigation, at the School of Mines, where he established +instruction in these before being called to found the course of geology +at the Agricultural Institution. Promoted to be Inspector-General of +Mines in 1878, and charged with the division of the south east of +France, he preserved to the end of his life these new duties, for which, +to the regret of the School of Mines, he gave up his excellent lessons +there. During the year of 1870 Delesse fulfilled his duties as a +citizen, as engineer in preparation of cartridges in the department. + +His nomination to the Academy of Sciences, which took place on the 6th +of January, 1879, satisfied the ambition of his life. He was for two +years President of the Central Commission of the Geographical Society; +he was also President of the Geological Society. He was not long to +enjoy the noble position acquired by his intelligence and his work. +He suffered from a serious malady, which, however, did not weaken his +intellect, and he continued from his bed of suffering to prepare the +reports for the Council-General of Mines, and that which recently he +addressed to the Academy on the occasion of his election. The greatness +and the rectitude of mind of Delesse, his astounding power of work, his +profound knowledge of science, his sympathetic sweetness, which were +associated with sterling modesty and loyalty of character, made him +esteemed and cherished throughout his whole career. He died on the 24th +of March.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--SILVER EWER, BY ODIOT, +PARIS. + +(From The Workshop)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT EARNOCK COLLIERY. + + +On the afternoon of August 9, Earnock Colliery, near Hamilton, belonging +to Mr. John Watson, of Earnock, was the scene of an interesting +ceremonial which may well be said to mark a new era in mining annals. +In proceeding to win the rich mineral wealth of his estate, Mr. Watson +determined that, in respect of fittings, machinery, and general +appointments, it should be a model, and he has been highly successful +in giving practical effect to his aims. Among other things, he early +resolved to, if at all practicable, substitute the electric light for +the ordinary mode of illuminating the workings, and after investigating +the various systems, he decided on giving that of Mr. Swan a trial. +Accordingly, since April last, Messrs. D. & E. Graham, electrical +engineers, Glasgow, have been engaged fitting up the Swan incandescent +lamp, with modifications, to adapt it for safe use in the mine, and on +Tuesday the inauguration of the new light took place in presence of a +large company of leading gentlemen from Glasgow, Hamilton, and the West. +Arrived at the colliery about half-past one o'clock, the visitors were +received by Mr. Watson, and after a brief space spent in inspecting +the three magnificent winding and fan engines, the Guibal fan, and the +framework for screening the coal, they were conducted by Mr. James +Gilchrist, manager, down into the workings in the ell seam at a depth +of 118 fathoms. Here at the pit bottom, in the roads and at the face, +twenty-one Swan lamps were burning, giving forth a brilliant, steady +flame, the luminosity of which, while sufficient to supply the desired +light, had none of the disagreeable intensity associated with most +systems of electric lighting. Besides the pear-shaped Swan lamp, in +which the glowing or incandescence is carried on _in vacuo_, there is an +outer lantern, the invention of Mr. David Graham, consisting of a strong +glass globe, air-tight, protected with steel guards. Each lamp was also +connected with two different forms of Graham's patent safety air tight +contacts and switches for cutting off and letting on the current, the +effect of which, it is believed, would be to render the lamps quite +safe, even in the presence of explosive gas. At first the intention +was to employ the fan-engine to drive the dynamo-electric machine or +generator, but this was departed from, and an engine of 12 horse-power +was erected in the workshops on the surface for the purpose. From the +generator the electric cables, two in number, are conducted along the +roof of the workshops over ordinary telegraph poles to the pit-head at +No. 2 shaft, and thence down into the workings. From the ridge of the +workshops to the pithead, a distance of several hundred yards, the +cables consist of ordinary copper wire, three-eighths of an inch in +diameter; inside the workshop and below ground, to allow of their safe +handling, they are composed of insulated wires, while on the way down +the shaft they are inclosed in a galvanized tube. Near the bottom of the +shaft, branches are taken off to supply light to the principal roadways +and to the haulage engine-room, the main cables being carried into one +of the sections of the mine a distance of half-a-mile. After a careful +inspection of the lamps at the pit bottom, the party were photographed +in three groups, with the aid of the electric light, by Mr. Annan, of +Glasgow, who may well be credited with the distinction of being the +first to exercise his skill in the bowels of the earth. They were +then led to the haulage engine-room and into the workings, where they +witnessed the effects of the light. At the latter point, while, of +course, the visitors were at a safe distance, a shot was fired, bringing +down a large mass of coal. Having spent fully an hour below ground, the +party returned to the surface.--_Colliery Guardian_. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTNING AND TELEPHONE WIRES. + + +M. Bede, of Brussels, has an article in _L'Ingénieur-Conseil_ on the +above subject. He considers that a system of such wires forms the best +and most complete security against lightning with which a town can be +provided, because they protect not only the buildings in which they +terminate, but also those over which they pass. At each end they +communicate with the earth, and thus carry off safely any surplus +of electricity with which they may become charged. It is, however, +important that they should be provided with lightning conductors of +their own, to carry off such surplus directly from the transmission wire +to the earth wire, without allowing it to pass through the fine wires of +the induction coils, which it might fuse. + +Such lightning conductors usually consist of a toothed plate attached to +one wire, close to another plate not toothed attached to the other wire. +The copper even of such a conductor has been melted by the powerful +current which it has carried away. In telephonic central offices, M. +Bede has seen all the signals of one row of telephone wires fall at the +same moment, proving that an electric discharge had fallen upon the +wires, and been by them conveyed to earth. + +This fact shows that wires, even without points, are capable of +attracting the atmospheric electricity; but it must be remembered that +there are two points at every join in the wire. M. Bede insists strongly +upon the uselessness of terminating lightning conductors in wells, +or even larger pieces of water. The experiments of MM. Becquerel +and Pouillet proved that the resistance of water to the passage of +electricity is one thousand million times greater than that of iron; +consequently, if the current conveyed by a wire one square mm. thick +were to be carried off by water without increased resistance, a surface +of contact between the wire and the water of not less than 1,000 square +meters must be established. + +It is obvious that a wire let down into a well is simply useless. On +the two-fluid theory, it offers no effectual way of escape to the +terrestrial electricity; according to the older views, it would be +absolutely dangerous, by attracting more electricity from the clouds +than it could dispose of. The author advocates connecting lightning +conductors with water or gas pipes, which have an immense surface of +contact with the earth. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDITION OF FLAMES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY. + + +The experiments of the author have been principally directed to the +alterations in shape and color produced in a flame when under the +influence of positive or negative electricity. The flames were arranged +so as to form one electrode of a frictional machine. When charged with +positive electricity the flame became more blue, narrower, and pointed +at the top, while little or nothing of the result was observed in +negative flames. + +A peculiar result is that the end of a negative flame returns to its own +conductor, and that, according to the intensity of the electricity, and +also depending on the width of the burner, this turning back of the +flame is either intermittent or constant. Most noticeable are these +results: + +When the flame rises from a circular burner, or when burning round a +metallic cylinder, in the latter case it returns to the metallic surface +according to the intensity of electricity in an arc or angle, while the +point of the flame divides into two branches, which separately perform +more or less equal movements. If a body connected to the earth by a +conducting wire is held opposite the flame at some distance, the flame +will in all cases bend toward it; as the body is brought closer, +the flame, if negative, will be repulsed, and, if positive, will be +attracted, at least the upper luminous part of the flame, while the +lower dark body of flame is also repulsed. + +This phenomenon explains why a positive flame will burn through wire +gauze, while a negative flame remains below the gauze. The positive +flame becoming pointed explains the fact that this will drive a small +fan wheel, while a negative flame will only just move it. + +All these results are most prominently obtained with a pure gas flame, a +stearine, wax, or tallow candle, very indifferently with a spirit flame, +and least from a Bunsen flame rich in oxygen. They may not only be +obtained with flames electrified direct, but also when placed under the +influence of a long "Holtz" machine. + +A flame placed between two small disks on the machine bends toward the +negative pole, becomes widened, and, at a certain point of electric +intensity, commences to vibrate and oscillate, exhibiting a peculiar +stratification. Since these phenomena are also least observed in flames +rich in oxygen, it appears to be a general law that carbon and hydrogen +are more strongly attracted by the negative pole, while oxygen is +more attracted by the positive pole, probably like in all polar +differentially attractions, in consequence of a peculiar unipolar +conductivity of the substances. + +The return motion of the flame the author explains thus: The point +of the flame loses more electricity by influence than it receives by +conductivity. A paper strip fixed at one end to a large ball shows +similar movements when its free end is pointed and made conductive. +Why principally the negative flame returns may be explained in two +ways--either the point of the flame loses much by radiation, or the base +of the flame is a bad conductor. The former explanation would agree with +the experiments made by Wiedemann and Ruhlmann, the latter with Erdman's +theory of unipolar conductivity of flames. This theory is still further +supported by the resistance on the negative electrodes noticed by +Hittorf, which almost explains Erdman's experiments, because if negative +electricity enters a flame with greater difficulty, then positive +electricity must leave a flame with difficulty.--_W. Holtz, in +Wiedemanris Beiblätter to Poggendorfs Annalen._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC STOP-MOTION IN THE COTTON MILL. + + +The number of inventions for use as stop-motions in and about the +various machines in the cotton mill has been to a certain extent +something like the search after perpetual motion. Very available and +quite satisfactory stop-motions have for a number of years been employed +wherever the thread or sliver has been twisted so that strength was +given it to resist a slight amount of friction, but the main trouble +in the mill has been done after the sliver leaves the railway head and +during its transit in the various processes employed between the railway +head and the spinning frame or mule. Every carder or spinner knows that +where an injury comes to the sliver because the sliver is soft, but +partially condensed and very susceptible to injury, the injury is +magnified and multiplied in every successive process. Virtually the +field was long since abandoned for an accurate quick-working motion that +should be applicable to any and all the machines and to every sliver or +strand of the machine. + +This invention was solved practically about two years since, and is +now being employed as applied to drawing frames, doublers, speeder, +intermediate, and slubber. It is a very cunning mechanical appliance, +too, and has found favor to a great extent in England, where several +thousand heads of drawing and speeders are already supplied. + +This invention was exhibited at the Centennial in 1876, although in a +somewhat crude state. Since that time it has been materially improved, +and mechanically is very nearly perfect now. Many attempts have been +made to apply a stop motion, which should be quick in its movement and +accurate in its result, to carding engines or the card, not one of +which, until the application of electricity, was worth the time spent in +putting it on. With the electric motion, however, all this is changed, +and the electric attachments are not of necessity so fragile as to be +un-mechanical or to be not practical. The advantage has also been +taken, in a mechanical way, of using cotton as one element, and, being +non-conducting, so that no trouble shall arise from contact with the +working parts of the electrical apparatus with the cotton itself. + +To take into consideration all the possibilities that exist from the +railway can to the front of the fine speeder is not needed by the +practical reader, and would be useless to any other. The principle of +this invention is the supplying of a magneto-electric current from +a small magneto-electric machine attached to the card, speeder, or +whatever machine it may be applied to which generates the current, and +this machine is driven by a small belt from the main driving shaft. +The machine in itself weighs but a few pounds, and can be driven by a +half-inch or three quarter-inch belt, and requires a little more power +than a light-running sewing machine. + +One pole of the magneto-electric machine is connected by means of a rod +or wire to the machine frame upon which it is to be used, and the +other pole to the electromagnet in the ordinary way of conductivity +of current, which means stretching the wire from one to the other. An +armature is arranged so that when a thread is broken or a sliver or a +strand of roving, the armature drops into a ratchet wheel; this ratchet +wheel is made to revolve by the belt, and whenever it is impeded or +stopped in its course it acts upon mechanism which throws the driving +belt of the machine upon the loose pulley. Electrical contact is made by +a very simple contrivance, and these attachments are only to act in the +case of a breakage of a thread or strand. + +As applied to a card, the calender rolls are both connected, one with +the negative and one with the positive pole; when the sliver of cotton +is between the calender rolls there is no connection, but if the sheet +breaks down between the cone and the calender roll, the moment the +calender rolls come in contact the electrical attachment operates and a +stoppage ensues; and in the case, as with the American system, where a +number of cards are used in a railway, this electric contact may be used +for either one of two purposes-to stop the feeding of cotton into the +card, or to ring a bell sharply and continue ringing it until the sliver +is put between the calender rolls again and the card set to delivering +cotton. + +In drawing frames it may be attached so that, in the case of a breakage +between the front roll and the calender roll, the electric machine acts; +in the case of a lap upon one of the rolls or one end of the roll, or +in case of breakage of the sliver at the back of the machine, in either +case a stoppage would be instantly produced. + +In being applied to the slubber a breakage either at the front or back +can be arranged for. Upon intermediates the breakage of either one of +the strands, if the machine was running two into one, from the creel to +the roller, would cause the stoppage of the machine, or the breaking or +tangling of ends between the front roll and the nose of the flier. + +There are many other places where this motion can be applied. With +mechanical means we require motion; with electricity we require simple +contact of two differently arranged surfaces, and this can always be +had by letting the cotton drop out from between the rollers; no radical +changes are necessary, and we are glad to find that this electrical +attachment is meeting with a very good success in England, France, +and, so far, in the United States, and, undoubtedly, further and more +extended opportunity will be found for this application.--_Textile +Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENGINE. + +[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Mechanical +Engineers by F.C.Marshall.] + + +The author began by referring to a paper read at the Liverpool meeting +in 1872, by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., on "The Progress effected in +Economy of Fuel in Steam Navigation, considered in Relation to Compound +Cylinder Engines and High-pressure Steam;" then proceeded to continue +the subject from the date of that meeting, to trace out whether any, and +if so what, progress had been made; further, to consider whether or no +we have reached the finality so strongly deprecated by Sir Frederick +Bramwell in the discussion referred to, and, if not, then in what +direction we are to look for further development. + +From a table it would seem that the steam pressures are now much higher, +the boilers have less heating surface, and the cylinders are much +smaller for the indicated horsepower developed than in 1872; and at the +same time the average consumption of fuel is reduced from 2.11 lb. to +1.828 lb., or by 13.38 per cent. + + +MARINE ENGINES. + +The author then briefly described the modern marine engine and boiler. +The three great types of compound engines may be placed as follows in +the order of their general acceptance by the shipowning community: (1) +The two-cylinder intermediate-receiver compound engine, having cranks at +right angles. (2) The Woolf engine in the tandem form, having generally +the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders in line with each other, +but occasionally alongside, and always communicating their power to one +crank. Such a pair of engines is used sometimes singly, oftener two +pairs together, working side by side to cranks at right angles; recently +three pairs together, working to cranks placed 120 deg. apart. The +system affords the opportunity of adding yet more engines to the +same propeller to an indefinite extent. (3) The three cylinder +intermediate-receiver compound engine, with one high and two +low-pressure cylinders, the steam passing from the high-pressure +cylinder into the receiver, and thence into the two low-pressure +cylinders respectively. The cranks are placed at equal angles apart +round the crank shaft, so as to balance the forces exerted upon the +shaft. + +These three types may be said to embrace all the engines now being +manufactured in this country for the propulsion of steam vessels by the +screw propeller. In their leading principles they also embrace +nearly all paddle engines now being built, whether the cylinders be +oscillating, fixed vertically, or inclined to the shaft. + +The compound engine, in fact, in one of these three forms, may now be +said to be universally adopted in this country; and the question of the +relative value of simple expansion in one cylinder, and of compound +expansion in two or more cylinders, which agitated the minds of some of +our leading engineers ten years ago, is now practically solved in favor +of the latter. + + +THE MARINE BOILER. + +The marine boiler of to-day is in all its main features the same as it +was ten years ago. The single-ended boiler, made with two, three, and +sometimes four furnaces, is the simplest form, and for all powers +under 500 indicated horse power is the most generally adopted. The +double-ended form is largely used. It has been found more economically +efficient than the single-ended form, by as much as ten per cent, in the +writer's own experience. It is generally adopted for engines of large +power, but for small power is inconvenient, owing to its occupying more +room lengthwise in the vessel, and also involving two stokeholds and +therefore more supervision. At one time great difficulty was found +in keeping the bottoms of boilers of this kind tight. Owing to their +length, the unequal expansion due to different temperatures at the +top and bottom caused severe racking strains on the bottom seams and +riveting--so severe in some cases as to rend the plating for a large +part of the bottom circumference of the shell. This difficulty has now +been to a large extent got over, in consequence of the greater attention +given to the form and direction of the water spaces in the boiler +itself, so as to induce circulation of water; the introduction of the +feed-water at the top instead of near the bottom; the more careful +management now usual on the part of engineers; and lastly, the use of +larger plates, welded horizontal seams, drilled rivet holes, and more +perfect workmanship throughout. A modification of double-ended boiler is +that introduced by Mr. Alfred Holt. It has many decided advantages, +but is costly to make. The formation of the two ends into separate +fire-boxes leaves the bottom of the boiler free to adapt itself to the +variations of temperature to which it is exposed. The separation of the +furnaces from the combustion chamber, excepting through the opening +afforded by a connecting tube, is an advantage in the same direction, +and avoids almost entirely the racking strains due to irregular furnace +action. The weight of water carried is less, and that of the boiler +may also be made less; while the elliptical form of the two ends gives +greater steam space. + +A type of boiler largely used in her Majesty's Navy, somewhat like a +locomotive boiler, is highly efficient in regard to weight and power +developed. Many examples have yielded one indicated horse-power in the +cylinders for every three square feet of heating surface, under natural +draught and with a very moderate height of funnel; and this with a +consumption of fuel not exceeding 2½ lb. per indicated horse-power per +hour under a working pressure of 60 lb. With the aid of a steam jet in +the funnel, the heating surface per indicated horse-power has fallen +below 2½ square feet. The large water surface afforded for escape +of steam secures almost entire freedom from priming, without the +incumbrance of steam domes; and the large combustion chamber allows of +the thorough combustion of the gases before their passage through the +tubes. The locomotive type of boiler has lately occupied the writer's +attention, with a view to its more definite introduction into marine +work. The difficulties, however, which lie in the way of applying it to +steamers going long voyages are very great. The principal difficulty +lies in the necessity of burning a large quantity of fuel in a very +limited space and time. This can only be done either by direct pressure +or exhaust action applied at the furnace. In other words, we must either +exhaust the funnel, which will absorb a large amount of power, but would +be comparatively easy of application; or our stokers, as is the case +with our miners, must work under a pressure of air. + + +STEEL BOILERS. + +The writer stated that his experience in the manufacture and working of +steel boilers was satisfactory. Many steel boilers of sizes varying from +six feet diameter to fourteen feet six inches diameter have left the +works at St. Peter's since 1877, when the first was made; and in no +case has there been a failure of a plate after being put into a boiler, +either in the process of manufacture or in working at sea. The mode +of working is as follows: For shell plates, from five-eighths inch +to seven-eighths inch thick, to warm each to a dark red heat before +rolling, having previously drilled a few holes to template for bolting +the strakes together; the longitudinal seams are usually lap joints +treble riveted, requiring the corners to be thinned, which is done after +rolling. The furnace plates are generally welded two plates in length, +and flanged to form Adamson rings, and at the back end to meet the tube +plate; the back flame-box plates are flanged, also the tube plates and +front and back plates; and wherever work is put on to the plate it +is annealed before going into the place. The rivet holes are drilled +throughout. In the putting together the longitudinal seams of the +thicker plates of the shells, great care is always taken to set the +upper and under plates for the lap to their proper angle before they +are bolted together, a point generally overlooked by the practical +boilersmith. + + +CORROSION OF BOILERS. + +The question of corrosion is one which is gradually being answered as +time goes on; and so far very satisfactorily for steel. Some steel +boilers were examined a few weeks ago which were among the first made; +and the superintending engineer reports: "There is no sign of pitting +or corrosion in any part of the boiler; the boilers are washed out very +carefully every voyage, and very carefully examined, and I cannot trace +anything either leaking or eating away. No zinc is used, only care in +washing out, drying out, and managing the water." This is the evidence +of an engineer with a large number of vessels in his charge. On the +other hand, some of the most prominent Liverpool engineers always use +zinc, and take care to apply it most strictly. The evidence of one +of them is as follows: "We always fix slabs of zinc to most boilers, +exposing not less than a surface of one square foot for every twenty +indicated horse-power, and distributed throughout the boiler. This zinc +we find to be in a state of oxide and crumbling away in about three +months. We then renew the whole, and find this will last twelve months +or more, when it is renewed again. Meanwhile we have no pitting and no +corrosion; but on the contrary, the interior surfaces appear to have +taken a coating of oxide of zinc all over, and we have no trouble with +them." + + +HOW THE MARINE ENGINE MAY BE IMPROVED. + +Then the writer considered our present marine engine as to its +efficiency and capability of further improvement. The weight of +machinery, water, and fuel carried for propelling ships has not had due +attention in the general practice of engineers. By the best shipping +authorities the writer is assured that every ton of dead weight capacity +is worth on an average £10 per annum as earning freight. Assuming, +therefore, the weight of the machinery and water of any ordinary vessel +to be 300 tons, and that, by careful design and judicious use of +materials, the engineer can reduce it by 100 tons, without increasing +the cost of working, he makes the vessel worth £1,000 per annum more to +her owners. That there is much room for improvement in this direction is +shown by the following statement, giving, for various classes of ships, +the average weight of machinery, including engines, boilers, water, and +all fittings ready for sea, in pounds, per indicated horse power: + + Lb. per I. H. P. + + Merchant steamers.......................... 480 + Royal Navy................................. 300 + Engines specially designed for light draught + vessels...................................280 + Royal Navy, Polyphemus class (given by Mr. + Wright).................................. 180 + Modern locomotive.......................... 140 + Torpedo vessels............................. 60 + + Ordinary marine boilers, including water... 196 + Locomotive boilers, including water......... 