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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9f57f44 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text +*.htm text +*.html text +*.png binary +*.jpg binary +*.svg text +*.pdf binary +*.bmp binary +*.zip binary +*.midi binary +*.mp3 binary diff --git a/79076-0.txt b/79076-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..996b052 --- /dev/null +++ b/79076-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7317 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 *** + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. + + Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. + + + + +HOW TO KEEP BEES + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE I. BASSWOOD BLOSSOM] + + + + + How to Keep Bees + + A Handbook for the Use + of Beginners + + By + Anna Botsford Comstock, B. S. + + _With Illustrations_ + + [Illustration: Colophon] + GARDEN CITY NEW YORK + DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY + MCMXI + + + + + Copyright, 1905, by + Doubleday, Page & Company + Published April, 1905 + + + _All rights reserved, including that of + translation—also right of translation + into the Scandinavian languages_ + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book has been prepared especially to meet the needs of the +beginner in bee-keeping. It is not intended to be a complete treatise +for the professional apiarist, but rather a handbook for those who +would keep bees for happiness and honey, and incidentally for money. +It is hoped, too, that it will serve as an introduction to the more +extended manuals already in the field. + +When we began bee-keeping we found the wide range of information and +varying methods given in the manuals confusing; but a little experience +taught us that bee-keeping is a simple and delightful business which +can be carried on in a modest way without a great amount of special +training. After a beginning has been made, skill in managing the bees +is gained naturally and inevitably, and interest is then stimulated by +the wider outlook which bewilders the novice. + +For the sake of simplicity this volume is restricted to knowledge +gained in practical experience in a small apiary; and the writer has +sought to exclude from it those discussions which, however enlightening +to the experienced, are after all but devious digressions from the +simple and straight path which the feet of the inexperienced must tread +to success in the apiary. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. Why Keep Bees 3 + + II. How to Begin Bee-Keeping 8 + + III. The Location and the Arrangement of the Apiary 20 + + IV. The Inhabitants of the Hive 27 + + V. The Industries of the Hive 50 + + VI. The Swarming of Bees 64 + + VII. How to Keep from Keeping Too Many Bees 73 + + VIII. The Hive and How to Handle It 83 + + IX. Details Concerning Honey 106 + + X. Extracted Honey 117 + + XI. Points About Beeswax 126 + + XII. Feeding Bees 136 + + XIII. How to Winter Bees 145 + + XIV. Rearing and Introducing Queens 156 + + XV. Robbing in the Apiary 164 + + XVI. The Enemies and Diseases of Bees 172 + + XVII. The Anatomy of the Honey-Bee 181 + + XVIII. Interrelation of Bees and Plants 194 + + XIX. Bee-Keepers and Bee-Keeping 206 + + XX. Bee-Hunting 211 + + Bibliography 215 + + Index 219 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PLATE I.—Basswood blossom _Frontispiece_ + + Observation hives Page 2 + + FACING PAGE + + PLATE II.—(_a_) Two flat section-boxes (_b_) Corneil smoker 14 + + PLATE III.—(_a_) Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder and Van + Deusen wax-tube fastener. (_b_) A super with fences. (_c_) The + Porterbee-escape in a honey-board 15 + + PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree 26 + + PLATE V. (_a_) Queen; drone; worker. (_b_) Queen cell. (_c_) + Miller’s queen introducing cage 27 + + PLATE VI. Head of drone; head of queen; head of worker; ventral + surface of worker showing plates of wax 30 + + PLATE VII. Legs and antennæ of the honey-bee 31 + + PLATE VIII. Drone cells in a comb of honey 50 + + PLATE IX. Side of hive removed showing the bees at work 51 + + PLATE X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax 62 + + PLATE XI. Hiving bees; cutting down a swarm 63 + + PLATE XII. (_a_) Two self-spacing frames. (_b_) An empty super. + (_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder 90 + + PLATE XIII. Examining the brood-frames 91 + + PLATE XIV. (_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap. (_b_) A well + filled section. (_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled + with section-boxes 106 + + PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey 107 + + PLATE XVI. Drone and Queen trap; queen mailing and introducing + cage; queen-protector and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, and + bee-escape 110 + + PLATE XVII. “In apple-blossom time” 111 + + PLATE XVIII. (_a_) Taking off upper story of hive containing combs + for extracting. (_b_) Extracting-room showing apparatus for + extracting honey 122 + + PLATE XIX. (_a_) Uncapping comb before extracting the honey. + (_b_) Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the + extractor 123 + + PLATE XX. (_a_) Drawing honey from extractor. + (_b_) Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk 126 + + PLATE XXI. (_a_) Extracted honey in pails, candied. + (_b_) Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market 127 + + PLATE XXII. Winter quarters in chaff hives 154 + + PLATE XXIII. Plum blossoms 155 + + PLATE XXIV. Sumac in blossom. Blossom of mountain maple 184 + + PLATE XXV. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal section of the body + of a larva of an insect. Fig. 2. Section of the body-wall of + insect. Fig. 3. Head of a bee and its appendages. Fig. 4. + Glands of a honey-bee. Fig. 5. The wax plates 185 + + PLATE XXVI. (_a_) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. + (_b_) Fig. 1. The internal anatomy of the honey-bee. Fig. 2. + The respiratory system of the honey-bee 192 + + PLATE XXVII. An old-fashioned apiary 193 + + PLATE XXVIII. (_a_) Thorn-apple blossoms. + (_b_) Wild crab-apple blossoms 198 + + PLATE XXIX. Buckwheat in blossom 199 + + PLATE XXX. Box-elder, staminate and pistillate flowers 210 + + PLATE XXXI. Blossoms of black locust 211 + + + + +HOW TO KEEP BEES + +[Illustration: An ordinary beehive made into an observation-hive by +inserting glass panes in sides and putting a glass sheet under the +wooden cover. (From V. L. Kellogg.)] + +[Illustration: An observation-hive holding only two frames, with the +two sides wholly of glass, so that any single bee can be continuously +watched. (From V. L. Kellogg.)] + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WHY KEEP BEES + + +The reasons for keeping bees are many and various; for it is an +industry as many-sided as the cells of a honey-comb, one of its chief +charms being that it appeals equally to “many men of many minds.” To +know all the reasons why one should keep bees one must be conversant +with the history of man; he must be familiar with the Vedas of India +and master of the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt; he must study the +life of the common people in the Hebrew Scriptures and the classic +literatures of Greece and Italy, and must be able to translate into +terms of common human experiences the myths and legends of diverse +peoples. For bees have been a part of the conscious life of man from +the beginning. Not only have they sweetened his daily bread with +beneficent honey, but they have had their place in his religious rites, +and also in his family observances, as millions of happy lovers may +attest who have experienced the “honeymoon.” However, lacking the +erudition necessary to enumerate all, the author of this book is quite +content to mention a few of the more cogent reasons why anyone should, +in this day and generation, undertake the keeping of bees. + +One may keep bees for the sake of the honey, which is a most legitimate +and fit reason. Honey is a wholesome and delicious addition to the +family table. Though it is a luxury, yet it may be afforded by one +living in moderate circumstances, if he be willing to give a modicum +of time and care to the happy little creatures that gladly make it for +him, free of all expense. But for the one possessed of great wealth, +and able to corner the honey-market any day, there is sure delight, as +well as education, in raising his own honey. Any person of experience +well knows that the honey made by one’s own bees has quality and +flavour superior to that made by other people’s bees. In fact, the only +way to become a connoisseur of honey is to keep bees, for thus only may +one learn to discriminate between honey made from basswood and that +gathered from clover; or to distinguish, at first taste, the product of +orchard in bloom from that drawn from vagrant blossoms, which, changing +day by day, mark the season’s processional. He who has once kept bees +and become an artist in honey-flavours, would never again, willingly, +become a part of the world at large, which, in its dense ignorance, +dubs all white honey “basswood” or “clover” indiscriminately, and +believes all dark honey is gathered from buckwheat. + +Some, perhaps, might keep bees for the sake of making money. For him +who would get rich keeping bees, this book manifestly is not written; +its title explains that it is meant to show how to keep bees, and not +how to make bees keep him. The person who would, from the first, make +bee-keeping his chief work should receive his training in a large +apiary. As a vocation it demands the entire time and energy of a shrewd +and able person to insure success; of such, America already has a great +number, with yearly incomes varying from $1,000 to $10,000. However, +the desire to make the bees keep themselves and add more or less to +the family income is a practical and sensible reason for keeping bees. +Fifteen or twenty colonies may be managed with comparatively little +time and attention and the work may be done largely by women or the +younger members of the household. If proper care be given to such an +apiary, it will prove of material benefit to the family purse; for, +if the season be favourable, the product of one colony should net the +owner from four to ten dollars. We know of boys who have thus earned +their college expenses; and many women have bought immunity from the +drudgery of the kitchen with money paid them for their crops of honey. +It should be borne in mind that honey-money is not obtained without +thought, energy, and some hard work. The bees would have been less +beneficent to mankind had they bestowed honey without demanding a +return in care and labour. + +Many have kept bees as a recreation, and there is none better. It gives +delightful and absorbing occupation in the open air and is not merely a +rest from mental and sedentary labours, but is a stimulus to health and +strength as well. In the various bee journals are recorded testimonials +from thousands who, when tired, ill, and nervously worn out, began +bee-keeping, and through it regained vigour and found a new interest +in life. Notwithstanding the fact that bees have honest stings, they +can work the miracle of changing a dyspeptic pessimist into a cheerful +optimist with a rapidity and completeness that merits our highest +admiration. + +A love for natural science is a very good reason for keeping bees. +Nowhere are there more fascinating problems for the investigator than +those still unsolved in the hive. Of all the lower animals, bees are, +perhaps, the most highly developed in certain ways; and it is more +probable that the mysteries of the eternal heavens and the distant +stars be made plain than that we ever learn the truths that underlie +the development of the “Spirit of the Hive.” + +Another reason for keeping bees is the insight to be gained therefrom +into the conditions of perfect communism. The bees and their relatives +are the most intelligent and consistent socialists that have yet been +developed in this world; and, through studying their ways, one may +discern with startling clearness how the perfect socialism grinds off +all the projecting corners of the individual until it fits perfectly in +its communal niche. In the hive individual traits, as exemplified in +kindness, selfishness, love and hate, are moved up a notch in the scale +and characterise the whole community, even though they are eliminated +from its members. If one is a social philosopher, he may become very +wise, indeed, by studying the results of the laws of socialism which +have been executed inexorably through countless centuries in the bee +commune. + +Last, but by no means least, one may keep bees because they belong to +home life and should have place in every well-kept garden or orchard. +There is no more beautiful domestic picture to be found in the world +than a fine garden with a row of hollyhocks hiding the boundary fence +and affording a fitting background for a neat row of white hives. It +is not alone the æsthetic beauty the bees bring to the garden which +touches the deeper currents of feeling and is productive of profound +satisfaction; it is something more fundamental; for since the thyme +of Hymettus yielded nectar, the happy hum of the bee has yielded +comfort to the human senses. The garden without bees seems ever to lack +something; mayhap, the silent longing of the flowers for their friendly +visitors, intangible but real, so permeates the place that we are dimly +conscious of it. Be that as it may, the perfect garden can only be +attained through the presence of happy and populous bee-hives. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOW TO BEGIN BEE-KEEPING + + +THE VARIOUS WAYS OF BEGINNING + +There are so many ways of beginning this interesting work that no +classic way obtains. Many people have received the stimulus from a +swarm of bees, escaped from some apiary, which has alighted on a tree +or bush on the premises, and which seemed too much like a gift of +the gods to be ignored. In fact, no one with blood in him would do +otherwise under such circumstances than to hunt up a soap-box or a +nailkeg and, with an intrepidity amounting almost to heroism, place it +under the cluster and shake the bees into it. Then, if the swarm feels +content, the fact is accomplished; and the involuntary owner finds a +new interest in life, and enthusiastically becomes a bee-keeper. This +is an excellent and inexpensive way to begin, and for all who are thus +favoured it is by far the best way. But one may wait many years before +this happens, and after all there are other and more direct methods. +The best way is to begin by wishing sincerely to keep bees, and then to +adopt one of the following plans: + +The cheapest way is to visit the nearest neighbour who keeps bees, and +buy of him a swarm, which will cost, perhaps, two or three dollars. +If the neighbour be a good apiarist, this may be an excellent method, +for he will give practical advice and be a most helpful friend in time +of future difficulties and doubts; he will also explain appliances +and make the labours and perplexities of the beginner much smoother. +Besides these advantages, it is a help to neighbourliness, for keeping +bees is almost as close a bond between two neighbours as an interest +in golf or automobiles, and has a much broader and more philosophical +basis. + +Of course, the bees may be bought at any time of the year convenient, +but the early spring is the best season for beginning, for then one has +the advantage of increase by swarms. If one is ingenious and inventive, +one may easily construct other hives like the one bought; but there are +other things needed which may be obtained cheaper and better from firms +that sell apiarists’ supplies. However, we are acquainted with several +apiarists who furnish all of their own supplies except the sections +for comb-honey, the wax foundations, the smoker, the cartons and the +honey-extractor. + +The usual way of beginning is to send to some of the dealers in +bee-keepers’ supplies for a catalogue and to invest in a library of bee +books. There is something most fascinating about these books written by +bee-keepers, for no one makes a success of bee-keeping unless he loves +the bees; and if he loves bees he writes of them so persuadingly, and +his lines are so full of insidious allusions to the enchantments of +the occupation, that whoever reads one of these volumes finds life arid +without bees. + +Then the catalogue of bee-keepers’ supplies has its own attractions. +Never were such breathlessly interesting pamphlets written; and I would +add that, on the whole, they are the most honest and reliable of all +advertising catalogues. They almost invariably give good and sensible +advice to beginners, suggesting proper outfits at moderate prices. To +the would-be bee-keeper these catalogues are so delightful that, if +the purse is long enough, he feels inclined to order a specimen of +everything listed. However, this is not the best way to do. A moderate +number of things can be ordered at first, and other things may be +ordered later as the growing sense of their need develops. + +If one is minded to go into bee-keeping as a regular business, the +best way to begin is to spend a year with a successful bee-keeper, +working for him and with him and paying for the tuition, whatever may +be charged. Thus one may gain his knowledge of the business and get his +practical training under the guidance of experience. The very worst way +to begin, and one that is sure to result in disaster, is to buy a large +number of colonies at first. This is a too expensive way of learning +the extent of one’s own ignorance and limitations as a bee-keeper. + +As we have begun keeping bees three times in the course of our lives, +we feel more or less competent to give advice about this special +phase of bee-keeping. We first began when we were children and +two swarms were bestowed upon us by an uncle who moved away from +the neighbourhood. This was long before the idea of supers and box +comb-honey had been thought of. We were among the first to adopt the +old glass-sided super when it was introduced. The second and third +times we purchased our outfit of a dealer in apiarists’ supplies, and +both of these beginnings were good and successful; so perhaps the +best way to tell others how to begin is to describe how we began. The +following is the order which we sent to a dealer. + + +A BEGINNER’S ORDER + +One colony of bees, in an eight-frame, dovetailed, chaff hive with a +deep telescope cover, and with a tested Italian queen. + +Two complete supers ready for use, with 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ plain sections. + +One super cover. + +Three extra 1½-story chaff hives uniform with the above, and with super +covers. + +One standard Corneil smoker. + +One bee-veil. + +One pair bee-gloves. + +Two hundred and fifty sections, plain, no bee-way, 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½. + +One pound medium brood foundation. + +Two pounds thin super foundation. + +One Daisy foundation-fastener. + +One Van Deusen wax-tube fastener. + +One ¼-pound spool No. 30, tinned wire. + +One Porter bee-escape, with board. + +One Manum’s swarm-catcher. + +One Dixie bee-brush. + +One Doolittle division board feeder. + +One Alley’s queen and drone trap. + + +NOTES ON A BEGINNER’S ORDER + + +THE BEES + +The selection of the bees is the first and most important +consideration, since race and heredity determine to so great an extent +the bee’s efficiency and disposition. + +The consensus of opinion to-day is in favour of the Italian bees; this +is so much so that the other races, except the German, are hardly on +the general market in America. Taking all points into consideration, +the Italian has a higher average of satisfactory qualities than has any +of the other races. + +Our earliest experiences were with the ordinary black German bees, and +it was through them that we first learned to love bees, although their +nervousness and their unhappy habit of considering us intruders when we +neared their domain were always somewhat embarrassing, and made us feel +like James Whitcomb Riley’s visiting base-ball team, that “we weren’t +so welcome as we aimed to be.” Therefore, when we decided to buy bees, +we unhesitatingly ordered Italians. These are much more gentle and +friendly than the others, and it is one of our greatest pleasures to be +on good terms with our bee-folk. Under all ordinary circumstances the +Italian bees are not only tolerant of human interference, but are sweet +tempered and optimistic, believing that we mean well by them; and one +cannot work with them without learning to love them. + +If one begins bee-keeping in the spring, some money can be saved by +buying a nucleus and tested queen, instead of a full colony of bees. +A nucleus in bee-keeping parlance is a small colony with only one, +two, or three frames. The colony should be large enough to build combs +with sufficient rapidity to keep the queen fairly busy, so as not to +encourage in her the habit of loafing, and so that too much time shall +not be required to build up a full colony. Two frames with about a +quart of bees will accomplish this well. + +Such a nucleus as this in a hive, with a division board on either side +of the two adjacent frames, can be soon built up into a full colony if +there is plenty of nectar and pollen to be had. A division board is a +solid board of the shape of the frame, but a little larger so that it +is close-fitting in the hive. The frame should be watched closely, and +as soon as the comb is filled with brood, and there are enough bees to +cover the brood well, another frame filled with brood foundation should +be added; this should be continued until the hive is filled with frames. + + +A TESTED QUEEN + +As the queen is the mother of the whole colony, her powers for +transmitting a kind disposition and superior honey-making qualities are +of the greatest importance. It is essential, therefore, to know that +the queen, which is to serve as a foundation for the apiary, has mated +with a drone of the desired race. A tested queen is one that has been +kept until some of her offspring have been reared. The colour of these +will indicate whether the queen has mated with a drone of her own race. + + +THE HIVE + +Next to choosing the bees comes the selection of the hive, for there +are several kinds of hives in general use, and all of them are +apparently good. We chose the Langstroth hive because its merits are +attested by the fact that it is more largely used than all others taken +together. We chose the eight-frame in preference to the ten-frame +form because we wished to produce comb-honey, and it is easier to +induce bees to store surplus in the sections when the brood-chamber is +small. If one wishes to produce extracted honey, the ten-frame hive +is the better one. We ordered the more expensive chaff hives, as we +wished to save the trouble of moving the bees into winter quarters; +and we think this would be the case with anyone with whom bee-keeping +is an avocation instead of a vocation. In fact many people who +make bee-keeping their principal business prefer chaff hives, for +they not only keep out the cold in winter, but also protect the bees +from the heat in summer. The objections to them are that they are +heavy to handle and are expensive, though the expense can be reduced +considerably if one has the ability to make them. Another thing we +like about the chaff hives is that they are fine and dignified in +appearance, and we find that their majestic proportions, white and +beautiful, set against the background of our larches, add much to our +conscious pleasure every time we look upon our apiary. We ordered a +deep telescope cover, as we wished room for two supers on the hive at +once. + +The hive stand we ourselves made from lumber taken from dry-goods +boxes. It is simply a smooth platform, six inches wider than the hive +on three sides and extending about a foot out in front of the hive, +thus serving as an alighting-board. + + +TWO COMPLETE SUPERS + +We knew that we would need these very soon, for the basswood harvest +was imminent; we ordered them ready for use, as we wished to see all +the “new wrinkles” in supers, and exactly how the parts are arranged. +We used the supers as models later in putting together and fitting +other supers. This proved a wise precaution, as it saved us much time +in reading directions and studying out independently the arrangement +of parts. We ordered 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ sections, as this is the size most +generally used, and we chose the no-beeway, or “plain” style, because +we think it presents a better appearance when filled with honey. We +will return to this question in Chapter VIII. + + +THREE EXTRA HIVES + +We wished to have these on hand for any swarms which might possibly +issue. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE II. + + (_a_) Two flat section-boxes; and one being bent together. + + (_b_) A Corneil smoker.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE III. + + (_a_) The Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder, and Van Deusen + wax-tube fastener. + + (_b_) A super with fences and two rows of section-boxes in place; + a separate fence. + + (_c_) The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board.] + + +ONE STANDARD CORNEIL SMOKER + +I do not know just why we chose this of the many excellent smokers, but +perchance the name called to mind happy experiences with sundry Corneil +smokers of quite a different feather, and we were thus favourably +disposed toward this one. It has not disappointed us in the least, +for it is both handy and practical. It may seem an unfriendly act to +smoke one’s own bee-people, but a little smoke wisely applied is as +efficacious in preserving pleasant relations with the bees, as was the +smoke from the pipe of peace in preserving similar relations between +our forefathers and the savages. (Plate II.) + + +ONE BEE-VEIL + +The senior partner of our apiary rarely uses a veil, but when he does +use one he needs it very much, and it is an article necessary to have +at hand. To the beginner it gives a calmness of nerve and a surplus of +courage which are highly desirable when dealing with such high-strung +creatures as bees. Also there always occur times during the year when +the bee-tempers are on edge for some reason or other; and at such +times, if one be intrenched behind a bee-veil, it facilitates work and +encourages a serene spirit. + + +ONE PAIR OF BEE-GLOVES + +While we do not use these ordinarily, yet when we have some special +work to do which involves changing many bees from one location to +another, we find these gloves most convenient to keep the disturbed +little citizens from crawling up our sleeves, thus saving both them and +ourselves from a most embarrassing situation. + + +250 SECTIONS + +Only a small supply of sections was ordered, as but few would be needed +the first year in addition to those in the two complete supers. (Plate +II.) + + +ONE POUND BROOD-FOUNDATION + +This was for use in the frames in the extra hives. + + +TWO POUNDS THIN SUPER-FOUNDATION + +This was for use in the sections. + + +ONE DAISY FOUNDATION-FASTENER + +In the early days of our bee-keeping we fastened the foundation into +the sections and frames with a common kitchen-knife which we heated +over a lamp and then applied to the edge of the wax foundation held +against the section, thus melting it and pressing it fast to the wood. +Afterward we used a Parker fastener, and found it a great improvement +over the primitive method. But this Daisy foundation-fastener as +described in the catalogue appealed to the modern spirit in us. When +we tried to use the machine, we were bitterly disappointed at the end +of five minutes, but that was because the iron was not hot enough to +properly melt the wax. After a little we learned to hold the foundation +on the plate just long enough to melt it to a proper consistency so +that it adhered to the section as soon as it was dropped upon it. +Then it was that filling sections was placed on the list of sports. +The rapidity with which we filled four dozen sections almost took our +breath away. + + +ONE VAN DEUSEN WAX-TUBE FASTENER + +This was ordered under the impression that it would be needed for +fastening the foundation in the brood-frames, but when the hives came +we found that a much better method of fastening the foundations had +been devised. This is described in Chapter VIII. (Plate III.) + + +TINNED WIRE + +This is used for strengthening the foundation in the brood-frames, as +described later. + + +ONE PORTER BEE-ESCAPE + +The Porter bee-escape is a simple and most useful device. It is set in +a thin board just the size of the top of the hive; in the middle is a +bit of tin which forms a round pit on the upper side. The bees descend +into this pit, and, trying to get out, push apart two strips of tin +set at angles to each other, fastened at the ends, which act like a +valve, letting the bee out but not permitting her to push back. This is +put between the super and the hive in order to free the super of bees +before removing the honey. This escape is also used on the doors and +windows of workshops or extracting-rooms or other places where bees get +in and it is desirable to get them out. (Plates III., XVIII.) + + +THE MANUM SWARM-CATCHER + +We bought this because we liked the idea of it, but as yet we have +never had occasion to use it; however, we never look at its long handle +without being filled with a mad desire to try it on a provoking swarm +of bees clustered in the top of a cherry tree. + + +ONE DIXIE BEE-BRUSH + +This is an exceedingly useful instrument for brushing bees from frames +and from sections. (Plate III.) + + +ONE DOOLITTLE FEEDER + +Bee-keepers of extended experience consider this the best and most +satisfactory kind of feeder in use for small apiaries. (Plate XII.) + + +QUEEN AND DRONE TRAP + +This is not a necessity; we bought it in order to try experiments in +preventing swarming by its use, and also to have on hand in case an +excess of drones should be developed in any of our colonies. (Plate +XIV.) + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE LOCATION AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY + + +Where to put the hives is the first question, and this must be +determined by two or three conditions necessary for the health and +comfort of the bees. Hives should be placed where the sunshine may +reach them in the morning up to eight or nine o’clock, and in the +afternoon from three to four o’clock. An old orchard such as is kept +because of picturesque beauty rather than for its crop of apples is an +ideal place. The clean-culture orchards of the modern horticulturists +are undoubtedly more efficient as producers of apples and money; but +we are always grateful that there are still remaining many fine old +orchards, on sod ground where the trees, more or less gnarled and +twisted, are a joy to the artistic eye. Little wonder that such a place +is the ideal spot for the apiary; if the hives are grouped four or five +together beneath one tree, the requirements of shade will be met. + +If there is no old orchard, what then? A young orchard will do, unless +clean culture is practised; in the latter case horses and cultivator +will not be permitted on the domain of the bee-people. If no orchard +offers, then a trellis of vines extending east and west, eight feet +high, may shade a few hives, and may be a thing of beauty in the garden +as well. Grape vines, hops, Virginia creeper, or any other rapidly +growing vines will do. To the one who loves his garden, there will be +many ways suggested whereby the hives may be placed to compass both +comfort for the bees and joy to the beholder. We started an apiary at +the north of the lilac trees, and made it a part of the lawn. + +If no such happy position for natural shade is to be found for the +hives, then one must have recourse to artificial shade or double-walled +hives. A very good method of shading, much in vogue among the farmers +of our country, consists of a few boards placed awning-fashion above +the row of hives. This is not an attractive solution to the problem, +although perhaps it might be made so if this method were ever resorted +to by anyone with a sense of beauty; but usually it is limited to +a simple cover consisting of two or three boards nailed together, +slanting a little toward the back of the hives to shed rain, supported +by four posts, which hold it a foot or more above the row of hives. + +In California instead of boards a thatched roof is made for this sort +of protection, and is ample enough to allow an aisle for the apiarist +between the rows of hives set back to back. + +Many people use a single shade board, which consists of slats fastened +together by cleats made large enough to project a foot beyond the hive +on either side. This is placed directly on top of the hive, and has +to be weighted down with stones, and is therefore awkward to handle +when working with the bees. If the climate is hot, or in any case, a +double-walled cover to the hive is most excellent, since it affords a +chance for free circulation of air between the two boards which form +it. However, these double covers do not obviate the need of shade, and +natural shade is the most desirable sort. + +In case the region is exposed to high winds, there should be a +windbreak around the apiary. Mr. Root, who is one of the greatest of +American bee-keepers, uses for this a row of hardy evergreens which +grow together into a solid hedge. In case a windbreak, either natural +or made, is impracticable, a board fence about eight or ten feet high, +built on two sides of the apiary, usually the north and west sides, +will be found to serve the purpose. This fence may be made the trellis +for vines. + +In the rear of the village garden is an excellent place for bees. A +high board fence as a boundary, and perhaps a barn at the side will act +as a windbreak, while the fruit trees yield a grateful shade. We know +several such modest apiaries which are most attractive in appearance. +There are those who live in cities or towns who are filled with the +bee-keeper’s ambitions; and even they need not despair. There are on +record accounts of several small apiaries kept on the housetops of the +owners, who believe that roofs are for more than mere protection. Where +bees kept thus get their honey is a bee secret, but undoubtedly every +flower in the region yields them tribute. If bees be kept in town, they +must be placed on a roof or else a high fence must intervene between +the hives and the highway, so that the plane of bee flight shall be +set above the heads of horses and drivers; for these brave little +honeymakers have never been taught to turn to the right, and so they +often dispute the way with teams and usually come off victorious; and +this might make the bee-keeper unpopular in his community. + +Another necessity in the apiary is that the grass in front of the +entrance to the hives be kept mown; otherwise many a heavily laden +bee will experience loss or injury among interfering grass blades. It +is not practicable, even if one were heroic enough to try it, to run +a lawn mower nearer than four or five inches from the hives, so many +bee-keepers place salt or coal ashes on the grass within this area. Mr. +Root goes so far as to advise the use of sheep as automatic lawn mowers +in the apiary, as nothing else can cut grass so short as does the +sheep. People say “as silly as a sheep,” but that is a silly saying, +for many people may learn something of value about the management of +bees from the sheep, which, when attacked by them, thrusts its head +philosophically into a bush where the bees cannot reach the tender +parts, and trusts to its wool to protect it elsewhere. As a matter of +experience, sheep kept in apiaries are rarely stung at all. + +In our own apiary, where it was not practical to mow close to the +hives, we followed two methods: When we had many bees we placed a +rough board over the ground in the immediate front of the hive; when +we had only a few swarms, it was one of our joys to get on our knees +on cold days, when only a few adventurous workers were going into the +field, and with shears cut the grass close to the ground; and this +period spent on our knees was not penance, but joy. However, it might +well get to be penance in a large apiary. + +Having found the place for the apiary, the next thought is of hive +stands. Many bee-keepers use a hive that has a combination bottom board +and hive stand; this has an inclined plane up which the loaded bees +may climb if they strike the ground. This is a device which also saves +the lives of many bees in cool weather, when they would scarcely be +able, through numbness, to reach the entrance of the hive otherwise. +However, there are other bee stands which hold two or three hives, +which are very comfortable in height for the work of the bee-keeper. +But it is always well to remember that the opening of a hive should be +low down, as it is easier for the weary wings to let the honey-weighted +bee down than to lift her up to the doorway. We use a simple platform, +with blocks under the corners, so that there may be circulation of air +beneath, and extending about a foot out in front of the hive, thus +serving as an alighting-board. + +The arrangement of the hives in the apiary is a subject which will +pay for thought. When beginning, this is easy enough, as they may be +arranged almost any way, so long as shade and short grass are assured. +After the apiary grows they may be arranged in several convenient ways; +one is to have the lines of hives facing each other, thus making an +alley for the bees; while there is a safe passageway for the man in the +rear of the two rows. + +When there are only a few hives, it is best to have the entrances +face the south. In fact, the entrance should never face northward in +a climate as cold as that of New York State. There is one thing to +bear in mind in arranging an apiary; make the groups under the trees +individual, so that the bees will have no tendency to become confused +as to the location of their own homes. If two face west, then let two +others face east, or perhaps a group of three face to the south, etc. + +When it becomes necessary, for any reason, to change the location of +a colony, a board should be set against the hive, in front of its +entrance. The bees, meeting this obstruction as they emerge from the +hive, will fly about the hive for some time, and thus mark the new +location, to which they will return. If this precaution is not taken, +many bees will fly from the hive, directly into the field, without +noticing the change, and will then return to the old location and thus +be lost. + +A honey-house near the apiary is a great convenience. If this is not +practicable, the next best arrangement is a honey-room in house, +cellar, or shed. Such a room is a necessity even in a small apiary. +This room should be well ventilated and screens should cover the +windows, and a swinging automatic screen protect the door; bee-escapes +should be placed in door and windows. + +The room should contain workbench and tools; a table, chairs of varying +height, an oil-stove, and boxes or cupboards in which all of the apiary +supplies, implements, and machinery may be stored and kept ready for +use. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree, but the grass ought to have been +cut long ago.] + +[Illustration: + + _Fig. 1_ + _Fig. 2_ + _Fig. 3_ + _Fig. 4_ + _Fig. 5_ + + PLATE V. _1._ Queen Bee, enlarged. _2._ Drone. _3._ Worker. _4._ + Queen Cells. _5._ Miller’s Cage for Introducing Queens.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE + + +One of the remarkable peculiarities of bees, which is also shared by +other social insects, as ants, wasps and termites, is that there are +three distinct kinds of individuals in the community. For, in addition +to the males and females, which are the reproducing members of the +colony, there is a third class which performs the labours of the +community. The females, of which there is usually only one in a colony, +are known as queens; the males as drones; and the labourers as workers. +(Plate V.) + + +THE QUEEN (Plates V, VI, VII) + +The bee-queen is the acme of a long line of communistic development. +It is little wonder that those men of ancient times who observed her, +and the attitude of the other bees toward her, regarded her as regal +and called her queen. But she is a much more important element in the +perfect commune than a mere sovereign, since she is the actual mother +of her subjects. + +Too much care cannot be shown in the selection of the queen, or mother +of the bee-colony. Her blood is their blood; her faults are their +faults; her weaknesses are their weaknesses. Any apiarist is likely +to have had two colonies side by side, perhaps each equalling the +other in amount of brood and number of bees, and one may have produced +five dollars’ worth of honey in a season, while the other did not +produce half of that; and the queens alone caused this discrepancy. One +produced energetic, capable offspring, while the progeny of the other +were unenterprising. The offspring of one were perhaps sweet-tempered +and obliging, and those of the other, cross and cranky. Thus it is +all-important to give the colony a good mother. A queen, to be perfect, +should be well-bred, handsome and strong, and capable of laying from +two to three thousand eggs per day during the height of the season, and +especially should she have offspring possessing a kindly disposition. + +The laying queen is a very graceful insect; her body is long and +pointed, and extends far behind the tips of her closed wings. _Svelte_ +is a graphic word applied to her figure by the _Spectator_; just a +glance at her reveals her splendid physical development and proves +her a queenlier bee than those that gather around her. It is a sight +that makes men feel how very limited is their knowledge of any other +world than their own to see the queen bee, surrounded by her ring of +attendants, each with head toward her, as if she were the centre of a +many-rayed star. + +The development of the queen from the egg has ever been a most +interesting and, at the same time, a most puzzling subject for +investigation on the part of the scientists; even now after a century +of study her growth is as miraculous as ever; and the problems in +physiology that lie as yet unsolved in her development will keep many +an investigator busy in the future. + +When a colony is queenless, and has young brood or unhatched eggs, it +makes haste to develop new queens; not one alone, but several, since it +cannot afford to put its “eggs all in one basket.” At the height of the +honey season, every day that a colony is queenless means two or three +thousand less bees than should be present to make it successful in +securing the harvest. (Plate V.) + +In developing a queen the bees usually proceed as follows: They select +the important egg, which differs in no wise from any other worker egg, +and destroying the partitions between its cell and two adjoining cells, +give it more room. In order to make the royal apartment of good size a +projection is built out over this large cell. This is made of thick wax +and ornamented on the outside with hexagonal fretwork, as if it were +to be the basis of comb with small cells. It seems as if the hexagonal +pattern were in the bee brain and must be expressed, whether it be of +any use or not. As soon as the little white larva hatches from the egg, +it is fed on the regular larval food. Royal jelly is a food developed +in the head glands of the workers; and when it is the fate of a bee +larva to develop into a worker, it is fed with this food for three +days, and then it is weaned by having other food substituted; but the +queen larva is fed with it during her entire development, and thereby +her reproductive organs are stimulated and fully developed, which is +not the case with the workers. Think how much farther advanced are +the bees than we, since, by giving the proper food, they are able to +develop and fit each class of citizens to do the work required of it in +the social organisation! + +The queen larva is fed for five days on this most nourishing food, and +then her cell is sealed. Within this cell the royal princess is for the +first time self-dependent, and weaves about herself a silken cocoon +and changes into a pupa. When she issues from this state she waits a +little until she “finds herself,” and then starts to cut an opening in +the cell. She is a good mathematician, and with her jaws, cuts a circle +very accurately, usually leaving it hinged like the lid to a pot. +Professor Kellogg tells us that sometimes when she cuts this door, the +workers do not wish her to come out. They accomplish their purpose by +carrying wax and pasting it over the opening as fast as she cuts it, at +the same time quite devotedly feeding her through a small crevice. But +if they wish her to come out, they rush to assist her, and perhaps for +two or three days before she issues, make the wax thin where she is to +cut. It usually requires sixteen days to develop a queen from the egg +to the adult. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE VI. (Original, drawn by A. G. Hammar.) _d_, head of drone; + _q_, head of queen; _w_, head of worker; _x_, ventral surface of + worker showing plates of wax.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE VII. Legs and antenna of the honey-bee (original drawn + by A. G. Hammar). _A_, outer surface of hind leg showing the + nine segments and claws; _pb_, the pollen basket of tibia; _B_, + inner surface of part of hind leg; _wp_, wax-pincers; _pc_, + pollen-combs; _C_, inner surface of part of hind leg of queen; + _D_, inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; _E_, part of + middle leg of worker; _s_, spur; _F_, part of fore leg showing + the antenna cleaner _a_; _G_, part of antenna showing sense-hairs + and sense-pits.] + +When a queen issues from her cell, she is light-coloured and, as her +body is not yet distended with eggs, it is scarcely larger than that +of one of the workers. Sometimes she chooses to stay in her cell for +a day or two after it is opened. When she comes out, she runs about +over the comb, taking exercise on her own royal legs, and perhaps +taking a little honey out of the cells on her own account; especially +does she hunt for other queen cells, for she has no wish to share her +duties or honours with another. If she finds such a cell, she usually +makes a hole in its side, and in some way, she stings to death the +hapless princess within. Some observers claim that she merely takes +the initiative, tearing down the wall of the cell, and the bees finish +by tearing it down as they would any broken comb, and destroy the +inmate in the process. If, in her promenade, she discovers another +full-grown queen, a contest ensues; it is a duel to the death and the +weapons are stings, which are kept sacred for this special occasion. +It is interesting that the queen reserves her weapon for her peers, +and never attempts to sting workers, and may be handled fearlessly by +the bee-keeper. As the plate armour of the bee is so arranged that the +sting may enter in only at certain spots, this duel resolves itself +into a fencing match, until one thrusts her weapon into some vulnerable +portion of the other. One morning we found fifteen dead queens outside +of one of our hives; a grim tribute to the prowess of the queen within, +and quite as much a tribute to our carelessness in letting so many +queens be developed uselessly. + +The belligerent attitude of the queens toward each other seems to have +been so strong an emotion that a voice has been developed to express +it, and is eloquent with rage and fear. This note must be heard to +be understood; as nearly as I am able to spell it, it is “tse-ep, +tse-e-e-ep, tse-e-ep, tsep, tsp, tsp, ts,” in a sort of diminuendo. +She makes the noise when she discovers another queen cell; if there is +within this cell a full-fledged queen, she pipes back, but it sounds +quite differently and the note is more like “quock, quock.” This piping +of queens is especially evident before an after-swarm is to issue. The +queen will also pipe when the bees gather about her and try to ball +her, which is often the fate of a new queen introduced into a colony +not ready to receive her. In this case the note is one of righteous +anger at the indignity to her royal person. She makes this piping +with some vocal instrument, not well understood. Her wings vibrate +tremulously while she is piping, but she can pipe quite as vociferously +after her wings have been entirely cut off. + +After she has made good her title to empire, the queen thinks about +marriage; some warm day she will run out of the hive to see how the +world looks, and especially to determine beyond doubt upon just what +point of the universe her own hive is situated. The first flight of +the queen bee is very pretty to see. She makes many graceful circles +about, and plays in the sunshine as if she were thoroughly enjoying +herself. When she finally leaves the hive to find a prince, she makes +several little _détours_, always coming back so that she can commit to +memory, beyond peradventure, the home place, and then off she goes in +the sunshine to find her lover. Unfortunately she is not discriminating +in the matter of love, and any sort of a prince, however lowly, +is acceptable. Thus does many a fine, highly bred queen return to +her hive, to bestow upon her progeny the undesirable traits of some +low-bred drone. This is one reason why it is so difficult to keep an +apiary of pure blood; and these _mésalliances_ of queens are a source +of much tribulation to the bee-keeper. She returns from her wedding +journey with a part of the reproductive organs of her mate in her +possession, often still visible, but soon after withdrawn into her +body. With the sperm cells now under her control, she will fertilise +the eggs of perhaps a million workers, more or less, which she may +mother during her life of three or four years. + +Biologists have of late achieved the miraculous in being able to +stimulate the unfertilised eggs of sea-urchins and starfish, so that +they will develop. The queen bee is able to do this with her own eggs. +When the time comes for drones to be developed, she lays unfertilised +eggs, which, unfailingly, produce the drones. If our poor human queens +possessed this power of producing male heirs at will, much trouble +would have been saved to many of them and, to some of them, their +heads. However, the perfect socialists do most things better than we. + +As soon as the queen returns from her honeymoon, which is usually taken +from eight to ten days from the time she issues, she acts decidedly +like a business person. She runs about on the comb, pokes her head into +a cell to see if it is all ready, and then, turning about, thrusts her +abdomen in and neatly glues an egg fast to the bottom. When the honey +season is at its height, she works with great rapidity; sometimes she +lays at the rate of six eggs per minute, often laying three thousand +or twice her own weight of eggs per day. She is a wise queen, however, +and has in mind the dangers of overpopulation. When there is much +honey brought in, and the swarming season is at hand, she enlarges her +empire rapidly; but when there is little honey, she keeps the amount of +brood down to what can be cared for. Whether this question of limiting +the population is decided by the queen, or whether she simply acts in +response to the food given her by the workers, is a question not yet +settled. However this may be, it is certain that Malthusian doctrines +are rigorously and successfully practised by the perfect socialists of +the hive. + +Sometimes when the honey flow is very great an intoxication of work +seems to possess the colony. The bees, coming in from the field, will +drop the honey anywhere, and the queen, agitated by the general spirit +of the hive, will drop her eggs everywhere; and the poor, overworked, +bee housekeepers have to pick up the honey and store it in the cells, +and pick up the eggs and glue them fast to the cell-bottoms. + + +THE DRONE (Plates V, VI, VII) + +Of all the denizens of the hive the lot of the drones is the least +enviable. That one may surely fulfil the destiny as king father, many +are born, only to be slain when the honey harvest runs low, and +meanwhile they are denied all interests in the business of the colony +except that of pensioners upon its bounty. And he, the fortunate one, +who lives his life to its fullest measure and becomes queen consort +must in the end lose his life for love and die, heartlessly abandoned +by her whom he sought and won. + +In appearance the drone differs much from the queen and the worker; +he is broad, and the rear end of his body is so blunt that it looks +almost as if it had been cut off with shears. He is made for a life +of idleness; his hind legs bear no pollen baskets, so he could not +fetch and carry if he would; his tongue is so short that he must needs +eat from honey stored in a cell or be fed by his sisters, since he +could not possibly extract nectar from a deep flower; nor is there any +occasion that he should hang suspended weary hours for the secretion +of wax, since he has no wax glands. His special accomplishment is his +buzz, which is of extraordinary calibre and sonorousness. So fierce and +loud is this, the song he sings when on the wing, that the novice feels +inclined to retreat before him. But this music is undoubtedly meant to +attract a queen to his vicinity, and is by no means a sound of menace; +he is a burly, good-natured fellow, who is obliged to express himself +in this rather coarse song. The term “good natured” is applied to him, +not because we are certain that his temper is sweet, but because he +has no means of expressing ill temper should he experience it, since +niggard nature has given him no sting. He is always a clumsy chap, as +awkward as his queen is graceful; but he can scramble out of the way +with astonishing celerity when a murderously inclined sister attacks +him. The time when he shows his princely qualities is when he is +flying, for his wings are large and strong and carry him easily several +miles if he needs to travel so far to win his lady. In his physical +makeup he is a fine example of a purely feminine product; for the drone +is a very perfect creature, even if he is reared from an unimpregnated +egg. His magnificent compound eyes almost completely encircle his head, +nearly meeting at the top, and thus crowding his simple eyes down into +his “forehead.” And such eyes as these mean something surely, for they +are developed that he may be better able to see his heart’s desire +from afar. He also has marvellous antennæ, the nine distal joints of +which are completely pitted with smelling organs. The reason for this +is that his queen has a fragrance all her own, sweeter to him than the +attar of roses, and thus he is equipped, as Cheshire has proven, with +thirty-seven thousand eight hundred nostrils, in order to detect the +perfume of her royal person at a distance. (Plate VII, _G_.) + +The life-history of the drone after he hatches from his unfertilised +egg is much like that of other bees, except that for him is provided +a cell larger than that of the worker; he hatches from the egg about +three days after it is laid, and during the week following he is +carefully attended by the nurses who feed him on the rich chyle food at +first; after four days they give him some undigested pollen, a food +not granted to the larvæ of the workers. At the end of a week his cell +is sealed over with a cap that looks more like the crown of a derby hat +than a cap, so spherical is it. Cheshire has shown that this cap is an +especially fine example of engineering, being girdered by six struts of +wax, the apex of the dome being not a skylight exactly, but rather a +ventilator for the admission of air. (Plate VIII.) + +It has been a question of much dispute whether the workers inspire the +queen to drone-raising through building drone comb, or whether she +takes the initiative in the matter. Certain it is the bees seem to love +to build drone comb, perhaps because it is more easily constructed and +requires less wax. It is also a fact that the queen prefers the worker +cells, and in the spring or fall when there is little honey coming +in, the queen will voluntarily pass drone comb, leaving it empty, and +lay eggs in the worker cells, so she evidently knows her own mind. +Sometimes when reduced to dire extremity the queen will lay worker eggs +in the drone cells, but she does not do this unless the openings of +the cells have been previously constricted by the bees. Sometimes also +when the conditions are abnormal the queen will lay drone eggs in the +worker cells and from these will be developed runty drones, which seem +of little account. However, such conditions as these are very unusual. + +When the drone is twenty-four days from the egg he cuts a circular lid +out of the cap of his cell, and crawls out into a hazardous world. +After a fortnight or so of moving about the combs and eating his fill +he goes out of the hive and tries his wings. This he does on some +pleasant day, about noon or a little after. As soon as he is sure of +himself, he makes his flight longer, and the length of his journeys may +only be guessed at. When he meets the queen they unite at once in the +air, and after this they fall to the ground and she frees herself by +tearing off and holding within herself the generative appendages of her +dying consort. + +In every hive are developed thousands of these princes royal, who are +maintained at the expense of the colony until the dawn of that fatal +day when the honey crop runs short; and then an unhappy experience lies +before these useless brothers of the reigning house. Then their sisters +chase them out of the hive apparently attempting to sting them, and, +changed to furies, bite off their wings and harry them until they give +up, great helpless creatures that they are, and fulfil their final +destiny, which is to die for the sake of the colony. + +Even the drone eggs, larvæ, and pupæ are not exempt on this appointed +day of execution, but are ruthlessly killed, and their remains thrust +forth from the hive. If conditions should change and more honey be +made, a reprieve to the unhappy drone may be granted, for the length +of his life is measured by the food supply. Any time during the summer +when the bee-keeper finds the workers attacking the drones he may be +very sure it means that the honey crop is exhausted. + +Our pity is usually much more excited for the fate of the drone than +for that of the busy worker, which dies from overwork at the end of +a few weeks; and this is undoubtedly because the death of the worker +seems voluntary, while the drones are manifestly murdered. Once we +witnessed the slaughter of the drones in an observation hive, the +entrance of which was too contracted to allow the bodies of the drones +to pass. For several days the bloody-minded workers spent their +energies in tearing their wretched victims limb from limb, and carrying +them out in sections. Below a small crevice at the bottom of the hive +we found a row of disjointed legs, wings and antennæ from the mutilated +drones, while the heads and broken bodies were thrown out of the front +of the hive. + + +THE WORKERS. (Plate V, VI, VII.) + +It is interesting to note that in the socialistic bee-community the +work is carried on by unsexed females. It evidently has not been a +part of the true economy of the perfect socialism to unite motherhood +and business life in one individual; therefore, a division of labour +takes place. The queen mother is developed into a highly efficient +egg-laying machine, while all her worker sisters remain undeveloped +sexually, and thus have time and energy to devote themselves to +bringing up the young, keeping the house, getting the food, and +administering the affairs of the body politic. Little wonder is it +that the brain of the worker bee is much larger than that of the queen +or drone, for she needs must exercise her mental powers far more than +either. She is obliged also to pass through certain industrial stages +in her development as a worker before she attains the full height of +citizenship. + +The life-history of a worker is usually as follows: The cell in which +she is developed is the smallest of the comb, such as is ordinarily +used for storing honey. She is not merely a fatherless creation, like +the big drone, but hatches from an impregnated egg during the fourth +day after it is laid by the queen mother. She is supplied with royal +jelly, presumably the same as that which nourishes the queen larva, +for about three days; afterward she is fed honey and digested pollen. +This food is placed in the bottom of the cell, and the young larva +floats in it and absorbs it through the body walls as well as through +the mouth, which a little later she opens up pleadingly that it may be +filled by the nurse bees. She grows like other infantile insects by +shedding her skeleton skin as fast as she outgrows it; she does this +with thoroughness, for she sheds the lining of the mouth, the gullet, +the larger intestines and the tracheal tubes as well as the outside, +this being a very thorough change of clothes, indeed; she does this +about six times. Soon after she hatches she querls up in the cell, +floating in her food, and at the end of four days’ feeding she is a +very fat, contented youngster. Six days from the hatching the nurse +bees place over the cell, a cap which is made of wax and pollen, and +admits the air freely. Then the young bee in the solitude of her own +cell eats all the food that has been provided, spins about herself a +cocoon of finest silk, which she weaves from a gland which opens in her +lip; this is a very, very delicate cocoon, which remains in the cell as +a lining, but so delicate is it that not until years have elapsed do +the brood cells become contracted by these many silk wrappings of bees +which have been developed in them. When the worker sheds for the last +time her skeleton, she sheds the lining of the stomach and alimentary +canal and all its contents, and changes to a pupa, which is a state +of utter quiescence and during which wonderful changes take place in +her anatomy. These changes which occur in the pupa are almost like new +creation, for the legs, wings, antennæ, and all of the other organs +of the adult bee are developed from what was within the body of the +footless, white grub. + +Twenty-one days from the date of the laying of the egg, twelve days +after the cell is capped, the worker bee sheds her pupa skin, pushes +it behind her to the bottom of the cell, cuts a lid in the cap of her +cell and pushes her way out, very likely after some friendly nurse has +given her a little food to “stay her stomach.” As she crawls out, she +is a silvery-gray bee, as damp as if she had been out in a fog; no +one hastens to greet her, or pays her the slightest attention, which +is quite different from the case with the young ant, which is always +fussed over and patted and petted by the nurses for some time after +it emerges from the pupa skin. But the worker bee has to pat herself, +and so she gives her face a rubbing, stretches and tries to straighten +out her draggled clothing, and walks around trying to get acquainted +as best she can with her sisters, who are too intent upon work to +notice her. The first twenty-four hours of her life as a bee are spent +orienting herself; but on the second day she learns to put her head +down into the cells of unsealed honey and drink her fill. This is not a +selfish and thoughtless act, for almost immediately she enters on her +first duty, that of bee-nurse; and she must eat pollen and honey and +digest them in order to make chyle for the bee brood, which she soon +learns to care for most solicitously. It may be her lot to supply royal +jelly to a queen cell and thus become a lady-in-waiting. In any event +she very soon learns to be useful in many ways; she helps to build +comb, and works very hard at capping the cells of the young bees when +they are ready to pupate. She also helps to clean house if necessary, +carefully removing all of the dirt and refuse at the bottom of the hive +and dumping it out of the front door. During the extreme heat of the +summer she must exert herself tremendously by fanning with her wings so +that a draft may be set up in the hive for the sake of the bees as well +as to ripen the honey in the uncapped cells. During very hot weather, +when the bees hang out, some of these young workers may be seen fanning +“for dear life” on the outside of the hive. Having more zeal than wit, +they dance a little glide back and forth, and fan as if they thought +they were really accomplishing something. + +The young worker usually takes her first flight when she has had her +wings for about a week; she runs out on the threshold of the hive +on some pleasant afternoon, and may be easily recognised, as she is +callowness incarnate. She runs around a little, giving the impression +of holding on with all her six feet as if scared, and then she lifts +herself gingerly to see whether she truly can use her wings; then she +circles around in great joy and learns to know well the place where +her hive stands. About a week later she goes out into the wide world +to seek her fortune and is likely to come back with a little load of +pollen on her legs. When she comes back thus laden she buzzes around +before alighting, and then rushes into the hive excited and delighted +with her achievement, and as Mr. Root says so graphically, “tries her +best to show off.” Soon after, she becomes a staid worker and plays +her part in the economy of the hive by bringing in honey, pollen, and +propolis, secreting wax if need be, ready to defend her colony at the +cost of her life, and so courageous that she as readily attacks a man +as a mouse. Later it may fall to her lot to become executioner of her +brother drones, or to devote herself to the queen and help lead out the +swarm; or, by some mysterious election of the hive, she may be sent +as a scout to find a proper home for her queen and her colony after +they have swarmed. She is at the height of her powers and usefulness +when about a month old, and at that time she will do any of the duties +of the hive which she deems necessary, even to helping the young bees +in the housework. She still has all her fur and her wings are as yet +whole; but if there is much to do she is untiring and unremitting in +her labours and, with never a thought of self, wears herself out. Her +old age is evident by the loss of the fuzz, which was the pride of +her youth, and the segments of her body become bald and shiny. Then +her hard-worked wings begin to fray at the edges until there comes a +day when, out on her quest for food for the colony, the broken wings +and tired muscles refuse to support her, and she falls into the grass +and dies; even then her last thought is not for self, but for the +precious load which she struggles to carry home. Better thus for her to +die in the field than to faint in the hive, for then do her vigorous +sisters seize her and thrust her forth, and she falls into the refuse +heap in front of the home, which she has so eagerly wasted her life +to sustain. There is no gratitude and no pensioning in the bee-world; +death and oblivion are meted mercilessly to the most ardent workers +when they fail, for thus, and thus only, can the colony be kept strong. +The individual is nothing in the perfect socialism, and the colony +is everything; the treatment is Spartan, with none of the weakness +which makes us keep alive the hopelessly insane, the idiotic, and the +criminal. + + +THE LAYING WORKER + +When the colony is queenless, worker bees may develop the ability to +lay eggs. As they have never mated, they lay unfertilised eggs, which +develop into drones, and thus stock the hive with these royal cumberers +of the commune. It is interesting to note the difference in prejudices +that obtain in the hive and in human society. In the latter we regard +it as scandalous when the female, avoiding the duties of motherhood, +goes abroad gathering honey and pollen at her own sweet will; but +in bee society it is not merely a scandal, but a misfortune, when +the worker bee has ambitions to be a mother. The laying worker is a +bee gone wrong and a menace to the colony. At the same time she is a +nuisance to the bee-keeper and great may be his tribulation before he +is rid of her. As might be expected, she does not do her work well; she +usually does not lay her eggs in regular order, as does the queen, but +scatters them here and there and everywhere, and is quite likely to +fasten them to the sides of the cells, instead of to the bottom. She +lays her eggs sometimes several together in worker as well as in drone +cells. + +As a laying worker looks like any other worker, it is useless to try +to find her. However, her presence may be detected by the irregular +appearance of the brood, and especially by the high drone caps on the +worker cells and, finally, by a superabundance of drones. To meet this +difficulty, an ounce of prevention is worth several pounds of cure, +and great care should be taken to prevent colonies from becoming +queenless. In case, through carelessness, a colony is thus victimised +it will usually refuse to accept a queen, though sometimes it may be +induced to accept a capped queen cell. If this is not successful, the +combs, with the bees adhering, should be removed to an empty hive +nearby, placing a frame of brood containing a queen cell, if possible, +and a frame or two of foundation in the old hive. The workers, coming +back from the field, will enter their hive and the moved comb will +soon be deserted by all except the laying worker; she, with her +characteristic fatuity, will remain on the deserted combs, laying eggs +until she dies of exhaustion. A surer remedy than this, but a more +troublesome one, is to unite this colony with another, or to scatter +the combs from the victimised hive, bees and all, among other colonies +of the apiary; meanwhile giving the depleted hive a frame or two of +good brood, with a queen cell, if possible, so that the bees that +return to it will find normal conditions. What happens to the laying +worker when she finds herself in a colony with a queen, we do not know. +Probably, if she persists in laying eggs, she is killed; possibly she +forsakes her evil ways, and returns to the straight and narrow path of +respectable citizenship. + +We do not understand why laying workers are developed. Some have +claimed that too much royal jelly was given them when larvæ; and some, +that after a colony is queenless, the jelly is fed to workers and thus +develops them so they are able to lay eggs. They appear among the +Cyprian and Syrian bees more frequently than among the Italians. + + +RACES OF DOMESTIC BEES + +Several races of the honey-bee have been developed in different +countries. Some of these have been imported into the United States, and +many experiments have been made to determine their relative values. + +There were no native honey bees in North America north of Mexico, and +the black or German bees were the first to be brought to this country +by the pioneers. The wild bees which stock the woods of our country +to-day are chiefly black bees, the descendants of swarms which have +escaped from apiaries. For many years the black or German race was the +only kind in general use here. Within recent years the eastern races +of bees, Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or Syrians, and also the Egyptians and +Carniolans and Italians have been introduced. Of all these, only the +Italians have come into universal favour. + +The Italians are the classic bees which were discussed by Aristotle, +and sung about by Virgil, who describes their bodies as “shining like +drops of sparkling gold.” The Italian worker has five yellow bands that +mark the front portions of the five segments of the abdomen which lie +next to the thorax; the two posterior bands are made by yellow hairs +and are therefore likely to disappear as the bee gets old and bald. But +the three front ones are made not only by yellow hairs, but also by the +yellowish transparency of the front part of each of the three anterior +segments, or body-rings. As the segments of the abdomen telescope, more +or less, these three yellow rings may not always be visible. Mr. Root’s +test is to feed the bee with honey until the abdomen is distended and +place her on a window pane. If three distinct translucent bands can be +seen, the insect is a pure Italian. If only two bands are evident, she +is a hybrid. + +In comparison with the Italians the black bees are inferior in many +particulars. Their only superiority is that their honey in the comb is +a trifle whiter, and they are more easily shaken from the frames than +are the Italians, and thus are sometimes preferred by the man who works +for extracted honey. Their points of inferiority are their nervousness +and irritability, their tendency to rob, their inability to cope with +the bee-moth, and the difficulty with which the queen may be found. + +The Italians are far more “civilised” than are the black bees, and seem +willing to credit the operator with good intentions; they can defend +themselves better from pests, their queens are more prolific and, on +the whole, they are more industrious than the blacks, and having longer +tongues than the blacks, they can get nectar from a wider range of +flowers. + +The hybrids are the result of crossing the Italians and the blacks. +They are likely to be excellent honey-gatherers, but unfortunately they +usually inherit the irritability of the blacks, which they express with +the strength and energy inherited from the Italians. Therefore, they +are not looked upon with favour. These unwelcome hybrids are likely +to appear in any apiary, for, however pure the Italian queen, she is +likely to mate with a black drone in almost any locality. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE + + +THE SECRETION OF WAX + +Very little do we know of the mysterious process of wax-making. The +interior of the bee is a chemical laboratory where no visitors are +allowed; at best we have been obliged to stand outside and guess +at the formulas used within. We know that honey enters largely +into the composition of wax, and that the bees when secreting wax +usually have pollen in their stomachs, although Huber and Cook have +both demonstrated that bees make successful comb when deprived of +pollen, and when fed on sugar syrup instead of honey. But to make +this experiment of much value the bees must needs have been deprived +of pollen all of their lives instead of a few days. It seems to be +generally conceded that nitrogenous food is needed for the best product +of wax-manufacture, though nitrogen does not enter into the composition +of the wax itself. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE VIII. DRONE CELLS IN A COMB OF HONEY + +Honey capped over; drone cells bulged out; upper cells partly filled +with honey but not capped over.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_ + +PLATE IX. Side of hive removed, showing bees at work; comb being made +without artificial foundation.] + +It is variously estimated that it requires from ten to twenty pounds +of honey to produce one of wax; so it is apparent to even the novice +in bee-keeping that wax is a very expensive product. One of the +results of the process of wax-making is the elimination of oxygen +from the honey. There is of weight eight times as much oxygen in honey +as of hydrogen and carbon combined; while in wax there is at least +sixteen times as much carbon and hydrogen as of oxygen. Though wax is a +fatty substance, yet it is not the animal fat of bees, as is so often +asserted; it is a product especially developed for a far different +purpose than is the fat of animals. The bees are much superior to us in +this respect, since they manufacture from their own bodies the building +materials for their homes. + +The special apparatus for the secretion of wax is very interesting +to the student skilled in microscopic investigation. The outward or +visible portion of this apparatus consists of four pairs of little +membranous plates on the under side of the abdomen; these are not +visible unless the body is torn apart and dissected, because they are +on the front portions of the second, third, fourth and fifth abdominal +segments, and each is covered by the rear portion of the segment just +in front of it. Immediately within each of these wax plates is a gland +which secretes the wax in liquid form, and it passes through the +membrane by a kind of osmosis, considerably more mysterious than is +that most mysterious process ordinarily. As the wax passes through the +membrane it hardens and is pushed backward behind the segment which +covers it and protects the wax plate, and appears as a pearly scale on +the abdomen of the bee. (Plate VI.) + +The wax glands, when studied by the histologists, are found to consist +each of a specialised area of the layer of cells that form the active +living part of the body-wall of the insect. When active these cells +are much thicker than the corresponding cells in other parts of the +body-wall; but if examined during the winter, they do not differ +greatly in appearance from other cells of the hypodermis. (Plate XXV, +Fig. 5.) + +When wax is needed, a certain number of self-elected citizens gorge +with honey and hang up in chains or curtains, each bee clinging by +her front feet to the hind feet of the one above her, like Japanese +acrobats; and there they remain, sometimes for two days, until the +wax scales appear pushed out from every pocket. It is not hard to +understand that, since much honey is needed for the manufacture of wax, +a bee after filling with the raw material would produce much more wax +by keeping quiet than by using any of the gorged honey for energy in +moving about and working. But the necessity of “holding hands” while +this work goes on must ever remain to us another occult evidence of the +close relations of the citizens in the bee commune. (Plate X.) + +While most of the wax is produced from these quiescent suspended +individuals, yet any bee-keeper who is observant has discovered that +at the height of the honey season many of the workers coming in laden +from the fields will have wax scales protruding from some or all of the +pockets. We once captured one of our bees, working on a white clover +blossom, which had six of these wax scales ornamenting her abdomen, +and which proved her a bee of resource, since she was able to work +and make wax at the same time. However, there is a choice about the +wax-making. It is no willy-nilly production caused by gorging with +honey, for it is never made except when the colony needs more comb. + + +THE COMB-MAKING (Plate IX.) + +It is often stated that after the wax is secreted and pushed through +the wax pockets the scales are removed by the wax shears on the hind +legs of the producers, and are passed forward to the front claws, and +then thrust into the mouth; here the wax is warmed and perhaps chewed +with saliva and made malleable, thus somewhat changing the chemical +composition and fitting it to be moulded into comb. But there is a +hiatus in our knowledge just at this point as to whether the bees which +secrete the wax take it off and make comb, or whether other workers +harvest wax scales from the suspended individuals and mould them into +shape; or whether perhaps the scales fall from the suspended “curtain” +to the bottom of the hive and there are gathered by the ever-busy young +workers. Professor Kellogg, who studied bees in an observation hive, is +inclined to think that all of these methods are used, while Mr. A. I. +Root describes the process graphically thus: + + If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales but a short + distance she takes it in her mandibles, and looks as businesslike + with it thus as a carpenter with a board on his shoulder. If she + has to carry it from the bottom of the honey-box she takes it in + a way I cannot explain better than to say she slips it under her + chin; when thus equipped you would never know she was encumbered + with anything, unless it chanced to slip out, when she will + dexterously tuck it back with one of her forefeet. + +Honey-comb has been the delight of mathematicians from the earliest +ages. The plan on which it is built, if perfectly carried out, would +be the incarnate perfection of strength and space for holding fluid +contents. This fact so delighted the earlier mathematicians that +they set to measuring the angles of the cells and their pyramidal +bases, with truly wonderful results. But with the later methods of +exact measurement it has been demonstrated that the cells are rarely +perfect in construction; and that the angles, as well as the faces of +the rhombs on which they are built, vary. Because of this there have +been developed doubters and pessimists who declare that honey-comb +is the result of chance; and that cells, crowded together, must, +from the nature of things, become six-sided; and that bees are not +mathematically wise. With this conclusion we do not agree in the +least, although we admit that the fortuitously six-sided cell may have +been a step in the education of the bee-artisans. But we would ask +the pessimists to explain why, if all is chance, the bees build so +perfectly the central part of the comb which forms the bases of the +cells. This central part is built first and is fashioned of rhombs, +which are made into alternating three-sided pyramids. Who dare assert +that reasonably perfect, alternating rhombic pyramids are fortuitous! +The fact that the combs are rarely perfect in construction proves +naught against the mathematical prowess of the bees; it simply proves +that the bees are a practical race, and not bigoted, and are therefore +unwilling to sacrifice everything for the sake of precision. The +construction of their waxen cells is for economic purposes rather than +for proving mathematical formulæ. Honey-comb shows how economy of +room, building materials and mathematical theories may coincide, and +shows also that the bees have taken advantage of the fact. Some of the +savants have asserted that the rectangle or the equilateral triangle +would have been quite as efficient as working plans for constructing +cells for storing honey. But probably the bees, originally, made their +cells to fit their brood and would not thus build a cell which would +surround a larva with unfilled corners. The hexagonal cell was better +fitted for their needs, so they developed it. + +After a piece of the central portion of comb has been constructed the +bees begin, usually, at the centre and pull out the sides of the cells +from the foundation. Experiments in coloured foundation shows that +this may, if thick, be pulled almost to the margin of the cell. This +is why bees so readily utilise machine-made foundation; they pull out +the edges of these pressed combs and thus save themselves much labour +in wax-making. The worker cells are a little more than one-fifth of an +inch in diameter, and a little less than one-half an inch deep; the +drone cells are a little more than one-fourth an inch in diameter +and a little more than a half-inch in depth. It is interesting to +see the comb which has in it both worker- and drone cells, and note +how the transition is made; the two sizes are harmonised by a row or +two of cells that are irregular. Honey is stored in both drone- and +worker-cells, usually in the latter; although our bees seem to have a +fondness for making drone cells for storage. When the bees begin to +cap a cell, they commence at the outside and work toward the centre. +There is not a prettier piece of engineering anywhere than the cap of +a honey-cell, with six little girders extending from the angles of the +cell and holding the flat cap at the centre. Honey is capped with wax, +but brood is capped with a mixture of wax and pollen, which admits air. +Though the cell-walls may be thinner than .0018 of an inch, comb is +wonderfully strong, and may weigh one-twentieth or less than the weight +of the honey stored within it. + +An interesting fact about the manufacture of comb is that no one bee +constructs a cell and no one bosses the job. A bee will come along +with a little wax and put it in place at the side of a cell, and then +will run off and do something else; another bee passing sees this bit +of unfinished work, gives it a few pinches and polishes it a little, +and then does something else. Several bees may thus lend a mandible +before the cell is perfected. Any bit of comb-building seems to be the +result of a consensus of public opinion and not of individual skill +and enterprise. There is a oneness in bee enterprises which harmonises +capital and labour, and which precludes strikes and lockouts. + + +THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY + +In trying to fathom the mysteries of honey-production, scientists +have dissected the bee with greatest care; but they have usually +been obliged to guess at the uses of such organs as they could +not understand by analogy. To-day, after all the excellent work +of investigators, the process and formulæ of honey-making remain +unrevealed. + +The nectar, when taken from the flowers by the bees, is received in +a special reservoir, called the honey-stomach. It is supposed that +the secretion from the glands in the head and thorax is added to the +nectar as it is swallowed, and induces the chemical action which, +in the honey-stomach, changes the cane-sugar to the more digestible +grape-sugar, and brings about the other changes that finally result +in the production of honey. The chemical composition of honey +varies, perhaps for two reasons: It may be more perfectly digested +sometimes than at others; and the nectar of different flowers may vary +chemically. However, all honey contains water, glucose, a small amount +each of albumenoids, mineral matter, essential oils and formic acid. +While most of the chemical changes take place in the honey-stomach of +the bee, yet the honey is made perfect by ripening in the cells; these +are left uncapped for a period of time and the current of air, always +in action in the hive, evaporates the water and thus thickens the +honey. + +Ignorant people believe that honey is regurgitated from the true +stomach of the bee, which is far from true. The honey-stomach is +simply a reservoir in which the honey is made and then stored until +the bee can empty it into a cell. Her true stomach lies behind the +honey-stomach and connects with it by a mouth that can be opened +or closed at will; when she wishes to eat some honey, she opens +the stomach mouth and takes in what she needs. The chyle which +she manufactures in her true stomach to feed the young bees, when +regurgitated, does not pass through the honey-stomach; instead, the +mouth of the real stomach is pushed up through the centre of the +honey-reservoir until it connects directly with the æsophagus. (Plate +XXVI, Fig. 7 _p_.) + +When an ancient Roman was asked on his hundredth birthday how he had +preserved his vigour, physically and mentally, he answered laconically, +_Inerius melle, exterius olea_—“Inside with honey, outside with oil.” +He spoke wisely, for honey is undoubtedly the most healthful of sweets, +because it is so largely composed of the predigested grape-sugar. + +It is hard for us to realise that, until comparatively recently, honey +was the only sweet in general use. Cane-sugar was not commonly eaten +in Europe until the seventeenth century, and previous to that time +honey held sway as the sweetening medium of all foods. The amount +of honey produced in the United States now is estimated to be more +than 125,000,000 pounds per year, which shows that it has retained +its value as a food, though it must compete with cheaper cane- and +beet-sugars. It still remains the most wholesome and digestible of all +the forms of sugar, and should be used even more generally than it is +at present. + + +THE MAKING OF BEE-BREAD + +Flower wisdom is scarcely appreciated by those who deem all wisdom the +product of consciousness; but if wisdom may be attained through the +experiences of living and overcoming difficulties, then there must be +such a thing as flower wisdom. Otherwise there would not have been such +a prodigal production of pollen that a tithe could be spared for the +bees, to induce them to become common carriers of the flower world. +Many blossoms which do not secrete nectar pay their taxes in pollen, +the bread-stuff of the bees, while others pay in both commodities. + +A bee when gathering pollen for food collects it with her tongue and +forelegs, mixing it, perhaps, with nectar or saliva so it will hold +together. It is cleaned off the tongue and front legs by the middle and +hind legs, and by them packed in the pollen baskets on the tarsi of the +hind legs, and moulded there into great golden balls. Little wonder +that the ancient Greeks, noticing bees thus laden, and consequently +flying low, declared that the bees of Hymettus tied pebbles on their +legs to weigh them down. (Plate VII, _A_, _B_.) + +When the bee arrives at the hive she selects, usually, a worker-cell +and, backing up to it, thrusts in her legs and scrapes off the pollen +by a dexterous movement like that made by a cook scraping dough off +her hands. The bee bringing the pollen considers her duty done in +furnishing the flour, and leaves the bread-making to one of her younger +sisters, who is devoting the day to domestic duties. Needless to say, +bee-bread is unleavened; it is made by the very simple process of +packing the pollen firmly into the cell, the utensil employed being the +head of the bread-maker, which she uses cheerfully as a mallet for this +purpose. + +Bee-bread is necessary as a food for young bees and admirably +supplements honey in its composition, being rich in albumenoids and +nitrogen. To our taste it is rather bitter and disagreeable, as those +of us can attest who ate comb-honey from the hives of old, before +movable frames and supers were generally used. However, under the new +régime, it is rarely placed in the sections of the supers, but sensibly +stored in the brood-combs, near where it is used, and thus seldom +appears upon the table. + + +THE PROPOLIS, OR BEE-GLUE + +Though bees are most successful manufacturing chemists, yet they are +not above using ready-made substances if they find such to their +liking. Thus, propolis is not produced by bees, but is gathered by them +from various sources, and is used as a cement and a varnish. Certain +trees and smaller plants protect their buds in winter by resinous +coats; and it was quite like the adaptable bee to find use for this +resin in her own domicile. + +The elder Huber, whose observations of a century ago have been +verified, discovered the source of propolis; he planted poplars in pots +and placed them near the hives, and the bees were seen in the act of +collecting the resin from the buds. They have been observed by others, +working on the buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, willow, alder, and +even the balsam fir. However, the bees have no prejudices in favour +of any kind of resin, anything will do so long as it answers the +purpose; hence they visit shops where furniture is being finished and +appropriate the varnish without saying “please.” And Darwin mentions +the fact that bees collected a cement of wax and turpentine, used to +cover trees from which the bark has been removed. If any old hives or +fixtures with propolis on them be left around the apiary, the bees make +all haste to save every particle of the precious stuff. + +One of the oldest superstitions about bees is that they will gather +on the coffin of their dead master; and authenticated instances of +the kind are on record. But this beautiful tradition is made empty +of sentiment by the assertion that the bees assemble there not to +mourn their dead master, but to gather the varnish from the coffin. +Some iconoclasts ascribe to this the origin of “telling the bees” +when some member of the family dies; but we believe this beautiful +custom originated before varnished coffins were in use, and was the +natural outgrowth of the close relations of bees and the home for many +centuries. + +The bee collects the propolis by cutting it off with her mandibles and +packing it in her pollen baskets; and when she arrives at the hive, +she never attempts to unload it herself, evidently deeming it safer to +let the sister, whose business it is at the moment to stop cracks and +crevices, take it from her legs and apply it at once. + +There are various uses in the hive for the bee-glue: It is used as a +filler to make smooth the rough places of the hive; it holds the combs +in place; it calks every crack; it may serve as a sarcophagus for any +intruder too large to be pitched out: snails and slugs have been found +thus encased; it is applied as a varnish to the cells of the honey-comb +if they remain unused for a time; and it is especially useful as a +window shade. A nature-study teacher of our acquaintance established +an observation hive in her school-room, which had an uncovered pane of +glass set in one side so that the pupils might observe the interesting +life of the hive. To her dismay the bees straightway hung a curtain of +propolis over the window and so shut out intrusive eyes. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_ + +Plate X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax; comb being built in +the centre above.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XI. HIVING BEES + +Cutting down the swarm.] + +One of the chief uses of propolis is to try the temper of the +bee-keeper. If there is the least crack between hive and super, or +cover, the two are glued together so that nothing but a knife and +much muscular force can loosen them. Cover blankets are stuck fast; +the frames are welded to their places by it, and it plasters into +immobility all the modern appliances of the hive which man invented to +be movable; and section-boxes are so stained with it that they have +to be scraped before being sent to market. Above all, it gets on the +hands of the operator, so that the digits of each act as one, or not +at all, and everything touched sticks to them as if they were magnets; +it also daubs the clothing, and if profane men were ever bee-keepers, +it would incite them to wicked remarks. However, alcohol, applied to +hands and clothing, solves the difficulty by dissolving the propolis; +and a bottle of it is a most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the +apiary. Benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are as efficacious as +alcohol, but not so pleasant to use. Boiling lye will clean clothes and +apparatus that have become clogged with bee-glue. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE SWARMING OF BEES + + +WHY BEES SWARM + +In case of most of the higher animals, including man, the species +are spread over the face of the earth through the simple plan of +“marrying off” the younger individuals, and allowing them “to set up +for themselves.” As there is no individualism, no indulging in love +or hatred for each other among the perfect socialists, this plan is +manifestly not at all adapted to provide for the increase of social +insects where the colony acts as an individual. The bee plan is as +follows: When a colony gets large enough and strong enough it divides +into two. As the Amœba, the simplest of animal organisms, divides the +individual in order to multiply its numbers, so the bee-colony as an +organism divides and multiplies. It is interesting that the method +of increase characteristic of the lowest order of animals should +repeat itself among beings so highly organised physically, when the +individuals merge into a social unit. This analogy might well give the +social philosophers an opportunity for some real thinking. + +Much discussion has found place in human annals as to whether the +queen or the workers take the initiative in this hegira of the bees, +and much evidence is advanced on both sides of the question. But it is +a profitless discussion for us to indulge in; the more we study bees, +the more firmly we are convinced that we know little of the forces +which govern the bee body politic. We only know that at certain seasons +of the year when the successful colony has plenty of brood and honey, +the old queen and many of the old and experienced citizens, go away +from the hive and form a new colony elsewhere, leaving the young queen +and the younger bees in possession of the homestead, thus reversing +the human custom. While in the air, or when clustered, the swarm looks +sufficiently large to be composed of the whole colony, yet the swarms +are smaller than they look, for rarely more than 20,000 bees go away +with the old queen. + + +WHEN BEES SWARM + +The swarms usually come off in June in a climate like that of New York +State. Some strong colonies may swarm in May if the season is early, +thus making us glad; for the old verse, “A swarm of bees in May is +worth a load of hay,” is based upon practical experience. + +The when and the immediate why of the swarming of bees are closely +connected. There are several conditions which conduce to swarming: the +presence of young queens ready to issue from the cells; the crowding of +the hive with brood, bees, and honey; the presence of too many drones; +the extreme heat of an overcrowded hive on a hot day; this latter is +a most cogent reason, and it is well for the bee-keeper to shade his +hives to prevent this. The swarms are likely to issue between 9 A. M. +and 2 P. M., although enough swarms come off at unseemly hours to make +any rule valueless except as a prophecy. (Plate XI.) + + +HOW TO HIVE A SWARM + +“The bees are swarming!” These are magical words, which arouse every +member of that family whose pride is a few hives in the garden. It is a +cry that starts the sluggish blood, and sends a quiver of excitement up +and down the spinal column while one rushes to the scene of action. How +gracefully that moving mass of black particles undulates in the air, as +if it were a drifting cloud instead of a self-willed, one-minded colony +of socialists! How the heart rises and sinks inversely to this rise and +fall, and how hopeless it seems when the swarm lifts itself superbly +over all surrounding obstacles, and disappears above the tree tops! No +one who has had this experience will wonder at the ancient custom which +obtains even now in the country districts on such occasions of beating +tin pans, ringing bells, and shouting “whoa” at the top of the lungs. +All of this racket had its inception in the needs of the bee-keeper +to adequately express his feelings at this crisis. If the bees ever +stopped and settled because of this din, it was probably from sheer +amazement at witnessing such folly on the part of human beings; this +explanation would hold, perhaps, if bees ever evinced any interest +in human beings, except when they obstruct the bee-path. However, +most of our ancient customs were founded in utility, and it is not +likely that this traditional pandemonium would have been practised for +centuries without some reason. Mr. Root, who thinks before he speaks, +suggests that the swarm follows the queen and the scouts through +listening to their song, that of the queen being easily distinguished +from the hum of the workers when on the wing; and that it is quite +possible, therefore, that the noise, if loud enough to drown the voice +of the queen, would cause confusion on the part of the flying bees +and a consequent settling. But from what we remember of our own early +experience, we are convinced that the bees were less confused by the +noise than were the people engaged in making it. + +The next most widely practised of the ancient methods is that of +throwing dirt on the swarm to stop it; this certainly is efficacious +if there happens to be enough loose earth at hand. However, throwing +dirt is a reactionary performance in the physical as well as the moral +sense; and usually the bee-keeper who throws dirt at a soaring swarm +must needs stop soon to get the motes out of his own eyes before he is +able to see where the swarm has alighted. + +In these enlightened days everyone who has a cherry tree or an apple +tree, a currant bush or a potato patch, is sure to have a fountain pump +of some sort; and never is this instrument a greater boon than when it +throws a fine spray upon an absconding swarm of bees. It brings them +to a stop very soon; it may injure the feelings of the bees, but it +certainly does not injure them physically, as it simply impairs their +power of flight by wetting the wings. Even after a swarm has settled, a +little sprinkle of water will keep it clustered safely until the hive +is made ready to receive it. + +It is highly desirable that the swarm should cluster on the tip of +a branch not far from the ground; for then the process of hiving is +comparatively simple. My personal plan has been to place a sheet, kept +for the purpose, on the ground near the clustering swarm; place on +this a covered hive filled with frames containing brood foundations. +Lift the front edge of the hive about an inch by putting blocks under +the two corners; then cut the branch above the cluster, and taking it +in hand shake the bees off in front of the hive and placidly watch +them hive themselves with true bee celerity. This use of the sheet is +a habit formed in childhood, and I persist in it, though my partner +derides the practice. He shakes the bees down on the board on which +the hive is standing; or he takes the top off the hive, and shakes the +bees down among the frames in the most summary fashion. But I think the +sheet makes a softer mattress for the little citizens to fall upon, and +certainly they find their way from it more easily into the hive. I am a +conservative person, and like to do things as I always have done them +before—a conservatism that is by no means dangerous in our apiary where +the senior partner is given to new ways and many inventions. + +If the bees alight high in a tree, then our methods have been to get +at them by climbing the tree, or attaining the branch by the use of +a ladder. However, I doubt if there was ever a fruit found on any +tree that needs quite so much care in the picking as does this; and +it is decidedly a ticklish performance to clamber down a tree holding +gingerly a branch laden with a swarm of bees in one hand and clutching +at supporting branches with the other. Sometimes the bees are not +accommodating enough to alight on the end of a branch that may be cut +off. They may even go so far as to cluster on the large branch itself; +then there is nothing to do but to brush them off in a box with a +bee-brush, a performance which they object to; or to dip them off with +a tin dipper, or to jar them into a basket, and then to dump them out +in front of the hive. The most embarrassing situation of all is when +the swarm clusters on a tree trunk. Squaring the circle is not a much +more difficult feat mathematically than to brush all the bees into a +square box from this cylindrical position. It is usually necessary to +bring the smoker to help in elucidating this problem; for, paradoxical +as it may seem, smoke properly applied clears up many a situation in +the bee business. + +If only one were able to find the queen in the clustering swarm and +secure her by placing her in the hive, the work would be easy, for +the other bees would soon follow. But to hunt for the queen in the +clustering swarm is, for most of us, quite like hunting for the +traditional needle in the haystack; and while we are hunting we are +wasting precious time, as the swarm may make up its collective mind to +remove from our vicinity its component atoms. In shaking, or dipping, +or brushing the bees into the hive, we should remember to deal with +them as gently as the situation and mental perturbation will permit. + +Sometimes the bees seem to feel defrauded at having a house chosen +for them, and insist upon swarming out of their new quarters within +a day or two after they are placed in possession. Thus it is a wise +precaution to give the hives of the newly swarmed attention for two +or three days, lest they indulge in this sort of perversity. If the +bees seem unsettled and unhappy, and hang around home instead of going +into the fields to work, it is advisable to place in the middle of +the hive a frame of unsealed brood taken from some other colony. A +bee’s motherly instinct may always be depended upon, since caring for +the young is a shining civic virtue as well as a domestic duty among +the bee-people. When there are helpless larvæ to care for, the bees +willingly forego every personal inclination to pack up and move, and +cheerfully proceed to give the youngsters every attention. + + +DECOY HIVES + +When the self-appointed scouts of a bee-colony start out house-hunting +for the swarm which is about to issue, they evidently examine the +premises carefully; if they find a house for rent in the immediate +neighbourhood, they are likely to go no farther in their quest. Thus +it is the practice of many bee-keepers to place about the apiary hives +empty, except for brood-frames filled with foundation, hoping thus to +entice the swarms to take possession, and save all trouble. Mr. Root +goes so far as to advise that such hives be fastened in the lower forks +of trees in the neighbourhood of the apiary, and thus provide a most +expedient bee-tree. A decoy hive should not contain more than three +brood-frames, as other frames may be added when the bees move in. The +reason for this is that the sheets of wax foundation, when sufficiently +close together for the convenience of the bees, prove also entirely +convenient for the occupancy of the bee-moth; and one ought to be +particular about one’s tenants when renting houses in the apiary. + +Mr. West’s device for saving swarms is the most alluring of any about +which we have read. Since the clipped queen cannot fly, she expresses +the aspiration within her breast by climbing anything at hand, like +a blade of grass or a shrub. Mr. West observing this, drives a bare, +forked branch into the ground a few inches in front of the hive, +having cleaned the ground between it and the hive of all obstacles. +This branch having a few twigs upon it, is leaned away from the hive +entrance. The queen promptly climbs this tree, like Zaccheus, and the +swarm clusters around her and remains there conveniently at hand for +hiving. + + +MAXIMS FOR HIVING BEES + +Clip the old queen’s wings. + +Go through the hives every ten days to destroy queen cells. + +As the swarming season approaches, have hives ready with foundation in +brood-frames, and hive stands ready to receive them. + +Keep a serene spirit while hiving bees. + +The hive in which the colony is placed should be kept cool and not +heated from standing in the sun; it should be shaded, as the swarm will +not enter a hot hive. + +If the bees refuse to accept a hive, give them a frame of unsealed +brood to reconcile them. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +HOW TO KEEP FROM KEEPING TOO MANY BEES + + +THE PROBLEM + +“Aye, there’s the rub!” For the beginner who wishes to keep a few bees, +this is the most difficult problem to solve on the bee-keeper’s slate, +and it must finally be solved by each according to his own capacity and +method. + +We confess frankly that we were once driven out of the bee business +because we were too successful. Caring for fifteen or twenty hives was +a delightful avocation. We kept our colonies strong, for we wished +to make comb-honey; consequently, splendid swarms came off, and we +had the fatal gift of seeing them when they came and of hiving them +successfully. Thus our avocation began to intrench upon our vocation in +a most alarming manner. While we enjoyed taking care of our bees, we +were nevertheless following the vocation which we had chosen, and which +we liked best; and the time came when we were obliged to decide whether +we would leave our regular business and become bee-keepers, or abjure +bee-keeping and attend to our regular business. + +We gave away what swarms we could and we sold some; but selling bees +is a business quite as much as caring for them, so that was not +practicable. Philosophically, we argued that since we had enough bees +we would let the swarms that came off abscond and bid them God-speed; +but here we reckoned without properly considering the amount of human +nature which had fallen to our share. Although we knew that every swarm +in our apiary above twenty would be an embarrassment and a tribulation, +we could never rest content not to hive a swarm when it issued; and the +more unattainable the place where it clustered and the less we wanted +the bees, the more determined we were to secure that special swarm. + +Such inconsistency brought its own punishment, and our only resource +was to sell out; and for many years the spot in our garden which our +apiary once occupied was never viewed without a sense of loneliness +and longing for its busy little tenants. During these years we thought +it over and finally came around to the right frame of mind, and firmly +concluded to keep bees for our own honey and our own happiness. +We limited our ambitions to ten hives; and last summer when our +best-tested Italian queen took us unawares and departed with a large +and enthusiastic following, we did not mourn; all we did was to venture +to hope that the young queen left in the hive had mated with one of our +own handsome drones, and not with a mad black prince from one of Mr. +Coggshall’s take-care-of-itself apiaries in our neighbourhood. As soon +as our new brood made us sure that our queen had made no _mésalliance_ +we were entirely content. + +Our lack of success in preventing swarming when trying to produce +comb-honey was a source of great chagrin to us until we read that so +eminent a bee-keeper as Mr. Hutchinson declared that “there is no way +of preventing first swarms profitable to the comb-honey producer,” and +then our feelings were salved. The following are in brief a few of the +more successful ways practised to prevent increase: + +_By clipping the queen’s wings._—Almost all bee-keepers practise this +now, whatever their method of preventing increase or securing it. A +queen with clipped wings is necessarily a “stay-at-home body,” and +the swarm will not leave without her. However, when depending upon +this method it is very important to guard against the hatching of +new queens, and this can only be done by closely scrutinising the +brood-comb to discover and destroy the queen cells. The brood-frames +should be examined in each hive about once a week during the months of +June and July, if this method is to succeed. Many a time have we sat +smilingly by and watched a swarm come out of the hive with great pomp +and circumstance, only to sneak back when it was discovered that her +majesty was unfit for travel. + +_By the use of a queen trap._—This is a device used by some instead of +clipping the wings of the queen. It is a box of perforated zinc placed +over the entrance of the hive, the slots in it large enough to allow +the workers to pass in and out, and small enough to hold back the +queen and drones. Although this method saves time, yet comparatively +few recommend it. The cost of the trap is one objection; but the +greater objection seems to be that it inconveniences the workers when +returning from the fields; and is, therefore, likely to affect the +amount of honey stored, since much time is lost and some annoyance +occasioned to the bees by being obliged to squeeze through; it also +scrapes the pollen off their legs. (Plate XVI.) + +_By giving-room._—Supposing that our queen is clipped or confined, +which is the first step, the next is to give plenty of room in the +brood-chamber. Lack of room for brood and honey is one of the most +potent reasons for inducing swarming. So the first thing to do after +the disappointed swarm comes back to the hive is to tier up the supers. +It is also well to remove from the hive a frame or two of brood which +may be put in the hive of some weaker colony; in place of the removed +frame is substituted another containing a starter of foundation; and +the would-be swarm, finding that there is plenty to do, is content to +remain at home for a time. + +_By extracting honey._—It will often pacify a colony to take the +frames from the brood-chamber and extract the honey from them. This +may be done when the brood is present, if care is taken not to run the +separator so rapidly as to throw out the larvæ, a performance quite as +distasteful to the young bees as to the consumer. However, this should +not be practised unless much honey is coming in, as otherwise the brood +may be starved. + +_By using large hives._—Many bee-keepers of high standing have +practically solved the swarming problem by using large hives. The +Dadants, well known on two continents as successful apiarists, use the +large Quinby hives in their own apiaries, and have introduced them into +France and Switzerland. The Dadant-Quinby hive has about the capacity +of a twelve-frame Langstroth. The frames are both deep and large, +measuring 18½ by 11½ inches, and so give the queen plenty of room. The +Dadants have no trouble with swarming, as only enough swarms come off +to make good the winter losses in their apiaries. + +There are three reasons why we have not used these large hives: first, +they are too heavy to handle well, being altogether too productive +of backaches. Second, they are necessarily much more expensive, as +wider pieces of perfect lumber are used in the making. Third, and most +important to us of all, we find it difficult to produce comb-honey in +a large hive; when the bees have so much room in the brood-chamber, +they discover no reason for carrying honey up into the supers. If we +made extracted honey, as do the Dadants and the European apiarists, +we would certainly use the larger hives, simply to be rid of this +nuisance of constant swarming. The colonies grow to be so much stronger +in the larger hives that they are much better able to withstand the +vicissitudes of winter than are smaller colonies, which is a great +advantage. + +_By the brushing or shaking-out method._—When the bees at the +beginning of the honey-flow seem to be getting ready to swarm, +the hive is moved to one side of the stand and on the exact site +is placed another just like it, which contains frames set with +foundation-starters. As gently as possible the bees are shaken or +brushed from the frames of the old hive upon the threshold of the new, +great care being taken to include the queen. The supers from the old +hive are then placed upon the new hive with a queen-excluder between. +The old hive may stand beside the new one until the brood has emerged, +when all of the inhabitants of the old tenement are shaken in front +of the new habitation. This shaking of a colony into a new hive so +surprises and confounds the bees that they get the impression that they +have already swarmed, and go to work with all diligence in their new +quarters. The partly filled supers from the old hive encourage them +mightily in the ways of well-doing. + +_By dividing swarms._—This method we have practised with quite +satisfactory results. The troublous question is just when to divide. +If we divide too soon we weaken the colonies, and decrease the +honey harvest. If we wait until too late, the bees do the dividing +themselves. The process is as follows: The queen’s wings are clipped +before the new queen is to emerge, and she is placed in a new hive +furnished with brood-frames containing foundation-starters; enough of +the bees are taken to the hive with her to start a good colony, and the +deed is done. However, the fact remains that in this way the number of +colonies is increased as much as if the swarm had come off naturally. + +_By removing the queen._—Some apiarists remove the queen during the +honey-harvest and cut out all the queen cells. They give the queen a +nucleus if they wish more brood; meanwhile the colony will not swarm +without her. Whether queenless bees are as easy in their minds and, +therefore, as ready and enthusiastic in the task of gathering honey, +is a mooted question. Bees, like people, work to the best advantage +when they have fewest worries. One difficulty with this method is that +before we are aware of it a queen may be reared despite our careful and +onerous labours in hunting for queen cells. Another difficulty with +this practice is the encouragement of the egg-laying workers, which is +a most demoralising influence to introduce into a hive. + + +AFTER-SWARMS + +An after-swarm is one that is led by a virgin queen and may come off +within sixteen days after the first natural swarm departs; usually it +occurs within a week. Most bee-keepers consider the after-swarm as a +manifestation of “pure cussedness” on the part of a colony; but it is +only a poorly adjusted method practised by the bees for getting rid of +superfluous princesses. After the old queen decamps with her followers, +there are usually several queens ready to emerge from their cells; the +ordinary story, as told in books, is that the first queen that emerges +hastens to slay her yet helpless sisters, or battles with them singly +until but one queen is left in the hive; and this actually does occur +often. However, there are differences between bee-colonies, as there +are between individual people, and every young queen does not seem +blood-thirsty; or perhaps in some instances the citizens restrain her +from carrying out her murderous intent, and try to get rid of her by +sending her forth with as many followers as can well be spared from the +parent colony. Other queens may issue, and if this charitable instinct +still persists, another and still another swarm may be sent out. This +misguided kindness to young queens is as demoralising to the colony as +unwise giving of alms is in the human world, and finally a swarm may be +sent off so small that a teacup would hold it. Of course, this means +certain death to all of its members. Finally the limit of endurance is +reached, and with the last possible swarm are sent out all the young +queens left in the hive save the one retained as queen mother. Whether +the workers send out these burdensome members of royalty as a measure +of good riddance, or whether in their excitement they fail to guard +the queen cells and so let them out and they voluntarily join the +procession, is not as yet surely ascertained. One of the formalities +of the after-swarm is that before it occurs the queen sounds her +pibroch, a tune which probably excites her listening subjects to rash +departure. The bee-keeper gets to know this sound very well, and when +he hears it, he knows that an after-swarm will issue very soon unless +he does something immediately to prevent it. One thing particularly +exasperating about the after-swarm is that the virgin queen, being +lighter bodied and lighter minded than the old queen, may take the +occasion of swarming to get married, and go on her wedding journey; +and thus is likely to lead her followers a mad chase and leave her +proprietor so far in the rear that he loses the swarm entirely. + +For the real reason of after-swarming we must look upon the colony +as an individual; and as nature is wasteful in the production of +individuals, these weak after-swarms are analogous to the weaklings +among animals or plants, which must be sacrificed for some inscrutable +reason on the altar of the preservation of the species. + + +PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMS + +Mr. Hutchinson practises the following method: When the first swarm +comes off he places it in a new hive like the old one, and puts the new +hive on the exact site of the old one, while the latter is moved away +just a little and faces in a different direction than before. The new +hive has four or five frames with foundation-starters, and on it is +placed the super with partially filled sections from the old hive, with +a queen-excluding board between the two; thus the new swarm, having no +brood ready, will store in the supers until the brood-comb is built. +Most of the bees from the old hive, returning from the field, will +enter the new hive because the entrance to the old hive is turned away. +The old hive is then turned a little each day, until its entrance, +which should be contracted, is parallel to the entrance of the new +hive, and very close to it. If, on the seventh day after the first +swarm issued, the old hive be removed to some new location, its numbers +will have been so depleted that there will be no attempt to send off +after-swarms. + + +HOW TO UNITE COLONIES + +If two colonies are weak late in the season, it is often best to unite +them. This may be done by moving the hives nearer to each other, a +little each day, until they are side by side. The queen of one colony +is killed, the best frames from each hive are alternated with each +other in one hive, and the bees shaken into this; the other hive +removed, and the one remaining placed midway between where the two +stood. Sweetened water flavoured with peppermint may be sprayed over +both colonies just before uniting, so that they will all be scented +alike. The above is the method advised by Professor Cook. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE HIVE, AND HOW TO HANDLE IT + + +THE BROOD-CHAMBER + +The essential parts of a hive are the following: A bottom board, the +first story, or brood-chamber, containing frames for the support of the +combs, and a cover. When extracted honey is to be produced, a second +story like the first may be placed between it and the cover; when it +is desired to have the surplus honey stored in section-boxes, one or +more shallow stories containing the section-boxes are placed above the +brood-chamber; these shallow stories are known as the supers. + +Formerly the brood-chamber was a mere cubiform box with two horizontal +cross-pieces passing through the centre at right angles to each other +for the support of the combs. Sometimes the bee-keeper furnished the +bees with a hive made from a section of a hollow log, with a board +nailed over one end for a cover, or the hollow log was placed in a +horizontal position. Such a hive was known as a “bee-gum,” probably +because it was often made from the trunk of a gum tree; but the +bee-gums with which we were familiar in our childhood were made from +hollow basswood logs. + +To-day in every well-regulated apiary the brood-chamber is furnished +with the movable hanging frames for the support of the combs, which +were invented by Langstroth a half-century ago, or by some modification +of these frames. It was the invention of these frames that made +the science of modern bee-keeping possible. A large part of the +manipulations of the hive is dependent upon the ability to remove the +combs from the hive separately. Two of these frames, one empty and one +containing a sheet of foundation, are shown in Plate XII. These are of +one of the newer styles, known as the Hoffman self-spacing frames. In +these frames the upper part of the end-bars are wide, so that, when the +frames are in contact, there is room for a bee-way between the combs; +the lower part of the end-bars are narrower, so that the bees can pass +freely around the ends of the frames. + +In the old days, and at present in some apiaries where home-made frames +are used, the spacing between the frames has to be done by eye or +rather by finger; the thickness of the tip of the finger between two +frames being necessary to afford a bee-way. But with the new frames +in the market to-day this is done away with, as they are arranged to +space themselves, thus relieving the novice of much anxiety and some +embarrassment in deciding whether his finger is as thick as that of the +average apiarist. Also in these newer frames a little staple at each +end of the top sets each frame exactly right in relation to the ends of +the hive. + +Before the frame is placed in the brood-chamber it is to be supplied +with a sheet of comb-foundation; this insures the building of the comb +in the desired position, so the frames can be removed from the hive. +Bees do not naturally make their combs straight, but curve them so that +they are less likely to be broken. It is necessary, therefore, in order +to get straight combs to confine the operations of the bees within set +bounds; this is done by putting a sheet of foundation in each frame. + +One of the attractions of bee-keeping is that much of the material we +work with is pleasing, and some artistically beautiful. A sheet of +foundation-comb made of the most delicate wax, frescoed on either side +with rhomb insets in hexagonal pattern, is a joy to the artistic eye. +It is absolutely necessary that the foundation should be put into the +frame in such a manner that it will not sag or bulge when it is built +out into the comb and filled with the heavy honey or brood. To keep +these large sheets from bulging and breaking they are held in place +by fine wire which is strung back and forth across the frame, passing +through holes made with a small awl in the end-bars. These holes should +be about two inches apart, the upper one one inch from the top bar, and +the lower one something less than an inch from the bottom bar, making +four wires in the Langstroth frame. After these holes are made, put a +small tack at one end near the lower hole, twist the wire around it, +then thread the wire back and forth, making four wires parallel with +the top and bottom bars, and fasten the wire with a tack; care should +be taken not to draw the wire too tightly; simply draw up the slack. + +The sheets of foundation as sold by the dealers are a little smaller +than the space in the frame, so that when they are fastened to the top +bar a bee-space is left between the sheet and the bottom and end-bars. +See Plate XII. + +The sheet of foundation is fastened to the top bar of an ordinary frame +by means of a Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, which is simply a hollow +tube that may be dipped in and filled with the hot wax which issues +through a small hole at the sharp, bent end of the tube; as the point +is drawn along where the foundation and frame meet it leaves a stream +of hot wax that seals the two together. However, the most satisfactory +way is to get brood-frames, like the Hoffman, which have two grooves +in the top bar. Set the foundation in the groove at the centre, and +introduce a strip of wood which is wedge-shaped in cross-section, +thin edge first, into the adjoining groove, driving it or pressing +it in hard so that it pushes the thin partition over, and wedges the +foundation firmly in place. These strips for wedging come with the +frames. + +After the foundation is fastened to the top bar the frame and +foundation are laid, wire side up, on a board just the size of the +piece of foundation so that it will slip inside the frame. This +board is kept wet to prevent the wax from sticking to it. Then we +use the spur wire-embedder, which is like the tracing-wheel used by +dressmakers, except that the teeth are spread apart alternately so +that they pass astride the wire and press it down into the foundation; +to do this successfully, the foundation should be warm; working near +a lamp or in a warm room will suffice. Embedding the wires by heating +them with electricity instead of using the spur-embedder is a common +practice in large apiaries where electricity is available, or where it +pays to buy a battery with proper attachments. This outfit with the dry +cells costs about five dollars, and is a paying investment when the +apiary is large. (Plate III.) + + +THE SUPER + +The super is that part of the hive that is placed above the +brood-chamber and is designed to receive the surplus honey, either comb +or extracted. + +When extracted honey is produced the super may resemble the +brood-chamber described above, or it may not be so high, fitted +to receive a frame little more than half as deep as the standard +Langstroth frame used in the brood-chamber. + +When comb-honey is produced, the super is only about half as high as +the brood-chamber. For this reason a hive consisting of a brood-chamber +and one super for comb-honey is termed a one-and-a-half-story hive. +(Plate XV.) + +A complete super fitted for comb-honey consists of the following +parts: (1) The outer wall, which is of the same length and width +as the brood-chamber and of the right height to hold the style of +section-boxes used; on the lower side of each end a tin strip is +fastened to support the fixtures that it is to contain; (2) the +section-boxes; these are the wooden frames containing the comb-honey +when it is placed on the market; each holds about one pound of honey; +four of these are shown in the Plate XIV; (3) the section-holder; this +is a rack fitted to hold and support one row of section-boxes, as shown +in Plate XIV; when in place in the super, it rests on the strips of +tin mentioned above; (4) the fence; this is a device placed between +the rows of section-boxes to keep the bees from building the comb +beyond the edges of the section-boxes; the style used with the plain or +no-beeway section is shown in Plate III; the vertical cleats on this +fence provide for a bee-space between it and the section-boxes, so that +the bees can build out the comb even with the edge of the section-box; +(5) the super springs; these are three flat springs, fastened to the +inner face of one side-wall in such a way that they press the fences +and the section-boxes closely together. (Plate XII.) + +There are several types of supers in use that differ, in certain +details, from the one described above. In some, the rows of +section-boxes and fences are pressed together by thumb-screws which +pass through one side-wall of the super. Many bee-keepers still use +section-boxes with beeways, that is, boxes having the top and bottom +narrower than the two sides. When such boxes are used, the fences lack +the vertical slats, or posts; in fact, a simple strip of tin may serve +as a fence. + +Most of the section-boxes in use now are made of a single piece, which +is dovetailed at the ends and has three transverse V-shaped grooves cut +in one side so that it can be bent into shape, as shown in Plate II. +These flat basswood sections afford very pretty material with which +to work. The novice, in putting them together, almost always bends +them with grooves outside at the corners, instead of inside, and then +wonders why they are askew, and break. We wet the sections where they +are grooved before we begin working with them. This may be done by +brushing each individual flat with warm water, which is a very tedious +process; but it is better to take a handful of them as they lie, the +grooves all in a line, set them on edge and pour a little water from a +pitcher on the grooves. This wets many at a time with little trouble. +To set up a section, it should be taken in the hands, grooves up, +bend the ends upward evenly, fastening the dovetailed edges together +gently. Haste and jerkiness are as disastrous in handling sections as +in handling bees. + +The foundation for the comb-sections is much lighter in weight than +that intended for the brood-frames. Some apiarists fill the entire +section with this foundation, except for the bee-spaces at the bottom +and at the sides. But we never do this, unless we are obliged to do +it to coax the bees to use the supers; for it is not so satisfactory +as to use a narrow strip for a guide at the top of the section, as a +starter to show the bees where to build the comb. We cut these strips +about an inch deep and almost as wide as the section, and, with the +Daisy fastener, fix each strip at just the middle line of the upper +bar of the section. The objection to filling a section with a complete +sheet is, first, the expense of the foundation; and, secondly, that +it is likely to give a tough central portion or “fish-bone” to the +comb-honey. (Plate XIV.) + + +HOW TO PREPARE THE SUPER + +If they are not ordered set up ready for use, the supers come in flat +pieces with dovetailed ends, and putting them together is a pleasing +occupation, after one has learned how. The best way to learn how is +to carefully observe a super already properly set up; for, though the +directions for putting these together are as plain as may be, yet a +person may err therein and yet not be a fool. Unless one has learned, +or can learn, to drive a nail, one had best not undertake bee-keeping, +for the bee-keeper must become a carpenter to be successful; it adds +much to the interest of the occupation to make all sorts of things +for one’s own bees. The principle on which the super is built is that +it may hold the sections tightly in place, and not allow them to drop +through. Therefore, at the bottom of the super, along each narrower +end, is a tin strip to support the ends of the section-holders; to keep +the ends of the section-holders even a wedge-shaped strip of wood is +nailed across the end of the super, thick edge down and flush with the +bottom edge, resting against the tin strips. We use the Hetherington +super springs, one at each end and one at the middle of one side of the +super; the trick of putting these in is to set them opposite the +posts of the fence, one at either endpost, and one at the middle post, +else the spring will be of no use. Driving in the sharp end of this +spring successfully requires a little practice. The super is now ready +to be filled. (Plate XII.) + +[Illustration: PLATE XII + +(_a_) Two self-spacing frames; one of them fitted with a sheet of +foundation. + +(_b_) An empty super, showing the springs and the wedge-shaped piece at +the end. + +(_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE XIII. EXAMINING THE BROOD-FRAMES] + +First place a fence in the super on the side opposite the spring; then +a section-holder filled with four starters, always remembering that +these foundation-starters should be at the top of the section. Then +place another fence and another section-holder. The eight-frame super +will hold six of these rows, with fences between and one on each side. +Putting in the last fence is the final test of whether the springs are +in the right place, for, if they are right and press against the posts +of the fence, it will be very hard to push in this last fence; when it +is in, the sections are all held snugly in place. (Plates III, XV.) + +Where the super is placed on the hive, it should closely fit the top +of the brood-chamber, with no cracks between. If the hive has a flat +cover, which leaves only a bee-space above the sections, the cover +may be placed immediately above the super, with nothing between. With +covers like the telescope cover, a super-cover is needed. This may be a +quilt or a piece of enamelled cloth; but we prefer a super-cover made +of a thin board, bound on the ends to prevent warping, which is now on +the market. + + +HOW TO HANDLE THE BEES + +It is generally believed, and for good reasons, apparently, that bees +like some people and despise others, who are just as good, so far as +we can detect. This apparent capriciousness has been explained in many +ways. Some hold that the bees have a fine sense of smell, and thus +distinguish us by odours rather than by sight; and in this case their +ire is aroused because they do not like the perfume exhaled by the +obnoxious person. Others claim that it depends upon the movements; if +one moves nervously and quickly, he is much more subject to attacks. +It is certainly true that if a bee, which is buzzing threateningly, is +struck at, she becomes more enraged and is more certain to sting, but +this is because she recognises an aggressive foe because of the act. +However, the senior partner in our apiary is an exceedingly active and +nervous man, and I have seen him move with all haste and energy while +working with bees, and though he seldom uses bee-veil or gloves, he +is rarely stung. Our bees seem to be acquainted with him, and accept +his rapid movements as one of the common-places of bee existence. It +is well for anyone who wishes to work with bees to spend some time in +the bee-yard just watching the little citizens coming and going, and +listening to the peculiarly soothing hum which always fills the air +around the hives. It is sympathy with the bees more than actions that +finally results in handling them without harm. + + +HOW TO OPEN THE HIVE + +First of all, fire up the smoker. The way to do this properly is to +place some easily ignited material in the bottom of the fire-chamber, +touch a match to it, and crowd in above it material which will make +plenty of smoke, and will not burn too rapidly; give a puff or two with +the bellows to be sure that the fire is started. We have used excelsior +in our smoker because it was near at hand, but it is not a perfect or +lasting fuel. Fine chips, especially planer shavings, old rags, greasy +cotton waste, and even pine needles are used. Anything is desirable +that will make a smudge and will not burn out too quickly; for when +we are working with the bees we have little time or inclination to +stop and “putter” with the smoker; and we cannot afford to have the +smoke give out at the critical moment when we most need its protecting +incense. A minimum amount of fire with the maximum amount of smoke +is the desirable quality in the smoker. If the fire gets too hot the +blasts will burn the bees, which is an outrage, and which is never +permitted by a civilised individual. The Corneil smoker has a hook +attached to the bellows, so it may be hung on the edge of the open hive +to be at hand in time of need. If it becomes too hot, we lay it flat on +the ground so as to stop the draft. Each time after the smoker is used +it should be emptied, otherwise it is likely to start a conflagration. +We have an ash pail near the apiary in which we always empty the +smoker on our way back to the bee-room. Mr. Root speaks of never using +the smoker until it is needed; when his bees trouble him, he gently +pats them on the back with a little grass to get them out of his way +as he lifts up the frames. And we never can admire Mr. Root enough +for dealing thus gently with his bee-people. But we would not advise +the novice to try this, as a person has to be on very intimate terms +with bees to be able to pat them on the back with grass and impunity. +However, this is an ideal to work toward. The nervous beginner almost +invariably uses too much smoke, and this makes his little dependents +unhappy. The breathing of smoke is hardly a pleasant experience for +us, and it seems to be still more distressing to the bees. We remember +once how, in the enthusiasm of our novitiate, we inadvertantly smoked +the bee-man instead of the bees in our misguided efforts to help, and +the result was a blueness of the atmosphere which rendered more smoke +superfluous. Every beginner ought to get at least one headache from the +fumes of the smoker to teach him charity and care. + +There are several reasons why the hive must be opened, aside from the +fun one derives from the experience. First, the brood needs to be +examined occasionally to see that it is all right, and in the fall the +brood-comb must be examined to see that there is enough honey stored +within it to winter the bees. Second, during the swarming season to +find and remove the queen cells. Third, to hunt for the queen to be +sure she is present and active, or perchance to find her and clip her +wings. Fourth, to take off supers filled with honey. A warm day should +be selected for opening the hive for whatever reason, and the middle +of the day is the best time for the work. + +Send two or three puffs of smoke in at the entrance to drive back the +frightened sentinels who keep careful watch of the portals of the hive. +Then lift one edge of the cover of the hive a little and send two or +three puffs in the crack; then lift off the cover and set it down +beside you; then lift the quilt or super-cover at one edge, and give +two or three puffs of smoke beneath it to drive the bees down among the +frames, always remembering that under ordinary circumstances a very +little smoke is necessary to frighten and subdue the bees. In fact the +same rule applies to smoking bees as to smoking tobacco; if one is +moderate in its use, the least harm will result. + + +HOW TO EXAMINE THE BROOD-CHAMBER. (Plate VIII.) + +Stand at one side of the hive, and not in front of it. Hang the smoker +on the side of the hive, so as to have it within reach. Mr. Root +advises sitting on the cover of the hive set on edge while you examine +the brood-frame. This will do for a well-poised person, but we prefer a +little stool, which we can carry easily from hive to hive, as we wish +something that we can sit on calmly as the situation requires. Commence +at one side and loosen the outside section with a knife, or what is +better, an old screw-driver. Take the frame by the projecting ends, +and lift it up so that you may examine it on one side, then twirl it +half-way over to examine it on the other. It requires some experience +to placidly lift out a frame, covered with what at first sight looks +like a dark, boiling, viscous fluid, fit only for a witch’s cauldron, +but which soon to the startled eye resolves itself into bee particles. +If the brood must be examined or queen cells found, then it becomes +necessary to get rid of this seething, enveloping bee-mass, which is +done in a manner that seems like nothing less than tempting Providence. +The brood-frame is seized firmly in the operator’s hands, and held +about waist high in front of the hive, then let to drop, hands and +all, swiftly to within about six inches of the doorstep of the hive, +then suddenly jerked back again; the bees being heavy and receiving +the downward impetus, keep right on as a man keeps on when his bicycle +stops suddenly in a rut—with this difference that the bees land safely +at the entrance of the hive, into which they scamper as soon as their +dazed wits will allow. One would naturally think that the bees would +attack the active agent of this indignity, but while bees are ever +ready to fight recognised enemies, they have evolved no plan of action +which is equal to a cataclysm, except to get under cover as soon as +possible. Thus being shaken from their foundations is to them what an +earthquake is to us, and the attitude of Riley’s boy is theirs. + + “Where’s a boy a-goin’ an’ what’s he goin’ to do, + An’ how’s he goin’ to do it, when the world bu’sts through?” + +Thus it is that among the first accomplishments of the apiarist is the +one that enables him skilfully and with dispatch, and without harming +the individuals to shake the surprised little mob off the frame or out +of the boxes, to a place where its members may recover shelter and +equanimity as expeditiously as possible. + +After the comb is freed from the bees, it requires some experience with +honey-comb topography to see at a glance just the condition of the +brood. There may be cells that look empty until a ray of light reveals +at the bottom a glistening egg; and there may be cells with a little +milky substance at the bottom in which the young larva is floating; or +in some cells the bee grubs may be distinctly seen if they are four +or five days old. If the cells are capped, it may puzzle the novice +to know what lies behind that closed waxen door. If the cells contain +honey, the substance of which the cap is made is whiter than that which +covers the brood. In case of worker-brood the cap is depressed slightly +below the plane of the comb, which is not the case if the cells contain +honey. The large size of the drone cells distinguishes them readily +from the cells of the workers. Often honey is stored in drone cells, +for the bees seem to like to make these larger cells, and for good +reason, since they give greater storage capacity for the amount of wax +used. However, the drone cells which contain brood are covered with +dark, dirty, yellow caps which are quite convex, looking like kopjes +on the comb plain. At the height of the honey season there should be +plenty of brood, and later the cells in the brood-frames should be +filled with honey. The cells containing bee-bread are not capped, as +this staff of bee life is packed so hard that it does not need to be +covered. All honey remains uncapped until it is properly evaporated and +ripened. (Plate VIII.) + +After one frame has been thus examined, it should be leaned up against +the side of the hive so as to give space to lift out the next frame +without crushing the bees. + + +HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN CELL + +Fortunately for us, this is quite prominent, being a veritable oriel +in shape. However, there may be other excrescences of the comb which +somewhat resemble a queen cell; sometimes the queen cell may be more +or less embedded and so escape observation. The bee-keeper who is +cocksure that he can find all the queen cells in his hives has to be +most experienced, and even then cocksureness may come to grief. But +this unglazed oriel window in which the queen develops is usually quite +noticeable, and is ordinarily decorated with a small, hexagonal pattern +in relief. We have often wondered if this was done for the sake of +decoration, or because the bees are so in the habit of fashioning wax +into hexagonal patterns that they do it involuntarily. For the person +who rashly asserts that honey-comb is the result of fortuitous force +and pressure, this queen cell with its hexagonal frescoes is a poser. +(Plate V.) + +To cut out the queen cell a sharp, pointed knife is necessary, in +order to injure the comb beneath the cell as little as possible. + + +HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN + +If we simply need assurance that the queen is present and active, the +discovery of eggs or young larvæ in the cells is sufficient evidence +of her presence, and saves the tiresome search for her majesty. But +if we wish to find her, she is usually present on the middle frame of +the hive. It is not safe to pull out this middle frame from the narrow +place which it occupies for fear of hurting the queen and crushing +the other bees; so it is best always to take out an end frame, first +looking at it carefully to make sure she is not upon it; then shake off +the bees and set it beside the hive, and move the other frames along +in the space thus made until we are able to remove the middle frame +with ease. It requires some experience to ferret out the queen from +the bee-mob which seethes over the comb. The burly, big, blunt-ended +drones are much more readily detected. However, after a little training +in the devious ways of royalty one becomes expert in seeing that +long, graceful, pointed body extending far back of the wings which +characterises the queen. If the bees are not too much disturbed, she +is likely to be surrounded by a rosette of workers, all with their +faces toward her, for even in the court of the hive etiquette does not +permit that the ladies-in-waiting turn their backs to the queen. If for +any reason the queen is to be lifted out, she should be seized by the +wings or thorax or imprisoned in a queen trap, but never under any +circumstances should she be seized by the abdomen. (Plate XVI, Queen +trap.) + + +CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WINGS + +This does not mean cutting off all four of the wings, but that the +wings on one side should be clipped, leaving stubs not more than an +eighth of an inch long. Various devices have been invented to aid +clumsy hands in cutting off the royal petticoats. One, the Monette +queen-clipping device, is a little cone-shaped cage made of wire laid +in spirals. She goes into this cage head first and the door is shut +behind her. Then the scissors are slipped between the spirals at the +proper point and the deed is done. Another simple device is a bit of +section-board whittled in the shape of a tiny bootjack with a rubber +band stretched rather tightly across the prongs. The forks are placed +across the queen so that the rubber presses against the thorax, thus +pinning her