60 + +The ordinary marine boiler, encumbered as it is by the regulations of +the Board of Trade and of Lloyds' Committee, does not admit of much +reduction in the weight of material or of water carried when working. +The introduction of steel has reduced the weight by about one-tenth; but +it will be the alteration of form to the locomotive, tubulous, or some +other type, combined with some method of forced draught, to which we +must look for such reductions in weight of material and water as will be +of any great commercial value. The engine may be reduced in weight by +reducing its size, and this can only be done by increasing the number of +revolutions per minute. + +It has hitherto been the practice to treat the propeller as dependent +upon the size of engines, draught of water, and speed required. This +process should be reversed. The propeller's diameter depends on the +column of water behind necessary to overcome the resistance in front of +it due to the properties of the vessel. This fixed, the speed will then +fix the number of revolutions, which will be found much greater than is +usual in practice, and from this the size of the engines and boilers +will be determined. Great saving in weight can be effected by careful +design and judicious selection and adaptation of materials, also by the +substitution of trussed framing and a proper mode of securing the engine +to the structure of the vessel, as worked out in H.M.S. Nelson, by Mr. +A. C. Kirk, of Glasgow, and in the beautifully designed engines by Mr. +Thornycroft, in place of the massive cast-iron bedplates and columns of +the ordinary engines of commerce. The same may be said of the moving +parts. In fine, the hull and engines should be as much as possible one +structure; rigidity in one place and elasticity in others are the +cause of most of the accidents so costly to the ship-owner; under such +conditions mass and solidity cease to be virtues, and the sooner their +place is taken by careful design, and the use of the smallest weight +of material--of the very best kind for the purpose--consistent with +thorough efficiency, the better for all concerned. + + +CONSUMPTION OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES. + +Coming to the question of the consumption of fuel, a considerable saving +has been effected in nine years, as shown in the following table: + + Item. 1872. 1881. + + Working pressure, lb. per sq. in......... 52.5 77.4 + Heating surface per I. H. P., sq. ft.... 4.64 3.919 + Piston speed, feet per min.............. 376 467 + Coal burnt per I. H. P., lb.............. 2.11 1.828 + +This shows a saving equal to 13.38 per cent, in quantity of fuel +consumed. Mr. Marshall then read a letter from Mr. Alfred Holt, of +Liverpool, bearing on this subject, in which Mr. Holt spoke favorably of +the single-crank engine, and stated his belief that the compound system +would ere long be abandoned for the simple engine. He is endeavoring to +feel his way to using the steam in one cylinder only, and so far the +results have been encouraging, and he is now fitting a 2,200-ton vessel +on that system. He is also endeavoring to do without a crank shaft, the +forward end of the screw shaft carrying an ordinary crank with overhung +pin. This experiment also promises satisfactorily. In his opinion the +great improvement of the immediate future is to increase the steam +production of our boilers. A ton weight of a locomotive boiler produces +as much steam as six tons of an ordinary steamboat boiler. + +Mr. Holt speaks of the coal account as one of the minor disbursements +of a steamer. He does not give the ratio which coals bear to the total +disbursements, but from other reliable sources Mr. Marshall found that, +according to the direction of the voyage, it varies from 16 to +20 percent.--or, say, an average of 18 per cent.--of the total +disbursements, in a vessel carrying a cargo of 2,500 tons. This will +represent to-day about £3,000 per annum, and in 1872, at equal prices, +the cost would have been £3,750--showing a saving of £750, equal to a +dividend of, say, 3 per cent. on the value of the ship. Again, the cost +of coal per mile run for such a vessel, in 1872, would have been at +least 16½d.; to-day it does not exceed 13d. + + +EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF MARINE BOILERS. + +The marine boiler as now made is very efficient, but if the quantity of +steam used be considered in relation to the increased pressure, it will +be seen that the boiler of to-day is little if anymore efficient than +that of ten years ago. The present boiler has an evaporative efficiency +of about 75 per cent., and cannot be much improved so long as air +is supplied to the furnace by the natural draught. To increase the +efficiency from 75 to 82.5 per cent. would require about double the +heating surface, the weight of boiler and water being also doubled, +while the gain would be only 10 per cent. Mr. Blechynden's formula, used +in Mr. Marshall's works for weights of cylindrical marine boilers of the +ordinary type, and for pressures varying from 50 lb. to 150 lb., is as +follows: + +W = (P + 15) (S + D² L) / C + +or W = 2S (P + 15) / C + +when S = D² L, which is a common proportion. + + Here W = weight in tons. + P = working pressure as on gauge. + S = heating surface, in square feet. + D = diameter, in feet. + L = length, in feet. + C = a constant divisor, depending on the class of + riveting, etc. For boilers to Lloyds' rules, + and with iron shells having 75 per cent. + strength of solid plate, C = 13,200. + +This formula, if correct--and it is almost strictly so--would give the +relative weight of boilers per sq. ft. of heating surface, for 105 lb. +and 150 lb. total pressure, assuming we wish to increase the efficiency +10 per cent, as follows: + +Weight at 105 lb. = 105 x 1 / C + +Weight at 150 lb. = 150 x 1.75 / C = 263 / C + +Hence the ratio of weight = 263 / 105 = 2.5 + +In other words, the boiler with the higher efficiency would weigh two +and a half times that with the lower efficiency. In the case of a vessel +of 3,000 tons, with engines and boilers of 1,500 indicated horse power, +the introduction of locomotive boilers with forced draught would place +at the disposal of the owner 150 tons of cargo space, representing +£1,500 per annum in addition to the present earnings of such a vessel. + + +MARINE LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. + +Mr. Thornycroft has for some years used the locomotive form of boiler +for his steam launches, working them under an air pressure--produced +by a fan discharging into a close stokehold--of from 1 in. to 6 in. of +water, as may be required. The experiments made gave an evaporation of +7.61 lb. of water from 1 lb. of coal at 212° Fahr., with 2 in. of water +pressure, and 6.41 lb. with 6 in. of pressure. These results are low, +but it is to be remembered that the heating surface is necessarily +small, in order to save weight, and the temperature of the funnel +consequently high, ranging from 1,073° at the first pressure, and 1,444° +at the 6 in. With the ordinary proportions of locomotive practice the +efficiency can be made equal to the best marine boiler when working +under the water pressure usual in locomotives, say from 3 in. to 4 in., +including funnel draught. + +It has fallen to the lot of the writer to fit three vessels recently +with boilers worked under pressure in closed stokeholds. The results, +even under unfavorable conditions, were very satisfactory. The pressure +of air would be represented by 2 in. of water, and the indicated horse +power given out by the engines was 2,800, as against 1,875 when working +by natural draught, or exactly 50 per cent. gain in power developed. + +Mr. Marshall then proceeded to refute the arguments which may be urged +against the use of the locomotive boiler at sea, and which we need not +reproduce. Coming to the engines, Mr. Marshall said that the total +working pressure of to-day may be accepted as 105 lb., or equal to seven +atmospheres. If it were boldly accepted that eleven atmospheres, or 165 +lb., were to be the standard working pressure, the result would be a +gain of 14.55 per cent., provided no counteracting influence came into +play. Of course, there are forces which war against the attainment of +the full extent of this advantage, viz., the greater condensation in the +cylinders and loss in the receiver or passages. + +In regard to the former, it may be questioned whether by steamjacketing +the high pressure cylinder, correctly proportioning the steam passages, +and giving a due amount of compression in both cylinders, this may not +be reduced far below the generally received notion; and the latter cause +of loss may be considerably reduced in its effect by a more carefully +chosen cylinder ratio. The ratio usually adopted, between 3.5 and 4 to +1, whether the pressure be 70 lb. or 90 lb., may well be questioned. +With a cylinder ratio of 2.95 to 1, the economic performance is very +good, and equal to any with the higher ratio. A lower cylinder ratio has +another advantage of considerable value, viz., that the working pressure +can be much reduced as the boilers get older, while by giving a greater +amount of steam the power may be maintained--at an extra cost of steam, +of course, but not so great a cost as with higher ratios. The cut-off +in the high-pressure cylinder usually takes place at about 0.6, and +the ratio of expansion has decided the ratio of cylinders. The use of +separate starting valves in both cylinders obviates that necessity. + +The difficulties in the way of taking advantage of the higher economic +properties of greater pressures than hitherto used on board ship, are, +it is submitted, not insuperable, and it would be to the interest of all +that they should be firmly and determinedly met. It may be accepted as +an average result that the Woolf engine, as usually arranged, will use +10 per cent. more steam than the receiver engine for the same power. + +Of the three-cylinder receiver type the data are insufficient to form a +definite opinion upon; but so far the general working of the Arizona is +stated to be as good, economically, as any of the two-cylinder receiver +class. The surface condenser remains as it was ten years ago, with +scarcely a detail altered. In most engines it remains a portion of the +framing, and as such adds greatly to the weight of the engine. + +It is a question seriously worth consideration whether or no the surface +of tubes can be reduced. The practice at present is to make the surface +one-half the boiler surface as a minimum, that is, equal to about 2 +square feet per indicated horse power. In practice, the writer has found +1.4 square feet per indicated horse power to maintain a steady vacuum of +27½ inches. + +Mr. Marshall has just completed six pairs of engines for three twin +screw ships, having steel shafts of 10 inches diameter, and has in each +case run the engines at 120 revolutions per minute, while indicating +1,380 horse power from each pair for ten to fifteen hours without +stopping; and in no case has a single bearing or crank pin warmed or +had water applied, the surfaces on examination being perfect. In these +engines all working bolts, pins, and rods, except the piston and +connecting rods, are of steel, all rods in tension being loaded to 8,000 +lb. per square inch. The boilers are of the Navy type, made throughout +of Siemens-Martin steel plates, riveted with steel rivets, all holes +drilled. Furnaces are welded and flanged; the tubes are of brass. In +comparison with an ordinary merchant steamer's iron boilers of the +double ended type, they weigh, including water and all appurtenances, as +follows: + + Double ended Type. Navy Type. + + Weight, tons............ 135 ........... 146 + I. H. P................. 1,400 .......... 2,760 + Draught................ Natural ......... Forced. + + +SCREW PROPELLERS. + +The screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem. We +have no definite rule by which we can fix the most important factor of +the whole, namely, the diameter. Mr. Froude has pointed out that by +reducing the diameter, and thus the peripheral friction, we can increase +the efficiency; and this is confirmed by cases--of Iris reduced 2 feet +3 inches, and the Arizona reduced 2 feet. This must, of course, be +qualified by other considerations. The ship has by her form a definite +resistance, and a certain speed is required; if the propeller be made +too small in diameter, the ship will not be driven at the required +speed, except at serious loss in other directions. This question was too +large and complicated to be dealt with here, and should, in the first +instance, be made the subject of careful and extended experiment, on +which a separate paper should be written. + +To sum up the whole. Progress has been made during the past nine years, +and in the following particulars: + +1. The power of the engines made and making show a great increase. 2. +Speeds hitherto unattainable are now seen to be possible in vessels of +all the various classes. 3. The consumption of fuel is reduced by 13.38 +per cent. on the average; and numbers of vessels are now working on much +less coal than that average, while the quality of the coal is in nearly +all cases very inferior, so that it is not unfair to take credit for +20 per cent. reduction. 4. The working pressures of steam are much +increased on the average, and are still increasing; many steamers now +being built for 120 lb. per square inch, while 90 lb. is the standard +pressure now required. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM FERRY BOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES. + + +The small steam ferry boats represented in the accompanying cut are +doing service in the port of Marseilles, and the following description +of them has been given by Mr. Flecher in the _Bulletin de la Société des +Anciens Elèves d'Arts et Metiers_: + +All those who are acquainted with the Old Port of Marseilles know the +inconvenience of communication between one shore and the other, and the +high price of ferriage by row boats. To obviate this, Captain Advient +has been struck with the happy idea of creating a cheap steam service +(fare one cent), thus supplying a genuine want in the modes of +locomotion of the city. + +The building of these ferry boats, on a system providing for the use of +separate hulls, was confided to Messrs. Stapfer, De Duclos & Co., of +Marseilles, whose well-known reputation was a sufficient guarantee that +the problem would be successfully solved. + +There existed difficulties of two natures: The first of these related to +the stability of boats such as this, having their engine, boiler, supply +of coal, forty passengers who might all occupy one side of the vessel, a +central superstructure, with roof; and, finally, all the weight centered +on five feet of the deck, with nothing below to counterbalance it except +the hollow hulls and two three-foot compartments, each placed toward the +central portion of the hulls and designed as fresh-water reservoirs +for the steam generator. The second difficulty was to obtain the best +utilization possible of a screw placed in the current between the hulls +and upon a shaft inclined toward the stern, that is, "stern" by analogy, +for there is no distinction of fore and aft in ferry boats. + +[Illustration: STEAM FERRYBOATS OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES.] + +The conditions of the problem were finally fulfilled to the satisfaction +of all concerned, and especially to that of the public. + +The hulls, navicular in form and having a flat bottom, are constructed +of one-tenth inch iron plate and 40x40 angle iron. Their dimensions +are: Length, 33 feet; breadth, 3¼ feet; and depth, 5 feet. The internal +distance between the two shells is 7¼ feet. These hulls, having +absolutely water-tight decks, are connected below by tie bars of flat +iron, and above by vertical stays 1 foot in length, which serve to +support the floor-planks of the deck and boilerplate flooring of the +engine-room. The engine-room, which is 19½ feet long by 5 feet wide, is +constructed of varnished pitch-pine, with movable side-shutters of teak. +The roof, of thin iron plate, is provided with a ventilator to allow of +the escape of hot air. + +The passengers, to the number of forty or fifty, can move about freely +from larboard to starboard, or from stem to stern, or seat themselves +on the benches running along the inside of the guard railing on the two +sides of the vessel. They are protected from rain by a roof, and from +the rays of the sun by a curtain extending along the sides. + +Although the usual method of landing is fore and aft, gangways have been +provided at the sides for side-landing should it become necessary. + +The general appearance of one of these boats may be likened to that of a +floating street-car. Finally, a small apartment, provided with benches, +is provided for the use of those passengers who might be taken sick, or +for office purposes, if need be. + +The total weight of one of the boats is divided up as follows: + + Forty passengers................ 6,200 pounds, + Engine and boiler............... 6,600 " + Ballast, water, and equipment... 9,900 " + Deck and superstructure......... 6,600 " + Hull and accessories............12,500 " + ______ + + Total...........................41,800 " + +or a displacement of about 700 cubic feet, corresponding to a maximum +draught of 3.7 feet. The mean speed is 4 knots, or 4½ miles per hour, a +great velocity being unnecessary, owing to the small distance to cross +in a port often obstructed by the general movement of vessels taking +place therein. + +The engine is from 16 to 18 horse-power. Its frame is inclined +perpendicularly to the direction of the screw-shaft, the extremity of +which is supported near the screw by a strengthened cross-stay serving +as a pillow-block. The cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, and the piston +has a stroke of 6 inches, causing the screw (which is 3¼ feet diameter) +to make 200 revolutions per minute. The screw, although it has a wide +surface of thrust, gives, nevertheless, a recoil of about 30 per cent., +because of its location between the hulls and its oblique action on the +shaft. + +The steam is furnished by a tubular boiler having an internal fireplace +and a heating surface of sixteen square meters, the draught being +effected by the exhaust of the engine. This boiler, which is tested +up to 14 pounds, is fed by a steam pump, or by a pump actuated by the +engine. The feed pumps take water successively from one or the other of +the reservoirs in the hulls. The reservoirs are filled in the morning, +and their level is ascertained by two small and ingenious Decondun +indicators, the dials of which are placed against the walls of the +engine-room. + +Taken altogether, these little boats are well arranged and quite +handsome; and, since they were put into service in June, 1880, they have +proved a great convenience to the hard-working and active population for +which they were built. + + * * * * * + + + + +OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK. + + +In July last, Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, with the Naval Reserve +Squadron under his command, arrived in the Firth of Forth and anchored +in Leith Roads. His Royal Highness performed the ceremony of opening the +new dock at Leith, which has been named after him. The "Edinburgh" Dock +at Leith, which was commenced in 1874, consists of a center basin 500 +ft. long and 650 ft. wide, and two basins 1,000 ft. long and 200 ft. +wide, separated by a jetty having a width of 250 ft. The total amount +of masonry in the wet docks is 100,000 cubic yards. The north and south +quays are each 1,500 ft. long, and the two sides of the jetty 1,000 ft. +long each, having a total quayage in connection with the dock of 6,775 +ft. The walls are 15 ft. thick at the base, narrowing in two tiers to +8 ft. The new dock will cost altogether about £300,000. Leith now +possesses five docks and a total quayage of three miles 808 yards, 1,234 +yards of which is the old portion. These works have been constructed, at +a cost of nearly one million sterling, by the Leith Dock Commissioners, +whose chairman, Mr. James Currie, presented an address to the Duke of +Edinburgh, on board the flag-ship H.M.S. Hercules, giving an account of +their affairs. The other docks at Leith are named the "Old Dock," the +"Queen's Dock," the "Victoria," the "Albert," and the "Prince of Wales +Dock." The opening ceremony was arranged to consist of the steamer +Berlin, with his Royal Highness and the Dock Commissioners on board, +accompanied by Sir Donald Currie, M.P., and other gentlemen, passing +through the entrance from the Albert Dock to the new dock, across which +a blue ribbon had been stretched. At the moment when the ribbon snapped +asunder, under the bow of the Berlin, the Duke of Edinburgh, stepping +forward on the upper deck of the steamer, said, "I have now the +gratification of declaring this dock open, and calling it the Edinburgh +Dock." On this announcement being made, a signal was conveyed to a +battery of guns, posted on the sea wall of the new dock, from which a +party of the Royal Artillery fired a Royal salute. The steamer, having +gone round the new dock, was brought up at the quay at the west. His +Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, with Prince Henry of Prussia, the +officers of the fleet, and the Commissioners, disembarked and proceeded +to the saloon in the new dock, where luncheon in honor of the occasion +was given by the Leith Dock Commissioners.--_Illustrated London News, +Aug. 6._ + +[Illustration: OPENING OF A NEW ENGLISH DOCK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAIN ELEVATOR. + + +The illustration shows the apparatus at work transferring a cargo of +grain from the hold of a ship by means of an elevating band fitted +with buckets. By a simple contrivance shown in the engraving by +diamond-shaped squares, the elevating band can be shortened or +lengthened at pleasure, so as to suit it to the position the grain to be +elevated occupies in the ship or barge. When the grain is elevated to +the point whence it is to be transferred to the granary, railway +truck, or other destination, the band travels horizontally on suitable +bearings, the buckets being so constructed that in traveling they retain +their load intact. The contrivance for lengthening and shortening the +bucket band is an application of the "lazytongs" device, which is well +known. The float of the elevator is shown at the left hand of the +engraving, and, as seen in the latter, there is an automatic weighing +machine, by which the material may be weighed as it is delivered, before +it goes to the bottom of the elevator, to be again transferred by its +means to the barge or granary. Simplicity, efficiency, and adaptability +to any position in which elevators of this class are desirable, are the +claims the patentees, Messrs. Behrns & Unruth, Lubeck, make for the +advantages of their apparatus.--_London Miller_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FLOATING ELEVATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DREDGER. + + +We illustrate below a useful type of dredger made by Messrs. Rennie, of +Blackfriars, England. The drawing almost explains itself. The machine +consists of a double barge or pontoon, in which is erected a derrick. +This derrick works a "spoon" dredge at the end of a lever. The spoon, as +shown, is at its lowest position. It will make a forward stroke, through +about one-sixth of a revolution, and will thus become filled with +mud and be lifted above the surface of the water. The motion will be +imparted to it by the chain and pulleys seen at outer end of the derrick +jib. The jib will then be swung round over the bank on a hopper barge +and its contents delivered. The requisite power is supplied by the steam +engine at the end of the pontoon. Messrs. Rennie have made several of +these little dredgers, which are found very useful and handy in shallow +water.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: SINGLE BUCKET DIPPER DREDGER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY ALARM WHISTLE. + + +In order to prevent a train passing a danger signal during a fog or +snowstorm without being seen by the engineer, the Southern Railway +Company of France have attached to the locomotive a steam whistle, which +is controlled by the signal. The whistle is connected with an insulated +metallic brush placed under the engine. Between the rails there is a +projecting contact bar, faced with copper, which is swept by the brush +when the train passes. This contact piece is connected with the +positive pole of a voltaic battery, the negative pole of which is in +communication with a commutator on the signal post, from which a wire +leads to the ground. When the signal is "line clear" the passage of the +brush over the fixed contact produces no result; but when the signal +marks "danger," the commutator brings the negative pole of the battery +in direct communication with the ground, and when the brush passes over +the contact the completion of the electric current causes the whistle to +be sounded, so as to alarm the driver.--_L'Ingen. Univ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FURNACE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHIDE OF CARBON. + + +Sulphide of carbon (CS_2) is prepared by passing the vapors of sulphur +over charcoal heated to redness. In laboratories, charcoal and roll +brimstone are employed so as to obtain as pure a product as possible; +but sulphide of carbon having now become so important a commercial +product, and being employed for so large a number of industrial +purposes, it has been found more economical to substitute coke for +charcoal and pyrites for brimstone. + +The Messrs. Labois, in their system of furnace represented herewith, +have had in view the manufacture of this product under as economical +conditions as possible, by coupling over two connected fireplaces the +retort in which the pyrites is distilled, and that in which the reaction +of the sulphur and carbon takes place. + +The pyrites is fed from the hopper, A, into a distributing box, B, +furnished with a valve which is maneuvered by a lever. From thence it +descends into the retort, G, where it is roasted by the heat of the +fireplace, L. The sulphur converted into a state of vapor passes through +the conduit, R, into the coke or charcoal retort, G', which is divided +into two parts by the partition, _g g'_, of refractory clay, and heated +by the fireplace, L'. + +[Illustration: LABOIS'S SULPHIDE OF CARBON FURNACE.] + +The conduit, R', leads the sulphide of carbon in a state of vapor to the +condensing apparatus. The uncombined sulphur which is carried along is +deposited in the first part of the retort by the arrangement of the +partition, which permits of passage only below. The registers, V and +V', permit of the introduction of the sulphur vapor and the exit of the +sulphide of carbon being regulated. + +The apparatus is so easy of installation that it may be applied without +much expense to pyrites furnaces already in operation. + +Wherever a manufactory of the product is to be started, the system +recommends itself by its simplicity, and by the facility with which the +operation may be watched and conducted. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROUARDEL'S DRY INSCRIBING MANOMETER. + + +Brouardel's manometer, represented herewith, is designed for showing +graphically variations in the pressure of gas, either at the works +during the course of manufacture, or at any point whatever in the system +of piping. + +For this purpose water manometers have hitherto been employed; but, +although the indications given by these are very accurate, their form +and weight are such as to render them not easily transportable; and +then, again, considerable care is necessary in putting them in place. + +Mr. Brouardel's registering manometer does not give so accurate +indications, perhaps, but it possesses, as an offset, the merit of being +very portable and easily put in place; and, besides, it inscribes the +hour at which the pressure is exerted. + +The apparatus consists of a metallic cylinder, A B, which carries a +circular shoulder, C, that rests on a plate, D--the latter being put in +motion by a clock which is wound up by means of a button under the base, +E, of the apparatus. The two standards, F F, carry a crosspiece which +supports a disk that closes freely the aperture of the drum, A B, in +such a manner as not to impede its rotation. + +In the interior of the cylinder there is a metallic cup which is +connected with the central reservoir by an impermeable membrane, I. +These three parts form a closed chamber, into which the pressure comes +through a tube, F, provided with a cock. A spring, M, which counteracts +the pressure, is arranged between the crosspiece, G, and the bottom of +the reservoir. The latter carries also a small rod, K, which is provided +with a cord made of braided silk. This cord runs over a pulley, N, whose +axle carries at its other end a still larger pulley, O. Toward the +middle of the latter is fixed a silken cord which hangs down on each +side, after making several turns around the pulley. To the front cord +is attached a slide, Q, moving in a vertical direction, and to which is +fixed an inscribing style, R. The other extremity of the thread enters +the hollow upright, and carries a weight which is greater than the +combined weights of the slide, the membrane, and the internal reservoir. +The upright serves as a guide to this counterpoise. + +In order to use the apparatus there is affixed to the cylinder, A B, a +sheet of paper divided in a vertical direction into as many parts as +the cylinder takes hours to make one revolution. The divisions running +horizontally represent centimeters of water or of mercury, according to +the strength of the spring, M, which should be so constructed as to be +in relation with the pressure. The operation of the apparatus may be +readily understood. + +[Illustration: GAS INDICATOR OF MANOMETER.] + +When the gas reaches the pressure chamber, the spring, M, contracts, and +consequently the counterpoise descends, and causes the cord, O, which +carries the slide and writing style, to wind around the pulley. When the +pressure diminishes, the movement takes place in an opposite direction. + +The tracing is done by means of a special form of style giving indelible +curves through the medium of colored glycerine. The position of the +point is determined in such a way as to annul the friction of the pen, +and consequently to give it greater sensitiveness. + +It should be remarked that the course of the rod, K, is amplified in the +tracing of the ordinates of the pressure according to the ratio of the +diameters of the pulleys, N and O. + +The apparatus may be carried by hand by means of the handle, S, either +in or out of its case. To put it in operation, it is only necessary to +connect the apparatus with a gas burner (located near the place where +the variations of pressure are to be observed) by means of rubber +tubing. The apparatus may be employed under the same circumstances as +glass and U-shaped water manometers, with the further advantage that the +results are registered, and consequently can be more easily compared. + + * * * * * + + + + +CENTRIFUGAL APPARATUS FOR CASTING METALS. + + +The apparatus represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the invention of +Messrs. Taylor & Wailes, and is designed for casting metallic objects +in annular form, its arrangement being slightly varied according to the +nature of the objects to be cast. In all cases where a special form is +to be given to the outer or inner circumference of the object, or where +it is desired to exert a pressure on the circumference, such form or +pressure is obtained by the introduction of a core which may be expanded +or contracted as need may be. For this purpose an expansible, metallic +core is employed, the arrangement of which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, +and which is so fashioned that the inner circumference of the ring to be +cast may receive the desired form. This core is formed of the pieces, g, +g', made of cast-iron or any other material which fuses with difficulty, +and which are placed in the revolving mould in such a way that after the +cooling of the pieces the parts, g, recede by the shrinkage of the piece +and thus free the core. The parts, g, of the core are in the shape of +circular segments, and are united at their external circumference by a +flange, along with which they form a shoulder piece for the casting. +As a consequence of the rapid revolution of the mould, these parts are +pressed by centrifugal force against the molten metal which is run into +the mould. + +[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL METAL MOULDING APPARATUS.] + +The plan, Fig. 2, shows the arrangement of the parts, g, g', and allows +it to be seen that the pieces, g', act as wedges against the segments, +g, and push these out so as to form a perfect circle. The molten metal +cannot become oxidized in the mould, since it is shut off from contact +with the external air by the cap, C, which covers it. Oxidation may, +however, be further prevented by passing some deoxidizing or neutral gas +into the mould. For this purpose the mould is filled before the casting +is done with some such gas as illuminating gas, carbonic acid, nitrogen, +or hydrogen. + +This improved process of casting may also be employed for objects which +do not possess an exactly annular section. The moulds are then arranged +eccentrically in a frame which is made to revolve rapidly during the +cooling of the metal In this way the pieces are less strongly compressed +at the places where they are nearest the center of rotation than a the +points where the radius is greater. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show section and plan of an apparatus of this kind. The +sand moulds are arranged in the frame, a b which revolves about the +axle, c. In the moulds there are iron cores, h, which press the metal +during rotation and thereby produce compact pieces. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PULP. + + +For manufacturing wood pulp Mr. Dresel employs an apparatus such as +represented in Figs. 1 and 2, consisting of an upright cylindrical +reservoir, A, supported on a frame by means of trunnions, z. This +reservoir, which is of boiler plate, is furnished with a cover, D, which +has in its center a piece of tubing, with stop-cock, C. A series of +tubes, R, whose diameter and length are proportioned to the volume of +the boiler, A, is filled with the liquid which is contained in the +boiler, so as always to be able to rapidly produce a pressure of nine +atmospheres or more by direct heating. The flanges of the tubing are +provided with a cut-off of angle iron identical with that of the tube, +D. By means of this arrangement the cocks and the flanges, E, permit of +communication between the serpentine tubing, R, and the boiler being +interrupted; while the heat developed by the fire-place, F, causes an +active circulation in both the tubing and boiler. + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: DRESEL'S WOOD PULP APPARATUS. Fig. 2] + +To put the apparatus in operation the cover, D, is first unscrewed, and +there is put into the boiler a certain quantity of wood, which has been +divided up by a cutting machine of special form. Then the boiler is +filled to the proper height with the liquid necessary to dissolve the +incrusting materials, the cocks, B, being closed. Afterwards there +is fixed immediately beneath the angle-iron ring of the cover, D, a +perforated iron plate upon which the contents of the boiler rest when +the latter is turned up. Then the cover is fastened down and the boiler +is put in communication with the heating apparatus. The cocks, E and B, +are opened, so that the liquid may begin its movement in the tube, a, +the boiler, A, and the tube, n. As soon as the proper temperature +is reached for converting the wood into fiber and decomposing the +incrusting matters, the heat is shut off in case the tubing, R, is not +connected with another like boiler, and, after closing the cocks, E and +B, and shut off communication between the tubing and the boiler, the +latter is turned over and the cock, C, gradually opened in order to +allow the steam to escape. When the temperature has descended to 100° +in the boiler the cover, D, may be opened, after the liquid has been +allowed to flow out through the cock, C. Next, lixiviation is effected +by connecting the cock, C, with the steam pipe, P, and causing steam +under pressure to enter the boiler, A. The action of the steam on the +contents of the latter, which are now converted into cellulose, mixed +with a large quantity of dissolved matters and of liquid, effects a +complete washing and permits of the recovery of considerable quantities +of useful chemical products. Moreover, the steam purifies, decolorizes, +and completely separates the fibers, and renders them more easily +susceptible of being bleached. Finally, the perforated bottom, S (which +is formed of two parts), is removed and the boiler emptied. + +In order to have the operations under control, and for the purpose of +safety, there is riveted into the boiler, A, a tube, T, containing a +thermometer: and there is fixed to the tube, a, a pressure-gauge, M, and +a safety-valve. The level of the liquid is ascertained by means of a +gauge-cock, H. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. + + +The thirty-fourth annual summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers began on Aug. 2, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The following is an +abstract from the address of the president, Mr. E. A. Cowper. + +He began by stating that as members of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, on revisiting their brother members and friends here in +Newcastle, after an interval of twelve years, they came as it were to +one of their natural homes; certainly to the home of one of the greatest +engineers that England has ever produced, and the birthplace of the +locomotive, which has done more than any other improvement, of our age +to lessen the cost of materials to the men who have to use them, and +therefore to cheapen and extend production in the most wonderful manner. +He then went on to say that it seems but a few years ago since George +Stephenson, at a meeting in 1847, proposed the resolution that the +Institution of Mechanical Engineers be formed. He was strongly supported +by a large number of the mechanical engineers of the country, and the +speaker had the honor of seconding the resolution that he be first +president. The intention was that engineers from all parts of the +country should join to form a compact body capable of discussing +and judging of all mechanical subjects and appliances. In this the +institution had been eminently successful, and it numbered among its +members mechanical engineers in every large town in the country, and has +increased in strength and importance. + +The last twelve years have been marked by many very important +changes, while low prices have generally ruled. Among other causes of +fluctuations in demand and supply (and consequently in values) must be +mentioned the occurrence and the threatening of foreign wars, which +disturbed the course of commerce greatly for some years. Such causes +must be considered as extraneous to the sphere of influence possessed by +good or bad manufacturing or engineering. Mr. Cowper does not look upon +the very great expense of improved war material and implements as an +unmixed evil for this country; for it so happens that we can better meet +such outlay than any other nation, and thus our wealth gives rise to +greater power and security than our neighbors possess; while, seeing +that we are not an aggressive nation, such power tends materially at +once to the progress of this country, and to the peace of the world. +Having referred briefly to one cause of disturbance to the progress of +mechanical engineering, he named another, which at the present moment is +occupying thoughtful men to a considerable extent, namely, the arbitrary +imposition of duties and bounties for the professed object of protecting +manufactures, while in fact they constitute taxes on a nation for the +benefit of a few individuals. In some countries excessive duties have +been imposed, as against our manufactures, and it is even proposed to +increase them; while in other cases bounties are actually paid out of +the public purse to men engaged in a particular manufacture, on their +exporting to this county certain of their wares, as, for instance, +beet-root sugar. + +One extremely significant lesson, resulting from high duties--which it +may be hoped will not be thrown away upon the American public--is, that +whereas our cousins on the other side of the water used to build almost +all the American "liners" of wood, they now find that, with their +excessive duties against the importation of iron and steel from England, +they cannot compete with English iron and steel ship-builders and marine +engineers. This is one of those damaging effects naturally produced +by excessive protective duties; which, while they enable American +ironmasters quickly to realize enormous fortunes, drive the American +merchants to purchase English ships, or intrust their merchandise in +English bottoms, as it is impossible to maintain protective duties at +sea. + +Whatever fluctuations have occurred, it is now pretty clear that +several foreign nations have settled down to cultivate and extend their +manufactures, and we are brought face to face with the fact--which has +now been for some years growing to its present importance--that many +articles which in years gone by we thought it to be our especial +province to supply, are now produced in the very countries requiring +them. Even Spain is awakening to the advantage of producing hematite +iron from her own excellent ores, with English and Welsh coke carried +out in the same ships that bring Spanish ores to this country. + +Now with regard to the possibility of any foreign nation eclipsing us in +our manufactures, he would say at once that any such successful rivalry +on their part is far worse than the effect of any duties, even if they +be prohibitive; for it means rivalry in the markets of the world, and +possibly in our own markets here at home. Therefore it behooves us +to put our house in order, and see in what way we may be enabled to +manufacture better and with greater economy. Mechanical engineering is +of such extreme importance in advancing civilization, that it is most +essential that its progress should be rapid and unimpeded. + +Perhaps the very large increase in steam shipping, and the change from +sailing ships and paddle steamers to screw steamers, has been one of the +greatest improvements of recent times, and it is none the less real +or important from having been gradual, while the result to this +neighborhood has been most beneficial. This change has been due in great +measure to the introduction of very economical marine engines, chiefly +of the compound type, together with better boilers carrying a higher +pressure. + +The speed and regularity of ocean steamers has also greatly improved, +and one small scientific improvement has added much to the safety of +traversing such seas as the Atlantic at a high speed--namely, the +careful and continual use of a good thermometer, to ascertain constantly +the temperature of the sea-water at the surface. For if an iceberg is +floating within a quarter of a mile--or even half a mile, if the sea is +pretty smooth--the surface water will be several degrees colder than the +rest of the sea; since the very cold fresh water, resulting from the +melting iceberg, floats on the top of the sea water for some distance. + +No doubt the use of iron, and now of steel, has contributed most largely +to the increase of shipbuilding in this country. Good arrangements +of water ballast have also proved very useful; and steam cranes and +arrangements for loading and discharging cargo have greatly promoted the +use of steam colliers, enabling them to make more voyages in the year. + +Closely connected with marine engineering is the great improvement in +the economy of stationary engines, which has become more fully developed +during recent years, both in reference to waterworks engines and factory +engines. In aid of stationary engines, "surface evaporator condensers" +have been found very useful, particularly where the supply of water is +very limited; and at waterworks it is now very common to pass the whole +water pumped through a surface condenser, thus giving a good vacuum +without the expenditure of any water, and with the result of only +raising the temperature of the water a very few degrees, on account of +its large volume. + +Locomotives have shared to some extent in the general improvement in +machinery. The boilers are better made, and are safer at the higher +pressures now carried than they were formerly with a low pressure. +Several new valve gears of great promise have been brought forward, both +for locomotives and marine engines. Among them Joy's motion should be +again noticed. Mr. Webb says: "The engine shown at Barrow has been at +continuous work ever since the Barrow meeting, and has run 30,278 miles; +we had it in for examination on the 18th inst., and found the motion +practically as good as the day it went out of the shop, more especially +the slides, about which so many of the people who spoke at the meeting +seemed to have doubts. I do not think you could get a visiting card +between the slides and the blocks; in fact, the engine has been sent out +to work again, having had nothing whatever done to it. The first thing, +of course, that will require doing will be the tires; as far as I can +see nothing else will want doing for some time." + +A very fine engineering work has now been accomplished in America in +reference to navigation, namely, the deepening of the channel at the +mouth of the Mississippi through the training of the river by jetties +and banks. In consequence, ships of large size may now go up the +river--there being plenty of deep water above the mouth--and bring down +grain cargoes, without the expense and inconvenience of transshipment, +thus reducing the freight of corn to this country. This great +improvement is the work of Captain Eads. A somewhat similar improvement +was the blowing up of about 50,000 tons of rock from the bed of the +river at the narrow pass of Hell Gate, near New York. It is to be hoped +that these good examples may spur on our friends on the Continent to +improve their harbors, so that large channel boats may cross with +comfort to the passengers, thus avoiding the excessive expense that a +tunnel would involve. + +Great improvements have been made in the illumination of lighthouses +by oil lamps; a light equal to 1,300 candles has been produced by Mr. +Douglass, of the Trinity House, and now two such lights will be placed +one above the other, where required. The electric light has made such +numerous and rapid strides that it is impossible even to notice its +various applications; but on the one hand the lighting by Dr. Siemens +of four miles of dock frontage at the Albert Dock of the London and St. +Katherine Dock Company, together with the railway behind the warehouses, +and the warehouses and ships themselves, and, on the other hand, the +elegant and steady domestic light of Mr. Swan, are excellent examples +of the two extremes in this department. I believe we shall have the +pleasure of closely observing the Swan light during our visit here. The +lighthouse electric light is also a noble application of the great power +of a single electric light on the arc principle. The most powerful +electric light in the world is situated near here on the coast, between +the Tyne and the Wear. It is possible, and even probable, that one of +the great uses to which electric force will be applied eventually, will +be simple conveyance of power by means of large wires; and as a higher +percentage of power is gradually being realized, this method will become +more economical. I may mention that 60 per cent. has already been +obtained. + +The invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which a very large field +of ironstone is now, for the first time, made available for the purpose +of making good steel by the Bessemer process, bids fair to make very +considerable alterations in the steel-making trade, and in the hands +of Mr. E. Windsor Richards it has been made a great success, while in +Germany there are several works also using the process largely. Mild +steel is now being used to a great extent for the construction of steam +boilers as well as of ships, and in steel castings for a variety of +purposes, such as spur wheels, frames of portable engines, manhole door +frames, etc., etc. Among the uses to which steel may be put is the +manufacture of steel sleepers in place of wood. It is a very encouraging +fact that there are now, or rather there were already, at Dusseldorf, in +1880, 70,000 tons of iron or steel railway sleepers in use in Germany. +Mr. Webb, of Crewe, has exhibited a very promising arrangement of +sleepers and fastenings, to be made either of iron or steel. Steel +sleepers should also be used for tramways. + +If, now, some clever ironmaster could only accomplish the task of making +a good "street pavement" of cast iron, the increased demand for pig +metal would be enormous. It has nearly been accomplished already, by +several different modes of construction; and there are very many streets +where the luxury of wood pavement, which wears very rapidly, cannot be +afforded, and where macadamizing will not stand the wear and tear of the +heavy traffic. The use of ingot steel, or very mild steel, for making +tin-plates is now an established thing, and manufacturers are now taking +this metal for making large tinned sheets up to seven by three feet. + +The making of casks by machinery, cheaper and better than those made by +hand, is now an accomplished fact by Mr. Ransome's machines. There are +twelve factories already established abroad, some turning out 2,000 or +3,000 casks a week. This is a good case of English invention taking the +lead in a manufacture. + +Among good mechanical appliances that have been proved to be highly +valuable to the civil engineer may be mentioned the excavating machine, +which answers well for certain soils and situations, though not for all; +and the dredger of Messrs. Bruce & Batho, for excavating from the inside +of piers in water. + +In manufacturing chemistry, which, with its numerous mechanical +appliances, is much indebted to mechanical science and engineering, +great advances have been made during the last dozen or twenty years. +Aluminum has been brought into practical use to a large extent, it +being at once a very light metal and a very cleanly one. "Anthracine," +obtained from coal tar, has been manufactured largely for the purpose of +producing the various brilliant dyes now so common. + +New materials for making candles have been manufactured, in some cases +by purely mechanical means, such as boiling together for some hours, at +a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch, neutral grease and +water, when the water takes up the base, viz., glycerine, and leaves +the grease as an acid grease. This same effect has been noticed in some +steam boilers, where the same water, without admixture of fresh, has +been used over and over again with surface condensers. Then, again, +large rotating chemical furnaces have been introduced; and improved +glass furnaces--particularly tank glass furnaces, in which the batch is +put in at one end, and the working holes are toward the other end--have +cheapened the actual production of glass, and are being worked largely +on the Continent, and to some extent in this neighborhood. Toughened +glass has made some progress for certain purposes. Besides the improved +and extended use of glass in lighthouse illumination, it has again +been pressed into our service for other purposes, through our greatly +extended knowledge of the laws of optics. + +Spectrum analysis has become of practical use, and photographs of the +various Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum have been taken as permanent +records of each experiment. That such extended knowledge should have +been developed by that one little instrument, the lens, is but natural; +for the lens is at once the means by which we discover the extreme +magnitude of some portion of the infinite works of the Almighty in the +architecture of the heavens, and by which we appreciate to some extent +the extremely minute markings of a diatom that one cannot see with the +naked eye. At the same time we feel sure that there are other markings +still smaller, as every increase in the power of the microscope has +always rendered visible some markings still smaller than the last; +and in like manner has every increase in the power of the telescope +developed more worlds and suns far away from our system and beyond our +Milky Way. An approach to the infinite in minuteness and to the infinite +in magnitude and distance is thus furnished to us by one instrument +alone. + +There was but one further observation that he would venture to make, and +it is this. + +When one looks back upon the goodly list of clever men and benefactors +of the human race, who have lived, say, during the last hundred years, +one is sometimes tempted to wish that more of those scientific men, who +have had the most brilliant ideas, and been our greatest discoverers, +should have striven to carry out their discoveries into practice. For +instance, take Faraday's beautiful discoveries in electricity. It was, +in a manner, left to Sir Francis Ronalds, Professor Daniell, Professor +Wheatstone, Fothergill Cooke, Dr. Siemens, and others, to develop from +those discoveries the "intelligence wires," and "bands," that now +encircle the earth, and unite nations, and do so much to prevent +misunderstandings. + +It is gratifying to know that the engineering profession has not been +forgotten when honors have been conferred on distinguished men; and +among others may be named Sir William Fairbairn, Sir John Rennie, Sir +Peter Fairbairn, Sir Charles Fox, Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph +Whitworth, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir John Coode, Sir William Thomson, Sir +Joseph Bazalgette, Sir Charles Hartley, Sir Charles Bright, Sir James +Ramsden, Sir John Anderson, Sir George Elliot, Sir Daniel Gooch, Sir +Henry Tyler, Sir Samuel Canning, Sir Edward Reed, and Sir Frederick +Bramwell. With many noble examples before us, and with signs of an +improvement in many branches of commerce, he trusted that the latter +part of the present century will, with somewhat greater exertion of +thought and enterprise on our parts, be marked, not only by numerous +small improvements, but by many substantial inventions for the good of +mankind. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOBOKEN DRAINAGE PROBLEM. + + +Our thriving neighbor, Hoboken, just across the Hudson River, has a +large and vitally important problem to solve. Of the 720 acres within +the city limits, 270 acres lie at a considerable height above the river +and constitute what are known as the knoll or uplands of Hoboken. +Between this low ridge and Palisade Ridge lie 450 acres of marsh lands +or meadows, 140 acres of which have already been built upon. The marsh +is about half a mile wide, and something like a mile and a half long, +extending southward into Jersey City. The surface is a network of matted +vegetation and roots perhaps five feet deep, and under that lies a mass +of blue clay or river silt 100 feet or more in depth. The original +tidal flow over these marsh lands has been obstructed by viaducts for +railroads and streets, leaving only two natural outlets, a sluice way at +Fifteenth street on the north, and on the south a basin constructed by +the D. L. & W. R. R., 100 feet wide, and 2,300 feet long. The average +level of the marsh land is three feet above mean low water and a foot +and a half below mean high water. In the part built upon the streets are +but two feet above mean high water. + +During long easterly and northerly storms, especially at times of high +spring tides, the level of the water in the Hudson is often such as to +cover the meadows even at low tide; and on several occasions the water +at high tide has been 4½ feet above the level of the meadows, and a foot +or more above the established grade of the streets. + +The problem is to drain these marsh lands so as to make them properly +habitable and to protect them from invasion by high tides and storm +waters. + +The first drainage map of the district was made about fifteen years ago; +since then over $100,000 have been expended on tidal sewers and other +devices, and several acts have been passed by the New Jersey Legislature +in furtherance of the work. An extended review of the plans proposed +and the experiments made thus far is given in a report presented to the +Board of Health and Vital Statistics, last May, by Engineers Spielmann +and Brush. Ten years ago Mr. Arthur Spielmann, on being directed by the +City Council to prepare plans and estimates for a contemplated sewer in +Ferry street to the western boundary of the city, reported adversely +to the project, believing that such a sewer would fail to answer the +purpose of its construction. + +There were but two ways, he thought, of securing the end desired: First, +by raising the grade sufficient to give a good drainage; second, by +making reservoirs and forcing the drainage matter out into the river by +steam pumps. The first method he found impracticable on account of the +cost of filling in so large an area and of raising the large number of +houses already on the low ground. The second plan was recommended as +being much cheaper and entirely practicable. Substantially the same +position is taken in the report of last May, wherein it is alleged that +the superior economy of a pumping system has been sufficiently attested +by several eminent hydraulic engineers who have since investigated the +problems involved. On a small scale the efficacy of the pumping system +has been practically tested, first, in Meadow street, between Ferry and +First streets, and more recently in the southern part of the city, where +a number of property owners have kept twenty-five acres free from water +(except during storms) by means of a private pump. + +The comparative economy of the pumping system is shown by estimates +in detail of the cost of constructing and operating such a system in +contrast with, the cost of raising the grade and introducing tidal +sewers. Under both systems the cost of the ordinary sewers will be +about the same. A proper system of tidal sewers, it is claimed, will +necessitate the raising of the grade of the streets on the low lands +to a height at least ten feet above mean high water. The extra cost of +raising the streets is estimated at $3,000,000. The cost of the pumping +system, with machinery and power sufficient to remove all storm water +and sewage, is put at $150,000, while the running expenses, including +interest on the first outlay, are put at $30,000 a year. The interest on +the preliminary expenditure of the first plan considered is $180,000 a +year, or six times as much as the pumping system would involve. + +According to the estimates made by Engineer Kirkwood, in his report +of 1874, a total pumping capacity of 134,500,000 gallons a day will +ultimately have to be provided to meet the requirements during the +heaviest storms, besides some six or seven million gallons a day of +sewage proper, exclusive of storm waters. Not more than half that amount +of pumping will be required at first, the increase to be made gradually +as the marsh land is built upon. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES--No. 14--"BENT'S BROOK." + + +Our plate illustrates the residence of Mr. J. E. Boehm, A.R.A., the +sculptor. Bent's Brook is situated at Holmwood, not far south of +Dorking, on the Mid-Sussex line, and commands some fine views of +well-timbered country. The site itself is comparatively low, and the +soil being clay it was advisable to keep the building well out of the +ground, and in this way a rather unusually high elevation for such +a house was obtained. The plan is very compactly arranged, with an +ingenious approach to the well-centered hall and staircase, over +which, by a mezzanine contrivance, a good store place is secured. The +drawing-room has a belvedere bay, reached from the garden by an external +stair, under which is a covered garden seat. A balcony overlooking the +garden leads also from the drawing-room, and a billiard room is arranged +on the basement level with a separate entrance from the porch. A +tradesmen's entrance is provided elsewhere. The kitchen and offices are +on the lower floor level, and a kitchen yard is conveniently placed at +the rear. Red brick, with cut-brick dressings, is the material used +throughout for the walls, the upper parts of which are hung with +ornamental tiles. The gables are enriched with wide, massive barge +boards, and the roof is surmounted with a white wooden cupola over the +principal staircase. The terracotta panels along the entrance front, +over the principal floor windows, were designed by Mr. Boehm himself. +The work was executed by Mr. H. Batchelor, builder, of Betchworth, and +the architect of the house was Mr. R. W. Edis, F.S.A., who superintended +its erection.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 14 "BENT'S BROOK."] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN LEAD PROCESSES. + +[Footnote: Lately read before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.] + +By NORMAN C. COOKSON, of Newcastle. + + +The author began by stating that probably in few trades have a smaller +number of changes been made during recent years, in the processes +employed, than in that of lead smelting and manufacturing. He then +briefly noted what these changes are, and went on to describe the "steam +desilverizing process," as used in the works of the writer's firm, and +in other works licensed by them, which process is the invention of +Messrs. Luce Fils et Rozan, of Marseilles. It is one which should +commend itself especially to engineers, as in it mechanical means +are employed, instead of the large amount of hand-labor used in the +Pattinson process. It consists in using two pots only, of which the +lower is placed at such a height that the bottom of it is about 12 +in. to 15 in. above the floor level, while the upper is placed at a +sufficiently high level to enable the lead to be run out of it into +the lower pot. The capacity of the lower pot, in those most recently +erected, is thirty-six tons--double that of the upper one. Round each +pot is placed a platform, on which the workmen--of which there are two +only to each apparatus--stand when skimming, slicing, and charging the +pots. The upper pot is open at the top, but the lower one has a cover, +with hinged doors; and from the top of the cover a funnel is carried +to a set of condensers. At a convenient distance from the two pots is +placed a steam or hydraulic crane, so arranged that it can plumb each +pot, and also the large moulds which are placed at either side of the +lower pot. The mode of working is as follows: + +The silver lead is charged into the upper pot by means of the crane. +When melted, the dross is removed, and the lead run into the lower, or +working pot, among the crystals remaining from a previous operation. + +When the whole charge is thoroughly melted, it is again drossed; and in +order to keep the lead in a thoroughly uniform condition, and prevent it +setting solid on the top and the outside, a jet of steam is introduced. + +To enable this steam to rise regularly in the working pot, a disk-plate +is placed above the nozzle, which acts as a baffle-plate; and uniform +distribution of the steam is the result. To quicken the formation of +crystals, and thus hasten the operation, small jets of water are allowed +to play on the surface of the lead. + +This, it might be thought, would make the lead set hard on the surface; +but the violent action of the steam acts in the most effectual manner +in causing the regular formation of crystals. Owing to the ebullition +caused by this action of the steam, small quantities of lead are forced +up, and set on the upper edges and cover of the pot. From time to time +the valve controlling the thin stream of water playing on the top of the +charge is closed, and the workman, opening the doors of the cover in +rotation, breaks off this solidified lead, which falls among the rest of +the charge, and instantly becomes uniformly mixed with it. + +Very little practice enables an ordinary workman to judge when +two-thirds of the contents of the big pot are in crystals, and one-third +liquid; and when he sees this to be the case, instead of ladling out the +crystals ladleful by ladleful, as in the old Pattinson process, he taps +out the liquid lead by means of two pipes, controlled by valves, the +crystals being retained in the pot by means of perforated plates. + +The liquid lead is run into large cone-shaped moulds on either side of +the pot; and a wrought iron ring being cast into the blocks thus formed, +they are readily lifted, when set, by the crane. To give some idea of +the rapidity of the process, it may be mentioned that from the time the +lead is melted and fit to work in the big pot, to the time that it is +crystallized and ready for tapping, is, in the case of a 36 ton pot, +from thirty-five to forty-five minutes; and the time required for +tapping the liquid lead into the large moulds is about eight minutes. + +Before the lead begins to crystallize, the upper pot is charged with +lead of half the richness of that in the lower pot. Thus, when the +liquid lead has been tapped out of the lower pot, it is replaced by a +similar amount of lead of the same richness as the remaining crystals, +by simply tapping the upper or melting pot, and allowing the contents to +run among the crystals. + +The same operation is repeated from time to time, until the crystals are +so poor in silver that they are fit to be melted, and run into pigs for +market. + +The large blocks of partially worked lead are placed by the crane in +a semicircle round it, and pass successively through the subsequent +operations. The advantages of the steam process, as compared to the old +six-ton Pattinson pots formerly used by the writer's firm, are: (1) a +saving of two-thirds amount of fuel used; (2) the saving of cost of +calcination of the lead to the extent of at least four-fifths of +all that is used; (3) above all, a saving in labor to the extent of +two-thirds. The process has its disadvantages, and these are a larger +original outlay for plant, and a constant expense in renewals and +repairs. This is principally caused by the breakage of pots; but with +increased experience this item has been very much reduced during the +last two or three years. + +The "zinc process" of desilverizing, which is largely used by Messrs. +Locke, Blackett & Co., and was patented in the form adopted by them +about fourteen years since. The action of this process is dependent on +the affinity of zinc for silver. The following is a brief description of +it: + +A charge of silver lead, usually about fifteen tons, is heated to a +point considerably above that which is used in either the Pattinson or +the steam process. The quantity of zinc added is regulated by the amount +of silver contained in the lead; but for lead containing 50 oz. to the +ton, the quantity of zinc used is in most cases about 1½ per cent, of +the charge of lead. The lead being melted as described, a portion of +this zinc, usually about half of the total quantity required for the +charge, is added to the melted lead, and thoroughly mixed with it by +continued stirring. The lead is now allowed to cool, when the zinc is +seen gradually to rise to the top, having incorporated with it a large +proportion of the silver. The setting point of zinc being above that +of lead, a zinc crust is gradually formed, and this is broken up and +carefully lifted off into a small pot conveniently placed, care being +taken to let as much lead drain off as possible. The fire is again +applied strongly to the pot, and when the lead is sufficiently heated, a +further quantity of zinc, about one-third of the whole quantity used, is +added, when the same process of cooling and removing the zinc crust is +repeated. This operation is gone through a third time with the remaining +portion--¼ per cent.--of zinc; and if each of these operations has +been carefully carried out, the lead will be found to be completely +desilverized, and will only show a very small trace of zinc. In some +works this trace of zinc is allowed to remain in the market lead, but +at Messrs. Locke, Blackett & Co.'s works it is invariably removed by +subjecting the lead to a high heat in a calcining furnace. The zinc +crusts, rich in silver, are freed as far as possible from the lead by +allowing this to sweat out in the small pot, after which the crusts are +placed in a covered crucible, where the zinc is distilled off, and a +portion of it recovered. The lead remaining, which is extremely rich in +silver, is then taken to the refinery, and treated in the usual manner. +The writer is given to understand that the quantity of zinc recovered is +as high as from 50 to 60 per cent. of the total quantity used. + +Although it was said that the rolling or milling of lead remains +unchanged in its main features since the first mill was established, yet +the writer's firm have introduced many important improvements. When lead +is required for sheet making, instead of running out the market lead +into the usual pigs of about one hundredweight each, it is run into +large blocks of 3½ tons. These 3½ ton blocks are taken on a bogie to the +mill-house, where the mill melting pot is charged with them by means +of a double-powered hydraulic crane, lifting, however, with the single +power only. + +Three such blocks fill the pot, and when melted are tapped on to a large +casting plate, 8 ft. 4 in. by 7 ft. 6 in., and about 7 in. thick. This +block, weighing 10½ tons, is lifted on to the mill table by the same +crane as fills the pot, but using the double power; and is moved along +to the rolls in the usual manner by means of a rope working on a surging +head. The mill itself, as regards the roll, is much the same as those +of other firms; but instead of an engine with a heavy fly-wheel, always +working in one direction, and connected to the rolls by double clutch +and gearing, the work is done by a pair of horizontal reversing engines, +in connection with which there is a very simple, and at the same time +extremely effectual, system of hydraulic reversing. On the usual method +there is no necessity for full or delicate control of lead mill engines; +but with this system it is essential, and the hydraulic reversing gear +contributes largely to such control. This may be explained as follows: + +In all other mills with which the writer is acquainted, when the lead +sheet, or the original block, has passed through the rolls, and before +it can be sent back in the opposite direction, a man on either side of +the mill must work it into the grip of the rolls with crowbars. + +In the writer's system this labor is avoided, and the sheet or block is +fed in automatically by means of subsidiary rolls, which are driven by +power. When it is required to cut the block or sheet by the guillotine, +or cross-cutting knife, instead of the block being moved to the desired +point by hand-labor, the subsidiary driven rolls work it up to the +knife; and such perfect control does the engine with its hydraulic +reversing gear possess, that should the sheet overshoot the knife +1/8 in., or even less, the engine would bring it back to this extent +exactly. + +Another point, which the writer looks upon as one of the greatest +improvements in this mill, is its being furnished with circular knives, +which can be set to any desired width, and put in or out of gear at +will; and which are used for dressing up the finished sheet in the +longitudinal direction. This is a simple mechanical arrangement, but +one which is found to be of immense benefit, and which, in the writer's +opinion, is far superior to the usual practice of marking off the sheet +with a chalk line, and then dressing off with hand knives. The last +length of the mill table forms a weighbridge, and a hydraulic crane +lifts the sheet from it either on to the warehouse floor or the tramway +communicating with the shipping quay. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED IN BERLIN FOR THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +I.--MIXING APPARATUS FOR GELATINE EMULSION. + + +The mixing vessel--a porcelain kettle capable of containing twenty +liters, made at the Royal Porcelain Factory at Berlin, whose products +are unequaled for chemical purposes--is also the boiling vessel, and, +therefore, fits tightly, by means of the tin ring with the wooden +handles, on to a large water bath. The light-tight metal lid, which +can be permanently affixed to the kettle, then supports a stirring +arrangement of fine silver, which dips into the emulsion and has blades +formed like a ship's screw. + +The arrangements for injecting the silver vary. The simplest consists of +a large glass vessel containing the silver solution, which is closed +by a glass stopper, and terminates below in a funnel running to a fine +point. This funnel-shaped bottle fits into an opening specially made for +it in the lid of the kettle, and while revolving sends a fine stream +into the gelatine. When it is wished to interrupt it, it is only +necessary to raise the glass stopper in order to see the stream dry up +after a short time. + +Another arrangement consists of a contrivance constructed on the +principle of the common India-rubber inhaling apparatus, and sends +the silver solution into the gelatine in the form of the minutest +air-bubbles. After the emulsion is boiled in such a kettle it is allowed +to stand until cool, when the ammonia is added. With such a great +quantity of emulsion and so large a water bath sufficient heat is +retained as to allow the action of the ammonia to take place. As soon +as the time set apart for that reaction has elapsed the water bath is +emptied and filled with pieces of ice and iced water, and the kettle +replaced in it. + +If the stirring apparatus be now set in motion, even this large quantity +of emulsion will stiffen in at least an hour and a half. It may be +further remarked that, the outside of the kettle being black, the lid +being light-tight, and all the apertures in it being firmly closed, +nearly the whole process can be conducted by daylight, from the mixing +to the stiffening, so that it is very convenient to be able to keep the +emulsion in the same vessel during all these operations. + + +II.--DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. + +It is very desirable that those who do not prepare their emulsion by +boiling, but by prolonged digestion, should possess a regulator which +will keep the temperature at a given point. Such an apparatus would also +be very useful for warming the emulsion for the preparation of plates, +as then one would have no further occasion to pay attention to the +thermometer and gas stove. In the accompanying diagram a simple +contrivance is shown. The gas which feeds the stove passes through +a narrow glass tube, a b, into the wider tube, c d e, which is made +air-tight at e. This latter tube has an exit tube at f, by which the gas +is supplied to the gas stove. At e it is hermetically closed, and at its +deepest part it contains mercury, upon which a little sulphuric ether +floats in the hermetically-closed limb, e.g. Lastly, there is a minute +opening in the narrowest tube at i. The whole apparatus, or, at least, +the under part of it, is dipped into the water bath warmed by the gas +boiler. It acts thus: As the temperature rises the ethereal vapor in the +shorter limb expands and drives the mercury up the longer tube until +it closes the opening of the narrow tube, a b, and thereby impedes the +power of the stream of gas. Still, the Bunsen burner does not go out, +being always fed by the small opening, i, with sufficient gas to support +a small flame until the water bath has so far cooled as to leave the +opening at b free, when the burner again burns with a strong flame. By +removing the cork, c, from the tube the temperature of the water bath is +raised, while by pushing it in it is lowered. The apparatus never goes +wrong, and is very cheap. It was first made by Herr C. Braun, of Berlin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + +III.--TRITURATING APPARATUS. + +The apparatus hereafter described is in general use, and was invented +by Herr Paul Grundner, of Berlin. It is particularly adapted for finely +dividing large quantities of emulsion. It consists essentially of a +wooden lid, a b, fitting upon a large stone pot, to the under side of +which two strong trapezoid pieces of wood, e d and e f, are fixed, in +the under part of which semicircular incisions are cut and held together +by two leather straps, supporting a strong, easily-removable iron +transverse bar, g h. Through the center of the lid, and turned by the +crank, m, passes the axle i, which ends under the lid in the long ring, +n. + +The stiffened emulsion is then placed in the bag, o p q r, made of +fine but strong canvas, with meshes about 0.5 mm. (such as is used for +working upon with Berlin wool). The iron rod, g h, is then slipped +through the four loops at the bottom of the bag, the open end is slung +upon the ring, n, and bound tightly to it by the ribbons, r1. The loops +upon the iron bar are then pushed as close together in the middle as +possible, and the stone vessel is filled with water until o p q r is +completely covered. The crank is then turned, by which the bag is wrung, +and the emulsion squeezed through the meshes immediately into the water. +When this process is continued until the purse between n and g h feels +like a metal rod, the best part of the emulsion has been squeezed +through, and if one now take out the bag and dissolve its contents, it +will be found that the loss of emulsion is almost _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +It may be remarked that the whole apparatus, with the exception of the +crank, must be coated with asphalt varnish; also that the corners, r and +q, must be separated off from the purse, as shown by the dotted line, s +s s s, otherwise the emulsion would lodge there without being squeezed +through. Instead of g h a strong glass rod may be used for small +apparatus; but for large apparatus it is indispensable, as the power +that requires to be exerted would be far too great for glass. + + +IV.--WASHING APPARATUS. + +The fundamental idea of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 first occurred +to Herr Jos. Junk, of Berlin. In the present form all the subsequent +improvements made by Herren Carl Such, Paul Grundner, and others are +incorporated. It may be described as follows: + +A tin vessel, the bottom of which sinks at e into the shape of a funnel, +rests upon strong iron feet, f f, and is covered with a lid, having a +double edge closing it light-tight. Through the center of the lid passes +the tube, g h, by which the water enters. In the interior of the vessel +upon iron hooks stands a wooden vessel saturated with paraffine, open at +the ends, and over one end of which the finest hair cloth is stretched +at o p. The water which enters the vessel runs off through the siphon. +The proceedings are as follows: Turn the granulated gelatine and the +water in which it is contained into the horsehair sieve, m n o p. Place +the lid upon the apparatus and turn on the water. The whole apparatus +fills with water until the siphon begins to act. If the diameter of +the siphon be properly measured--one inch should be sufficient for the +largest apparatus--and the cock by which the water is turned on properly +adjusted, more water will run out by the siphon than runs in through the +supply pipe, and the apparatus becomes completely empty. + +The siphon has then performed its function, the apparatus fills again, +and the play begins anew. The tube, g h, which reaches right down nearly +to the bottom of the sieve, takes the water so deep into the vessel +that, as long as the water in the apparatus stands high enough above o +p, the gelatine nodules are in continuous motion. In order to prevent +the finest particles of the emulsion from stopping up the pores of the +sieve too much, and thereby incurring the danger of the water in the +sieve overflowing its upper edge, thus occasioning loss of emulsion, +the tube, g h, is now sometimes omitted and replaced by a supply pipe, +represented in the diagram by the dotted lines, x y. In this way +every possibility of loss is excluded, and yet a very careful washing +provided. Then when, after being emptied by the siphon, the apparatus +fills again, every particle of the emulsion which might have formerly +been pressed down into the interstices of the sieve would now be driven +up again by the upward pressure of the water entering from below, and +thus the sieve would always be kept clear and open. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The great advantages of this apparatus are as follows: 1. From the +moment the lid is closed one can work by daylight. 2. The method of +washing in moving water is combined with that of complete change of +water. 3. The emulsion never comes in contact with metal. 4. Whoever +wishes to prepare dry gelatine only requires, when the washing is over +and the vessel perfectly emptied, to leave the emulsion to drip for a +time, and then to lift out the sieve and its contents and place it in +a suitable vessel with absolute alcohol. The latter should be changed +once, and when sufficient water has been extracted the sieve should be +withdrawn from the vessel and the emulsion allowed to dry spontaneously. +In this way all trouble occasioned by changing from vessel to vessel is +avoided, and there is no loss of material. + +This apparatus is principally valuable in dealing with large quantities, +since it saves a great deal of labor, and affords perfect certainty of +the emulsion being well washed. It may not be unnecessary to maintain +that the difficulties of perfect washing--particularly if one do not +wash with running water--increase at least in quadruple proportion to +the quantity of emulsion manipulated.--_Franz Stoke, Ph.D., in Br. Jour, +of Photography_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE EMULSION IN HOT WEATHER. + +By A. L. HENDERSON. + + +Numerous complaints have reached me within the last few weeks of the +difficulty experienced in preparing emulsion and coating plates; one is +very likely to blame everything but the right, but doubtless the weather +is the culprit. + +I have always held that to boil gelatine is to spoil it, and, even when +emulsification is made with a few grains to the ounce and cooled down +before adding the bulk, the damage is done to the smaller quantity, +so that when mixed it contaminates the whole mass; moreover, it is +impossible to set and wash the gelatine without the aid of ice. + +I have lately made several batches (with the thermometer at 92° in the +shade, and the washing water at 78°) as follows: + + Hard gelatine...............,...... ½ ounce. + Water.............................. 2 ounces. + Alcohol............................ 2 " + Bromide ammonia....................150 grains. + Liquor ammonia, 880................ 60 drops. + +When all is thoroughly dissolved and of about 120° temperature, add, +stirring all the time, + + Nitrate silver..................... 60 grains, + Water.............................. ¾ ounce. + Alcohol............................ ¾ " + +Then again add, + + Nitrate silver.....................140 grains. + Water.............................. 1 ounce. + Alcohol............................ 1 " + +Both solutions being warmed to about 120°. + +My object is adding the silver in two quantities will be obvious to +many--viz., when the first portion of silver is mixed, nitrate of +ammonia is liberated (which is a powerful restrainer), and the bulk of +the solution being increased, the remainder of the silver may be added +in a much more concentrated state. + +The alcohol, both in the gelatine and silver solutions, plays a most +important part: (1) It prevents decomposition of the gelatine. (2) It +allows the gelatine to be precipitated with a much smaller quantity of +alcohol (say about 10 ounces). + +After letting the emulsion stand for a few minutes to ripen, I pour in +slowly about eight ounces of alcohol, stirring all the time, and keeping +the emulsion warm; the emulsion will adhere to the stirring-rod and the +bottom of the vessel in a soft mass, and all that is now required is to +pour away the alcohol, allow the emulsion to cool, tear it into small +pieces, wash in several changes of cold water, make up the quantity to +ten ounces, and strain; it is then ready for coating. + +By this formula I have no difficulties whatever; my plates set in about +five minutes, and their quality is such that, "unless a better method is +devised," I intend to adopt it in all weathers. + +One word more as to the alcohol. It will prevent the decomposition of +gelatine when boiling goes on, or when in the presence of foreign salts; +no flocculent deposit is noticed in the alcohol after the emulsion has +been precipitated.--_Photographic News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS BY THE RATIONAL USE OF +LOW TEMPERATURES. + +By RAOUL PICTET. + + +The industrial problem of the rectification of alcohols is based +entirely upon the properties of volatile liquids, upon the laws of the +maximum tensions of the vapors of these liquids, and upon the influence +of temperature upon those different elements which find themselves in +presence of each other in an alembic. + +If we desire to follow, in their least details, all the phenomena which +succeed one another in a rectifying column, and which are connected with +one another by a continuous chain of reciprocal influences, the problem +becomes exceedingly complex. + +[Illustration: PICTET'S APPARATUS FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY +COLD.] + +In order that the new applications of the mechanical theory of heat may +be readily understood, we shall divide this problem into a series of +propositions, which we shall examine separately, and which collectively +constitutes in its general features the methodical rectification of +liquids. + +I. Knowing the maximum tensions of pure water and pure alcohol, can we +calculate directly the tensions of the vapors of any mixture whatever of +alcohol and water? + +Yes, we can calculate this tension by a general formula, provided we +take into account the affinity of water for alcohol, which increases the +value of the total latent heat of evaporation of the liquid. The results +of the calculation are fully confirmed by experience. We thus establish +the following laws: + +a. For any temperature whatever, the maximum tension of the vapors of a +mixture of water and alcohol is always comprised between that of pure +water and that of pure alcohol. + +b. The tension of the vapors of a mixture of water and alcohol +approaches the tension of alcohol so much the nearer in proportion as +the proof is higher; and, reciprocally, if water is in excess, the +tension of the vapors approaches the tension of the vapors of water. + +c. The curves of the maximum tensions of vapors formed by all mixtures +of alcohol and water are represented by the same general formula, one +factor only of which is a function of the richness of the alcoholic +solution. + +It results, then, from these laws that we may determine with the +greatest exactness the richness of a solution containing alcohol and +water, if we know the tension of the vapors that it gives off at a +certain temperature. Such indications are confirmed by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. + +We see likewise that, for these solutions of alcohol and water, the +laws of Dalton are completely at fault, since the total pressure of the +vapors is never equal to the sum of the tensions of the two liquids, +water and alcohol. + +II. Being given a solution of water and alcohol, mixed in equal volumes, +what will be the quality of the vapors emitted from it? + +In other terms, do the vapors which escape from a definite mixture of +water and alcohol also contain volumes of vapor of water and alcohol in +the same proportion as the liquids? + +We have discovered the following laws: + +d. The quality of the vapors emitted by a mixture of water and alcohol +varies according to the alcoholic richness of the solution, but is not +in simple proportion thereto. + +e. The quality of the vapors emitted by a definite mixture of water and +alcohol varies according to the temperature. + +f. In a same solution of water and alcohol, it is at low temperatures +that the vapors emitted by the mixture contain the largest proportion of +alcohol. + +g. The more the temperature rises the more the tensions of the two +liquids tend to become equalized. + +We have been able to verify these different laws experimentally, and +to find an interesting confirmation of our general formula of maximum +tensions, in the following way: + +Let us take a test tube containing a 50 per cent. solution of alcohol +and water, plunge it into water of 20°C., and put its interior in +hermetic communication with the receiver of a mercurial air-pump. + +We vaporize at 20° a certain quantity of the liquid, and the vapors +fill the known capacity of the pump. The pressure of the gases in the +interior is ascertained by a pressure gauge, and this pressure should be +constant if care is taken to act upon a sufficient mass of liquid and +with moderate speed. When the receiver of the air-pump is full of +vapors, communication between it and the test-tube is shut off, and +communication is effected with a second test-tube, like the first, +plunged into the same water at 20°. Care must be taken beforehand to +create a perfect vacuum in this test-tube. + +On causing the mercury to rise into the space that it previously +occupied, the vapors are made to condense in the second test-tube at the +same temperature as that at which they were formed. + +We immediately ascertain that the pressure-gauge shows an elevation +of pressure; moreover, the proof of the condensed alcohol has very +perceptibly risen. + +If, instead of causing these vapors to condense in the second test-tube, +we leave the first communication open, the vapors recondense in the +first test-tube without any elevation of pressure; and we do not see the +least trace of liquid forming in the second test tube. + +This difference of pressure in the two foregoing experiments must be +attributed, then, to the specific action of the water on the vapors of +alcohol. Now we can calculate the difference of the work of the pump, +and put at 1 kilogramme of condensed liquid the difference of mechanical +work represented in kilogrammeters. What is remarkable is that this +difference is absolutely the equivalent of the heat disengaged when the +condensed liquid and the old liquid are remixed; there is a complete +identity. Thus the affinity of the water for the alcohol modifies the +tension of the vapors which form or condense upon the free surface of +the mixture. The two phenomena are closely connected by the law of +equivalence. + +It results from all the laws that we have cited that by properly +regulating the tensions of the vapors of a mixture of alcohol and water, +and the temperature of the liquid, we shall be able to obtain a liquid +of a desired richness by the condensation of these vapors. + +III. It was likewise indispensable to make sure of one important fact: +When the temperature of a liquid like alcohol is considerably lowered, +can the distillation of a given weight of this substance be effected +with sufficient rapidity for industrial requirements? Repeated +experiments with a host of volatile liquids have demonstrated the +following laws: + +If we introduce a volatile liquid into two spherical receivers connected +by a wide tube, and if these be kept at different temperatures after +driving out all the air from the apparatus, the liquid distills from the +warmer into the cooler receiver, and we ascertain that: + +h. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time increases +with the deviation of temperature between the two receivers. + +i. The weight of the liquid which distills in the unit of time is +constant for a same deviation of temperature between the receivers, +whatever be, moreover, the absolute temperature of the receivers. + +k. The weight of the liquid distilled in the unit of time is +proportional to the active surfaces of the receivers; that is to say, +to the surfaces which are the seat of passage of heat through their +thickness. + +l. The least trace of a foreign gas in the vapors left in the apparatus +throws the preceding laws into confusion, and checks distillation to a +considerable degree, especially at low temperatures. + +Thus, water distilling between 100° and 60° will pass over as quickly +as that which is distilling between 40° and 0°. Absolute temperature is +without influence, provided every trace of air or foreign gas be got rid +of. + +The distillatory apparatus should be provided with an excellent +air-pump, capable of preventing all those entrances of air which are +inevitable in practice. + +The following is the industrial application that we have endeavored to +make of these theoretical views: The rectification of alcohols is one +of the most complex of operations; it looks toward several results +simultaneously. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of grain, sugar, +and of all starchy matters in general, contains an innumerable host of +different products, which may be grouped under four principal heads: + +1. Empyreumatic essential oils, characteristic of the source of the +alcohol, and having a powerful odor which infects the total mass of +the crude spirits. 2. A considerable quantity of water. 3. A certain +quantity of pure alcohol. 4. A variable proportion of volatile +substances, composed in great part of ethers, different alcohols, and +bodies as yet not well defined. These latter affect the quality of +the alcohol by an odor which is entirely different from that of the +essential oils. + +The object of rectification is to bring out No. 3 all alone; that is +to say, to extract the alcohol in a pure state by ridding it of oils, +water, ether, and foreign alcohols. + +The alcohol industry never realizes this operation in an absolutely +complete manner. All the rectifying apparatus in operation at the +present day are based on the use of high temperatures varying between +78.5° and 100°. The successive condensation and vaporization of the +vapors issuing from the spirits effect in the rectifying columns a +partial separation of these liquids, and there are received successively +as products of rectification: + +1. Bad tasting alcohols, containing the majority of the ethers and +impure alcohols. + +2. Fine alcohol. + +3. Alcohols contaminated by notable proportions of empyreumatic oils. + +Industry knows only one means of obtaining an excellent product, and +that is to diminish the quantity of fine alcohol which comes from a same +lot of spirits, and to make a large number of successive distillations. +Hence the large expenses attending rectification, which produce fine +alcohols necessarily at an elevated price. We may remark, in passing, +that the toxic action of commercial alcohols is in great part caused by +the presence of essential oils, amylic alcohol, and ethers, absolutely +pure alcohol, as compared with these, being relatively innocent. + +Why is it that our present apparatus cannot produce good results in +rectifying alcohol? Because they are limited by the temperature at which +they must operate. Between 78° and 100° the tension of the vapors of all +the liquids mixed in the spirits is considerable for each of them; they +all pass over, then, in certain proportions during the operation of +rectification. + +We have been led, by examining the theoretical question, to ascertain +that the proportion of alcohol which evaporates from a mixture is +maximum at low temperatures; consequently, we should seek to establish +some arrangement which can realize the following conditions: (1) Render +variable, at will, the temperature of the boiling liquid; and (2), +render variable the pressure of the vapors which act on the liquid. + +Thus, to effect the rectification of alcohol it suffices to cause its +ebullition at very low temperatures, and to keep up the ebullition +without changing such temperatures when once obtained. + +It is exactly these two conditions that we have fulfilled in the +apparatus that we have just installed in our factory in Rue Immeubles +Industriels, at Paris. + +By their arrangement, which is shown in the opposite figure, they form +a mechanical system permitting of the rectification of alcohols at +temperatures as low as -40° or even -50°. They verify experimentally, by +their operation, the theoretical deductions which precede. The boilers, +A, which, in an industrial application, may be more numerous, receive +their supply of spirits from the country distilleries in the vicinity of +the factory. There may even be introduced directly into them _vinasses_, +or washes, that is to say, liquids, such as are obtained by alcoholic +fermentation. + +Above the boiler rises a rectifying column composed of superposed plates +inclined one over the other, and surmounted by a tubular condenser, +which serves to effect the retrogression of the first condensation by +means of a current of water supplied by the reservoir placed above. + +On leaving this condenser, the vapors which have escaped condensation +pass into the refrigerator, C, where they are totally condensed by a +current of water which goes to the reservoir above. + +The first products obtained contain ethers and impure alcohols, which +are collected in the reservoir, E. + +When the first products have been thus introduced into the reservoir, +and it is ascertained by tasting that good alcohol is passing over, +the liquid produced is directed into the second boiler, F. The sliding +valve, operated by a screw having a very fine pitch, establishes a +communication between the refrigerator, C, and the second boiler, F. The +office of this valve we shall learn further on. This first rectification +is performed in a vacuum, for a system of metallic pipes connects the +entire apparatus with an air-pump, O. The temperature at which the +liquids shall enter into ebullition in the boilers, A A, may, then, be +regulated in advance. + +The operations will be carried on with a more or less complete vacuum, +according to the nature of the products to be rectified. The distiller +will have to be guided in this by practice alone. + +The good tasted products are received in boiler No. 2, F, and there the +liquids are submitted to the action of an almost absolute vacuum. As we +have before said, their temperature falls immediately and spontaneously. +The vapors which issue from this liquid contain almost solely pure +alcohol. The other substances, which passed over in the first +distillation, no longer emit vapors at temperatures ranging between -10° +and +5°. Their temperature is shown by a thermometer running into the +boiler, F. + +These vapors, purified by ebullition at a low temperature, rise into a +second rectifying column, G, which terminates in the refrigerator, H, +filled with liquid sulphurous anhydride. This refrigerator is like those +which we employ in our sulphurous anhydride frigorific apparatus. Under +the action of a special pump, M, this liquid produces and maintains a +constant temperature of -25° to -30° in the refrigerator. The vapors of +alcohol condense therein at this low temperature, and the cold liquid +alcohol flows into the lower part of the refrigerator. + +By the action of a return cock, a portion of this liquid falls upon +the plates of the column, G, and descends, while the vapors are rising +therein. The other portion of the liquid obtained flows into the +reservoir, K, at the beginning of the operation, and into the reservoir, +L, during all the remainder of the rectification. The ice-making machine +keeps up of itself alone the two operations. + +In fact, the exhaust of the steam engine which actuates the sulphurous +anhydride pump is directed into a worm which circulates through the +first boiler, A, and the refrigerator, H, of the frigorific machine +keeps up the second rectification, which was brought about below the +surrounding temperature, and which for this reason takes place without +necessitating any combustion of coal. It suffices to cause the current +of water which issues from the condenser of the frigorific machine to +pass into the worm of the boiler. + +We have, then, two results, two like operations, both produced by +the working of a single machine. Moreover, these two operations are +performed _in vacuo_, and we know that under these conditions they are +effected at lower temperatures. Owing to this fact, likewise, the weight +of the water that must be evaporated diminishes just so much. Now, one +kilogramme of water requires 636 heat units to cause it to pass from the +liquid to the gaseous state, while one kilogramme of alcohol requires +only 230 heat units to vaporize it. Thus every decrease of temperature +in rectification has for an immediate corollary an important economy of +fuel, which is proved by the diminution of radiation, and by the less +quantity of water to be distilled. + +Between the boilers, A, in which is maintained a temperature bordering +on +50° to +60°, and the refrigerator, H, in which is easily obtained +a temperature of -30° to -40°, there is at our disposal a range of +temperature of nearly 100°, an immense difference compared with that +which can be made use of in ordinary apparatus. Thanks to this powerful +factor, which is manageable at will, we can take directly from the +apparatus alcohols marking 98 and 99 degrees by the centigrade +alcoholmeter. Such results are unobtainable by the usual methods. + +We have likewise ascertained that at low temperatures the ebullition of +alcohol is as active as at near 100°. + +For a same range of temperature between the boiler and the refrigerator, +the weight of alcohol which distills in an hour is constant. By the +operation of the valve, D, it becomes easy to allow all the liquid +condensed in the first refrigerator to pass into the second boiler; +and thus the second rectification, which is effected in a more perfect +vacuum, is supplied with exactness. The object of this valve, then, is +to allow the liquid to pass, and yet to cut off the pressure in such +a way as to have a double fall of temperature throughout the whole +apparatus; from 60° to 20° in the first operation, and from 0° to -40° +in the second. We may add that the regulation of the valve is extremely +easy, because of the screw which actuates it. + +To sum up the commercial advantages that our process procures, we may +say that it realizes the following _desiderata_: 1. With the cost of a +single distillation we have, at once, distillation and rectification, +or a single expense for two results. 2. With one operation at a low +temperature we obtain products which are almost impossible to get even +by an indefinite number of rectifications at a high temperature, the +temperature having an intrinsic value in the operation. 3. The alcohols +obtained are wholesome, and can be put on the market without danger. 4. +Their superior quality gives these alcohols an extra value difficult +to calculate, but which is very notable. 5. The whole operation being +performed in closed vessels, there is absolutely no waste. 6. For the +same reason there is scarcely any danger of fire. 7. The management of +the works and the service are performed by the pressure of the gases +entirely; there are only a few cocks to be turned to perform all the +interior maneuvers, empty and fill the vessels, etc. Hence economy in +_personnel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYTIC DETERMINATIONS AND SEPARATIONS. + +[Footnote: NOTE.--Each of these determinations was accompanied by a +series of results in which the practical determinations obtained from +the method described were compared with the theoretical contents of the +solutions of the various elements. These, however, would take up too +much room for insertion in these columns.] + +By ALEX. CLASSEN and M.A. VON REIS; translated by M. BENJAMIN, Ph.B., +F.C.S. + + +Ever since the electrolytic method for the estimation of copper came +into general use, numerous chemists have endeavored to adapt this +peculiarly simple and elegant method to the determination of other +metals. According to the experiments which have been made up to the +present time, it has been found that the separation of copper is best +effected in a nitric acid solution, while that of nickel and cobalt +takes place most readily in an ammoniacal solution, and for the +precipitation of zinc and cadmium a potassium cyanide solution is the +best. The accuracy of the results depend chiefly upon the following of +certain fixed rules, such as, for instance, that the precipitation of +copper only takes place when there is a definite amount of nitric acid +in the solution; that of cobalt and nickel when a certain quantity of +ammonium hydrate and ammonium sulphate is present. The electrolytic +decomposition of the chlorides has not yet been successfully +accomplished, so that prior to the operation it is necessary to convert +them into sulphates. The experiments which have been made for the +purpose of investigating the application of the electric current in +quantitative analyses are very few, about the only exception being the +separation of copper from the metals which are not precipitated from a +nitric acid solution, or which are deposited as peroxides at the other +electrode. We shall endeavor to show in that which follows, that copper, +zinc, nickel, and cobalt, and even iron, manganese, cadmium, bismuth, +and tin, whether they be present as sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates, +may be precipitated and separated from each other by electrolytic +methods much more rapidly than by any previously known process. + + +DETERMINATION OF COBALT. + +Neutral potassium oxalate is added in excess to the solution of a cobalt +salt, and the clear solution of cobalt potassium oxalate submitted to +electrolysis. The intense red color of this solution is soon changed +into a dark green; the latter diminishing in intensity as the metal is +deposited at the negative electrode. The electric current decomposes the +potassium oxalate into the carbonate, so that a precipitate of cobalt +carbonate is simultaneously formed with the separation of the metallic +cobalt. This precipitate may be dissolved by adding oxalic acid or +dilute sulphuric acid; the further action of the current will change the +solution to an alkaline reaction, upon which the treatment with acid is +repeated until all the cobalt has been separated out in its metallic +condition. The electrolytic separation of cobalt is much more easily +and rapidly effected when the potassium oxalate is substituted by the +corresponding ammonium salt, as the latter forms a soluble double +salt with the cobalt compounds. If the ammonium oxalate added is just +sufficient to form the double salt, a red cobalt oxalate (_which is only +slowly reduced by the current_) will separate out in addition to the +cobalt. In order to obviate this difficulty, the solution to which the +ammonium oxalate had been added in excess is heated, and then three +or four grammes more of solid ammonium oxalate are added. The _hot_ +solution, when exposed to the action of the current, deposits the cobalt +as a closely adhering gray film. By the aid of two Bunsen's elements, +0.2 gramme cobalt can be separated in an hour's time. When the reduction +has been completed, and this is best determined by testing a small +sample (removed by a pipette) with ammonium sulphide, the positive +electrode[1] is removed from the solution, and the liquid poured off. +The dish is immediately rinsed several times with water, and the excess +of water removed at first with alcohol, and then with absolute ether. +The cobalt in the dish is dried in the air bath at 100° C., and in the +course of a few minutes a constant weight is obtained. + +[Footnote 1: A piece of platinum foil, 4.5 cm. in diameter, is used +for the positive electrode, and a deep platinum dish as the negative +electrode.--_Vide_ "Classen's Quantitative Analysis," 3d Edition, p. +46.] + + +DETERMINATION OF NICKEL. + +This process is precisely identical with the previously described method +for cobalt. The ammonium oxalate is added in excess to the solution, +which is then heated, and four more grammes of the solid salt added. The +separation of the nickel is as rapid as that of the cobalt. The nickel +is precipitated as a gray, compact mass, tightly adhering to the +electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF IRON. + +For this estimation, solutions of the chloride as well as those of the +sulphate (ammonium, iron, alum) may be used in the manner previously +described. The electrolysis is best effected in the presence of a +sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate; no separation of any iron +compound takes place. The iron is deposited in the form of a bright, +steel gray, firmly-adhering mass on the platinum dish. The iron may be +exposed to the air for several days without any noticeable oxidation +taking place. + + +DETERMINATION OF ZINC. + +Zinc may be separated from a solution of the double salt fully as easily +and rapidly as the previously mentioned metals were. The reduced zinc +has a dark gray color, and adheres very firmly to the electrode. The +separated metal is dissolved by using dilute acids and heating. It is +only removed with difficulty, and generally leaves a dark coating on the +dish, which is separated by repeated ignitions and treatment with acid. + + +DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE. + +It is already known that manganese may be separated as the peroxide from +its nitric acid solution. We find, however, that the precipitation is +only completely effected when the quantity present is small; the amount +of nitric acid must also be slight, and it is necessary to wash the dish +without interrupting the current. If the manganese is converted into +the soluble double salt, prepared by adding an excess of potassium, and +submitted to the electric current, the whole of the manganese will be +deposited at the positive electrode. When ammonium oxalate is used, the +complete precipitation does not take place. As the separated peroxide +does not adhere firmly to the electrode, it is necessary to filter it +and convert it, by ignition, into the trimangano-tetroxide (Mn_3O_4). + + +DETERMINATION OF BISMUTH. + +This separation presents considerable difficulty, because the metal +is not precipitated as a compact mass on the platinum. The bismuth is +always obtained in the same form, no matter whether it is precipitated +from an acid solution, or from the double ammonium oxalate, or, finally, +from a solution to which potassium tartrate has been added. As large a +surface as possible must be used, and the dish piled to the rim; then, +if the quantity of bismuth is small, the washing with water, alcohol, +and ether may be effected without any loss of the element. If small +quantities of the metal separate from the dish, they must be collected +on a tared filter, and determined separately. In our experiments, an +excess of ammonium oxalate was added to a nitric acid solution of +bismuth. During the electrolytic decomposition, a separation of the +peroxide was observed at the positive electrode, which, however, slowly +disappeared. In order to prevent the reduced metal from oxidation, the +last traces of water are completely removed by repeated washings with +alcohol and anhydrous ether. + + +DETERMINATION OF LEAD. + +The nitric solution of lead acts similarly to that of manganese. When +the amount of peroxide separated is so large that it does not adhere +firmly, and becomes mechanically precipitated on the negative electrode, +it becomes impossible to complete the estimation without loss from the +solution of the peroxide, and the results cannot be accepted. + +If the double oxalate is submitted to electrolysis, the whole of the +lead is separated out in its metallic state, but it is so rapidly +oxidized by the air that it is very seldom that it can be dried without +decomposition even when the operation is conducted in a current of +illuminating gas. The electrolytic estimation of this element cannot be +recommended. + + +DETERMINATION OF COPPER. + +The copper may be very easily and rapidly separated from the double +ammonium oxalate salt, provided a sufficient excess of ammonium oxalate +is present. Weak currents cannot be employed for the determination of +this element when it is present in large quantities, for under such +circumstances the metal does not adhere with sufficient firmness to the +electrode. We employed a current which corresponded to an evolution of +330 c.c. of gas per hour, and we were able to precipitate 0.15 gramme +metallic copper in about twenty-five minutes. + + +DETERMINATION OF CADMIUM. + +When the cadmium ammonium oxalate is submitted to the action of the +electric current, the metal is thrown down in the form of a gray +coating, which does not adhere very firmly to the electrode, but, +however, sufficiently so as not to become separated on careful washing. + + +DETERMINATION OF TIN. + +Tin may be easily estimated by electrolysis; it can be separated from +its hydrochloric acid solution, or from its double salt with ammonium +oxalate, as a beautiful silver gray coating on the platinum. When the +ammonium oxalate is substituted by the potassium salt, the operation +becomes more difficult, as a basic salt is formed at the opposite +pole, and is not easily reduced. If the tin is separated from an acid +solution, the current must not be interrupted while the washing takes +place, a precaution which it is not necessary to follow when the +ammonium oxalate is used. When the tin is dissolved from the platinum +dish, it acts like the zinc; that is to say, a black coating is left on +the electrode. + + +DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. + +Antimony may be precipitated in its metallic state from a hydrochloric +acid solution, but it does not adhere very firmly to the electrode. +If potassium oxalate is added to a solution of the trichloride, the +antimony may be readily reduced, but the metal adheres still less firmly +to the electrode than it did in the first instance. An adherent coating +may be obtained by adding an alkaline tartrate, but in that case the +separation takes place too slowly. The precipitation of antimony may be +very readily effected from solutions of its sulpho salts. + +To a liquid, which may contain free hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide +is added, then neutralized with ammonium hydrate, and saturated with +ammonium sulphide in excess. The reduction may be accelerated by the +addition of some ammonium sulphate. The antimony separates out as a +fine, light gray precipitate on the electrode, and which adheres very +firmly, provided the precipitation has not been carried on too rapidly, +_i. e._, if the current employed for the reduction was not too strong. + +When the reduction has been completed, the supernatant liquid is poured +off, and the residue washed in the ordinary manner. + + +DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC. + +Arsenic cannot be completely separated from either its aqueous +hydrochloric acid, or from a solution to which ammonium oxalate has been +added in excess. From its aqueous as well as from its oxalate solution, +a portion of the metal may be separated, but if the current is passed +through its hydrochloric acid solution for a sufficient length of time, +all the arsenic will be volatilized as arsenious hydride (AsH_3). + + +SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE. + +If a solution of ferric oxide and manganese ammonium oxalate is +submitted to electrolysis, without the previous addition of ammonium +oxalate, the characteristic color of permanganic acid immediately makes +its appearance, and the peroxide gradually precipitates itself on the +positive, while the iron is deposited on the negative electrode. When +the examination is made in the above manner, it is impossible to +separate the two metals, for the peroxide will bring down with it a +considerable quantity of ferric hydrate. The separation of the two +metals is only possible when the precipitation of the manganese peroxide +is prevented, until the greater portion of the iron has been deposited. +This result may be attained by adding sodium phosphate, or, better +still, by the addition of ammonium oxalate in great excess. In both +cases the characteristic coloration from permanganic acid is developed +by the action of the current at the positive pole; this, however, +disappears in the direction of the negative electrode. After the greater +portion of the ammonium oxalate has been converted into carbonate, the +coloration and necessarily the formation of manganese peroxide begins. + +Ammonium oxalate is added to the solution, and heat applied; then three +or four grammes more of ammonium oxalate are dissolved in the liquid, +which is then immediately submitted to electrolysis. When the amount of +manganese is small, the separation of the two elements takes place very +rapidly, and the results are accurate. If the amount of manganese is +more than double that of iron, the separation of the latter will take a +much longer time. Then, in order to effect a complete separation of the +two elements, it is necessary to redissolve the deposited manganese in +oxalic acid (the acid is added, without interrupting the current, until +the liquid becomes red), and the current is allowed to continue its +action. + +It was found desirable, in effecting this separation, not to employ +too strong a current (two Bunsen elements will suffice), and only +to increase the strength of the current when it is necessary, in +consequence of a large amount of manganese being present, to redissolve +the peroxide. + +When the process is completed, it is not advisable to allow the current +to act any longer, for otherwise some of the peroxide may adhere firmly +to the iron, and the latter (after previously having poured off the +liquid) must be redissolved in oxalic acid, that is to say, the +electrolysis must be repeated. As has been already mentioned in the +determination of manganese as peroxide, its precipitation from ammonium +oxalate is not complete. The solution which contains the greater portion +of manganese, suspended as peroxide, must first, therefore, be boiled to +decompose the ammonium carbonate; the remainder of the ammonium oxalate +is neutralized with nitric acid, and the manganese converted into the +sulphide by ammonium sulphide. The manganese sulphide is then ignited in +a current of hydrogen, and weighed as such. + + +SEPARATION OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. + +The quantitative separation of iron from aluminum, which presented many +difficulties according to the older methods, may be easily performed +by electrolysis. If a solution of iron ammonium oxalate and aluminum +oxalate, to which an excess of ammonium oxalate has been added, be +submitted to the action of the electric current, the iron will be +deposited as a firmly adhering coat on the negative electrode, while +the aluminum oxide remains in solution, just so long as the quantity +of ammonium oxalate is in excess of the quantity of ammonium carbonate +produced. When, finally, a precipitation of aluminum oxide takes place +the liquid is almost free from iron. From time to time, the solution, in +which the aluminum oxide is suspended, is tested for iron by ammonium +sulphide, and the current is interrupted when no further reaction is +observed. The best method of procedure is to add ammonium oxalate in +excess to a neutral, a slightly acid solution, or to one which has been +neutralized by the addition of ammonium hydrate (a hydrochloric acid +solution is not well adapted for this purpose); then as much more solid +ammonium oxalate is added until for every 0.1 gramme there is 2 to +3 grammes of the oxalate present. The hot solution is then directly +submitted to the action of the electric current. After the iron has been +precipitated, it is best to stop the action of the current before all +the aluminum oxide is thrown down, for otherwise a portion of the latter +may adhere firmly to the iron, and be difficult to remove. + +In such a case, as was mentioned previously in the separation of iron +from manganese, it is necessary to redissolve the iron (after previously +having poured off the liquid) in oxalic acid, and then the electrolysis +is continued. + +In order to effect the complete precipitation of the aluminum oxide from +the solution which was poured from the iron, ammonium hydrate is added, +and the solution boiled for some time, and then the aluminum oxide is +determined in the usual manner. When the quantity of aluminum is less +than that of iron, this method may be relied upon to give exact results. +With the reverse (_i. e._, an excess of iron) the precipitate +of aluminum oxide must be dissolved in oxalic acid (without the +interruption of the current), and the electrolysis continued.--_Berichte +der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft_, 14, 1662. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTIVATION OF PYRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE POWDER. + + +In accordance with an announcement in the March number of the +_Naturalist_, the editor of this department has sent out the seed of two +species of pyrethrum, viz. _P. roseum_ and _P. cinerarioefolium_, to +a large number of correspondents in different parts of North America. +Every mail brings us some inquiries for further particulars and +directions to guide in the cultivation of the plant and preparation of +the powder. We have concluded, therefore, that such information as is +obtainable on these heads will prove of public interest, and we shall +ask Professor Bessey's pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain. + +There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of the +insecticide properties of pyrethrum. The powder has been in use for many +years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus mountains. It was sold +at a high price by the inhabitants, who successfully kept its nature a +secret until the beginning of this century, when an Armenian merchant, +Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the powder was obtained from the dried +and pulverized flower-heads of certain species of pyrethrum growing +abundantly in the mountain region of what is now known as the Russian +province of Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the +manufacture of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year +the pyrethrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the +dried flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those +countries. + +Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the +Dalmatian species of pyrethrum (_P. cinerarioefolum_), but it is +probable that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic +species. At the present time the pyrethrum flowers are considered by far +the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia. + +There is also very little information published regarding either the +mode of growth or the cultivation of pyrethrum plants in their native +home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to believe that they +are not cultivated, at least not at the present time, statements to the +contrary notwithstanding.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.] + +The well-known Dr. Gustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of +Natural History at Tiflis, Transcaucasia, who is the highest living +authority on everything pertaining to the natural history of that +region, wrote us recently as follows: "The only species of its genus +_Pyrethrum roseum_, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is +nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our +mountains at an altitude of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet." From this it +appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native +home, and Dr. Radde's statement is corroborated by a communication of +Mr. S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow, Russia, to +whom we applied for seed of this species. He writes that his agents were +not able to get more than about half a pound of the seed from any one +person. From this statement it may be inferred that the seeds have to be +gathered from the wild and not from the cultivated plants. + +As to the Dalmatian plant it is also said to be cultivated in its native +home, but we can get no definite information on this score, owing to the +fact that the inhabitants are very unwilling to give any information +regarding a plant the product of which they wish to monopolize. For +similar reasons we have found great difficulty in obtaining even small +quantities of the seed of _P. cinerarioefolium_ that was not baked or in +other ways tampered with to prevent germination. Indeed, the people +are so jealous of their plant that to send the seed out of the country +becomes a serious matter, in which life is risked. The seed of +_Pyrethrum roseum_ is obtained with less difficulty, at least in small +quantities, and it has even become an article of commerce, several +nurserymen here, as well as in Europe, advertising it in their +catalogues. The species has been successfully grown as a garden plant +for its pale rose or bright pink flower-rays. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of +Germantown, Pa., writes us: "I have had a plant of _Pyrethrum roseum_ in +my herbaceous garden for many years past, and it holds its own without +any care much better than many other things. I should say from this +experience that it was a plant which will very easily accommodate itself +to culture anywhere in the United States." Peter Henderson, of New York, +another well-known and experienced nurseryman, writes: "I have grown the +plant and its varieties for ten years. It is of the easiest cultivation, +either by seeds or divisions. It now ramifies into a great variety of +all shades, from white to deep crimson, double and single, perfectly +hardy here, and I think likely to be nearly everywhere on this +continent." Dr. James C. Neal, of Archer, Fla., has also successfully +grown _P. roseum_ and many varieties thereof, and other correspondents +report similar favorable experience. None of them have found a special +mode of cultivation necessary. In 1856 Mr. C. Willemot made a serious +attempt to introduce and cultivate the plant[1] on a large scale in +France. As his account of the cultivation of pyrethrum is the best +we know of we quote here his experience in full, with but few slight +omissions: "The soil best adapted to its culture should be composed of +pure ground, somewhat silicious and dry. Moisture and the presence of +clay are injurious, the plant being extremely sensitive to an excess of +water, and would in such case immediately perish. A southern exposure is +the most favorable. The best time for putting the seeds in the ground is +from March to April. It can be done even in the month of February if the +weather will permit it. After the soil has been prepared and the seeds +are sown they are covered by a stratum of ground mixed with some +vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to it. Every five +or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order to facilitate the +germination. At the end of about thirty or forty days the young plants +make their appearance, and as soon as they have gained strength enough +they are transplanted at a distance of about six inches from each other. +Three months after this operation they are transplanted again at a +distance of from fourteen to twenty inches, according to their strength. +Each transplantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, +however, should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the +pyrethrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and +continues to the end of September." Mr. Willemot also states that the +plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter, even +during severe winters. + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Willemot calls his plant _Pyrèthre du Caucase (P. +Willemoti._ Duchartre), but it is more than probable that this is only +a synonym of _P. roseum_. We have drawn liberally from Mr. Willemot's +paper on the subject, a translation of which may be found in the Report +of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agriculture, pp. +223-331.] + +The above quoted directions have reference to the climate of France, and +as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North America is yet +an experiment, a great deal of independent judgment must be used. The +plants should be treated in the same manner as the ordinary Asters of +the garden or other perennial Compositae. + +As to the Dalmatian plant, it is well known that Mr. G. N. Milco, a +native of Dalmatia, has of late years successfully cultivated _Pyrethrum +cinerarioefolium_ near Stockton, Cal., and the powder from the +California grown plants, to which Mr. Milco has given the name of +"Buhach," retains all the insecticide qualities and is far superior to +most of the imported powder, as we know from experience. Mr. Milco +gives the following advice about planting--advice which applies more +particularly to the Pacific coast: "Prepare a small bed of fine, loose, +sandy, loamy soil, slightly mixed with fine manure. Mix the seed with +dry sand and sow carefully on top of the bed. Then with a common rake +disturb the surface of the ground half an inch in depth. Sprinkle the +bed every evening until sprouted; too much water will cause injury. +After it is well sprouted, watering twice a week is sufficient. When +about a month old, weed carefully. They should be transplanted to loamy +soil during the rainy season of winter or spring." + +Our own experience with _P. roseum_ as well as _P. cinerarioefolium_ +in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory. Some that we +planted last year in the fall came up quite well in the spring and will +perhaps bloom the present year. The plants from sound seed which we +planted this spring are also doing finely, and as the soil is a rather +stiff clay and the rains have been many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. +Willemot has overstated the delicacy of the plants. + +In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads should be +gathered during fine weather when they are about to open, or at the time +when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil that gives the +insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest development. +When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may be cut within about four +inches from the ground and utilized, being ground and mixed with the +flowers in the proportion of one-third of their weight. Great care must +be taken not to expose the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, +or still less to artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and +hermetically closed up in sacks or other vessels to prevent untimely +pulverization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more +effectually the powder acts and the more economical in its use. Proper +pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who make a +business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn & Fink, of New +York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory powder. For his own +use the farmer can pulverize smaller quantities by the simple method of +pounding the flowers in a mortar. It is necessary that the mortar be +closed, and a piece of leather through which the pestle moves, such +as is generally used in pulverizing pharmaceutic substances in a +laboratory, will answer. The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed +one pound at a time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which +would be injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being +deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve, and +then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put in the mortar +and pulverized again. + +The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent +covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.--_American +Naturalist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REMOVAL OF NOXIOUS VAPORS FROM ROASTING FURNACE GASES. + + +In a paper read before the Aix-la-Chapelle section of the _Verein +deutscher Ingenieure_, Herr Robert Hasenclever presents a summary of +the results obtained with various methods for the absorption of the +sulphurous acid generated during the roasting of zinc-blende and other +sulphurets. Though most of our own metallurgical works are not so +located as to be forced to pay much attention to the removal of noxious +vapors, the efforts made abroad possess some interest for American +metallurgists. Besides containing sulphurous acid, the gases from the +roasting furnaces hold varying quantities of sulphuric acid, and Dr. +Bernoulli describes a process applied on a large scale in Silesian zinc +works, where the gases were passed through towers filled with lime. It +was found that there was no trouble on account of the absorption of +carbonic acid by the lime, and that the latter acted very efficiently +in reducing the quantity of sulphurous acid. Before entering the tower, +they contained 0.258 per cent. by volume of sulphurous acid and 2.45 per +cent. of carbonic acid; while, after their passage through it, they +held 0.017 and 2.478 per cent, respectively. The process, however, is +declared by Herr Hasenclever to be too costly for ordinary working, +although he does not deny its value under special circumstances. + +The removal of anhydrous sulphuric acid from the gases from +roasting-furnaces has hitherto, as at the Waldmeister works, near +Stolberg, been effected by means of water trickling down in a tower +filled with coke, the gases entering below and moving upward. Herr +Hasenclever tested the Freytag method, in which the water is replaced +by sulphuric acid, and obtained favorable results, as shown by the +following analyses of the gases before and after treatment. The figures +given are grammes per 1,000 liters: + + BEFORE. AFTER. + SO_2. SO_3. SO_2. SO_3. + 8.24 0.63 5.74 0.00 + 8.29 0.37 6.74 0.07 + 9.36 0.69 6.96 0.00 + 9.46 0.63 7.38 0.05 +10.03 1.08 7.69 0.09 +16.52 2.97 14.39 0.23 +17.90 1.97 13.32 0.11 +17.80 2.46 16.18 0.69 + +The average absorption for the first set of four analyses when three +roasting-furnaces were discharging into the tower was 95 per cent. of +the sulphuric acid, and that of the second set of four or five furnaces +was 90 per cent. The amount of sulphuric acid charged per twenty-four +hours was about 5,000 kilogrammes of 50 degrees Baumé, which flowed off +with a density of from 56 to 58 degrees Baumé. The quantity of acid +condensed varied according to the nature of the ores and the number of +furnaces working. It ranged between 300 and 1,000 kilogrammes of 60 +degrees Baumé per twenty-four hours. The condensation of anhydrous +sulphuric acid would pay, according to estimates submitted by Herr +Hasenclever; but to pass the gases through a tower filled with lime, +in order to get rid of the remaining sulphurous acid, would prove too +expensive at Stolberg. An attempt to use milk of lime proved partially +successful; but it was not followed up, because it was decided to +experiment with the process suggested by Prof. Cl. Winkler, of Freiberg, +who proposes to pass the gases through a tower filled with iron in +some suitable shape, over which water trickles. From the solution thus +obtained, sulphurous acid pure enough to be used for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid, sulphur, and a solution of green vitriol is made. +Experiments with this process are making at Freiberg and at the Rhenania +Works, near Stolberg. The trouble with the majority of methods thus +far is, that the draught of the furnaces is so much impeded by the +absorption towers that fans, blowers, or steam jets must be used to +carry the gases through it. + +The experience of Herr Hasenclever has proved how difficult it is to +find a satisfactory means of removing the noxious vapors from furnace +gases without incurring too serious an expense. Thus far the value of +the products obtained by absorption of sulphurous acid has not been +equal to the cost of producing them. Herr C. Landsberg, who is general +manager of the Stolberg Company, has had similar experience, though his +experiments were made to test methods suggested at various times by Dr. +E. Jacob and Dr. Aarland. Both are very ingenious, and were successful +on a small scale, but failed when tried in actual working.--_Engineering +and Mining Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS EXHAUSTER. + + +In common practice, the new exhauster at the Old Kent Road passes +about five million cubic feet of gas per day of twenty-four hours, and +requires the attention of two men and two boys for driving and stoking, +at the following cost: + + s. d. +Wages--2 men, at 5s. 6d 11 0 +Wages--2 boys, at 3s. 6d 7 0 + ----- + £ 0 18 0 +Oil, 1 gallon 0 3 6 +Waste, 5 lb 0 1 0 + -------- +Total £ 1 2 6 + +for five million cubic feet, or 0.054d. per 1,000 feet. The boiler +burns a mixture of coke and breeze, chiefly the latter, of small value, +costing 0.0174d. per 1,000 feet of gas exhausted; therefore the total +cost of exhausting gas by the new system is-- + +Fuel 0.0174d +Wages, oil, and waste 0.0540 + -------- +Total 0.07l4d. + +per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, exclusive of repairs, which will be +decidedly less for the new exhauster than for that on the older system, +from the friction being so much less. The feed water evaporated is at +the rate of about 7.4 lb. per pound of breeze, and 7.5 lb. per pound of +coke. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS EXHAUSTER.] + +It will be seen that the exhausting arrangements at the Old Kent Road +are extremely economical, the cost of fuel being reduced to a minimum; +while a man and boy by day, and their reliefs for the night, attend to +the machinery inside the exhauster-house, and also to the pumps outside, +and stoke the boiler as well.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVANCE IN THE PRICE OF GLYCERINE + + +The continued advance in the price of glycerine continues to excite +comment among those who deal in or use it, and no one seems to know +exactly where or when the advance is likely to stop, or by what means a +retrograde movement will probably be brought about. + +As we have heretofore stated, the rise has been brought about by a +combination of two causes--a falling off in production and a great +increase in the demand, owing to the discovery of new uses for it, and +the extension of the branches of manufactures in which it has been +heretofore employed. + +In pharmacy, it is coming more and more into use daily, and in various +other branches of manufacture the same tendency is observable. It +has proved itself so elegant and so convenient a vehicle for the +administration of various medicinal substances, is so easily miscible +with both water and alcohol, and is so pleasant to the taste, that it +seems almost a wonder that it should have been so long in attaining the +rank among the articles of the _Materia Medica_ which it now occupies. +The two manufactures, however, which seem to lead in the demand for +glycerine are of nitro-glycerine and of oleomargarine. + +The uses to which it is put for the former are well known, but precisely +what the latter could want of the article is not, at first glance, +quite so obvious. We are informed, however, that it is valued for its +antiseptic properties, and also for its softening effect on the _quasi_ +butter. Be this as it may, it seems that both here and in Europe the +makers of these two articles are buying largely of both crude and +refined glycerine. + +So it appears that the willingness of the people to eat artificial +butter, and the progress in schemes for internal improvement, such as +the De Lesseps Canal, for instance, to say nothing of the European +revolutionists, are responsible to a great extent for the scarcity of an +important article of pharmaceutical use. + +On the other hand, while there is a notable increase in the demand for +the article, there is a gradual but very sure and noticeable falling off +in the production. + +At present the supply for the whole world comes from the candlemakers +of Europe--chiefly France and Germany--and, as improved methods of +illumination push candles out of the drawing rooms of the wealthier as +well as the cabins of the poor, and consequently out of the markets, the +production of glycerine naturally grows less. In France, for instance, +candles are coming to be regarded among the wealthy chiefly as articles +of luxury, and are lighted only for display at festivals of especial +magnificence and ceremony, while among the poor the kerosene lamp is +coming into almost as universal use as here. + +To be sure, the inexorable inn-keeper still keeps up, we believe, the +inevitable _bougie_, but even that is fast becoming more of a fiction +than ever. Even in the churches, it is said, the use of candles is +gradually falling off. To these causes must be attributed the decreasing +supply of the crude material, but it may be doubted whether this +decrease would be sufficient to materially affect the price for some +time to come were it not for the increased demand for the two industries +to which we have alluded. Obviously, there must be found eventually some +substitute for glycerine, or else some new source from which it may be +procured. The natural place to look for this would be in the waste +lye from the soapmakers' boilers, but so far no one has succeeded in +obtaining from this substance the glycerine it undoubtedly contains by +any process sufficiently cheap to allow of its profitable employment. + +We are assured by a veteran soap-boiler who has experimented much in +this direction that it is impossible to recover a marketable article of +glycerine from the lees of soap in which resin is an ingredient. In his +words, it "kills the glycerine," and, as none but a few of the finest +soaps are now made without resin, it would seem that the search for +glycerine in this direction must be a hopeless one. It is a curious +commentary in the present state of affairs that previous to about 1857, +when candles were largely manufactured in this country, there was little +or no demand for glycerine, and millions of pounds of it were run +into the sewers. Even then, however, the use of it as a wholesome and +pleasant article of diet was known to the workmen employed in the candle +factories, who were accustomed to drink freely of the mingled glycerine +and water which constituted the waste from the candles. Yet with this +fact under their noses, as it were, it is only recently that members of +the medical profession have begun to recommend the same use of glycerine +as a substitute for cod liver oil.--_Pharmacist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF OILS, OR MIXTURES OF OILS, USED FOR LUBRICATING PURPOSES. + + +Oils, fats, waxes, and bodies somewhat similar in nature, may--according +to the substance of a paper recently read before the Chemical Society, +by Mr. A. H. Allen, of Sheffield, and Mr. Thomson, of Manchester--be +divided into two great classes, viz., those which combine with soda, +potash, or other alkalies to form soaps, and those which do not; and +as those two classes of bodies differ materially in their actions on +substances such as iron, copper, etc., with which they come in contact, +it often becomes a question of great importance to the users of oils +for lubricating purposes to know what proportions of these different +substances are contained in any oil or mixture of oils. The object of +the authors was to give accurate methods for determining the percentages +of these bodies contained in any sample. Hydrocarbon or mineral oils are +now much used for lubricating the cylinders of engines, and especially +of condensing engines, and that for two reasons--first, because they are +neutral bodies, which have no action on metals; and, second, that they +are not liable to deposit on the boilers, if they should happen to be +introduced with the condensed water so as to produce burning of the +ironwork over the flues. + +Animal or vegetable oils or fats are composed of fatty acids in +combination with glycerine, and these, under the influence of +high-pressure steam, are decomposed or dissociated, the fatty acids +being liberated from the glycerine, leaving the former to act upon or +corrode the iron of the cylinder. But here their objectionable influence +does not end. They form with the iron hard, insoluble compounds called +iron soaps, which increase the friction between the cylinder and piston, +and in some cases gradually collect into the form of hard balls inside +the cylinder. + +When the water is used over and over again a considerable proportion of +the fatty acids of the oils used for lubricating the piston is carried +over with the steam and is found in the condensed water which is +introduced into the boiler along with the water. Here it commences +action, which proves quite as injurious to the boiler as it does to the +cylinder, but in a different way. It acts upon the iron of the boiler +and on some of the lime salts which constitute the incrustation, forming +greasy iron and lime soaps, which prevent the water from coming into +absolute contact with it. Thus the heat cannot be drawn away quickly +enough by the water, and the plates thus coated above the flues are +liable to become burdened and weakened. This action has in many cases +gone on to such an extent that the flues have collapsed under the +pressure of the steam inside. + +The authors give two different processes for the determination of animal +or vegetable oils or fats and hydrocarbon or other neutral oils. They +take a certain weight of the sample and boil it with twice its weight +of an eight per cent, solution of caustic soda in alcohol. The soda +combines with the fatty acids of the animal or vegetable oils forming +soaps; bicarbonate of soda is then added to neutralize the excess of +caustic soda; and, lastly, sand; and the whole is evaporated to dryness +at the temperature of boiling water. The dry mixture is then transferred +to a large glass tube, having a small hole in the bottom plugged with +glass wool to act as a filter, and light petroleum spirit--which boils +at about 150° to 180° Fahr.--is poured over it, till all the neutral or +unsaponifiable oil is dissolved out. In the other process no sand is +used, but the dry mixture is dissolved in water, and the soap solution +which holds the neutral oils in solution is treated with ether, which +dissolves out the neutral oil and then floats to the surface of the +liquid. The ether solution is then drawn off, and the ether in the one +case and petroleum spirit in the other are separated from the dissolved +oils by distillation, the last traces of these volatile liquids being +separated by blowing a current of filtered air through the flask +containing the neutral oil, which is then weighed and its percentage on +the original sample calculated. + +All animal and vegetable oils yield a small quantity--about one per +cent.--of unsaponifiable fatty matter, which must be deducted from the +result obtained. Sperm oil, however, was found to be an exception, +because from its peculiar chemical constitution it yields nearly half +its weight of a greasy substance to the ether or to the petroleum +spirit. The substance, however, dissolved from sperm oil after +saponification has the appearance of jelly, when the ether or petroleum +spirit solution is concentrated and allowed to cool, and the presence of +sperm oil can thus be readily detected. Solid paraffin, heavy petroleum +or paraffin oils, and rosin oil--which is produced by the destructive +distillation of rosin--are not saponifiable, and yield about the whole +of the amount employed to the petroleum spirit or ether. Japan wax is +almost entirely saponifiable, while beeswax and spermaceti yield about +half their weights to the petroleum spirit or ether. + + * * * * * + + + + +NITRITE OF AMYL. + + +Dr. Edgar Kurtz, of Florence, has found this medicament so useful in the +various aches and pains of every-day life that he has persuaded many +families of his acquaintance to keep it on hand as a domestic remedy. It +is an excellent external application for stomach-ache, colic, tooth ache +(whether nervous or arising from caries), neuralgia of the trigeminus, +of the cervico-brachial plexus, etc. It is superior to anything else +when inhaled in so-called angio-spastic hemicrania, giving rapid relief +in the individual paroxysms and prolonging the intervals between the +latter. No trial was made in cases of angio paralytic hemicrania, since +in this affection the drug would be physiologically contraindicated. It +has a very good effect in dysmenorrhoea, especially when occurring in +chlorotic girls; in mild cases external applications suffice, otherwise +the drug should be inhaled (when complicated with inflammatory +conditions of the uterus or appendages the results were doubtful or +negative). Its physiological action being that of a paralyzing agent of +the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, with consequent dilatation of +their caliber (most marked in the upper half of the body), nitrite of +amyl is theoretically indicated in all conditions of cerebral anaemia. +Practically it was found to be of much value in attacks of dizziness and +faintness occurring in anæmic individuals, as also in a fainting-fit +from renal colic, and in several cases of collapse during anaesthesia by +chloroform. + +It has been recommended in asphyxia from drowning, hanging, and in +asphyxia of the new born, but the first indication in these cases is the +induction of artificial respiration, after the successful initiation of +which inhalations of nitrite of amyl doubtless assist in overcoming the +concomitant spasm of the smaller arteries. + +One of the most important indications for the use of the drug is +threatening paralysis of the heart from insufficient compensation. In +such cases it is necessary to gain time until digitalis and alcoholics +can unfold their action, and here nitrite of amyl stands pre-eminent. A +single case in point will suffice to illustrate this. The patient was +suffering from mitral insufficiency, with irregular pulse, loss of +appetite, enlargement of the liver, and mild jaundice. Temporary relief +had been several times afforded by infusion of digitalis. In February, +1879, the condition of the patient suddenly became aggravated. The pulse +became very irregular and intermittent. The condition described as +delirium cordis presented itself, together with epigastric pulsation +and vomiting. Vigorous counter-irritation, by means of hot bottles +and sinapisms to the extremities, etc., proved useless. Digitalis and +champagne, when administered, were immediately vomited. The pulse ran up +from seventy until it could no longer be counted at the wrist, while +the beats of the heart increased to one hundred and twenty and more per +minute. The extremities grew cold, and the face became covered with +perspiration. The urine was highly albuminous. Nitrite of amyl was then +administered by inhalation: at first, three to five drops; then, ten to +twenty; and finally, more or less was poured on the handkerchief without +being measured. During each inhalation the condition of the patient +rapidly improved, but as quickly grew worse, so that the drug was +continued at short intervals all night, ten grammes in all having been +used. In the morning the patient was better, and 0.5 gramme of digitalis +was then given in infusion per rectum, and repeated on the following +day, after which the patient remained comparatively well until a year +and a half later, when a second attack of the kind just described was +quickly cut short by similar treatment. + +Another noteworthy case was that of a robust man of thirty years, who +was attacked with acute gastro intestinal catarrh. The patient had +as many as one hundred watery evacuations in forty-eight hours, with +fainting fits, violent cramps in the calves of the legs, two attacks +of general convulsions--in short, he presented the picture of a person +attacked with cholera. Opium, champagne, hypodermic injections of +sulphuric ether, counter-irritation, etc., proved useless. The doctor +was on the point of injecting dilute liquor ammonii into the veins, but, +none being obtainable, it occurred to him to try nitrite of amyl as a +last resort. A considerable amount was poured on a handkerchief and held +before the patient's mouth and nose, while the legs were also rubbed +energetically with the same agent. Respiration soon became deeper and +more regular, while the pulse gradually returned at the wrist. These +procedures were repeated again and again, without regard to the quantity +of the drug used, as soon as the radial pulse became weaker, and kept +up until the patient complained of a sense of fullness in the head, and +requested the discontinuance of the drug. The evacuations became less +frequent, and in a week the patient was able to be up. Resuming then, +Kurz concludes that nitrite of amyl is indicated in cardiac affections +when the capillary circulation is obstructed and the cardiac muscle is +threatened with paralysis from overwork; further, in cases of impeded +circulation occasioned by cholera or severe diarrhea, particularly in +the so-called hydrocephaloid (false hydrocephalus) of children. It +is worthy of trial in tetanic and eclamptic seizures, and in tonic +angiospasms such as occur during the chill of malarial fevers, although +in the last-mentioned condition pilocarpine is perhaps more suitable, +provided the energy of the heart be unimpaired. + +As regards the dose, Kurz's experience demonstrates that we need not +restrict ourselves to a few drops. The quantity may be increased, if +necessary, until symptoms of cerebral congestion show themselves, when +the drug should be momentarily or permanently discontinued. Usually from +three to five or ten drops are sufficient, sometimes even less. Kurz has +met with no unpleasant consequences, much less serious complications, +from the application of nitrite of amyl. But the drug is contraindicated +in cases associated with cerebral hyperaemia, in atheromatous conditions +of the arteries, and in the so-called plethoric state--_Beta's +Memoabilien, March 24, 1881_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF ACUTE RHEUMATISM. + +By ALFRED STILLÉ, M.D. + + +The treatment of simple acute articular rheumatism may be abandoned to +palliatives and nature. Apart from complications, such cases nearly +always recover under rest and careful nursing. Try and disabuse +yourselves of the idea that their cure is dependent upon medicines +alone; to help nature is often the best we can do. No treatment was ever +invented which stopped a case of acute articular rheumatism. It cannot +be stopped by bleeding, or sweating, or purging, by niter, by tartar +emetic, by guaiacum, by alkalies, by salines, by salicylic acid, or by +anything else. The physician can palliate the pain and perhaps shorten +the attack, can control and perhaps prevent complications and stiffness +of the joints, but he cannot arrest the disease. Where rest, proper +diet, and warmth are enjoined, most cases will get well just as soon +without as with the use of medicinal methods. Dr. Austin Flint, Sr., +of New York, in support of this statement, subjected some patients, a +number of years ago, to the expectant treatment, and found that they +made just as rapid and just as complete recoveries as did those cases +under the most active medication. Purgatives have been used in all ages +in the treatment of this disease, because it was thought to be a fever. +We are all but too ready to put our necks into the yoke of a theory. In +old times they thought that the system ought to be reduced. Before the +time of purgatives depletion was employed. This mode of treatment I will +not even discuss. There is no evidence of which I am cognizant in favor +of purgatives. There are very good reasons indeed why they should not be +used: (1) Because they cannot possibly cure; (2) because they oblige the +patient to make painful movements; and (3) because they expose him to +the dangers of cold. A celebrated London physician had all his patients +packed in blankets, and did not allow them to move a finger. This was +going to the other extreme. There are certain cases in which purgatives +are alleged to be of use, viz.: Those in which the bowels are +constipated, and there is a bitter taste in the mouth. I have never seen +such cases except in habitual drunkards, and in such cases a purgative +does more harm than allowing the effete matter to remain in the system. +Opium was once vaunted as a specific, and it was claimed that it +diminished the tendency to complications in the course of the disease. +Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, said that large doses of opium were well +borne--say from four to twelve grains in the course of twenty-four +hours, or sometimes he advised giving as much as one grain every hour. +Opium so employed does not produce narcotism, and does not constipate +the bowels. More recent experience has shown that opium, of all +remedies, is the most likely to cause heart complications. Some have +recommended colchicum, arguing that because it does good in gout, it +must, therefore, do good in rheumatism. But colchicum is not a remedy +for rheumatism. Many years ago it was very much the custom to administer +large doses of powdered Peruvian bark. The rationale of these large +doses was founded upon their sedative effect. Haygrath, Morton, +Heberden, and Fothergill were the first to employ this method. Later +still, a number of noted French physicians, among them Briquet, Andral, +Monerat, and Legroux, renewed the use of this medicine in the form of +quinia, but gave it in smaller doses, seeking only its tonic effect, +from five to fifteen grains being administered in the course of +twenty-four hours, and then it was still continued in smaller doses. +Still more recently, quinia taking the place of Peruvian bark, the old +plan of administering large doses has been resumed. From thirty all the +way up to one hundred grains have been administered in the course of +twenty-four hours. Never was there a more profligate waste of a precious +medicine. Even the physicians who so used it were obliged to acknowledge +that it only did good in sub-acute and mild cases. I believe that it has +also been fashionable in the so called cases of hyperpyrexia to immerse +the patient in a bath varying in temperature from 60° to 98° Fahr. +Although patients thus treated sometimes recovered, they also sometimes +perished from congestion of the lungs and brain. + +Among cardiac and nervous sedatives, digitalis, veratrum album and +viride, veratria and aconite, have each, at one time or other, been +employed indiscriminately. Such treatment, of course, has only proven +itself to be a monument of rashness to those who employed it. Such +sedatives may reduce the pulse, but do not shorten the disease. Indeed, +if it is possible to prove the absurdity of anything more clearly by +mere enumeration of these medicines as cures for rheumatism, I do not +know of it. Do digitalis and aconite act in the same manner? This is +just one expression of the folly which surrounded the use of digitalis +at the time of its discovery. Then every affection of the heart was +treated with digitalis. + +Within the last few years new remedies have been proclaimed in the shape +of salicylic acid and its sodium salt. I confess that I possess no +personal knowledge of their use in this disease, for I was at first +dissuaded from employing them by a prejudice against the grounds on +which they were recommended, and more recently by the contradictory +judgments respecting them, and the unquestionable mischief they have +sometimes caused. According to their eulogists, the arrest of the +disease is secured by them within four or five days, whether the attack +be febrile or not; its mortality was diminished; relapses do not occur +if the medicine is continued until full convalescence; it is without +influence on the heart complications already existing, but it tends +to prevent them as well as other serious inflammations. One of these +gentlemen assures us that to say it far excels any other method of +treatment would be to give it but scant praise. But, upon the other +hand, it is accused of producing disorders, and even grave accidents in +almost all the functions of the economy. In some cases it has produced +ringing in the ears or deafness, or a rapid pulse, or an excessively +high temperature, panting respiration, profuse perspiration, +albuminuria, delirium, and imminent collapse. In one published case this +anti-pyretic did not lower, but, on the contrary, seemed actually to +raise the temperature so high that immediately after death it stood at +110° F. Many, very many, analogous cases have been published. I repeat, +therefore, that I am personally unacquainted with the effects of this +medicine in acute articular rheumatism, and that I have not thus far +been tempted to employ it. + +It may be difficult to see the connection between blisters and alkalies +in their power to influence the course of acute articular rheumatism, +and yet it is certain that they do so influence it, and in the same way, +_i. e._, by altering the condition of the blood from acid to alkaline. +If you ask me to explain to you how blisters act in this way I am +obliged to confess my ignorance. To produce this result they must be +applied over all the affected joints. Experience, if not science, has +decided conclusively in their favor. They do effect a cessation of the +local symptoms, render the urine alkaline, and diminish the amount of +fibrin in the blood. + +This brings us to a consideration of the use of alkalies. Alkalies +neutralize the acids, act as diuretics, and eliminate the _materies +morbi_. Alone, and in small doses, they are unable to influence the +course of the disease; but when given in very large doses their effects +are marvelous; the pulse falls, the urine is increased in quantity and +becomes alkaline, and the inflammation subsides. The symptoms of the +disease are moderated, the duration of the attack is shortened, and the +cardiac complications are prevented. The dose of the alkalies must +be increased until the acid secretions are neutralized. A very good +combination of these remedies is the following: + +Rx. Sodae bicarb 3 iss. + Potas. acet 3 ss. + Acid. cit f. 3 ss. + Aquae f. 3 ij. [1] + +[Transcribers note 1: Could also be '2/3 ij.'] + +S. This dose should be repeated every three or four hours, until the +urine becomes alkaline. On the subsidence of the active symptoms two +grains of quinine may be added with advantage to each dose. The alkalies +must be gradually discontinued, but the quinia continued. The diet +should consist of beef tea or broth, with bread and milk; no solid food +should be allowed. Woolen cloths, moistened with alkaline solutions, may +with advantage be applied to the affected joints. To these laudanum +may be added for its anodyne effect. The patient must be sedulously +protected from vicissitudes of the temperature and be in bed between +blankets. The alkaline treatment relieves the pain, abates the fever, +and saves the heart by lessening the amount of fibrin in the blood. A +long time ago Dr. Owen Rees, of London, introduced the use of lemon +juice. This remedy was thought to convert uric acid into urea, and to +so help elimination. Though the treatment is practically correct, the +theory of it is all wrong. Lemon juice does good in mild cases, but +cannot be relied upon in severe attacks. During the febrile stage of +acute articular rheumatism the diet should consist mainly of farinaceous +and mucilaginous preparations, with lemonade and carbonic acid water as +drinks. The cloths applied to the joints should be changed when they +become saturated with sweat, and in changing them the patient should be +protected from the air. The sweating may be controlled by small doses +of atropia, from the one-sixtieth to the one-thirtieth of a grain. To +prevent subsequent stiffness the joints should be bathed with warm oil +and chloroform, and wrapped in flannel cloths. In the proper season this +condition is very well treated by sea-bathing. There is no specific plan +of treatment in acute articular rheumatism. The treatment pursued +must vary according to the intensity of the inflammation and the +peculiarities of the patients.--_Medical Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +METHOD IN MADNESS. + + +No psychologist has hitherto been able, and probably it is impossible, +to define _madness_, or to give a clearly marked indication of the +boundary line between sanity and insanity. Mental soundness is merged +in unsoundness by degrees of decadence which are so small as to be +practically inappreciable. It is with the mind-state which precedes the +development of recognized form of insanity the therapeutist and the +social philosopher are chiefly interested. Although in individual cases +the subject of mental derangement may, as the phrase runs, "go mad" +suddenly, speaking generally insanity is a symptom occurring in the +course of disease, and, commonly, not until the malady of which it is +the expression has made some progress. Those mental disturbances which +consist in a temporary aberration of brain function, and which are the +accidents of instability, rather than the effects of developed or even +developing neuroses, can scarcely be classed as insanity; although it is +true, and in an important sense, that these passing storms of excitement +or spells of moody depression may--acting reflexly on the cerebral and +nervous centers, as all mind-states and mind-movements react--exert a +morbific influence and lay the physical bases of mental disease. The +consideration most practical to the community and germane to the +question of public safety is, that in any and every population there +must exist a dangerously large proportion of persons who are always in +a condition of mind to be injuriously influenced by any force which +powerfully affects them. As a matter of history, it would seem that the +majority of such persons are controlled rather than morbidly excited by +the opportunity of throwing themselves into any popular movement. They +may suffer afterward for the stimulation they receive at the time of +public commotions, but while these are in progress they link their own +consciousness with that of other minds, and the tendency to develop +individual eccentricities of mental action is thereby for the moment +repressed or exhausted. It is in the intervals of great public +excitement the peace is disturbed by the vagaries of criminals who are +more or less reasonably suspected of being "insane." + +It would be premature to assume that the murderer of Mr. Gold, or the +man who attempted to assassinate the President of the United States of +America, is insane. There are circumstances in connection with each of +these tragedies which must suggest the reflection that the assailants +were possibly, or even probably, of unsound mind. We do not, however, +propose to discuss these features of the respective cases at this +juncture. The full facts are not, as yet, ascertained; but enough is +known to warrant an endeavor to clear the way for future remark by +disposing of the objection that the suspected perpetrator of the +Brighton outrage and the would-be assassin of the President both showed +"forethought" and "method." It is a common formula for the expression of +doubt as to the irresponsibility of an alleged lunatic, that there is +"method in his madness." Nothing can be farther from the truth than the +inference to which this observation is intended to point. It is not in +the least degree necessary that a madman should be unconscious of the +act he performs, or of its nature as a violation of the law of God +or man; nor is it necessary that he should do the deed under an +ungovernable impulse, or at the supposed bidding of God or devil, angel +or fiend. The forms of mental disease to which these presumptions apply +are coarse developments of insanity. Dr. Prichard was among the first of +English medico-psychologists to recognize the existence of a more subtle +form of disease, which he termed "moral insanity." Herbert Spencer +supplied the key-note to this mystery of madness when he propounded the +doctrine of "dissolution;" and Dr. Hughlings Jackson has since applied +that hypothesis to the elucidation of morbid mental states and their +correlated phenomena. When disorganizing--or, if we may borrow +an expression from the terminology of geological science, +_denuding_--disease attacks the mental organism, it, so to say, strips +off, layer by layer, the successive strata of "habit," "principle," and +"nature," which compose the character. First in order go the higher +moral qualities of the mind; next those which are the result of +personally formed habits; then the inherited principles of personal and +social life; at length the polish which civilization gives to humanity +is lost, and in the process of denudation the evolutionary elements of +man's nature are progressively destroyed, until he is reduced to the +level of a creature inspired by purely animal passions, and obeying the +lower brutish instincts. The term "moral insanity" is accurate as far +as it goes, but it expresses only the first stage in a process of +dissolution which is essentially the same throughout, but which has +unfortunately received different designations as its several features +have been recognized and studied apart. The difference between the +subject of "moral insanity" and the general paralytic, who has lost all +sense of decency and lives the life of a beast, is one of degree. The +practical difficulty is to convince the mere observer that forms of +insanity which seem to consist in the loss of moral qualities and +principles _only_, may be as directly the effect of brain disease as any +of those grosser varieties of mental disorder which he is perfectly well +able to recognize, and fully prepared to ascribe to their proper cause. + +To the professional mind, at least, it will follow from what we have +said that the injury to mind properties or qualities inflicted by the +invasion of disease may be partial, and must in every case be determined +by laws or conditions governing the progress of disease, perhaps on +the lines and in the directions which have been least well guarded by +educationary influences. A man may lose his faculty of forming a wise +judgment long before he is deprived of the power of distinguishing +between right and wrong. This is so because it is a higher attainment in +moral culture to do right advisedly, than simply to perceive the right +thing to do. The application of principle to conduct is an advance on +the mere recognition of virtue in the concrete, or even the possession +of virtue in the abstract. The question whether any past act of +wrongdoing was an act of insanity does not so much depend upon the great +question whether the person doing it was insane as a whole being, or +whether the deed done was the outcome of passion or error, the direct +fruit of limited or special disease. In short, the insanity of the act +must be inferred from the morbid condition of the brain from which it +sprang, rather than from the act itself. A partially disorganized--or as +we prefer to say "denuded"--brain may be fully capable of sane thought, +except on some one topic, and able to exercise every intellectual +function except of a particular order. Or there may be mental weakness +and neurotic susceptibility in regard to a special class of impressions. +It would be difficult to name any form of act or submission which may +not be the outcome of incipient or limited disease. The practical +difficulty is to avoid, on the other hand, treating the fruits of +disease as willful offenses; while, on the other, we do not allow the +supposition or presumption of disease to be employed as an excuse for +wrongdoing. It is, of course, clear that there may be perfect method in +such madness as springs from partial or commencing brain disease; for +every element in the mental process which culminates in a mad act may be +sane except the inception of the idea in which the act took its rise. +Thus, in the case of the suspected murderer of Mr. Gold, there may have +been perfect sanity in respect to every stage of the process by which +the crime was planned and carried out, and yet insanity, the effect of +brain disease, in the idea by which the deed was suggested. For example, +when a man is suffering from morbid suspicion, and, fixing his distrust +on some individual, purposes to murder him, the intellectual processes +by which he lays his plans and fulfills his morbidly conceived +intention, are performed with perfect sanity, as by a sane will. It is +important to recognize this. There is no difference in _nature_ between +the mental operation by which a "sane" man contrives and executes a +crime, and that by which a known "lunatic" will commit the like offense. +There may be as much _method_ in the one instance as in the other, and +the faculties which exhibit this method may be as sound and effective, +but in the one case the idea behind the act is sane, while in the other +it is insane. The brain is not one large homogeneous organ to be +healthy or diseased, orderly or deranged, throughout at any one period. +Inflammations, and diseases generally, which affect the brain as a whole +do not commonly cause insanity properly so called. The organ of the +mind is a composite, or aggregate of cells, or molecules, any number +or series of which may be affected with disease while the rest remain +healthy. At present we are only on the threshold of investigation +concerning the physical causes of insanity, and have scarcely done more +than recognize the possibility of _molecular_ disease of the brain. +Hereafter science will, probably, succeed in unveiling the obscure facts +of molecular brain pathology, and enable the medical psychologist to +predicate disease of recognized classes of brain elements from the +special phenomena of mind disturbance. This is the line of inquiry, and +the result, to which the progress already made distinctly tends. For the +present, the inferences we can surely draw from known facts are +very few; but prominent among the number are certain which it is +all-important to recognize in view of the judgment which must hereafter +be formed on the two cases now engaging public attention on both sides +of the Atlantic. The existence of method in madness is no marvel, and +that characteristic cannot therefore be supposed, or alleged, to weigh +as evidence against the "insanity" of the criminal. The perpetrators of +these heinous offenses against common right and public safety may be +more or less responsible for their acts, and, so far as these are +concerned, more or less sane or insane. The measure of the morbid +element in their individual cases will be the health or disease of the +particular part or element of the brain from which the offense sprang. +The ultimate judgment formed must be determined upon the basis of +scientific tests to be applied to the action of the brain alleged to be +the subject of partial or incipient disease. There is nothing in the +facts as they stand to supply the materials for a judgment. Precise +scientific inquiry can alone solve the enigma each case presents. + + * * * * * + + + + +SIMPLE METHODS TO STAUNCH ACCIDENTAL HEMORRHAGE. + +By EDWARD BORCK, M.D., St. Louis, Mo. + + +At first sight it seems almost superfluous to write or say a word about +any method of arresting hemorrhage from wounds; for the practitioner, +as a rule, is well acquainted with all the different manipulations and +appliances for the purpose, and enough may be obtained from the text +books. Nevertheless, to call attention to some useful, or old, or +apparently forgotten matter occasionally, seems not to be amiss, for it +refreshes our memory, stimulates us to think about and keeps before +our eyes important subjects. A few hints on the above, I hope, will +therefore be well received. + +The treatment of hemorrhage, viz., the arresting of the same from open +wounds, is not only important to the surgeon as the basis of surgery, +but it is also of great importance to the laity, and especially to +those workmen who are perpetually in danger of being injured. It is +astonishing how unknowing the people seem to be, with any method to +check bleeding from a wound temporarily; even the most simple method of +pressure is in the majority of such accidents not resorted to. The sight +of a little blood does not alone upset a timid, nervous woman, but many +times the strongest of men; and why? because it naturally creates a +feeling of awe and detestation. If a person is wounded by a machine, or +otherwise, a crowd of all his fellow workmen gather around him, and look +on the poor fellow bleeding; half a dozen or more will start out on a +run in different directions to hunt a doctor, or some old woman who has +a reputation for stopping bleeding by sympathy, either of whom they are +likely to find "not at home." In the meantime the vital fluid trickles +away; nobody knows what to do; everybody does something, but none the +right thing. Now, it is true, it does not often happen that any one +bleeds to death, wise mother nature, as a rule, coming to their +assistance, especially in lacerated wounds; but the anemic condition +produced by excessive loss of blood is followed by severe consequences, +and is to be dreaded, for it retards recovery. To save all the blood +possible ought to be apprehended as an important matter by every one. + +Hardly a week passes that some unfortunate is not brought to my office, +who has been badly injured in some way; he has been bleeding, perhaps, +the distance of several blocks, and arrives almost faint. In the most of +such cases they have something tied around their wounds, but hardly ever +in any manner so as to be equal to stop the bleeding. In exceptional +cases you find a tourniquet or the Spanish windlass applied. This, +when applied by a surgeon, may answer very well, but when applied by a +non-professional person it is invariably screwed up so tight that the +pain produced thereby is so great and intolerable that the patient +prefers rather to bleed to death. This is a great objection. + +Therefore I will call attention to the method of forcible flexion; and +though extreme flexion has been practiced by surgeons in isolated cases, +still to Professor Adelman, of Dorpat, is due the credit of first having +systematized the following method: + + +BLEEDING FROM THE UPPER ARM (ART. BRACHIALIS). + +Bring the elbows of the patient as near as possible together upon the +back, and fasten them with a bandage. From this point let a doppelt +bandage pass down to and over the perineum; separate the bandages again +in front, let one end run over the left, the other over the right groin +back again to the elbows (see Fig. 1) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"The illustrations will explain at a glance." + + +BLEEDING FROM THE ARTERIES IN THE UPPER THIRD OF THE ARM. + +Acute flexion of the elbow, simple bending of the forearm upon the upper +arm, will suffice. But if there is bleeding from the arteries near the +joint of the hand or from any part of the hand, then the hand must also +be brought into flexion, and secured by a bandage. (See Fig. 2.) The +bandage must always be wrapped around the wound first. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + +BLEEDING FROM THE THIGH (ART. FEMORALIS). + +It needs no other explanation, as Fig. 3 shows the mode of stopping the +hemorrhage from that region temporarily. + +Bleeding from the front part of the leg (Art. Tibialis Ant.), same as +Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Bleeding from the posterior part of the leg (Art. Tibiailis Post, et +Peronea) same as above, with the addition of a tampon or compress under +the knee joint, or like Fig. 4. + + +BLEEDING FROM THE FOOT (ART. PLANTARIS ET DORSALIS PEDIS). + +Flexion of the leg upon the thigh, and flexion of the foot upon the +front of the tibia. + +Objections might also be raised to the above method on account of the +pain which it may produce; but the flexion never needs to be so forced +as to be unendurable to the patient; the position may be a little +uncomfortable to a very sensitive person, that is all. Furthermore, it +has been proven that a limb can be kept in a flexed position for several +days, "nine by some authors," without any injury, and with a complete +closure of the arteries. We do not expect, however, that this method of +arresting hemorrhage will ever be adopted as "the" method in surgery, +neither will it be necessary here to point out any cases where the +practitioner can have and under certain circumstances be obliged to have +to resort to this simple method. Military surgeons may also profit by +it, for it is certainly a valuable and admirable mode, and so easily +applied in cases of emergency by any one, if the unfortunate should be +distant from surgical aid. I also believe that it would be advisable and +certainly humane, to instruct the people in general, by popular lectures +or through the press, the manner of stopping hemorrhage temporarily. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +The simplest of all methods, however, to arrest hemorrhage is the +rubber bandage. It has displaced in surgery the old tourniquet almost +completely, which required a certain skill and anatomical knowledge to +apply it; not necessarily so with the rubber bandage. Any one can apply +it, for the amount of pressure needed to arrest the hemorrhage from a +wound suggests itself. The rubber bandage produces but little pain; the +patient is comparatively comfortable and out of immediate danger and +anxiety; while in the meantime the proper attention can be secured. + +I think it would be well if our health officers would direct their +attention a little to the accidental hemorrhages, and if they do not +possess the power, to refer the matter to the proper tribunal to enact +a law that would compel all owners and corporations of factories, saw, +planing, and rolling mills, and, in fact, every establishment where +the laborers are constantly in danger of accidents, to keep on hand a +certain number of strong rubber bandages, according to the number of +men employed, and that at least several of the men, if not all in every +establishment of that kind, be instructed in the application of the +bandage. Steamboats and other vessels should carry a supply, and +railroad companies should be obliged to furnish all watchmen along their +respective roads with rubber bandages, and see that the men know how to +use them in case an accident should occur. Every train that goes out +should have some bandages on board in care of some employe, who knows +how to handle them when needed. Many pounds of precious blood may thus +be saved, and danger to life from this cause be averted.--_Indiana +Medical Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOT WATER COMPRESSES IN TETANUS AND TRISMUS. + + +Sporer has successfully treated cases of tetanus by merely applying to +the nape of the neck and along the spine large pieces of flannel dipped +in hot water, of a temperature just bearable to the hand (50-55° +C.).--_Allg. med. cent. Zeit_., January 15, 1881. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRIALS OF STRING SHEAF BINDERS AT DERBY, ENGLAND. + + +After a week's postponement, rendered necessary by the unripe condition +of the crops on the first of the month, the trials of sheaf-binding +machines, using any other binding material than wire, instituted by the +Royal Agricultural Society of England, began on Monday morning, the 8th +of August. By nine o'clock, the time appointed for beginning operations, +there was a very large number of gentlemen interested in these trials +already collected on the farm of Mr. Hall, at Thulston, and the +distances that many of them had come testified to the importance of the +interests involved. The morning was perfect for reaping, though +ominous clouds in the southwest led many to hazard conjectures, which +unfortunately turned out too well founded, that the Royal Agricultural +Society would not on this occasion escape the fate which had visited +them so often. The corn stood ripe and upright in the various plots into +which the fields had been divided, and the ground was level and dry. The +published list of the competitors contained twenty entries, not by as +many firms, however, for many names appeared more than once; but the +rules of the society, which objects to different machines being used for +different kinds of corn in these trials, together with non-attendance +for unknown reasons, had reduced the actual list of competing machines +to seven. These were as follows: Mr. W. A. Wood, the McCormick +Harvesting Machine Company, the Johnston Harvester Company, Messrs. +Samuelson & Company, Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Messrs. Aultman & Company, +and Mr. H.J.H. King. All these machines were to be seen at the show, +except the second named, which was delayed by the stranding of +the steamship Britannic, and had only lately arrived in rather a +weather-beaten condition. The trials were to be made upon oats, barley, +and wheat, and the plots for the preliminary trials were about half an +acre in extent. Shortly after half-past nine o'clock, the judges and +engineers of the society having arrived upon the ground, a start was +made upon the oats by the three machines belonging to Mr. Wood, Messrs. +Samuelson & Co., and the Johnston Harvester Company. It should, perhaps, +be mentioned that the strength of this crop of oats varied a good deal +in different parts of the field. These three machines all belong to the +class which has the automatic trip--that is, the binding gear is thrown +into action by the pressure of the straw accumulated arriving at a +certain value, independently of any special action on the part of the +driver. The sheaves from Messrs. Samuelson's machines were extremely +neat and well separated from each other, a point to which farmers attach +great importance. + +It would appear that it is impossible to secure the binding of every +single sheaf. Here and there, even with the best binders, an occasional +miss will occur, in which the corn is thrown out unbound. However, with +Messrs Samuelson's machine this was extremely rare, and the neatness of +the sheaves produced was remarkable. No doubt the shortness of the crop +in the portion allotted to this machine may have had something to do +with this, as a longer straw is more likely than a shorter one to +connect two sheaves and produce that hanging together which in other +machines is so often observed to precede a miss in the binding. Mr. +Wood's machine had a stronger crop and longer straw to deal with, and +the hanging together of the sheaves occurred far too frequently, and was +almost always followed by a loose sheaf. The Johnston harvester went +through a very fair performance; there was no hanging except at turning +the corners, and the piece of work was finished in a shorter time than +with the other machines. Notwithstanding the automatic character of the +gear for binding, we believe it will be found that the sheaves produced +in these machines vary very much in weight. + +At about 10:20 the next lot of machines started. They were those of +the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. +Aultman & Co. Of these, the first-named only has the automatic trip. We +believe it made no miss in binding during this trial, and the sheaves +were neat, though, perhaps, rather too tightly bound. There was no +hanging together or check in this run. The machine of Messrs. Aultman & +Co. was not so successful in separating the sheaves, though this was +not so often followed by an unbound sheaf as in some other machines. +Sometimes as many as three sheaves, clinging closely together, were +ejected at one time. To avoid this a man walked by the machine, and +assisted the delivery of the sheaf. The tension of the string which +binds the sheaves varies a good deal in this machine, some of the +sheaves being rather too loosely held together, while at other times the +fault is in the other direction. In Messrs. Howard's machine there is a +tendency in the sheaves to cling together, but this is not accompanied +to any extent with missing the binding. Mr. King attempted a run after +the three last had finished their plots; but his machinery had not been +fully adjusted, and after one course the trial stopped. As far as one +could judge from this short performance, the chief fault in the sheaf +produced was the uncertain position of the string upon it. Sometimes +this was near the bottom of the straw, and sometimes among the corn. +Unfortunately at 11:25 the rain began, and experiments were stopped till +the afternoon. It was no light shower which could give a check to the +ardor of the judges and other officers of the society, but a heavy +downpour of some hours' duration, which soaked the crop through and +through. Indeed, we think it a pity that the experiments should have +been continued at all under circumstances in which practical harvesting +would have been out of the question. However, after a short lull in the +rain, the machines of Mr. Wood, Messrs. Samuelson, and the McCormick +Harvesting Company went into the wet barley. The machine of Mr. Wood +worked most rapidly, but the clinging of the sheaves and the failure to +bind were again very apparent. The stubble left by this machine was the +shortest and most even of the three. The machines of Messrs. Samuelson +and the McCormick Company left a very ragged, long, and uneven stubble +in this trial, though the delivery and binding of the sheaves seemed to +be as good as in the oats trial. The binding in the former was rather +too tight. + +The remaining machines, with the exception of that of Mr. King, then +attempted a trial; but Messrs. Howard's machine having too smooth a +face to the driving wheel, was unable to drive all the gear in the wet +condition of the ground. The damp weather had no doubt tightened up the +canvas carriers, and thereby added to the work to be done; but this was +the only machine that was found incapacitated through the action of +the rain. Unfortunately the plots assigned to this machine and to the +Johnston harvester were in juxtaposition, so that the latter machine +was blocked by the former, and could not proceed, and that of Messrs. +Aultman alone went through with its work. There was no improvement in +the separation of the sheaves, and the misses were rather more frequent +than in the trials among the oats. The sheaves, too, that issued singly +were somewhat wanting in neatness. The whole of these barley trials must +be looked upon as unsatisfactory, on account of the condition of the +crop, and it is to be hoped that before the investigations are brought +to a conclusion all these machines may have a more favorable opportunity +of demonstrating the advantages which are claimed for them. It may be +here said that throughout these trials there has been as yet no wind +at all, which, as the investigations are in other respects to be so +thoroughly carried out, is a matter of regret. Probably Messrs. Howard's +machine was as well protected from the wind as any other of the seven +competitors. + +The following are the awards of the judges, which were made known +on Wednesday evening: Gold medal--Messrs. McCormick & Co. Silver +medals--Messrs. Samuelson, Messrs. Johnston & Co. Highly commended--Mr. +H. J. King, for principle of tying and separating sheaves. The only +gleaning binding machine which entered the field was that of Mr. J. G. +Walker, made by the Notts Fork Company, but no official trials of this +were made.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CULTURE OF STRAWBERRIES. + + +Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, at Rochester, +give the following directions for setting out and cultivating +strawberries, the result of long and successful experience, in their +recently issued Strawberry Catalogue: + +_The Soil and Its Preparation_.--The strawberry may be successfully +grown in any soil adapted to the growth of ordinary field or garden +crops. The ground should be _well_ prepared, by trenching or plowing at +least eighteen to twenty inches deep, and be _properly enriched_ as for +any garden crop. It is unnecessary to say that if the land is wet, it +must be thoroughly drained. + +_Season for Transplanting_.--In the Northern States, the season for +planting in the spring is during the months of April and May. It may +then be done with safety from the time the plants begin to grow until +they are in blossom. This is the time we prefer for setting out _large +plantations_. + +During the months of August and September, when the weather is usually +hot and dry, _pot-grown_ plants may be planted to the best advantage. +With the ball of earth attached to the roots, they can be transplanted +without any failures, and the trouble and annoyance of watering, +shading, etc., which are indispensable to the success of layer plants, +are thus in a great measure avoided. + + +GARDEN CULTURE. + +_To Cultivate the Strawberry_.--For family use, we recommend planting +in beds four feet wide, with an alley two feet wide between. These beds +will accommodate three rows of plants, which may stand fifteen inches +apart each way, and the outside row nine inches from the alley. These +beds can be kept clean, and the fruit can be gathered from them without +setting the feet upon them. + +_Culture in Hills_.--This is the best mode that can be adopted for the +garden. If you desire fine, large, high-flavored fruit, pinch off the +runners as fast as they appear, repeating the operation as often as may +be necessary during the summer. Every runner thus removed produces a new +crown at the center of the plant, and in the fall the plants will have +formed large bushes or stools, on which the finest strawberries may be +expected the following season. In the meantime, the ground among the +plants should be kept clear of weeds, and frequently stirred with a hoe +or fork. + +_Covering in Winter_.--Where the winters are severe, with little snow +for protection, a slight covering of leaves or litter, or the branches +of evergreens, will be of great service. This covering should not be +placed over the plants till after the ground is frozen, usually from the +middle of November till the first of December in this locality. Fatal +errors are often made by putting on _too much_ and _too early_. Care +must also be taken to remove the covering in spring just as soon as the +plants begin to grow. + +_Mulching to Keep the Fruit Clean_.--Before the fruit begins to ripen, +mulch the ground among the plants with short hay or straw, or grass +mowings from the lawn, or anything of that sort. This will not only keep +the fruit clean, but will prevent the ground from drying and baking, and +thus lengthen the fruiting season. Tan-bark can also be used as a mulch. + +A bed managed in this way will give two full crops, and should then be +spaded or plowed down, a new one having been in the meantime prepared to +take its place. + + +FIELD CULTURE. + +The same directions with regard to soil, time of planting, protection, +and mulching, as given above, are applicable when planting on a large +scale. + +_The Matted Row System_.--The mode of growing usually pursued has its +advantages for field culture, but cannot be recommended for the garden. +In the field we usually plant in rows three to four feet apart, and the +plants a foot to a foot and a half apart in the row. In this case much +of the labor is performed with the horse and cultivator. + +_How to Ascertain the Number of Plants Required for an Acre_.--The +number of plants required for an acre, at any given distance apart, may +be ascertained by dividing the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) +by the number of square feet given to each plant, which is obtained +by multiplying the distance between rows by the distance between the +plants. Thus strawberries planted three feet by one foot give each plant +three square feet, or 14,520 plants to the acre. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME HARDY FLOWERS FOR MIDSUMMER. + + +Pretentious gardens are now gayly decorated with glowing masses +of pelargoniums and vincas, belts of rich coleuses and fiery +alternantheras, patchwork of feverfew and mesembryanthemum, and +scroll-work of house leeks, but amid this gay checkering it is wonderful +how few flowers there are for cutting for bouquets. As tender plants, +except the few that may have been wintered in windows and cellars, are +beyond the reach of most of our country folks, I will consider those +only that are perfectly hardy and in full blossom now, July 21. + +Koempfer's irises, blue, white, purple, streaked, marbled, and otherwise +variegated, are in bloom; they are the grandest of their race, and as +different varieties succeed one another, they may be had in bloom +from June till August. They are easily raised from seed or by +division--prefer rich, moist land, and if in a partly shaded place, +their blossoms last longer than in full sunshine. + +Trumpet lilies are bursting into bloom; the scarlet martagon is at its +best; _speciosum_, tiger, and American Turk's cap lilies are yet to +follow. I find the trumpet lilies have done better this year than any of +the other sorts in open places. Most of the yellow day lilies are past, +but the tawny one is at its best; they are all hardy, and seem to thrive +alike in wild or cultivated land. Seibold's funkia (called also day +lily) has pale bluish flowers, and large, handsome glaucous leaves: the +undulated-leaved funkia has beautifully variegated leaves, and pale +bluish blossoms; these, together with several others of their race, +are in bloom. They like to grow in undisturbed clumps in rich and +faintly-shaded nooks; if grown in full sunshine they bloom well enough, +but their leaves get "scorched." + +The European meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), two feet high, and the +Kamtchatka one, four feet high, are in bloom; the double varieties are +far finer, whiter, and more lasting than the single ones. They will grow +anywhere. There are many fine kinds of sedum or liveforever in season; +some of them like _album_ (white), _pulchellum_ (pink), _spurium +splendens_ (pink), _hispanicum_ (white), may more properly be called +stonecups, but the stronger-growing sorts, as _S. warscewiczii_ +(yellow), should be regarded as liveforevers. They like open, sunny +places, and dislike artificial waterings. + +_Dicentra eximia_ (pink-purple) is free, neat, copious, and a perpetual +bloomer, as is also _Corydalis lutea_ (yellow). The climbing fumitory +comes up of itself from seed every year, and is now running over bushes, +stakes, and strings, and is full of fern-like leaves and flesh-colored +flowers. The long, scarlet wands of _Pentstemon barbatus_ are +conspicuous in the borders; this should be in every garden, it is so +profuse and hardy. Many speedwells still remain in fine condition, +notably _Veronica longifolia;_ they are a hardy and a showy race of +plants, and will grow anywhere. The main lot of perennial larkspurs are +past, but by cutting them over now many flower spikes will be produced +during the fall months. The yucca or bear-grass is in perfection; its +massive flower scapes are very telling. It will grow anywhere, and once +established it is hard to get rid of. + +Many kinds of perennial bell-flowers are in fine condition, as the +carpathian, peach-leaved (second crop), nettle-leaved, common harebell, +and vase harebell. In the case of many of the tall-growing kinds, better +results are obtained by treating them as biennials than perennials. No +garden should be without the double white feverfew; the more you cut it +the more it blooms. _Anthemis tinctoria_, yellow or white, the yellow is +by far the best, and the lance-leaved, large-flowered, larkspur-leaved +and eared coreopsises are fine, seasonable perennials, as are likewise +the yellow, white, and pink yarrows, double sneezewort, the cone +flowers, and large-flowered fleabanes, and all grow readily in +any ordinary garden soil, and with little care. Hollyhocks are in +perfection; feed them well and prevent many sprouts to each stool. Many +kinds of meadow rue, as garden plants, have a bold, graceful appearance; +they love moist soil. + +In good soil and a partly shaded spot we have no handsomer plant in +bloom than the tall bugbane (_Cimicifuga racemosa_); from a bunch of +thrifty leaves arise a dozen scapes of racemes, creamy white, and six +feet high. The scarlet lychnis and its many varieties are nearly past, +but the large-flowered, Haag's, and others of that section, are in their +prime, and showy plants they are. They are true and lasting perennials, +bloom well the first season from seed, quite hardy, copious, and +effective; any ordinary garden soil. The pyrenean prunella has large +purple heads; the false dragonhead (_Physostegia_), pale rose-purple +spikes; centranthuses, cymes of red and white; centaureas, heads of +yellow, blue, and purple; pinks, divers shades of red and white; and +monkshoods, hoods of blue or white; and all are very hardy, ready +growers, and copious bloomers. The bee balm, one of our handsomest +perennials, has bright red whorls; it spreads upon the surface of the +ground like mint, and thus may be divided and increased to any extent. +It loves rich, moist land, but is not fastidious. Among the evening +primroses the Missouri one is the brightest and biggest; _speciosa_, +white, from Texas, of blossoms the most prolific; _glauca, riparia, +fruticera_, and _linearis_, all yellow; many others, though perennial, +are best treated as annual or biennial. The spiked loosestrife planted +by the water's edge of a pond is far finer than in the garden border. It +has hundreds of red spikes. + +Add to these, everlasting peas, musk mallows, spiderwort, globe +thistles, bold senecios, the finer milkweeds, _Scabiosa, Gallium_, +Chinese _Astilbe_, various kinds of loosestrife (_Lysimachia_), and many +others as perennials, and _Coreopsis_, balsams, zinnias, marigolds, +stocks, Swan river daisy, mignonnette, sweet peas, sweet alyssum, +morning glories, larkspurs, canary flowers, cucumber-leaved sunflowers, +verbenas, petunias, corn flower, Drummond phlox, double and single +poppies, snapdragons, _Phacelia, Gilia, Clarkia_, candytuft, red flax, +tassel flowers, blue _Anchusa, Gaillardia_, and a multitude besides of +seasonable annuals, which can all be raised quite easily without a frame +or green-house, and what excuse has any farmer for having a flowerless +garden in midsummer?--_William Falconer, in Country Gentleman_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TIME-CONSUMING MATCH. + + +Mr. Edward Prince, splint manufacturer, of Horseshoe Bay, Buckingham +township, is authority for the statement that there are about twenty-two +match factories in the United States and Canada, and that the daily +production--and consequent daily consumption--is about twenty-five +thousand gross per day. It may seem a queer statement to make that one +hundred thousand hours of each successive day are spent by the people of +the two countries in striking a light, but such is undoubtedly the case. +In each gross of matches manufactured there are 144 boxes, so that the +25,000 gross produces 3,600,000 boxes. Each box, at least those made +in the States, where a duty of one cent upon every box of matches is +levied--contains 100 matches, so that the number of matches produced and +used daily amounts to 360,000,000. Counting that it takes a second to +light each match--and it is questionable whether it can be done in less +time than that, while some men occupy several minutes sometimes in +trying to strike a light, particularly when boozy--to light the +360,000,000 would take just that number of seconds. This gives 6,000,000 +minutes, or 100,000 hours. In days of twenty-four hours each it figures +up to 4,166 2-3, and gives eleven years and five months with a couple of +days extra, as the time occupied during every twenty-four hours, by +the people of North America--not figuring on the Mexicans--in striking +matches. Figuring a little further it gives 4,159 years time in +each year. The fact may seem amazing, but it is undoubtedly quite +correct.--_Ottawa Free Press_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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