fast to the comb while she is barbered. The only skill +needed in this device is in fixing the tension of the rubber band so +that it will be sufficient to hold her majesty fast, and yet not stiff +enough to hurt her. Our invariable plan is as follows: After the queen +is discovered, we hold the brood-frame in one hand, pick up her royal +highness in the other most gently, then still more gently set the frame +down, leaning it against the hive; then, holding her royal person +firmly but carefully in our own unworthy thumb and fingers, clip her +wings with presuming scissors; then, putting the scissors down as we +pick up the frame, and put her back as nearly as possible on the spot +where we found her. We always use the sharp-pointed embroidery scissors +for this delicate operation. + + +HOW TO TAKE OFF HONEY IN SUPERS + +Lift the hive cover and quilt with a slight introduction of smoke, +then lift off completely. Smoke from above for a moment, being very +careful not to burn the bees, always remembering that smoke is meant +to scare and not to punish. Then loosen the super with a screw-driver +if the bees have fastened it down with bee glue, lift it and place +it on a bottom board near at hand. Put on an unfilled super if it is +needed and cover the hive. Lift the honey-sections out of the super, +brushing off the adhering bees with a bee-brush, so that they will fall +on the doorstep of the hive, and place each section as it is cleaned +in a basket or box in which it is to be carried to the store-room. +This is our usual way of procedure when our apiary is small, and we +do this work during spare moments which are not predictable the night +before. However, there is one best way to do this work, and that is +to put on a Porter bee-escape the night before the super is to be +removed. Wise from experience, we advise beginners to study this device +and become imbued with a knowledge of its workings to the extent of +being able to tell which is the upper and which the under side, lest +disastrous results ensue and all of the bees escape into the super +instead of out of it. If the bee-escape is placed on the night before, +there will be no bees in the super when it is removed next day. To +introduce a bee-escape one does not need to lift off the super; simply +lift it up at one side, send a little smoke into the crack, push in +the bee-escape, and then set it straight upon the hive and the super +straight upon it. (Plates III, XVIII.) + +The novice might conclude that a good plan would be simply to set off +the super near the hive, and let the bees find their own way back to +their brood and kindred. But bee-nature has to be reckoned with in this +instance, and the bees, conscious that the honey is their own, are +likely to uncap the cells and carry the honey into the hive; or worse +still, the bees from other hives will be attracted to these open stores +and will begin to rob. And in the bee courts of equity, when bees begin +to rob, then the “devil is to pay.” + +There have been various bee-tents devised under which the supers are +placed after being removed from the hive. These tents are arranged with +a little hole at the top by which the bees may escape, but may not +return. Doctor Miller invented a simple plan of piling several supers +filled with honey on top of each other, leaving no crevices between +them; over these was spread a cloth with a hole in the middle, over +which was placed a wire cone with a hole in the top large enough to let +a bee pass out. Thus the bees from all of the sections escaped, one +by one, and robbing was avoided. However, the bee-escapes introduced +between the super and the hives are used to-day by most enterprising +bee-men. + + +OBSERVATION-HIVES (Frontispiece) + +Anyone who has worked long with bees, cannot fail to become filled +with curiosity concerning the way their work is carried on in the +mysterious darkness of the hive; to such a person, the observation-hive +is a source of perennial delight, as well as of interesting and useful +knowledge. + +Observation-hives have been used by bee-keepers from the time of Huber +to the present, and naturally many forms of them have been devised. The +type in most common use now is a small hive, containing one, two or +three frames, and furnished with glass sides, through which the bees +can be observed. The glass sides are covered with a door or curtain, +except when observations are being made; for, if not, the bees will +cover the glass with a coat of propolis, rendering it opaque. + +It is somewhat difficult to keep a colony in good condition upon a +single frame; and if two or more frames are used side by side the +observer is unable to see what goes on between the frames. Professor +Kellogg, of Stanford University, has devised a perfectly satisfactory +two-frame observation-hive for his laboratory. It consists of a +glass-sided box, large enough to hold two Langstroth frames, one above +the other; as both sides of the comb are exposed, any individual bee +may be kept constantly in sight while she is working. The passage +which leads from the hive to the opening in the window has a glass +top, so the actions of the bees as they enter the hive may be watched. +A hood of thick black cloth is pulled down over the hive when the +observations are finished. Similar observation hives may be purchased +of dealers in apiarists’ supplies. + +Such an observation-hive would be of great value to the enterprising +bee-keeper, as it would be the means of helping him to understand +conditions which were puzzling, and thus aid him in dealing with crises +that are sure to occur. The advantage of this hive over any other is +that frames from any hive may be kept under closest observation. But +if the hive were a means of interest merely, it would still be worth +while, for the bee-keeper cannot know too much about the ways of bees, +_supposing all he knows is true_. + + +MAXIMS FOR OPENING THE HIVE + +Have the smoker ready to give forth a good volume of smoke. + +Use the smoker to scare the bees rather than to punish them. + +Do not stand in front of the hive lest the bees passing out and in take +umbrage. + +Be careful not to drop any implements with which you are working; take +hold of all things firmly. + +Move steadily, and not nervously. + +Do not run if frightened, for the bees understand what running away +means as well as you do. + +If the bees attack you, move slowly away, smoking them off as you go. + +If a bee annoys you by her threatening attitude for some time, kill her +ruthlessly. + +If stung by a bee, rub off the sting, instead of pulling it out with +the nails of the thumb and forefinger and thus forcing more venom into +the wound. + +Ammonia applied to the wound made by a bee-sting will usually afford +immediate relief. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +DETAILS CONCERNING HONEY + + +HOW TO MAKE COMB-HONEY + +Every bee-keeper who sends to the market honey in the comb enfolded in +an attractive carton, or with the section neatly glazed, has produced a +work of art; for comb-honey as now marketed is an æsthetic production, +and the bee-keeper is an artist as much as if he had painted a +picture or had fashioned a jewel. To most people who have an apiary +as a pleasurable adjunct to life in the country, the production of +comb-honey is most attractive, while the production of extracted honey +does not appeal to them at all. Just the word “honey” calls to the mind +of most people a vision of amber sweetness set in white-walled, waxen +cells. + +The production of comb-honey is attended by more difficulties than +is the production of extracted honey. The reason for this is largely +because the bees work more readily in cells already made from which +the honey has been extracted, than they do in sections where they +must undertake all of the expense and labour of producing wax for the +comb. More than this, honey may be extracted from the comb of the +brood-chambers, a harvest which is lost to the producer of comb-honey. + +[Illustration: PLATE XIV + +(_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap. + +(_b_) A well filled section. + +(_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled with section-boxes, in +which are foundation-starters; two of these have been added to by the +bees.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey; the super is filled +with section-boxes.] + +For the production of comb-honey it is necessary that the colony +winter in excellent condition and develop much well-fed brood early +in the season, so that there shall be a great number of active young +workers in the hive just before the chief honey-harvest of the summer +begins. In New York State we have two large honey harvests, that of +the basswood in July and the buckwheat in August, so our colonies are +made strong and ready by the last of June. In order to have the bees +ready to work, the swarming fever must be subdued or controlled before +this period of honey-flow. The colonies are carefully watched early in +the season, and if after the first pollen-gathering occurs there is no +honey coming in, the bees are fed so that the brood may be developed. +We rarely have to feed at this season of the year as the fruit bloom +gives our bees plenty of honey for rearing their brood, and we never +expect any surplus before the basswood season. + +The supers are put on when there is plenty of brood and plenty of honey +to feed to it in the hive; and under such conditions our bees, though +Italians, usually push up into the sections at once. We prepare the +sections with mere strips of wax foundation for starters. (Plate XIV.) + +Supers thus equipped put on at this time and under such conditions seem +to take away all desire to swarm on the part of the bees, if the queen +cells have been previously removed. + +If the brood-chambers are crowded when the super is put on, the queen +may go up into it and start brood. This rarely occurs with us, but in +case it does a queen-excluding honey-board may be introduced between +the super and the brood-chamber. Sometimes a colony seems unwilling +to go into the super after it has been added, and the bees will hang +on the outside of the hive and threaten to swarm, and through doubt +and vacillation lose two or three of the precious days of the basswood +harvest. + +The usual reason why the bees will not go into the super is that they +are not sufficiently crowded below; if they have room they prefer to +store their honey in the brood cells rather than carry it to the upper +story. + +If a colony is strong and has plenty of brood and honey and is still +obstinate, men of experience advise the taking of a frame of sections +from a colony which is storing in the supers and putting bees and all +in the midst of the unused super of the reluctant colony. We have never +tried this because we were never obliged to. It sounds very practical +and sensible, and it is practised by Mr. Root, and that is sufficient +recommendation. + +Our way of coaxing the bees into a super which they have sedulously +ignored is to place in it some of the imperfect sections, which are not +worth much in the market and which contain some capped honey and many +empty cells. One section-holder filled in this way seems to encourage +the reluctant colony to climb and to store as rapidly as possible. + +In large apiaries the following plan is followed: First, put on a super +of shallow extracting frames from which the honey has been removed; as +these cells are all ready, the bees are likely to go to work in them +at once; and after they are working well raise the super, and put in +one below it filled with sections containing starters, and all will be +well. In dealing with this phase of bee-keeping it is well to remember +that full sheets of foundation in the sections are more attractive to +the bees than starters; and that sections containing comb already made +are still more pleasing, and if some of these made cells contain honey, +their attractiveness is doubled. One condition should be observed in +putting on a super in the summer: it should be shaded in some way; if +it is in the direct rays of the sun, the heat is likely to keep the +bees out of it. However, later in the season bees may be induced to +work in the super by placing over it a cushion so that it will be warm. + + +TIERING UP + +If the honey is coming in at a good rate, and the bees are working +well, when the sections in the super are something more than half +full, lift it up and place another containing sections with starters +beneath it. The reason for this is that the bees would not naturally +go into the empty super if it were placed on top until the other was +completely filled. But with this plan they continue working in the +super, even though it be on top, and meanwhile find it “handy” to fill +the intervening sections. If the honey-flow is great, even another +super may be placed next the hive and below the other two. However, in +our practice we rarely put on more than two, usually taking off the +top one when we need to interpolate another. This process is called +“storifying” in the English books, which is a most graphic term and +should be introduced into our nomenclature. + + +TAKING OFF SECTIONS. (Plate XX.) + +In taking off the sections we do not need to wait for the completion +of every one in the super. The outside rows are rarely perfect, and we +usually put these unfinished sections back on some other hive to be +finished. + +These unfinished sections, if not too empty, serve very well to sweeten +the daily bread of the home table. If sent to the market they bring low +prices, and the bee-keeper who is working for comb-honey should plan to +have as few of them as possible. While the honey left long in the super +has a much finer flavour than that which is removed early, yet care +should be taken not to leave the sections on the hive so long that the +comb becomes soiled. It is an interesting fact that honey ripened in +the hive gains special richness, as if it were somehow imbued with the +spirit of the little socialists that make it. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + + PLATE XVI. Drone and queen trap, below; queen mailing and + introducing cage, above at the left; queen-protector and + queen-cage used in queen-rearing, in centre; and bee-escape, at + the right.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XVII. “IN APPLE-BLOSSOM TIME”] + +Toward the end of the season it is best not to tier up, but to place an +empty super on top. The bees will not use it unless necessary, but will +devote their energies to the sections below. The great danger to be +avoided in tiering up is a surplus of partly filled sections, and the +way we avoid this is not to interpolate a super until the one on the +hive is at least three-fourths filled. + + +STAINED SECTIONS + +A regular part of bee exercise consists of promenading up and down +and across the sealed honey; the bee has not as yet, unfortunately, +attained the fastidiousness which leads her to wipe any of her six feet +carefully before entering her domicile, consequently the sections of +honey thus walked over may be stained and unmarketable. There is no +remedy for this except to look after the supers carefully, and take out +the sections before they are soiled. + +Some sections may look dirty because old wax is used in making the +caps. If such is the case, and it is simply yellow, the wax may be +bleached by standing it in the sun or by subjecting it to sulphur +fumes. Some apiarists have special rooms and others tight boxes for +the sulphur bleaching. Only two things are necessary to accomplish +this successfully; first, that the room or box be tight; second, that +the sulphur placed in an iron dish be heated so that the fumes are +strong and all-pervading. Some say that the sulphur should be heated +so that if a match be touched to it, it will flame. The combs need not +be subjected to such fumes more than a half-hour to become as white as +they can be bleached. + + +SCRAPING THE SECTIONS + +In preparing comb-honey for the market, it is necessary to first +scrape the propolis from the sections so as to leave the wood white +and beautiful. To do this the section should be set square on and in +line with the edge of a table, and below should be a pan to receive the +scrapings. Hold the section firmly in one hand and scrape the side that +is in line with the edge of the table with a downward stroke of the +knife; a case-knife is best for this. To scrape the wood clean and not +in any way injure the honey, and to do the work rapidly, measure the +skill attained in this business. In scraping the sections it is best +to have four of the shipping-boxes at hand, so that the honey may be +graded and placed in its proper class as it is cleaned. + + +GRADING COMB-HONEY + +First, as to the way the sections are filled, or in other words, as to +the bee technique. There are three grades—Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. In +the fancy grade almost every cell is well filled, and the comb has the +surface evenly built and well capped. No. 1 has an even surface and is +well filled, but may not be so perfect in the corners as is the fancy. +No. 2 must be at least three-fourths full. Anything below No. 2 is +called chunk honey if sold in the comb, but it is more profitable to +extract honey from all sections that range below No. 2. + +Second, as to the colour of honey: It is graded as white, amber, +buckwheat and dark, and these need no explanation. Thus honey is listed +perhaps as “fancy white,” or “fancy buckwheat”; in each case it is the +best of its kind. + + +SHIPPING-CASES + +These should be ordered rather than made, as a good-looking +shipping-case adds materially to the value of the honey. These cases +come in different sizes, and have one side made of glass so that the +handlers may see that the contents are fragile, and therefore may +possibly be persuaded to deal with them gently; the cases come in flats +and are easily put together. For anything that looks so well put up +as honey sealed in its perfect cells, it has a most amazing capacity +for leaking. Once, in the enthusiasm of girlhood and inexperience, I +carried some honey carefully packed in a box in my trunk, hoping to +give a friend a treat. Needless to say that honey was “linked sweetness +long drawn out,” by the time I arrived at my destination; and all the +clothes that I carried in my trunk were literally “too sweet for any +use.” + +Shipping comb-honey to market is likely to be a disastrous performance +at best, since it is almost impossible to guard against careless +handling. Some ship in glass-covered sections which protect the comb, +and make a very attractive appearing product. + +Shipping the sections in cartons is winning its way now for fancy +grades. A carton is a pasteboard box which may be bought in flats with +the shipper’s name printed upon it. While these cartons may be bought +in almost any style, from perfectly plain to those highly ornamented, +and provided with tape handles, yet we believe there is a chance for +personal initiative in this particular field. An artistic design in +pretty colours, individual and unique, would certainly prove a special +attraction for selling honey in cartons. The great advantage gained +from the use of the carton is that the honey reaches the consumer in a +neat package without further handling, and may be carried like a box +of bonbons. When cartons are used the shipping case should be a size +larger than for the plain sections. + + +MARKETING COMB-HONEY + +There are two ways of marketing honey open to most bee-keepers. First +and best, the local market. If the honey can be placed in the hands of +the grocer directly from the bee-keeper, certain advantages accrue. The +comb is not broken by much careless handling, and it reaches the market +in good shape. Though the price may be somewhat lower perhaps than the +highest quoted prices, yet it is reliable, and there is no discount for +breakage in shipping, and for differences of opinion in grading. It is +certainly far more satisfactory for all concerned to place comb-honey +on the home market; this is usually practicable for all except the +greater apiarists. We know one man who has about forty hives, and who +lives in a town of about three hundred inhabitants; though he produces +a reasonable amount of honey he very inadequately supplies the demand +for it in this little village, and he receives city prices. + +The second and least desirable method of marketing comb-honey is to +ship it to a commission merchant. If this is done, it is well to select +a middleman in whom we have absolute confidence, or we are likely soon +to become pessimistic regarding his honesty; so frequently is the price +of honey reduced on account of breakage and leaking and other accidents +which this very frail delicacy is heir to, that we rarely realise the +prices quoted in the newspapers. If a good middleman can be found, +then our advice is to stick to him, and send him the very best product +possible, fairly graded and in the most attractive form, hoping that he +may be able to do for us what we should do for ourselves, and that is, +work up a special market. + + +STORING COMB-HONEY + +It is far better to market comb-honey the year it is made. However, if +it is to be stored, it must be placed in a room that has a constant +temperature above 60°F. It is best to fumigate the sections if there +is any danger from the bee-moth, for this little rascal will destroy a +great amount of comb-honey in a very short time. (See “Bee-Moth.”) + + +CANDIED COMB-HONEY + +Some kinds of honey will granulate much sooner than others. The longer +the honey is left in the hive and the more perfectly it is ripened, +the less liable it is to granulate. Extracted honey will candy much +sooner than honey left in the comb. We have kept comb-honey more than +a year without crystals appearing in it. The only way to prevent +comb-honey from candying is to keep it in a temperature that does not +fall below 60 degrees. After honey is candied in the comb, nothing can +be done with it except to sell it at a lower price, or keep it to feed +back to the bees. The latter is probably the most profitable way to +dispose of it. Some people like comb-honey after it is granulated and +the home-table may use a certain amount of it. + + +MAXIMS FOR PRODUCING COMB-HONEY + +Keep the colonies strong. + +The bees should be kept warm and well fed in the spring. + +The bees must have wintered well. + +The colony must have brood and plenty of honey in the brood-chambers at +the beginning of the honey season. + +Never let the honey in sections or supers be exposed in the apiary to +incite robbery. + +Keep the sections in a room in which the temperature never falls below +60°. + +Fumigate the sections before they are stored if you are troubled with +bee-moth. + +Send the honey to market in as attractive form as possible. Make your +product individual in appearance, and strive to create for it a special +market. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EXTRACTED HONEY + + +HOW TO PRODUCE IT + +It is certainly fortunate for bee-keepers that centrifugal force is +one of the unalterable laws of the physical world. However, this force +might never have been of any use to the apiarist had it not been +for a certain Major Francesco de Hruschka of Venice, who is a most +interesting figure in the history of bee-keeping. Next in importance to +the invention of the movable frames by the venerable Langstroth was the +invention of the honey-extractor. We have a picture of Major Hruschka +in our minds as not only a brave man of war as indicated by his +military rank, but also as a happy man of peace, who loved his hives +with their little citizens, and who also possessed notable domestic +virtues and loved the companionship of his children and was interested +in their doings. For it was when his little son accompanied him to +his apiary and, having a comb full of honey set up in a basket, began +whirling it boy-like by the rope attached to the handle, that the Major +discovered the honey was being thrown out of the comb by this action. +Instead of spanking the boy as most fathers would have done, the +thoughtful Major cogitated on the fact that such a simple motion should +have emptied the comb of honey, and he straightway proceeded to invent +the first honey-extractor. This was in 1865; up to that time the liquid +honey was extracted by a method which we remember well. The comb was +crushed, and with it too often, alas! the dead bees, larvæ and any dirt +whatsoever that happened to be present; this mixture was suspended in +a cloth bag, over a tub or vat in a warm room; and the honey, carrying +with it much of the débris, slowly dripped out reeking with an aroma +and a flavour quite unknown in these regenerate days, and forming a +product that may well be spared from the world’s marts. + +Since 1865, many honey-extractors have been invented in America, +and almost all of them which have survived the test of use are +satisfactory. The perfection of the invention is an automatically +reversible machine with ball bearings, highly geared in order to attain +the maximum of steadiness and rapidity with the appliance of a minimum +of power. + +The principle of construction underlying all of the best extractors is +a cylindrical can containing wire pockets in which the combs are set on +edge, and which are revolved by being geared to a crank at the top of +the can. There is room for more or less honey below the wire pockets, +and at the bottom of the can is a faucet or honey gate, through which +the extracted honey may be drawn off into a pail or vat. + +The extractor is a very excellent adjunct to any apiary, however +small, even if comb-honey is the chief product, for it saves much honey +that otherwise would be wasted. When the apiary consists of less than +forty hives of bees, one of the small non-reversible extractors may be +used. These weigh less and cost less; but every frame of comb has to be +taken out after the honey has been extracted on one side and reversed +and put back in order to clear the honey from the other side. Though +the automatic reversible machine costs more and is heavier, it is far +more satisfactory on the whole, if there is much honey to be extracted. + + +EXTRACTING-FRAMES + +The frames used for extracting honey are in form similar to those +which hold the brood, except they may not be so deep. However, most +bee-keepers use both supers containing the shallow extracting-frames, +and also those filled with frames of the full depth. The bees will go +into the shallow frames more readily than into the deeper ones, as they +are better able to keep the small chambers warm. But if the colony is +very strong and the harvest good, the deeper frames are acceptable to +the bees and save the time of the bee-keeper. (Plate XVIII.) + + +WHEN TO EXTRACT HONEY + +Some producers practice extracting the honey before it is capped, so +as to save the trouble and expense of uncapping. There is one danger +attending this method: the green, unripened honey is thus often +extracted, and it is the most insipid of sweets. Honey needs to ripen +slowly in a warm temperature in order to be palatable. Some, like +Quinby, advocate the ripening of honey in vats or evaporators after +it has been extracted. But it is the consensus of opinion that honey +to be of perfect flavour needs to ripen in the warm, bee-odour-laden +atmosphere of the hive. The bees ordinarily leave the honey uncapped +for some time as it thus ripens more readily. Therefore, those who +produce an especially fine quality of extracted honey usually begin +to tier up as soon as the super is fairly filled and before the honey +is capped. The bees have ample room to go on storing honey in the +interpolated super, and do not bother to cap the honey already stored +above. Thus these supers, three or four or as many as practicable, are +left on the hive until the end of the honey harvest, and thus the honey +attains its proper ripeness and flavour. + +There are others who claim that honey is never properly ripened until +capped, and therefore practice tiering after the cells of comb are at +least partly covered. + + +UNCAPPING. (Plate XIX.) + +There are various knives invented for this process, the Bingham +uncapping knife being the favourite. It is used thus: The frame +containing the honey standing on one end and leaning over a receptacle +for the caps is held with the left hand, the knife in the right hand +begins at the bottom of the comb and running backward and forward as +it is moved upward shears off very neatly the covering of the cells. +The knife must be very sharp, and skill in cutting is shown in just the +merest film of wax which is removed. A pan of hot water should be at +hand on an oil stove perhaps; every time a sheet of capping is removed, +the knife needs to be scraped on a stick, which will not dull it; and +quite often it should be dipped in the hot water to clean it. If there +is much uncapping to be done, it is best to have two knives, keeping +one in the pan; for cleanliness and heat are quite as potent factors as +is sharpness in making the uncapping knife effective. + +There are on the market uncapping-cans, the Dadant being the most +popular. It is a double can with an arrangement on top convenient for +holding the end of the frame on a pivot and with wooden cross-pieces on +which the knife may be wiped. Below there is a wire screen for holding +the cappings, with a space in the bottom of the can for the honey which +drains off, and which is always of the most excellent and delicious +quality. Of course, the cappings are saved to be made into beeswax. + + +CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY + +Honey, whether in the comb or out, will crystallise when subjected +to low temperature or when left standing for a long time. However, +extracted honey crystallises much more readily than that which is in +combs; and this crystallisation is one of the problems of putting up +and marketing extracted honey. To prevent it extracted honey should +be evaporated until it is thick, sealed while hot in air-tight cans, +and kept in a room the temperature of which never falls below 65° F. +It should be kept in tin or galvanised iron cans, rather than in wood. +Some people seem to have been successful in using wooden vessels for +holding the honey after having given them a coating of wax; but the way +honey gets through small places is more proverbial among bee-keepers +than is the ability of the stingy man to do the same; even when a tub +or pan seems water-tight the honey will triumphantly work its passage +through. + +[Illustration: PLATE XVIII + +Taking off upper story of hive containing combs for extracting. The +bees have been moved from the supers by the bee-escape seen at the +right. + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + + Extracting-room showing extractor, strainer, uncapping can, + bee-escape, smoker, uncapping knife, gloves, funnel, supers and + sections, extractor pocket containing extracted sections, partly + filled sections as yet uncapped, extracting frame with comb, etc.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XIX + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Uncapping comb before extracting the honey. + +Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the extractor.] + +In order to preserve extracted honey in packages it must be canned +or bottled, and the air entirely excluded. There are two methods of +accomplishing this: First, the honey is heated in bulk, and run off +into hot cans or bottles. Second, the honey is put in the bottles +first and then heated; in both cases the honey is heated by hot water. +Perhaps the easier method is to heat it in bulk, and if there is not at +hand a double boiler, one can be improvised by using a wash-boiler in +which pails containing the honey may be set. In any case the honey and +the water surrounding it should be of the temperature of the room to +begin with; then a slow, steady fire is needed to bring the temperature +of the water up to 160° F. Mr. Root advises the use of a gasoline stove +for this purpose as the heat may thus be carefully regulated, and it is +very important that the process be a slow one. After the temperature of +the honey reaches 160° F. it may be poured into freshly scalded cans +or bottles and sealed, air-tight. If bottles are used, the corks should +have paraffine poured over them so as to make sure of excluding the air. + + +PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY. (Plate XXI.) + +Mason fruit jars are extensively used for this as they are practical, +cheap and useful afterward. The No. 25 honey-jar, somewhat resembling +the Mason can, is made purposely for putting up honey, and is +attractive in appearance. The Muth bottles are made in four sizes for +extracted honey; the largest holding two pounds, and the smallest a +quarter of a pound. These bottles are decorated with a design of an old +straw skep, and bear the prophetic inscription “pure honey” moulded +into the glass. Jelly-glasses are often used and paraffined paper is +placed over the honey, just as it is placed over jelly to exclude the +air before the tin cover is put on. Glass packages are by all means the +most attractive for extracted honey in small quantities. However, tin +pails of various sizes are in use, and may be serviceable for a cheap +and inferior grade of honey, which is thus made ready for the consumer +who is willing to buy “aside unseen.” But a fine quality of honey +rejoices in the light of day and in the scrutiny of eyes which may look +at it first critically and then longingly. + +The most practical packages for shipping honey in quantity are the +large, square cans in common use which hold sixty pounds each. These +are convenient for shipping and for measuring and are safe from +breakage. + +The advantages of extracted honey over that of comb-honey are: Almost +double the honey may be produced, because the bees having no comb to +build, devote their energies to storing honey; and also the honey from +the brood-combs may be extracted; it is more easily and safely handled +and shipped; it is more easily produced, since the bees work more +readily in the emptied cells of the extracted combs than in sections +where they are obliged to build new cells; swarming is more easily +controlled, because the bees more readily accept the enlargement of +their quarters when the supers contain fully made comb, also larger +hives may be used. + +The disadvantages are: It is more “mussy” and requires special +apparatus; and unless great care is given, the bees will be starved +through this convenient way of pilfering their stores. + + +MAXIMS FOR THE PRODUCER OF EXTRACTED HONEY + +Use glass or tin, rather than wood, for honey receptacles. + +Be careful not to expose the honey as you take it out of the supers, +lest the bees begin robbing. + +Honey should be canned while hot, and kept from the air. + +Heating honey to a higher temperature than 160° destroys its flavour. + +Cooling honey to a temperature below 60° produces granulation. + +Work in a warm room. + +Have a label of your own, with some unique and individual design, +which, when placed on the package, will render it attractive. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +POINTS ABOUT BEESWAX + + +HOW TO MAKE IT + +Beeswax is a unique product; the little socialists of the hive have +formed a trust for its manufacture, which for many and good reasons +has never been infringed upon. The special value of beeswax is that it +retains its cohesiveness and ductibility, under both higher and lower +temperatures, than do other kinds of wax. It has a specific gravity of +960–972, and melts at 143–145° F. + +Beeswax has been in demand in the world since ancient times, being put +to many and diverse uses. Now, however, the making of foundation-comb +is the most important of these uses and most affects the beeswax +market of to-day. Countless thousands of sheets of wax foundation are +manufactured yearly in America. When foundation was first used it was +thought that it might be adulterated safely with paraffine, but it was +soon found that beeswax thus adulterated, when subjected to the heat of +the hive in summer, would invariably bulge, buckle and sag. We know an +apiarist who lost money, honey, bees and temper through trying to use +this kind of foundation, which did not stand firm. + +[Illustration: PLATE XX + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Drawing honey from extractor. The honey is strained through a fine wire +strainer set in the top of the pail. + +Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XXI + +Extracted honey in pails—candied + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market.] + + +THE PRIMITIVE METHOD + +The process of making wax from honey-comb may be primitive and yet +quite successful. Well do we remember the method as practised in the +days of our early youth in the kitchen of the old farmhouse, usually a +comfortable and altogether delightful room. Its yellow-painted floor +seemed to have caught the sunshine streaming in through white-curtained +windows and held it there for us to tread upon. The chintz-covered +settee and Boston rockers, and a few widths of bright rag carpet, made +one end a cozy sitting-room. At the opposite end the cupboards, their +shelves covered with elaborately scalloped newspapers, and beset with +orderly dishes and tinware, bespoke the kitchen. Midway between stood +the heavy cherry drop-leaf table which revealed the dining-room; in +the midst of this Protean apartment stood the cook-stove, polished so +that it would put to shame the rosewood case of a piano, bearing on its +top the pink-copper tea-kettle singing gayly after its daily bath of +cleansing buttermilk, and holding within the roaring fire which ever +seemed the spirit and soul of the place. The neatness that held sway +in this kitchen was the perfect sort that conduces to comfort, and not +to misery. Only at certain periods was this delectable room given over +to discomfort and untidiness; these included “wash-days,” the days +following the yearly sacrificial rite of butchering and the days when +beeswax was made. + +We were wont to make beeswax as follows: The broken combs were packed +in a muslin bag which was weighted by a sinker and hung in the +wash-boiler by tying the bag to the poker, which was placed crosswise +the top. By this contrivance the bag was completely surrounded by +water, which filled the boiler, and yet did not touch the bottom, and +so there was no danger of burning; the cloth acted as a strainer and +the bag was pressed occasionally; this act being judiciously performed +by means of the tongs, which had previously been cleaned. After the wax +had boiled out the boiler was taken off and the whole contents cooled, +after which the wax was taken from the top in pieces and remelted in a +dish set on the back side of the stove so as not to burn, then poured +into oiled bread-tins, and thus caked for the market. Some of it was +clarified for special use thus: It was allowed to simmer on the back of +the stove for some hours in water to which vinegar had been added, and +then was dipped off into scalloped patty-tins and a neat little loop of +cord inserted at one side. These cakes when cooled had a long though +scarified existence ensconced in work-baskets with spools of thread, +for wax thus cleaned and prepared made very pretty little gifts for +lady-friends. But the experience of rendering wax was never complete +without spilling some of it on the stove, which spread with fearful +rapidity and smoked with stifling smoke; because of the certainty of +this accident we always made the beeswax in the late fall, lest our +bees regarding the pungent smoke as a direct invitation should come +visiting in embarrassing numbers. + +Sundry old pieces of rag carpet were spread on the floor around the +stove to keep the yellow paint intact from the wax, which was so hard +to clean off. We had no benzine in those days, and our only resort was +boiling hot water, which cleaned off the paint as well as the wax. + +One privilege that was always granted to us children on this day was +that of having “our fingers made.” As the wax was cooling the finger +was dipped in it, and the film was cooled while the finger was held +very still; then the film was slipped off, a crucial point in the +process, and used as a mould into which was poured the cooling wax; and +presto! there was the finger as natural as life to every crease and +wrinkle, but with a death-like pallor that rendered the row of fingers +thus made a fascinatingly gruesome collection, as if they had been +chopped off with a hatchet. + +This old process of rendering wax in the wash-boiler is still practised +where apiaries are small. Mr. Root advises the following modification: +Sticks are placed crosswise the bottom of the boiler on which the bag +is placed; the bag is packed very full of wax by pressing the comb into +balls with the hands before it is put in. Water is added and the whole +is placed upon the stove and brought slowly to a boil, then a board +that acts as a follower on the bag is placed on top with a heavy weight +upon it; this acts as a press and decreases the bulk in the bag, +leaving the wax floating on the surface. + + +THE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR + +There are many modern and up-to-date methods advised for extracting +wax. The most common is through the use of the Solar wax-extractor, +which was invented for extracting honey in California, where the sun +can be depended upon to do its work unflinchingly day after day. There +was more than myth in the story of Icarus who fastened his wings on +with wax, and then dared to face the sun. The ancients evidently knew +that no other substance of the sort is so susceptible to the sun’s +rays. I shall never forget my amazement at the efficiency of the +first Solar extractor that I ever saw; it was home-made and there was +naught in its appearance to indicate its power. The comb was hard and +blackened and full of dirt, while the wax that oozed out and hardened +below was as shining and yellow as if the sun itself had exhaled it. +A Solar extractor ought to be in every apiary where twenty colonies +or more are kept, and into this every fragment of comb should be put +instead of storing it to become infested by the bee-moth, or leaving it +around to incite the bees to robbing. The fragments thus are saved and +without any expense or trouble are made into a beautiful product for +the market. + +There are several of these Solar extractors made and sold by dealers. +The Doolittle, the Rauchfuss and the Boardman are the three commonly +used. The Doolittle is small and all right for a small apiary. +The Rauchfuss has a clever arrangement by which the wax in flowing +out overflows from one pan to another and thus cleanses itself +automatically. The Boardman is especially adapted for large apiaries, +and is on rockers so that it may be tilted to face the sun. The general +plan of the Solar wax-extractor is as follows: It consists of a shallow +box lined with sheet-iron on which is a frame for holding the comb +with a strainer below it, and a place where the wax thus extracted is +received. The box has a tight-fitting glass cover, and all the woodwork +on the box is painted black so as to absorb all the heat possible. +The box is tilted so as to get the direct rays of the sun, and it is +important that the cover be of one pane of glass, or several panes +matched without cross sash, as such sash interferes with the rays of +the sun. Here in the East this extractor works excellently during the +summer months. If the wax does not look clean as it comes from the +extractor, it may be put through again. The only difficulty with the +Solar extractor is that here in the East it works only in the summer +time, and that it does not extract all the wax from the refuse which +bears the graphic and euphonious name of “slumgum.” + + +THE SWISS WAX-EXTRACTOR + +There are many patent wax-extractors which are run by the heat of a +stove. The best of these utilise steam for heating the wax, though +some of them use hot water in a sort of a modification of the old +wash-boiler method. The best of these machines for a small apiary is +the Swiss extractor, which may be set over a kettle of hot water, like +an ordinary vegetable steamer, which it resembles. The comb is placed +in a wire basket, which has a cone-shaped bottom, over which the wax +flows down as it melts and drains off through a spout into a pan in +which it is to be caked. This machine costs only three or four dollars +and is simple and excellent; though it takes but comparatively little +comb at a time, it keeps up a continual performance and there is no +danger whatever of burning the wax. The basket may be replenished from +time to time, and a large amount of wax may be extracted in a day while +other work is being performed in the room. Mr. Root has an improved +Swiss extractor and so has Mr. D. A. Jones, and both of them are most +satisfactory. Mr. Jones’s machine is the larger and may be used as an +uncapping can as well; the cappings when taken off falling directly +into the extractor. + + +THE WAX-PRESS + +Wax is such a precious product in these days of the manufacture of +foundation-comb that every particle of it should be saved. This is +quite impossible with any of the extractors; as the slumgum always +holds much wax, to extract which a wax-press is needed. All wax-presses +are necessarily rather expensive machines when bought, and not very +easily manufactured at home. In some of them the comb is melted by +steam and in some by hot water; in others the heated wax is dipped from +a kettle of hot water and poured into the press. + +The German steam wax-press is in general use in America, Mr. Root +having an improvement on it. It is a strongly built can, at the bottom +of which is a place for water, and above it an arrangement to receive +the wax drippings. A basket of perforated metal holds the comb and +occupies the larger and upper part of the can; a follower worked by a +screw presses down upon the heated comb and forces the wax down and out +through a spigot. This machine weighs sixty pounds and costs fourteen +dollars, and if the apiary contains more than forty hives of bees, such +a wax-press will pay for itself soon with the wax which would otherwise +be lost. + +We have seen one home-made press constructed from a half barrel worked +by the machinery of a cheese-press. The follower was cleated on the +under side, and the barrel was filled with boiling water; the wax as +it was pressed out was run off by a spout at the top. Another which +was used successfully was simply a box with cleated bottom and a +cleated follower into which the hot wax was poured and pressed out +most successfully. One of the wax presses used by many is called the +Hatch-Gemmill press, which is run on the principle of dipping the hot +wax off hot water and squeezing it through the press. + + +REFINING WAX WITH SULPHURIC ACID + +On a small scale this may be done in an agate or porcelain-lined +kettle. Mr. Root even advises on occasion the use of a large iron +kettle. The kettle is filled half full of water, 100 parts to one part +acid, and is brought nearly to the boiling point over a slow fire; the +wax is then added and is kept hot for a little time after it is melted, +and then the fire is allowed to die down; as soon as it is cool enough +so that the dirt has settled, the wax is dipped off, great care being +taken not to stir up the settlings. If an iron kettle is used it should +afterward be thoroughly washed with boiling water, and rubbed with +fresh lard or some other unsalted grease to stop the action of the acid +upon it. Beeswax may be bleached by exposing it in thin sheets to the +sunlight. + + +ADULTERATED BEESWAX + +Dishonest dealers have attempted to adulterate beeswax with several +substances; tallow, paraffine and cerasin being more commonly used. +Tallow or other greasy adulterants may be detected by the smell; and +because the cakes of wax containing them feel and look greasy. But +paraffine and cerasin are not so easily detected by the eye or feel. +The specific gravity test is the one used by dealers. A piece of wax +known to be pure is placed in a jar of water, and enough alcohol is +added so that the wax will just settle to the bottom. Then a piece of +the suspected wax is placed in the jar, and if it contains either +paraffine or cerasin it will still float. Another test but not so exact +is made by chewing the wax; if it is pure it will be brittle and break +as it is chewed, but adulterated wax is cohesive like gum. + + +MAXIMS FOR BEESWAX MAKING + +The wax-market is always good, and the wise bee-keeper saves every +scrap of this precious material. + +Do not be mussy when making beeswax, or it will take longer to clean up +than to make the wax. + +Do not use galvanised iron vessels for boiling wax as the quality is +thus injured. + +Clean wax off with hot water or benzine. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +FEEDING BEES + + +WHEN TO FEED + +At least twice during the season bees are likely to need more food than +they can get in the fields, if the bee-keeper is to do a profitable +business. Once early in the spring when for some reason the nectar +supply fails, and it is desirable to stimulate the rearing of brood; +again, late in the season when the colony has not enough honey for +winter use. When the cupidity of the bee-keeper leads him to extract +too much honey, then must he forsooth open his pocketbook and buy +expensive sugar to feed back to those whom he has robbed. However, bees +should be watched closely; they may need feeding at any time, for it is +hard to predict when the honey or pollen harvest may fail in a given +locality. + +When food is given the bees in the spring, it is largely for the +sake of stimulating them to extra activity; and thus develop large, +strong colonies ready for work as soon as the harvest occurs. The +brood-chambers should be closely watched in the early spring and if +there is not sufficient food for the brood present, it should be +provided. In the fall the hive should be examined by the middle of +September or the first of October. A colony of ordinary size ought to +have at least thirty pounds of capped honey. The ordinary Langstroth +frame, when filled on both sides, contains about five pounds of honey; +therefore, there should be an equivalent of six filled frames in each +hive. If the swarm lacks this amount, an estimate should be made of how +much more it needs, and this amount should be fed. + +Bees are usually fed upon honey or syrup made from the best granulated +sugar, although some have claimed that the best grade of coffee-sugars +make a good syrup; but the consensus of opinion is in favour of the +granulated. The syrup is made in two ways: First, by heat. Melt the +granulated sugar in its own weight or measure of water; it should be +heated slowly, and never reach a temperature higher than 180° F. lest +it burn, for scorched syrup fed in winter is as fatal to bees as so +much poison. The mixture should be stirred until the sugar is entirely +dissolved, then allowed to cool slowly, and it is ready for use. If +there are many to feed, a wash-boiler is a very convenient utensil to +use, as it is easier to make a large quantity at a time. Because of the +danger of scorching a cold process has been evolved. It consists of +taking equal measures of sugar and water; the latter should be boiling +hot and the two stirred together until the sugar is dissolved. This may +be done in a churn or in the honey-extractor. In following this process +it is best to add the sugar a bowlful at a time, while stirring the +mixture industriously. The syrup should be thin when finished, as it +is better to let the bees attend to the ripening of it. + + +HOW TO FEED + +There are two general plans for feeding bees. One is to place the syrup +outside the hive, and the other to place it within the hive. The first +is much more convenient for the apiarist, but unless the work be done +very carefully or in the evening, and the syrup well guarded, the bees +may become demoralised and begin robbing. Feeding outside the hive can +be done only during warm weather. There are several simple feeders in +which the syrup is placed at night, and taken away in the morning; but +the method most generally followed is to fill a Mason fruit can with +the syrup and place on it a perforated cover, then invert it in a box +in front of the hive; the entrance to this box is so connected with the +entrance to the hive that robbing is impossible. The box and cover are +sold under the name of the Boardman feeder. As there is very little +air in the can, the syrup oozes out very slowly through the perforated +cover, and the bees take it as fast as it comes. This feeder is +satisfactory in that we can tell at a glance when it needs replenishing. + +However, most apiarists follow the custom of feeding within the +hive, and strive to accomplish this without loss of warmth in the +brood-chambers, and without disturbing or daubing the bees. Of all the +devices for feeding within the hive, the division board feeder is the +most practical. It consists simply of a division board made to hold +the syrup, which is placed in the hive instead of a frame, Plate XII. +There is a hole at the top so that it may be refilled by simply pushing +back the cover, and pouring in the syrup from a pitcher. The only +objection to this feeder is its size, as it does not hold more than two +pounds of syrup, and if used for fall feeding would need to be filled +many times. This feeder is especially useful for stimulating the bees +in the spring, and is also most practical in developing nuclei. In a +small apiary it is quite practical for all purposes. + +Of the larger inside feeders the Smith, the Heddon and the Miller are +generally used. These are alike in one respect; they are flat boxes +placed directly above the frames and beneath the quilts. The Heddon and +the Miller each take a certain specified number of pounds of syrup, so +that when we use them we can tell just how much we are feeding. The +Miller is especially convenient in this respect, and has one advantage +over the others in that the entrance for the bees is directly above +the centre of the brood-chamber, so that the bees may enter it easily +without loss of heat. This fact renders it an excellent feeder for cold +weather. Some still use the pepper-box feeder, which consists of a tin +can with perforated cover, inverted above the frame, but this lifts the +quilts and lets in the cold, and is awkward to use; and as it does not +hold very much it is quite inconvenient to manage. + +Some altruistic people take the frames of comb from which honey has +been extracted and fill the cells with syrup. This is done by laying +the comb flat and letting the syrup into it through a fine sieve, or by +using a force-pump with a spray nozzle. After the frame is filled it is +allowed to stand on edge until the drain has ceased and then it is hung +in the hive, and presto! the bees never know that they have been robbed. + +In the happy days, when we were getting our first experience, we fed +some colonies for the winter by introducing chunk honey into the bottom +of the hive and it worked like a charm, except that we were obliged to +lift the hive to put in the honey, and again to remove the beautifully +cleaned comb. One never realises how beautiful empty honey-comb may +be unless he has had the privilege of examining a freshly made comb +or one which the bees have cleaned. Bee-books advise putting in the +chunk honey above the brood-frames, using Hill’s device above it so it +will not be crushed by the quilt. We have done this, setting the comb +in every direction, and our bees ignored it in a most provoking way; +but when they found it at the bottom of the hive, they carried it up +at once. We never knew why our bees were so contrary in refusing to +take the honey from above because other people’s bees seem to like it +administered in that way. + + +HOW AND WHEN TO FEED CANDY + +If necessary to feed the bees in midwinter many people use candy. This +is made by boiling granulated sugar in a double boiler until it is +brittle when dropped in cold water. It is then taken off and stirred +and poured into flat dishes to harden, from which it can be taken as +a cake and placed on top of the frame at the centre of the hive. Some +pour the candy into the wooden butter-trays and after it hardens invert +the tray over the middle of the brood-nest. Some, instead of caking it +thus, mould it in a brood-frame by holding the frame flat on a table +or board covered with oil paper and pouring the candy in; it thus +hardens fast to the frame, and may be put directly in the brood-nest. +The famous Good candy, so called because it was invented by Mr. Good, +although the excellence of the product would have given it that name +anyway, is made by taking extracted honey, and heating it until it is +quite thin, but not allowed to boil, and mixing into it confectioner’s +sugar until the spoon can no longer stir it; then the mixture is taken +out, and placed on a board and more sugar kneaded into it until it is +of firm consistency. In hot weather more sugar is needed than in the +winter. In making this candy skill is evinced in getting it as soft as +possible, and yet stiff enough so that it will not flow. Only the best +honey is used for this; and if the confectioner’s sugar seems impure, +then granulated sugar should be pounded in a mortar or rolled under a +rolling-pin until fine and used instead. The confectioner’s sugar may +be tested by putting a little in a glass of water and noting if there +is a sediment. + + +FEEDING RYE FLOUR + +This is given as a substitute for pollen, and is often of great use +in the spring when the flowers are late in blossoming, or when severe +rains wash the pollen from the fruit bloom. Pollen or its equivalent +is absolutely necessary for rearing the brood. The unbolted rye flour, +or even oatmeal, or whole-wheat flour may be used by the bees as a +substitute with perfect success. The meal may be mixed with the candy +if it is desirable; but the usual way is to place it in a trough or box +that is shallow, press it down hard so that it will be not more than an +inch or two thick, to prevent the bees from getting suffocated while +working in it. We must remember that the bee has two rows of holes +along each side of the body through which it breathes, and thus could +be suffocated as easily in soft flour as in water. The box containing +the meal is usually placed a few rods distant from the apiary, and +often some old combs with honey in them are placed on top so as to +attract the bees to the box, and let them know that it contains food +for them. Most bee-keepers say that the box needs to be placed in the +sun or the bees ignore it. + + +FEEDING FOR HONEY + +Some bee-keepers practise feeding all the colonies early in the season +so that the brood has plenty of sugar-syrup stored near it when the +honey season opens; and since the brood-comb is full the bees begin +at once to store in the supers. Mr. Boardman who invented the best +entrance-feeder practises this, with the result of getting more honey +than other bee-keepers of his neighbourhood, who do not feed at this +time. It is especially valuable in years when the honey is scarce, for +then the bees store all the honey they gather in the supers. However +there is one thing to consider carefully in this feeding, and that +is the relative price of syrup and honey. If the market is glutted +and honey is plentiful and cheap, this sort of feeding would better +be practised cautiously; but when honey is scarce and dear, it is +certainly a safe experiment. + + +FEEDING BACK + +When the sections are not well filled in the late season, it is the +practice of some apiarists to feed extracted honey in order to fill +them. For this only the best honey is used; it is mixed with water, +ten pounds of honey to one of water, and heated so that it is a fluid +and then poured in the larger kind of feeders, and is put in at night, +as the smell of the heated honey particularly incites bees to robbing. +However, the flavour of honey which has been fed back is inferior to +that which is only once made, and but a few apiarists practise feeding +back successfully. + + +WATERING BEES + +If there is no fresh water in the immediate vicinity of the hives, +special provision should be made to secure it, as it is a highly +desirable adjunct to a well-regulated apiary. While there are times +during the season when the bees get most of the moisture they need +from the nectar, there are other times when they drink water eagerly. +This is especially so in the spring when they are gathering much +pollen and little water, and the weather is warm. Running water is +more desirable, and if the drip from a faucet flow over a board, or +on pebbles, it affords a nearly ideal drinking place for the bees, +since they can drink freely and are in no danger of drowning. Some +bee-keepers invert a Mason jar filled with water, on a board that has a +few shallow groves, perhaps one-eighth inch deep; the water flows out +slowly owing to atmospheric pressure; if a little salt be added to the +water the bees lap it up eagerly. + + +MAXIMS FOR FEEDING + +Keep close watch of the bees during the entire season, so as to know +whether they need feeding or not. + +Feed only good honey or the best sugar. + +Never feed scorched sugar in the winter, as it will surely kill the +bees. + +Observe the practice of feeding at nightfall to preclude robbing. + +Never spill the syrup or honey around the yard lest robbers be led on +to black deeds. + +Feed small amounts to stimulate a swarm or nucleus. Bees are +susceptible to small encouragements. + +Be careful never to cool off the brood-chamber when feeding in early +spring or late fall. + +See to it that the bees have water near by, especially early in the +season. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HOW TO WINTER BEES + + +IDEAL CONDITIONS + +The wintering of bees in the northern latitudes is usually attended +with more or less loss. Although we now think we know the conditions +necessary for perfect wintering, it is only now and then that they are +attained. There are so many unhappy and unpredictable circumstances and +vicissitudes, that one must needs be a true prophet as well as a good +bee-keeper to be sure that all his swarms will successfully pass the +period of snow and cold. + +The problem of wintering hinges as much on protection from dampness as +on protection from the cold. We all know that double windows in a room +keep the frost off the panes. The reason for this is that the dampness +of the room is not allowed to come in contact with the cold outside +glass. So it is with the beehive; if it is single-walled the dampness +from the breath of the bees causes the frost to gather on the walls +of the hive, which later melts and wets the bees so that they chill +easily; the double-walled hive is a guard against this condition. + + +GETTING READY FOR WINTERING + +First of all that watchward of the bee-keeper must be fully realised, +“Keep the colonies strong.” Most men of experience do not attempt to +winter a colony that is not large enough to cover at least four of the +Langstroth brood-frames. If a colony is as small as this, the division +boards should be used to contract the hive and make it as cosy and +comfortable as possible. It is far safer to try to winter a colony that +covers six frames than one that covers only four; the more the bees the +warmer the hive, the less the loss, and also the less missed are those +that die. To secure good swarms it is best to keep up the breeding +throughout the summer, which can be done by feeding if the honey is +scarce. + +Next in importance to a strong colony is good honey and plenty of it +sealed in the combs, so that wholesome food may help to sustain the +bees during this trying period. With a four-frame colony four frames +of sealed stores will be enough. A Langstroth brood-frame should +hold about five pounds of honey if it is well filled. If the colony +is larger, then more honey must, of course, be given. We never allow +any of our colonies to begin winter without at least thirty pounds +of sealed honey, and when a colony is very large we have given it +thirty-five pounds. This may seem wasteful extravagance on our part, +but the honey not used in the winter is of use in the spring. It is +necessary that the honey be of good quality; the bee is such a neat +housekeeper that she will suffer death rather than let food pass +through her alimentary canal when she is dormant, and thus render +unsanitary the bee-city, a devotion to municipal sanitation which is +hardly found elsewhere in the annals of living beings. If honey of poor +quality is fed to the bees and they hold within themselves such food, +disaster is likely to ensue. In preparing the hive for winter what is +known as the Hill’s device, which is a series of curved pieces of wood +held in place by a strip of tin, is placed above the frames to support +the cushion so as to allow the bees to readily climb over them. We use +a super cover in our chaff hives instead of the Hill’s device. + +There are three ways of wintering bees in common use. First in +the chaff or double-walled hives left in the open. Second, in +tenement-hives. Third, the hives are carried into cellars. The +reprehensible way of leaving bees out of doors in single-walled +hives with no protection during the winter is no longer practised by +civilised people. + + +OUTDOOR WINTERING + +Many apiarists protect the hive by a box, several inches larger than +the hive in every diameter, placed over the hive, the spaces between +being packed with chaff or dried leaves. A passage-way out is always +preserved so that the bees may fly out during the early warm days, and +free themselves from the accumulated waste. This is a cheap way of +securing the advantages of a chaff hive. Such boxes are sold by the +dealers, and many good words are said for this method of wintering. + + +THE CHAFF HIVE + +The chaff hive is probably the most perfect of all of the devices +for out-of-door wintering when convenience and the saving of work as +well as success are taken into consideration. The chaff hive is a +double-walled hive with wall spaces packed with chaff. It is a certain +guard against extremes and sudden changes of temperature, as it remains +cool in the hot and warm in the cold weather. + +The chaff for packing should be fine. That from timothy hay, oats or +wheat is commonly used; saw dust and planer shavings and dried leaves +closely packed are also often resorted to. The packing should be below +as well as on the sides of the hive. A cushion made of burlap and +filled with chaff is put above a Hill’s device or super cover, as this +is the most convenient method of packing the hive on top. The bees +should be thoroughly established and have their stores ready as early +as October 1st. It is claimed by the admirers of the chaff hive that +they prevent spring dwindling by keeping the bees warm in the early +spring; and also that they keep the hive cool enough so that the brood +is not developed in the combs until the proper time for it. + +The chaff hives are sufficiently warm to preserve bees during ordinary +winters, but neither they nor any other out-door device were entirely +successful during the long, protracted cold of the winter of 1903–04 +when many bee-keepers in the Northern States lost 40 per cent. of their +bees. It might be wise when such a winter occurs to give some temporary +protection to the hives, like covering them with boughs of evergreen or +building a close windbreak. The entrance to a chaff hive should always +be contracted in winter to keep out cold and mice. + + +THE TENEMENT HIVE + +This is a box made for holding from two to ten hives, and which we have +used with perfect success. Our favourite tenement-hive was arranged for +six hives in two stories. The bottom was packed well with dry leaves +or chaff, and three hives were set somewhat near each other. Entrances +were boxed back, affording a front hall for each hive-entrance. After +three hives were thus set in and packed with chaff on every side and +between, a shelf was put across and on this were set three more hives +which were likewise packed. The entrances to the upper row were on the +same side as those to the lower row, and the cover of the box sloped +back from the front of the hives and was hinged along its highest +edge; thus when we wished to examine the hives we lifted the cover and +examined the bees from the back side instead of standing directly in +front of the entrance. Our losses were rare and small while using these +tenements. The advantage of the tenement over the chaff hive is that it +is cheaper, and that several colonies packed together help to keep each +other warm. + + +WINTERING IN CELLARS + +The way we always wintered bees in the old days was by placing them +in a cellar which was used for vegetables and was ill-ventilated and +damp. We well remember that in the spring the cellar windows were +covered with arrested prisoners; we do not recollect that we lost many +colonies, but if we did not, it was owing to the ways of inscrutable +Providence rather than our own understanding of the needs of the bees. +Probably most of the bees in the Northern climates are wintered in +cellars; and because they are wintered in all sorts of cellars with +varying degrees of dampness the mortality among them is likely to +be great. A cellar fit for wintering bees should be cemented on the +floor and sides, made mouse and rat tight, and should be well drained, +well ventilated and so arranged that the temperature may be kept in +the neighbourhood of 45° F. In such a cellar the hives lifted off +the bottom boards should be placed four or five inches apart on two +scantlings laid on the floor. In the next tier the middle of a hive +should bridge the opening between the lower hives on which it rests. +This arrangement gives plenty of ventilation to the hive from below, +and it is very important that the air be introduced below rather than +above. The cellar should be kept dark, and if the weather is warm +and the bees seem uneasy it should be ventilated at night by opening +the windows, which, by the way, should have wire screens to keep out +intruders. Some leave the bottom boards out on the summer stands, each +board bearing the same number as the hive which rests upon it, and +thus in the spring it is easy to find the home of each colony; but if +the bees are brought into the cellar without the bottom boards on the +hive they are quite likely to fly out more or less. Usually, therefore, +they are brought in on the bottom boards, and these are piled in +some convenient place until needed in the spring. In this case it is +advisable to have a map made of the apiary, and the hives and their +places numbered on the map, and thus each hive may be returned to its +old stand in the spring. + +If bees are wintered in the ordinary house-cellar it is far better to +partition off the part used for the bees from that used for vegetables, +and much pains should be taken to keep the air good and the cellar well +ventilated. + +Special bee-cellars are in vogue in some large apiaries. The cellar is +sometimes made beneath the bee-house, and sometimes it is a structure +by itself. Of all such cellars, the Bingham seems to us the cheapest, +and surely quite as practical as the others. It is built like a square +cistern, twelve feet square at the bottom, sixteen feet at the top +and six feet deep; it is cemented at the bottom and on the sides, and +the ceiling is flush with the level of the ground. Over this is built +a gable roof, the eaves extending down to a drain on either side so +that all the water is carried off. The ventilation is secured through +a pipe extending from the cellar ceiling to the top of the roof. The +floor over the cellar is tight and covered with sawdust; access to +the cellar stairs is gained through a trap door. Such a cellar as this +should be built on a dry knoll. Mr. Bingham has wintered successfully +ninety colonies in this house; and it will hold nearly twice as many. + +The bees may come out of the hives and die in great numbers when they +are wintered in a cellar. If any such seem distended and swollen they +have probably died of dysentery, and the matter should be looked into +immediately. However, many of the bees that die in winter are likely +to be the old ones which are not vigorous enough to stand the strain +of the cold. The cellar floor should be swept several times during +the winter and all the dead bees removed so they shall not pollute +the atmosphere. The cellar should always be dark, but the bees can be +easily examined with a lamp, or what is better, a bull’s-eye lantern. + +The carrying of hives into the cellar is an onerous task when the +apiary is large. The entrance to the hive should be closed the night +before so as to be sure the whole family is moved. The hives should be +carried with as little perturbance to the occupants as may be; several +methods of carrying the hives easily and quietly have been invented. +Mr. Root uses a wire bent like a V with the wooden piece of a common +pail bale at the angle. The prongs of the V are bent at right angles +into hooks which hook under the bottom board; two men carry the hive, +one on each side, each with a carrier just described. Mr. Miller has a +simple rope carrier that slips under the cleated ends of the hive. Mr. +Boardman has a delightful device, which is a carrier in the shape of a +push-cart with two wheels. A board just large enough to set the hive +upon with rope handles at either side serves admirably. + + +WHEN TO PUT BEES IN THE CELLAR + +This should be done as soon as steady cold weather comes on. In this +northern climate the colonies should be ready in October, for the +appointed time for putting them in the cellar is likely to occur +between the first and fifteenth of November. If put in too soon and the +weather is warm they become uneasy; they should be put in during a dry +day so that the hives will not be dampened by rain or fog. + + +WHEN TO TAKE BEES OUT OF THE CELLAR + +This is decided somewhat by the bees themselves; if they awaken and +push out and try to escape in great numbers, it is a sign that they had +best be put out as soon as it can be safely done. Mr. Root makes the +practice of putting his bees out of the cellar in the middle of a warm +day in midwinter, so that they may have a cleansing flight, and then +puts them back in the cellar that night; which shows that a merciful +man is good to his bees. However, some other bee-keepers think that +this taking them out in midwinter is fraught with danger. + +In a climate like that of New York it is hardly safe to take the hives +from the cellar before the last of April or the first of May. The +general rule is to wait until there is a prevalent temperature of +70°, and the willow, the alder, and the soft maples are in blossom, +so that the bees may gather pollen as soon as they are put out. The +glowing banners of the red maple blossoms give signal to most of the +bee-keepers in the northern climate that it is time that the bees were +on the wing. + + +SPRING DWINDLING + +The cause of this is attributed to various conditions by various +bee-keepers. The evidence of it is shown by the listlessness of the +swarm, and by the dying of the bees. Whatever the reason, all apiarists +agree it is more common during cold, backward springs, and that it is +less prevalent when the bees are put out in warm, sunny locations. The +only remedies suggested are that the brood-chambers be contracted so +that the bees can easily keep the comb warm, and that plenty of good +syrup and rye flour and water be given to the bees if they are unable +to get food from the flowers. Many apiarists have tried the joining of +two colonies when this dwindling appears, hoping thus to get enough +bees in a hive to keep it warm, but they all agree that this does not +help the matter. + + +MAXIMS FOR WINTERING + +Keep the colonies strong. Be sure that a good-sized swarm has at least +thirty pounds of sealed stores. + +Pollen should not be left in the comb for winter use. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by M. V. Slingerland_ + +PLATE XXII. WINTER QUARTERS IN CHAFF HIVES] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XXIII. PLUM BLOSSOMS + +The fruit-bloom is a great aid to the bees while rearing their brood.] + +Be sure that the honey is of good quality, and not made from decayed +fruit or honey-dew. + +Give the hive ventilation from below. + +If wintered out of doors, give the bees a chance to fly. + +If wintered in cellars, do not put too many bees in a cellar. If you +have space for fifty colonies, do not try to winter more than thirty in +it. + +In cellars take off the bottom boards and arrange the hives so that the +bees will get plenty of ventilation from below. + +Have a thermometer in the cellar and keep watch of it. This should not +show more than ten degrees of variation. If the temperature rises to +55°, open the windows at night. + +Keep the cellar dark and the air sweet. + +Sweep the dead bees off the cellar floor several times during the +winter. + +Contract the brood-chamber in the fall, and again, if necessary, when +the hives are set out in the spring, until there is only comb enough so +that the bees can cover it well. + +See that the bees have plenty of food and good water near by when set +out in the spring. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS + + +QUEEN-REARING + +In a small apiary there is little need for the special rearing of +queens; the natural increase may safely be depended upon to supply +all the colonies which lose their queens or which have unprofitable +ones. It is always well for even the most casual bee-keeper to take +the trouble to re-queen from his strongest and best colonies. However, +the time when queen cells are naturally built may not be the most +convenient or the most desirable time for giving certain colonies a +new mother. This being the case, queens may be developed through the +power of suggestion, as follows: Select a frame of brood from the best +colony; with a toothpick tear down the partitions between three worker +cells which contain eggs or larvæ less than two days old and destroy +two of the eggs or larvæ; repeat the operation in several places. Place +the frame back in the hive, being very sure that there is sufficient +space between it and its neighbouring frame, so that good queen cells +may be built. If there is a scarcity of honey, feed the bees. The +cleverness of bees is clearly proven by the readiness with which they +take a hint, and they almost invariably build queen cells upon the +comb thus treated. + +This method we have found perfectly satisfactory, but for those who +rear queens for sale, other very interesting practices have been +invented. The greatest of these was devised by Mr. Doolittle, one of +the foremost queen-breeders in America. He makes artificial queen cells +by dipping a small, smoothly rounded stick in warm wax repeatedly, +thus making a little cup, thin at the edge and thick at the bottom. +Rows of these little cups are placed on a bar the thickness of a +brood-frame and fastened there with hot wax. In each cup is introduced +a bit of royal jelly and a very young larva. The bar is then inserted +horizontally into a frame of brood-comb, part of the latter being cut +away to give room for the future cells, which project down from the +bar. In such a royal nursery, he develops his queens for the market. + + +INTRODUCING QUEENS + +Though royalty in the hive is of quite another feather than in human +society, yet there is quite as much ado when it comes to installations +in one as in the other. While a bee-colony is absolutely devoted to its +own queen, it may seriously object to a queen thrust upon it by some +outside power. And thus it happens that the introduction of a new queen +into a hive is fraught with danger to her majesty as well as to the +pocket-book of the bee-keeper. + + +BALLING THE QUEEN + +“Balling” in the hive is an indignity that may well have suggested to +other societies the method of black-balling unwelcome seekers after +honours. The bees ball an unwelcome queen by gathering around her +in a compact mass, remaining there until the unfortunate usurper is +smothered or starved, or both. As if to live up to their mathematical +reputation, this ball is quite spherical because each bee is an +animated atom of centripetal force scrambling and pushing toward the +centre. This method of smothering royalty is regarded as an evidence +of the worker’s reluctance to sting a fertile queen. But observations +are recorded which state that the bees on the outside of the ball seem +fiercely trying to sting, and that the individuals nearest the queen +ofttimes share her fate because of this venomous attitude of their +sisters. Whether this use of the sting by the outsiders is for the +purpose of fighting their way toward the centre, or whether they are +mad with a desire to kill the queen, is by no means a settled question. +However, if they were bent upon stinging her to death, she would +scarcely be alive after having been balled for some time; while it is +a matter of common experience that by breaking up the ball and driving +off the murderers, the queen may be saved. Sometimes the bees will ball +a queen for a time, then voluntarily release her and accept her. + +There are two ways generally followed for dissolving this lump of +excited regicides and saving the queen. One is to drop the ball in a +shallow bowl of water. This baptism seems to cool the hot blood and +the bees swim off, trying to preserve their own lives. The other is to +smoke the ball until it dissolves into individual bees, so anxious to +get breath for themselves that they forget to shut off the breath of +the obnoxious queen. There is a danger attending the latter method, for +unless the smoking be done carefully and without blowing hot air on +the bees, they will become infuriated by the heat and surely sting the +queen; as they evidently regard her, and rightly, as the cause of their +suffering. + + +WHEN TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN + +The colony should have been queenless long enough to realise the danger +of the situation, but not long enough to have done much toward building +queen cells and developing larval queens; in the latter case they +prefer a queen of their own dynasty and object to any other. Thus, if +a queen is to be superseded she should be removed and, about two days +later, the new one should be introduced. + +It requires experience to know certainly that a colony has become +queenless, for often, when there is no brood or eggs in the cells there +is a virgin queen, which eludes the eye, as she does not appear very +differently from the workers; a colony with virgin queens of its own +cannot be induced to accept an introduced queen. + +Mr. Root tests a colony which he suspects is queenless in the following +clever way: He takes a cage containing a laying queen and holds it +over the frames so that it touches them and the bees may thus get the +scent. If the bees have no queen they express their pleasure at this +godsend in a very pretty manner by a joyful fluttering of the wings, +which conveys the idea of happiness to even our dull senses. To such a +colony, the queen may be given with no formalities. + + +HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN + +The colony should be made good-natured by having plenty of food. If +there is scarcity of honey, the bees should be fed for a day or so, +great care being taken not to start other colonies to robbing by +exposing the syrup. The queen is then introduced in a queen-cage, +which should be placed between the brood-combs. This should be done +as carefully as possible without disturbing the bees. At the end of +forty-eight hours an examination should be made, and if the bees are +balling the cage, she should be left twenty-four hours longer. When the +bees gather around the cage in normal numbers she may be entrusted to +them without fear. + + +QUEEN-CAGES + +First of these are the shipping-cages, and it is a thrilling moment +when one takes a package from the mail, labelled “Queen Bee, Deliver +Quick.” And it is still more exciting when the cover slides around, +revealing her gracious majesty with a few attendants, safe beneath the +wire screen; for no bee-dealer would be so heartless or foolish as to +send a queen on a journey without a few ladies-in-waiting to give her +companionship and care. + +The cage in which a queen is shipped is always tagged or labelled with +directions for introducing the queen, which, if followed implicitly, +almost always insures success. + +The plan of a queen-cage is a cell made of wire screen with twelve to +fifteen meshes to the square inch, large enough to allow the bees to +thrust in their antennæ and thus get acquainted with their proposed +sovereign, but not large enough to permit a sting to be effectively +thrust through. The cell, itself, is large enough so that the prisoner +will not suffocate if the cage is balled. At one end of the cage is an +opening into which is pressed a cork of candy, over which is tacked a +piece of pasteboard, through which is a central line of perforations. +At first the bees are wild to get at the queen, and incidentally in +their attack they get a taste of the candy through the holes in the +pasteboard. This distracts their attention, and they work industriously +at biting away the pasteboard to get at the candy. And by the time +they have worked their way through the delectable door, their attitude +towards the prisoner is naturally sweetened, and usually they accept +her at once. The “Good candy” is used for this purpose, for the queen +is also sustained on this confection during her incarceration, and +unless a moist candy is used, she will suffer for lack of water. + +Home-made cages are usually employed in introducing queens from the +home apiary. These are of various forms and devices, the Miller being +a favourite. His materials are as follows: One block of wood 3 × 1¼ × +⅜ in.; two blocks of wood 1 × ⁷⁄₁₆ × ⅜ in.; two pieces of tin 1 in. +square; two pieces of fine wire 9 in. long; one piece of wire-cloth 4½ +× 3½ in.; four wire nails ½ in. long. (Plate V.) + +The illustration shows how the material is used. The space between the +two small blocks of wood, held in place by the pieces of tin forms a +door for the candy. The large piece of wood serves as a plug at the +other end of the cage, which may be removed, and the cage set down over +the queen, thus capturing her without handling her. When a queen is +placed in a cage she should always be allowed to climb up into it. It +is not natural for her to climb down. + + +THE NUCLEUS METHOD + +This method of introducing very valuable queens is said by experts to +be absolutely safe. It is accomplished by making a nucleus of two or +three frames of brood, which is sealed and some of it just breaking +through the cell caps. Not an adult bee is permitted to remain, and +there should be as few uncapped larvæ as possible, since such will +starve. The queen is placed on these combs and the young bees, as +they issue innocent of men’s scheming, accept her as their legitimate +mother, and a colony is soon built up. A nucleus hive of this sort +must be placed in a warm room, unless it is hot weather, as there +are no bees to warm the brood. Care must also be taken to put a wire +screen over the entrance of the hive for a day or two to prevent the +queen from escaping if she becomes uneasy midst such a dreary waste of +adolescence. + + +MAXIMS FOR INTRODUCING QUEENS + +Be sure the colony is queenless before attempting to introduce a queen. + +Be sure the bees have not progressed far in rearing young queens. + +Be careful not to anger or disturb the bees by smoke or hot blast or +otherwise when placing the queen in the hive. + +If honey is scarce, feed the colony before trying to introduce the +queen. + +Place the cage containing the queen on the frames near the centre of +the brood-chamber, wire cloth below her, so that the cage rests on the +bars of the frames. + +Do not disturb the colony for forty-eight hours after introducing the +queen-cage. + +Be careful not to allow the queen to escape by flight when liberating +her. + +Remember, a queen crawls up instead of down. + +After queens are two or three years old they should be replaced by +young queens. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +ROBBING IN THE APIARY + + +A CAUSE OF DEMORALISATION + +The moral law seems to be as potent among the bees as among men, +and if the law be broken there is a moral penalty attached. Nothing +demonstrates this more fully than robbing in the apiaries, for as +soon as it begins utter demoralisation ensues. All legitimate work is +stopped, and all the energies of the bees are devoted to ill-gotten +gain and in fighting with each other, or attacking anything or anybody +that comes near them. One of the signs of this demoralisation is that +robbing makes the bees very cross. The experienced bee-keeper can +detect robbing by the angry humming which pervades the apiary, which is +a sound as different from the ordinary contented hum of the working bee +as martial music is from a pastoral symphony. + + +WHY BEES ROB + +Bees rob for the very human and natural reason that the stores gathered +by the hard work of others are coveted and are more easily stolen +than earned by labour. When dealing with bees we must always remember +that the interest of the individual centres in its own colony, and +that it has neither love nor devotion to any other colony, nor to +bees in general; indeed, quite otherwise. Endowed with an instinct +almost fiendish, bees seem to understand when another colony is weak +or discouraged, and, therefore, offers a legitimate field for plunder. +Strong colonies are seldom robbed, as they are able to drive out and +kill the thieves; but the weak colony is a constant temptation to ill +doing, and should be carefully watched and guarded. + + +WHEN BEES ROB + +This occurs usually when there is little honey to be found in the +field. Satan provides mischief for the idle six feet and four wings +quite as efficiently as for hands. At the end of the honey-harvest +there may be a general temptation throughout the apiary to break open +vaults of precious stores belonging to others, and escape with the +contents. At the close of the honey season strong colonies usually have +plenty of sentinels to guard the entrance and look after suspicious +strangers. Never at any time should honey-comb be left open around the +apiary, for it always leads to robbing. It seems to suggest to the bees +that honey gathered is a much more desirable product than that worked +for in the fields. + +Sometimes when preserving or pickling is going on in the house the bees +start to rob the kitchen; and while they may be deterred by screened +windows, yet the smell of the sweets may so excite them to desires for +forbidden wealth that they seem to become discontented with the grind +of daily toil, and so begin robbing their neighbours. + + +HOW THE ROBBING IS DONE + +The robber, unless she be hardened by success, alights on the threshold +of the hive which contains coveted stores with an air that is decidedly +apologetic, having the general appearance of a prospecting dog with his +tail apprehensively between his legs. She shows her guilty conscience +by dodging back if she meets one of the legitimate owners coming out of +the hive; she is thus trying the skill and prowess of the sentinels, +for if by assuming bravado she can pass the sentinels she is usually +safe; then she has nothing to do but to fill with honey and to run the +gauntlet of the sentinels again, for perchance some of them may stop +her and ask her why she is going out of the hive _filled_ with honey, a +proceeding altogether reprehensible in the bee world. If she succeeds +in carrying back to her own hive the honey thus stolen, she creates +great excitement there and soon she leads back a mob to pillage; +and the air is full of bees bent on wickedness. Mr. Root describes +graphically the successful robber thus: “A bee that has stolen a load +is generally very plump and full, and as it comes out has a hurried and +guilty look; besides it is almost always wiping its mouth like a man +who has just come out of a beer shop. Most of all it finds it a little +difficult to take wing as bees ordinarily do because of its weight.” As +a consequence a robber bee borne down with its load of sweetness is +likely to crawl up the hive a little way so as to have the advantage of +a high place to “jump from” as it takes wing. The virtuous worker comes +out of the hive slim and depleted of her load and flies off leisurely +to the field, while the robber comes out stuffed full and furtively +climbs up the side of the hive in order to be able to be off. + +We usually detect robbing in our apiary by the fighting which we +observe about the entrance; when we see a pair of workers rolling over +and over with each other in the grass near the hive we know that one +of them is a robber, but as we do not know which one we are obliged +to apply the test meted to the knights of old, and believe that the +one who survives is in the right. However, we take measures at once to +defend this hive. Also if we discover the bees to be particularly cross +some day, we look about to see what has aroused their ire, and nine +times out of ten find that robbing is the cause of their ill temper. + + +HOW TO STOP ROBBING + +Contract the entrance to the hive being robbed. To do this we place +blocks in front of it, leaving only enough space so that one or two +bees can pass in at a time. The robbers having to enter in single file +attract the attention of the suspicious sentinels and are either driven +back or killed at once. It is unsafe to close the entrance entirely, +unless it is done with a wire screen, for the bees within will smother +unless the air is admitted through the entrance. It is always well +to keep the entrance of the hive which contains a weak colony or a +nucleus somewhat contracted as a measure of insurance. If contracting +the entrance does not stop robbing, Mr. Root advises strewing long +grass about the entrance which he wets thoroughly. The robbers are too +wary to try to rob after they have wet their “feathers” in passing +through this grass; for thus handicapped they could hardly escape from +their enraged victims; while the robbers already within the hive after +having thus to crawl out will hasten home to get their clothes dry. Mr. +Doolittle uses a common sheet which he places over the hive that is +being robbed, while Mr. Miller places over the victimised hive a bee +tent of mosquito netting, which has a hole in the top which permits the +robbers to escape. + +A bee tent is a most useful adjunct to the apiary; there are many times +when it may be used, but it is especially useful in preventing robbing. +It is simply a tent made of mosquito netting large enough to be set +over the hive and the operator. When opening the hives at midday the +tent is used to prevent the robbers from attacking the exposed stores. + +Mr. Root advises working at nightfall when bees are cross or given to +robbing; but most bee-keepers declare that the bees will crawl all +over one at night, and are no more to be gotten rid of than a porous +plaster, at which Mr. Root promptly responds, “Do not stand near the +lamp.” + +Enterprising men exchange places of the robbers and victims, which +produces a confusion that restores quiet. The robbers come back to +the weak colony laden with its own stores and join it and help fight +off intruders; while a strong colony of robbers is quite capable of +defending itself. + +Another clever trick practised in Europe is to place some disagreeable, +strong-smelling substance on the bottom board of the hive that is being +robbed; wormwood, musk, carbolised paper, are used for this. The odour +disconcerts the robber unless she is lost to all sense of bee decency; +and if she does steal honey from such a hive and returns home her doom +is sealed; for although in the bee world the way of the transgressor is +not always hard, the way of the citizen that smells differently from +her sisters leads to her murder and sudden death. + +If a robber colony has almost completed its nefarious work, some people +believe that it is best to let it make a clean job, and thus become +satisfied there is no more plunder to be had, else the robbers will +hunt other hives for depredation. The bee memory seems to be very +good, and if the robbers have not cleaned up all the honey which they +remember is there, they hunt for it elsewhere. We could never bring +ourselves to a frame of mind to permit this calmly, though it seems +like sensible advice. Robbing makes us so indignant that we refuse to +allow the spoils to the victor. + +Bees are certainly very clever, and they are able to learn. The old and +successful robber soon reasons it out that where the bee-keeper with a +smoker belches forth annoying fumes, there are to be found open hives +ready for robbing; such bees will follow the operator from hive to +hive, taking their tithe from the helpless colonies. For such robbers +as these a way to appease them is a device for letting them rob where +they can do little damage. Unsalable comb partly filled is put in hives +or supers piled up. These are ventilated by having a wire screen above, +the cover lifted, and the entrance contracted so that only one bee can +pass in and out at a time. This keeps the robbers busy and happy and +out of the way, and the process is called “slow robbing.” + +Some apiarists remove the robbed colony to a cellar for a day or two +until it can recover its communal courage. + + +BORROWING + +When a colony is queenless, or for some reason has no brood, it often +allows the robbers to come and go at will, as if it had found life +worthless anyhow, and that there was no use in struggling. It seems +possessed of the sort of pessimism which leads to stoic recklessness. +This can usually be stopped by giving the plundered colony a queen and +brood; as soon as the bees find they have something worth while to live +for and fight for they are mightily heartened and offer a brave defence. + + +WHAT BECOMES OF THE ROBBED COLONY + +Some of the bees are adaptable, and when they lose courage in defending +their own stores they turn about and help carry these stores to the +hive of the robbers, which they join, thus swearing allegiance to a +new flag. Others, more loyal, will cling to the old empty comb, cluster +there, hopeless and despairing until they die of starvation. + + +MAXIMS TO PREVENT ROBBING + +Be sure that the bees are robbing, before applying remedies. + +Keep the colonies strong. + +Keep watch of the hives in early spring and late fall when there is no +honey coming in. + +Leave no honey or loose comb open around the apiary under any +circumstances. + +If bees are determined to rob when the hives are opened by the +operator, it is best to work under a bee tent or after nightfall. + +Robbing demoralises the whole apiary. If the bees are cross, look out +for robbers. + +Be very careful in uncapping not to let the bees get a taste of the +chyle food, as that makes them very cross and wild to rob. + +Keep Italians. + +Do not let the colony become queenless, as a queenless colony is +legitimate prey for many depredators. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES + + +THE BEE-MOTH (_Galleria mellonella_) + +This miserable little pest is classic in its devastations as it is +mentioned by the old writers, Aristotle paying to it bitter tribute. +It belongs to a family of secretive moths which fold their dull wings +closely about the body, and thus look more like bits of sticks than +like insects. They are called the snout moths (_Pyralidæ_) because +the palpi extend out in front of the head in a highly ornamental and +striking manner. + +The bee-moth is a most insidious creature, hiding in cracks, and, when +it flies, darting about with almost inconceivable swiftness. It is +only by such means that it eludes the watchful bees. Professor Kellogg +observes that the moth simply works against time when it rushes into a +hive by laying its eggs rapidly, dodging about with the utmost rapidity +to leave as many progeny as possible before the bees can get hold of +her and tear her asunder, a fate which surely awaits her. So it seems +that even a parasite may be brave and go to certain death in fulfilling +its destiny. Mr. Cook says that the moth will lay eggs while her head +and thorax are being dissected, which shows that even after death she +is efficient for mischief in the hive. + +The eggs are small and white and are put into crevices. From such an +egg there hatches a caterpillar which spins about itself a silken tube, +wherein it lives and in some mysterious way is protected from the bees. +It may be that these tubes are of such texture that the bees cannot +sting through them; or they may simply be sufficiently thick to protect +their inmate from bee observation. The caterpillar lives upon the wax +and young bees, and also upon the bee-bread; it is a voracious eater, +and tunnels through the comb, destroying everything in its path. Those +who have had experience with it say that by holding an infested comb to +the ear, the noise made by the industrious jaws of the caterpillar can +be distinctly heard. Its presence can be detected by the filth and the +débris on the bottom board of the hive and also by the silken tubes on +the comb. When the caterpillars destroy the bee larvæ, the bees take +out the remains and dump them in front of the hive, thus gaining among +the ignorant, a reputation for infanticide which they little deserve. + +In favourable locations the growth of these moths from egg to adult may +require six weeks; the caterpillar when about an inch in length changes +to a pupa, in a very thick, protecting cocoon of tough silk. The silk +made by these caterpillars is of a most excellent quality; there is in +the Cornell University Museum a filmy but strong silken handkerchief +made by bee-moths passing and repassing over a flat board; it was made +quite involuntarily as the caterpillars spin wherever they go. The +bee-moth is especially destructive to stored comb if it is piled close +together. + + +REMEDY + +To prevent the injuries of this pest the colonies should be kept +strong. The bee-moth follows the rule of other parasites and attacks +only the weak and the irresolute, and never injures a comb that is +covered with bees. A queenless colony, dejected and discouraged, +is usually victimised by it. The Italian bees have learned to cope +with the bee-moth and exterminate it whenever attacked by it. Some +bee-keepers, when a comb becomes infested, introduce it into the centre +of an Italian colony, being sure that the little wretches will find +there the fate they deserve. But to us this seems rather an imposition +upon a self-respecting colony of bees. + +The use of plain, simple, well-made hives is a protection from the +bee-moth, as such hives do not afford hiding-places for moths and eggs. + +Before comb is stored it should be put in a closed box out of doors, +and a saucer of carbon bisulphide placed on top of the comb and left +for a day. The deadly gas of this poison is heavier than the air and so +falls instead of rising. Care should be taken not to breathe the fumes +more than is necessary and hence the work should be done in the open +air. Another reason for this is that the gas is inflammable, and hence +no fire should be allowed near it. There is another reason why the +work should be done in the open and that is because of the sickening +stench of the gas. Comb thus treated should be stored in a perfectly +tight receptacle, or else be set an inch or so apart on shelves. The +bee-moth caterpillar does not seem to like to work in combs that are +not set as closely together, as they are in the hives. + +If combs infested with the bee-moth are subjected to a temperature of +10° F. the moth is usually exterminated. However, the pest normally +passes the winter in the pupa state, and seems to be able to survive +in hives left out of doors, wherever the bees can survive. It should +be remembered that the bee-moth works only during the summer from May +until October, and remains quiescent during the winter. As a matter +of fact the modern up-to-date bee-keeper has almost no trouble with +the bee-moth. It is a special enemy of the heedless and careless man +who neglects his hives, and thus may well deserve to have his bees +exterminated. + +If a colony is attacked by the bee-moth, the hive should be thoroughly +cleaned; new good comb should be introduced and only enough so that the +bees can cover it. The infested comb should be fumigated with carbon +bisulphide, and after the moths are killed it may be given to a strong +colony to clean out and use. + + +THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH (_Plodia interpunctella_) + +The Indian-meal moth sometimes forsakes its bins of grain and meal and +devastates the honey-comb. It does not measure more than one-eighth of +an inch across its wings, and its caterpillar is almost too small to be +noticed, unless it occurs in great numbers. It sometimes attacks the +honey-comb in the North, and in the South it is often a great nuisance. +The only remedy for this very small pest is to change the bees to +smaller hives, and expose the infested comb to the fumes of carbon +bisulphide. + + +BEE-MOTH MAXIMS + +The shiftless bee-keeper is the one who complains of the wax-worm. + +Keep Italian bees. + +Keep the colonies strong. + +Do not leave more comb in the hive than the bees are able to cover. + +Use well-made hives with no crevices. + +If you see a web upon the comb, hunt out the caterpillar and kill it at +once. + +If bee-moths get into the honey store-room, close the room and fumigate +it with brimstone or carbon bisulphide. + + +FOUL BROOD + +This is an infectious bacterial disease, and its presence in the +apiary may be attended by serious results. When it first appeared in +America, large apiaries were completely destroyed. In 1874, Professor +Cohn discovered the organism which causes the disease, and which bears +the name of _Bacillus alvei_. This microbe attacks the immature larvæ +and they die in the cells. It always attacks, to a lesser extent, the +adult bee; but these leave the hive to die and are not such a dangerous +source of infection as are the decaying larvæ. Infected honey is the +medium by which the disease is ordinarily spread from hive to hive. +Undoubtedly robbing is to a great extent responsible for its prevalence. + + +HOW TO DETECT FOUL BROOD + +The brood appears in irregular patches and it does not all hatch; the +caps to the brood cells may be sunken and broken at the centre, the +holes being irregular, instead of the neat circular perforations which +may be found above the healthy larvæ. The sure test of the presence +of the disease is found in the dead body of the larva, which is dark +and discoloured; and if a toothpick or pin be thrust into it and then +drawn back, the body contents will adhere to it in a stringy mass, to +the extent of a half or even an entire inch, as if it were mucous or +glue; later the bodies of the larvæ dry and appear as black scales in +the cell bottoms. Another evidence of the presence of the disease is a +peculiarly disagreeable odour which permeates the hive, which Mr. Root +likens to that of a glue pot. + +_Remedies._—These have been worked out by many bee-keepers, notably by +Mr. William McEvoy, inspector of bees in Ontario, Canada. His remedy +is as follows: When there is a good honey flow so the bees will not +suffer, all the comb is taken from the infected colony and frames with +foundation-starters are given instead. Having no young to feed, the +bees use all the infected honey in their stomachs for making comb. At +the end of the fourth day all this comb is removed and new frames with +foundation are substituted, and the deed is done. + +Mr. Root’s practice is to remove the hive from its stand about dark, +to prevent robbing, and put another just like it in its place which +contains frames filled with foundation. The bees are shaken from the +infected hive into the new one. Here they are shut in without food for +three or four days, thus being compelled to use all the honey in their +honey sacs. Then they are fed and the disease does not appear again +in colonies thus treated. Mr. Root burns all the infected comb and +frames and disinfects the hives with hot water before they are used +again; other apiarists of experience support Mr. Root in this matter. +Fumigating the hives with burning brimstone would perhaps be an easier +or a surer way of disinfecting the hives. + +Many apiarists who do a large business do not destroy the infected +comb, but render it in a steam wax press. They also thin the infected +honey and boil it for two hours, adding to it a little salicylic acid, +and use it to feed back to the bees. But this would hardly pay, unless +great care were taken, as one drop of the infected honey would start +the disease anew. + +Some have tried medicated syrup as a remedy. It is true that syrup made +with salicylic acid or beta-naphthol will retard the disease, but most +bee-keepers believe that it is not a sure remedy. + + +BLACK BROOD + +This appeared in New York so frequently that it was called the New +York bee-disease. It was differentiated from foul brood by Dr. Wm. R. +Howard, of Texas, who found the bacillus and described it. The chief +way of telling it from foul brood is that the contents of the body of +the dead larva is jelly-like, instead of gluey. However, Dr. Veranus +Moore and Dr. G. Franklin White, of the New York Veterinary College +at Cornell University, worked upon this disease for some time and, +in 1903, reported that the bacillus of this disease is _alvei_ and +identical with that discovered and described by Cohn as the cause of +foul brood. + + +PICKLED BROOD + +This disease of the brood differs from the others in that the +body-contents of the dead larva are watery and that no peculiar stench +in the hive emanates from them. Neither is it so contagious as foul +brood, though it may seriously cripple an apiary, if not checked. The +remedy for foul brood is applied with success to colonies suffering +from this disease. + + +DIARRHOEA + +This disease is part of the difficulty of wintering. It is induced by +the bees’ habit of retaining waste matter in the body until they can +fly out of the hive, for thus they preserve the cleanliness of their +home. The first symptom of the disease is the soiling of the hive +entrance with brownish excrement; the bees are also likely to die in +great numbers, their bodies being much swollen. + +The cause of the disease is attributed to cold and dampness, and poor +food. If, in the fall, the bees store honey made from the juices of +rotting fruit or cider refuse, or from honey-dew excreted by plant +lice, they are very likely to perish by feeding upon it during the +winter. But even with good honey bees wintered in cold, damp hives are +liable to contract the disease. + + +PREVENTION + +Give the bees plenty of good food for winter. If the honey they have +gathered in August is extracted, feed them syrup from the best of +sugar. In winter keep the hives in proper temperature, with sufficient +good air and ventilation. After the disease once appears, there is no +remedy, except warm weather, which will promptly bring relief. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE + + +A detailed discussion of the anatomy of the honey-bee does not fall +within the scope of this book; for such a discussion, special works on +insect anatomy must be consulted. But there are certain of the more +general features of the structure of the bee which the bee-keeper +should know; and a discussion of these, merits a place even in an +elementary book on bee-keeping. + +In treating of insect anatomy it is customary to divide the subject +into two parts: first, external anatomy, which treats of the structure +of the body-wall; and, second, internal anatomy, which treats of the +parts found inside the body-wall. + + +I. EXTERNAL ANATOMY + +_The body-wall._—Insects differ fundamentally from man and other +backboned animals. With us, the muscles and other soft parts are +supported by an internal skeleton; with the insects the body-wall, that +part which corresponds to our skin, is hard and serves as a skeleton. +In some respects this is a better arrangement than that which obtains +with us, for the skeleton of an insect serves as an armour to protect +the body as well as a support for the soft parts. + +This arrangement of parts holds with the appendages of the body of +an insect as well as with the body itself; the legs, mouth-parts and +antennæ are all tubular organs, having a firm outer skeleton supporting +the inner parts. + +Movement of the body and its appendages is provided for by narrow, +flexible, zone-like areas in the skeleton which encircle the body and +the appendages, at frequent intervals. This segmented condition of +the body is easily seen in the hind part or abdomen, which appears to +consist of a series of rings. + +The microscopic structure of the body-wall is comparatively simple. +There is an inner cellular part which consists of a single layer of +cells: this is the hypodermis (Plate XXV, 2, _h_); and the outer or +hard part: this is the cuticle (Plate XXV, 2, _c_). + +The hypodermis is the active living part; it produces the cuticle, +which receives additions from it constantly during the life of the +insect. On this account, when a section of the cuticle is examined with +a microscope it presents a layered appearance. + +_Moulting of the cuticle._—From time to time during the growth of the +insect the outer layers of the cuticle are shed; this is known as +moulting. After a moult, the inner layers of the cuticle, which have +now become the outer layers, but which are still soft, stretch to +accommodate the increased size of the body, and then soon become hard. +This moulting, or shedding of the skin, takes place about six times +during the development of the bee. Several moults occur during the +larval life: one when the larva changes to a pupa, and the last one +when the pupa changes to the adult or winged form, just before leaving +the cell in which it has been developed. + +_The head._—The segments of which the body of an insect is composed are +grouped into three regions: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. + +The head is the first of the three regions. It is formed of several +segments grown together so as to form a compact box. It bears the eyes, +the antennæ, and the mouth-parts. + +The eyes are of two kinds, which are distinguished as the compound eyes +and the simple eyes. + +The compound eyes are two in number, one on each side of the head; +they are the organs commonly recognised as the eyes. They are called +compound eyes because each consists of a great number of little +eyes closely pressed together. If a compound eye be examined with a +microscope, it will be seen to present the appearance of a honey-comb, +being composed of a great number of six-sided elements; each of these +is a separate eye. + +In addition to the compound eyes, the bee has three simple eyes, or +_ocelli_, as they are termed. They are situated on the upper part of +the head between the compound eyes. + +The antennæ are two slender, many-jointed organs projecting from the +front part of the head. Their use has not been fully elucidated. +They are doubtless sense organs; and it is believed that certain +microscopic pits, which occur in great numbers in their cuticle, are +the organs of smell. It is possible, also, that the antennæ function as +organs of touch, certain hairs with which they are furnished being the +tactile organs. + +The mouth-parts are very complicated. They consist of an upper lip, a +lower lip, and two pairs of jaws between the lips. + +The upper lip is known as the _labrum_. It is a flap-like projection +situated above, or in front of, the other mouth-parts (Plate XXV, _u_). + +The first pair of jaws, those situated nearest the labrum, are the +mandibles (Plate XXV, 3, _md_). Each mandible consists of a single hard +piece. They are the biting organs. Certain wild bees, distantly related +to the honey-bee, dig holes in wood with their mandibles for nests +for their brood. The honey-bee uses its mandibles as tools for the +manipulation of wax and propolis, and as weapons in its combats. + +The second pair of jaws, which are situated between the mandibles and +the lower lip, are the maxillæ (Plate XXV, 3, _mx_). Each maxilla is a +long blade. The maxillæ, combined with the lower lip, constitute what, +in popular language, is known as the tongue, the organ by means of +which the food is conveyed to the mouth, or the nectar extracted from a +flower. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXIV. SUMAC IN BLOSSOM AND BLOSSOM OF MOUNTAIN MAPLE + +The Sumac is an excellent honey-producer.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXV. FIG. 1.—Vertical longitudinal section of the body of + a larva of an insect; _s_, body-wall or skeleton; _m_, muscles; + _a_, alimentary canal; _h_, heart; _n_, nervous system; _r_, + reproductive organs. FIG. 2.—Section of the body-wall; _c_, + cuticle; _h_, hypodermis; _t_, trichogen or hair-forming cell. + FIG. 3.—Head of a bee and its appendages; _a_, antenna; _c_, + clypens; _u_, upper lip or labrum; _m_, mandible; _mx_, maxilla; + _l_, lower lip or labium; _p_, labial palpus. FIG. 4.—Glands + of a honey-bee (after Girard); _1_, supracerebral glands; _2_, + postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic glands. FIG. 5.—The wax plates + (after Cheshire).] + +The lower lip, or labium (Plate XXV, 3, _l_), is the long central part +of the so-called tongue; it bears on each side a long appendage; +these are the labial _palpi_ (Plate XXV, 3, _p_). + +_The thorax._—The thorax is the central region of the body. It consists +of three body-segments, which are grown together so compactly in the +adult insect that it is difficult to distinguish them. The thorax bears +the organs of locomotion, the wings and the legs. + +There are two pairs of wings; but the two wings of each side are so +closely united that they appear as one. The union is accomplished by +a row of hooks on the front edge of the hind wing, which fasten into +a fold in the hind edge of the fore wing. The wings are strengthened +by a framework of heavy lines, which extend in various but definite +directions. Between these lines the wing is a thin membrane. + +There are three pairs of legs, a pair borne by each of the three +body-segments of which the thorax is composed. + +Each leg consists of nine segments and a pair of claws at the tip +of the last segment. The first two segments, the _coxa_ and the +_trochanter_, are short; then follow the two principal segments, the +_femur_, or thigh, and the _tibia_, or shank; the five remaining +segments constitute the _tarsus_ or foot. A striking peculiarity in +the _tarsi_ of bees is that the first segment differs greatly in form +from the other segments and is much larger, approaching the _tibia_ in +size. This enlarged tarsal segment has received the special name of +_metatarsus_. + +The legs serve several functions besides that of locomotion. Thus, on +each fore leg there is an organ for cleaning the antennæ. The antenna +cleaner consists of a circular notch near the base of the _metatarsus_, +which is furnished with teeth like a comb (Plate VII, F, _a_), and a +spur projecting back from the _tibia_ in such a way as to close this +notch when the leg is bent. The antenna to be cleaned is drawn through +this notch and thus the dirt is combed from it. + +On the middle legs there is a strong spur at the distal end of the +_tibia_ which is used in loosing the pellets of pollen brought to the +hive on the hind legs. + +The third pair of legs are furnished with three organs which deserve +mention here. _First_: the wax pincers. Both the _tibia_ and the +_metatarsus_ are wide; the joint uniting them is at one edge, hence by +alternately bending and straightening the leg at this joint, the space +between the two segments (Plate VII, B, _wp_) is opened and shut like +pincers. This organ is used to loosen from the abdomen the scales of +wax. _Second_: the pollen-combs. These are several comb-like series of +spines, borne on the inner surface of the _metatarsus_ (Plate VII, B, +_pc_). When a bee visits a flower the pollen is gathered by the tongue +and fore legs and some of it becomes entangled among the hairs on the +thorax. It is then combed from these parts by means of the pollen-combs +and transferred to the pollen baskets. _Third_: the pollen basket. +There is a pollen basket on the outer surface of the _tibia_ of each +hind leg. It consists of a fringe of hairs, surrounding a smooth, +concave area which occupies the greater part of the outer face of this +segment of the leg. In it the pollen is packed when combed from the +hairs, and transported to the hive. + +_The abdomen._—The abdomen is the last of the three regions of the +body. It consists of a series of comparatively simple, overlapping +segments, without conspicuous appendages. + + +II. INTERNAL ANATOMY + +_Relative position of the internal organs._—As has been shown in the +preceding pages, the body-wall serves as a skeleton, being hard and +giving support to the other organs of the body, which are contained +within it. + +The accompanying diagram (Plate XXV, 1), which represents a vertical +longitudinal section of the body of the larva of an insect, will +enable the reader to gain an idea of the relative positions of some +of the more important organs. The parts shown in the diagram are the +following: The body-wall or skeleton (_s_); this is made up of a series +of overlapping segments; that part of it which is between the segments +is thinner, and is not hardened, this remaining flexible and allowing +for the movements of the body. Just within the body-wall, and attached +to it, are represented a few of the muscles (_m_); it will be seen +that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction of those on +the lower side of the body would bend it down, while the contraction +of those on the opposite side would act in the opposite direction. The +alimentary canal (_a_) occupies the centre of the body and extends +from one end to the other. The heart (_h_) is a tube open at both ends, +and lying between the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back. + +The central part of the nervous system (_n_) is a series of small +masses of nervous matter, connected by two longitudinal chords; one of +these masses, the brain, lies above the alimentary canal; the others +are situated, one in each segment, between the alimentary canal and +the ventral wall of the body; the two chords connecting these masses, +or ganglia, pass one on each side of the œsophagus to the brain. The +reproductive organs (_r_) lie in the cavity of the abdomen and open +near the hind end of the body. The respiratory organs are omitted from +this diagram for the sake of simplicity. + +_The respiratory system._—The most striking peculiarity in the +structure of insects is the form of their organs for breathing, for +they do not breathe through the mouth as we do. If an insect be +carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body, a +series of openings; these are the openings through which the air passes +into the respiratory system, and are termed spiracles. The spiracles of +the honey-bee are small, and are not easily found by one not trained +to look for such things; but if the reader will examine the sides of +one of our larger caterpillars, he will have no trouble in seeing them. +Typically, there is a pair of spiracles, one on each side of the body, +in each of the body-segments, but they are lacking in the head and in +some of the other segments. The spiracles lead into a system of air +tubes, termed tracheæ, which carry the air to all parts of the body. +When the body of an insect is opened, the tracheæ appear as silvery +threads, on account of the contained air. In the adult honey-bee +certain of the tracheæ are greatly expanded so as to form large air +sacs. (Plate XXVI _b_, 2). + +_The glands._—Those glands found in the body of the honey-bee that are +of most interest to the practical bee-keeper are the following: + +In the larva there is a pair of long, tubular glands, which secrete the +silk of which the cocoon is made. These glands open through a common +duct, which has its outlet near the mouth. + +In the adult worker bee there are four pairs of glands opening into +the mouth, which have been much discussed by students of this subject. +These glands are designated both by number and by name as follows: +System I. or supracerebral glands; system II. or postcerebral glands; +system III. or thoracic glands; and system IV. or mandibulary glands. + +The supracerebral glands or system I. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 1) are +situated in the head above the brain. They open by two openings in the +floor of the mouth cavity, one on each side. + +The postcerebral glands or system II. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 2) are +situated in the head behind the brain; their outlets unite into a +common duct which opens on the middle line of the anterior end of the +œsophagus at the base of the tongue. + +The thoracic glands or system III. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 3) are situated +in the thorax; their outlets unite into a common duct, which joins the +ducts from the postcerebral glands, the two systems of glands opening +through a common opening. + +The mandibulary glands or system IV. are two small glands one on each +side opening at the base of the mandible. + +There has been much discussion regarding the function of these +different glands; and even now any statement of conclusions must be +regarded as provisional. + +The supracerebral glands are large in nurse bees and shrunken in the +old bees that no longer nurse the brood; they are normally found only +in the workers. It is therefore believed that they secrete the milky +food, commonly called royal jelly, which is fed to all larvæ during +the first days of their development, to the queen larvæ throughout +their development, and to the adult queen during the egg-laying period. +The food fed worker and drone larvæ during the latter part of their +development is produced in the chyle-stomach of the nurse bees, and is +semi-digested food. + +The other systems of glands enumerated above produce the saliva, which +is supposed to perform a great variety of functions. “It helps the +digestion; it changes the chemical condition of the nectar harvested +from the flowers; it helps to knead the scales of wax of which the +combs are built, and perhaps the propolis with which the hives are +varnished. It is used also to dilute the honey when too thick, to +moisten the pollen grains, to wash the hairs when daubed with honey, +etc.” + +The wax glands are found only in the worker. There are four pairs of +them. They are situated on the ventral wall of the second, third, +fourth and fifth abdominal segments, and on that part of the segment +which is overlapped by the preceding segment. Each gland is simply a +disc-like area of the hypodermis, the cells of which take nourishment +from the blood and transform it into wax. The cuticle covering each +gland is smooth and delicate, and is known as a wax plate. The wax +exudes through these plates and accumulates, forming little scales. +(Plate VI, X, also Plate XXV, Fig. 5.) + +_The alimentary canal._—The form of the alimentary canal of the adult +honey-bee is shown in Plate XXVI. The following parts can easily be +recognised: the œsophagus, a slender tube, beginning at the mouth and +extending through the head and thorax to the base of the abdomen. +Here there is a sac-like enlargement of the canal, which is termed +the honey-stomach; it is in this that the nectar accumulates as it +is collected by the bee, and is carried to the hive. Behind the +honey-stomach lies the true stomach, the chief digestive organ. Closely +applied to the true stomach are several small tubes, which open into +it; which are known as the Malpighian tubes; they were named after +one of the early anatomists who described them; they are the urinary +organs. Next to the true stomach is the small intestine; and behind +this, the large intestine. + +_The reproductive organs._—The internal reproductive organs are +situated in the abdomen; there is a set on each side, but the two sets +open by a common duct, whose outlet is at the hind end of the body. + +The reproductive organs of the female are shown on Plate XXVI (_a_), +Fig. 1. There are two ovaries (_o_), one on each side of the body. +Each ovary consists of a large number of parallel egg-tubes, within +which the eggs are developed. The egg-tubes of each ovary open into an +oviduct (_od_). The two oviducts unite and form a single tube on the +middle line of the body; this is the _vagina_; the _vagina_ leads to +the external opening of the system. Communicating with the _vagina_, +there is a sac-like pouch, the _spermatheca_, which is the reservoir +for the seminal fluid; this is filled at the time of pairing, and the +_spermatozoa_ may remain alive in it for several years. + +Each egg-tube produces many eggs. As the eggs increase in size, they +pass towards the oviduct. When the egg is fully developed a shell is +formed about it. This shell has a minute opening through it at one end; +this is the micropyle. At the time the egg is laid a _spermatozoon_ may +pass from the _spermatheca_, where thousands of them are stored, into +the egg through the micropyle, and thus the egg is fertilised. + +With most animals, the egg must be fertilised in order that it may +develop. But with bees, both fertilised and unfertilised eggs develop, +the former into females, that is, workers or queens, the latter into +males, that is, drones. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXVI. (_a._) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. + (From Leuckart, slightly modified.) FIG. 1.—Reproductive organs + of a queen; _o_, _o_, ovaries; _od_, oviduct; _s_, spermatheca; + _g_, gland; _p_, poison sac connected with the sting. FIG. + 2.—Reproductive organs of a drone; _t_, _t_, testes; _v_, vas + deferens; _s_, _s_, seminal sacs; _m_, _m_, mucous glands; _ed_, + ejaculatory duct; _b_, pouch or bulb. The bulb and the following + parts are everted through the outer opening at the time of + pairing.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXVI. (_b._) FIG. 1.—The internal anatomy of the + honey-bee (after Cheshire). _o_, œsophagus; _hs_, honey sac; + _p_, stomach-mouth; _cs_, true stomach or chyle-stomach; _m_, + malpighian tubes; _si_, small intestine; _li_, large intestine; + _h_, heart or dorsal vessel; _n_, central nervous system; _1_, + supracerebral glands; _2_, postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic + glands. The respiratory system and the reproductive organs + are not shown in this figure (after Cheshire). FIG. 2.—The + respiratory system of the honey-bee. _s_, _s_, _s_, spiracles; + _a_, enlarged trachea or air sac (adapted from Leuckart).] + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of Ginn & Company_ + +PLATE XXVII. AN OLD-FASHIONED APIARY] + +Closely associated with the reproductive organs of the female is the +sting; this is a barbed dart connected with a poison gland, whose use +is well known. + +In the abdomen of the male there is a pair of organs, the testes, in +which the _spermatozoa_ are developed. These correspond in position +to the ovaries of the female, but are much smaller. From each testis +there extends a tube corresponding to the oviduct, this is the _vas +deferens_. The two _vasa deferentia_ unite and form the single +ejaculator duct. Each _vas deferens_ is enlarged just before it joins +the ejaculatory duct, forming a reservoir for the accumulation of +_spermatozoa_; these reservoirs are termed the seminal sacs. Appended +to each seminal sac there is a large glandular sac, which adds mucus to +the seminal fluid. Near the outer end of the ejaculatory duct there is +a pouchlike enlargement into which the _spermatozoa_ pass. Here they +are massed into a compact body, known as the spermatophore, which is +transferred to the female at the time of pairing. The terminal part +of the reproductive organs of the male, the intermittent organ, has +several appendages, which are firmly grasped in the opening of the +reproductive organs of the female and are torn from the male when the +two pairing individuals separate. This causes the death of the male. +The male has no sting. (Plate XXVI, Fig. 2.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +INTERRELATION OF BEES AND PLANTS + + +HONEY-FLOWERS + +The facts revealed by science are not always beautiful, however +interesting they may be. But the discovery of the interrelation of +flowers and insects, that partnership which has existed so long that +it has modified both partners, seems to belong to the realm of art or +poetry rather than to that of science. Since plants must needs spend +their lives where they are developed from seeds, they may not roam +abroad like animals to seek their mates. But this is a difficulty which +they readily overcome, through sending their messages by the uneasy, +flying insects; and of all these messengers, the bee is surely the +flowers’ favourite. Its fuzzy body, admirably adapted to be a pollen +brush, its swift wings and its sedulous attention to business, all tend +to make it the most important of the flower-partners. Thus, especially +for the bee, have thousands of flower species developed nectar, in +pockets placed cunningly to entice her to take upon herself a pollen +load. And for countless ages the flowers have painted their petals +various hues and shed on the atmosphere their perfume, to advertise to +the bee-world that they had pollen and nectar to spare. + +This partnership has naturally modified the insects less than the +flowers, as the latter were obliged to develop innumerable devices for +winning attention from their messengers; naturally also the insects +have been more largely modified in their mouth-parts and appliances +for carrying pollen, than in other directions. Their habits have also +been modified in a measure, and the bee has in some mysterious way been +persuaded to work on one kind of blossom at a time. The poetic reproach +that the bee is a heartless rover, rifling the lily of sweets only to +desert her for the rose, is as unjust as it is untrue. Repeatedly have +we watched a bee at work in a bed of pinks. Though clover and other +blossoms were near by, she passed methodically from pink to pink, and +naught tempted her to fickleness. That the bees use pollen for bread, +is a part of the bargain; for the flowers grow it in plenty for both +themselves and their partners. + +Each species of “honey-plant” has developed its own special device for +securing the services of bees to carry its pollen; and no study is more +interesting than the unravelling of these flower secrets. Even the +novice may do this by asking the flower these three questions: “Where +is your nectar?” “Where is your pollen?” “What is the path the bees +must follow to get to the nectar?” For ready and accurate answers to +such questions, the flowers are not to be surpassed; and if there is +any doubtful point, the bees are ready to help elucidate it. There are +so many flowers that have become the special partners of the bees that +it is not within the scope of this book to make an adequate list. Some +of the more important are the flowers of trees, and some of farm crops; +some bloom in gardens and some are mere weeds. + + +TREES + +Fruit trees, when in blossom, give much pollen and honey at a time when +these are greatly needed by the bees for rearing brood. + +Peach, pear, apricot, plum and especially apple trees, when in bloom +are encompassed about with the happy chorus of busy and grateful +bees; and no other creatures can so successfully vocalise blissful +contentment as they. Many careful experiments have proved beyond +doubt that the help of bees is necessary for securing the pollination +requisite to produce good crops of fruit. The wise and successful +fruit-grower recognises this fact and, mindful of his true interests, +does not spray his fruit trees with poisons while they are in +blossom, lest he thereby kill his friends, the bees. Moreover, to use +arsenical sprays, at such a time, is injurious to the petals and the +fruit-producing organs of the flowers; and it is also too early to +spray successfully against the codlin moth. In many states, legislation +forbids the spraying of poisons during fruit-tree bloom, because it is +a useless and wanton destruction of the bees. + +Some time since great injustice was done the bees through the +accusation that they punctured the ripe fruit for the sake of the +juices. This was the special complaint of grape-growers. Investigations +have proved that bees never puncture the rind of ripe fruit, although +they sometimes are tempted to sip the oozing juices, after the rind is +broken through some other agency. + +Even before the fruit-bloom the willows offer a feast to break the fast +of the hungry swarms. Half the winter the pussy-willow stands waiting +in her furs to be ready with her grist of pollen, so that the bees may +make bread during the first warm days of spring. The willows burned +their bridges behind them eons ago and depend almost entirely upon the +bees for fertilisation, since they are diœcious. Some apiarists have +claimed that their bees get no nectar from certain species of willow; +but this could hardly be so if trees of both sexes were present in a +locality; for the staminate flowers offer pollen and the pistillate +flowers give nectar to induce the bees to fetch and carry for them. + +The maples are not much behind the willows in offering the bees food +after their winter fast. The bloom of the red maple is regarded by most +bee-keepers as permission from Spring to bring out the bee-hives from +the cellar and tenements. All our common species of maple are very much +visited by the bees. + +The locusts often yield large crops of honey, although they vary with +the seasons in this respect. Honey-locust, when in bloom, is covered +with bees. + +The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful of our ornamental trees +and it gives a great amount of dark, rich honey. In New York it +blossoms in May and June and, like the locusts, is a great help to the +bees after the fruit-bloom is over. This is a common tree in the woods +of the South and is not rare in Northern forests. It should be planted +even more generally than it is at present, for the sake of the bees. + +The basswood, of all honey-producing trees, is the most important +and most beloved by the bees. It blooms in July and only for a brief +season; therefore, it is important that the colonies be strong and +able to make the most of these few precious days of harvest. Basswood +honey has a strong flavour when first gathered. But after it is ripened +and sealed it has a delightful flavour. The way our forests have been +stripped of basswood during the past twenty-five years is nothing +less than heartrending to the bee-keeper; for to him this tree ranks +next to the white clover in importance. Mr. Root had a single colony +take forty-three pounds of honey in three days from basswood, and Mr. +Doolittle had a colony take sixty pounds in the same period. The tree +is beautiful, and might well be used for shade along roadsides and also +in ornamental planting. It grows rapidly; young trees, transplanted +from the woodland, blossom in five or six years thereafter. No +bee-keeper should allow the basswood to be cut on his premises; and he +should grow as many young trees as possible. + +[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII + +Thorn-apple blossoms. + + _Photographs by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +Wild crab-apple blossoms.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XXIX. BUCKWHEAT IN BLOSSOM] + +Other honey-producing trees of note are the sourwood (_Oxydendrum +arboreum_) of the South, the guajilla of Texas, the cabbage palmetto of +Florida, and the eucalyptus of California. + +The flowers of sumac often yield much nectar and are sedulously worked +by the bees. This picturesque shrub is not properly appreciated +because it is so common. Its foliage is beautiful in the summer and is +brilliant in the fall. Its blossoms, as well as its fruit, conduce to +make it an interesting and ornamental shrub for planting. + + +HONEY PLANTS WHICH YIELD OTHER VALUABLE CROPS + +To raise plants solely for the sake of the honey they produce has not +proved a financial success so far in America. Mr. Root estimates that +it would require 500 acres covered with plants blooming in succession +to keep 100 colonies of bees busy; and, at present, most land here is +worth too much to be put to such use. It is doubtful if artificial +pasturage will ever prove a paying investment in agricultural sections. + +However, many apiarists devote some land to honey-gardens, and such +a garden may be a beautiful and interesting place, for many of the +honey-plants are ornamental. Also, many apiarists have introduced +certain honey-weeds on waste land in the vicinity of their apiaries +with excellent results. + +Fortunately, many plants very valuable to the agriculturist and +horticulturist are the best honey-producers; and if a farmer has only +twenty colonies of bees, it will pay him to reap one crop from his +land and let his bees reap another. + +Of all such plants the clovers are the most important. Not only do they +make the best of forage and hay, but they also help to fertilise and +aërate the soil, and should be a factor in every crop rotation. Clovers +and other _legumes_ have upon their roots nodules filled with bacteria, +which are underground partners of the plant. These bacteria fix the +free nitrogen of the air and leave it in the soil available for plant +food. Red clover is not so great a source of honey as are the other +clovers, since its corolla tubes are so long that usually it is only +worked by bumblebees. But the long-tongued Italians are able to get +considerable honey from red clover at times. + +Crimson clover grew as a weed for a long time in America before it +became an important factor in horticulture. It is an annual and its +home is in southern Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils +and is of great value as a cover crop for orchards. It is a good +honey-plant. + +Alsike is a perennial and grows in low meadows, from Nova Scotia to +Idaho. Its blossoms look like that of the white clover, except that +they are larger and are tinged with pink. This is a valuable clover for +pasturage, and also for hay, and it stands next to the white clover as +a honey-plant. + +The white clover is the very best plant for producing honey in the +United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and the flavour of its +honey is famous the world over. While in hard soil, the white clover +lasts only two or three years, it is perennial on rich, moist lands. +It is a cosmopolitan plant and may be found in almost all regions of +the temperate zones. It is an ideal plant for pastures and should be +established everywhere on land not under the plow. It shows well its +partnership with the bee by turning down its flowerets as soon as they +are fertilised, and leaving those in need of pollen still erect. We +have seen a head of white clover with a single floweret, erect and +white, calling to the bees, while all of its sister flowerets were +deflected and brown. + +Among the medics we find the veteran of all clovers, the alfalfa, which +has been under cultivation for twenty centuries, and came to America +with the Spanish invasion. It was established in California in 1854, +and has worked its way eastward. But it is only recently that it has +been practicable to grow it in the East. This has been made possible +by the discovery that it will grow on soil inoculated with its root +bacteria. Alfalfa is a true perennial and may be cut for hay three +times a season, and is of highest value as fodder or forage. It is a +superb honey-plant, furnishing great quantities of light-coloured and +excellent honey. It will support more bees to the acre than any other +plant known. For artificial pasturage it is the most promising of all +honey-plants. + +Buckwheat is, in many localities, doubly profitable as a grain and as +a honey-plant; especially is it so in middle and western New York, +where the hills in autumn are made brilliant with great fields of the +wine-red stubble. Buckwheat is usually sown late in the season, often +on ground where oats have already been grown earlier in the year. It +blossoms in August and even in September, and furnishes a wealth of +nectar when there is little to be found elsewhere. The honey made from +buckwheat is dark, reddish brown and brings a lower price in most +markets than do the lighter-coloured varieties. Though it is strong +in flavour, it is preferred by many, and on our table it alternates +with basswood and clover. It has always seemed poetic justice that +the plant which produces buckwheat cakes should produce the honey +to eat with them. The following are the good points of buckwheat as +a crop: It is profitable, the grain always brings a good price; it +grows well on poor soil; it is one of the best agencies for ridding +a field of weeds. There is a certain gameness about buckwheat which +we have always admired and which was thus characterised by a farmer +of our acquaintance: “Buckwheat is a gritty plant; if it can get its +head above ground it will blossom. I have seen it, during dry seasons, +blossom when its stalks were so short that the _bees had to get down on +their hands and knees to gather the honey_.” While this may be putting +the case rather strongly, yet it expresses well the habits of the plant. + +Black mustard, rape and turnips all furnish nectar for excellent honey. +The seed of mustard and rape brings a good price, and the root of the +turnip is always valuable. + +The blossoms of the red raspberry yield a delicious honey, and the +grower of small fruits may well add bees to his farm as a source of +profit. + + +GARDEN FLOWERS + +Most of the blooms in flower gardens, as well as vegetable gardens, +are worked by the bees. Mignonette is a valuable honey-plant, as it +blossoms for a long time. Marjoram, thyme and sage give rich, spicy +honey. The sunflower is also a good honey-plant. + + +WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS + +We shall never forget our profound amazement when we saw, for the +first time, in a narrow valley of the Mojave Desert a great city +of white bee-hives. Nothing in that desolate landscape could we +discern that bore the slightest resemblance to a honey-plant. The +gray sage-brush which grew everywhere looked to us about as promising +for honey-production as so much slag from a furnace; and yet this +sage-brush of the desert gives the bees the best of pasturage. The +bloom begins down in the valley and climbs the mountain side slowly, +thus giving bloom for a long period. + +There are two species of sage that yield honey, the white and the +black, or button sage. They are allied to the mints, which are +generally good honey-plants. We learned to care much for the spicy +sage-honey. A professor of Greek, who was for some time in the American +school at Athens, tells us that the sage-honey is very similar in +flavour to the famous honey of Hymettus, which is made from thyme. + +The horse-mint is a very important honey-plant of the lower Mississippi +Valley and of Texas. Its corolla tubes are so long that only the +Italians and other long-tongued bees can get its honey. Catnip, +motherwort and gill-over-the-ground and gall-berry all furnish an +abundance of nectar. + +The blue thistle emigrated to Virginia in colonial times, and now +covers with a heavenly blue thousands of acres of the desolate, +uncultivated, red Virginia soil. It is a great boon to the bees of the +region, as its blossoms creep slowly up its stalks, thus affording +nectar for many weeks. It is related to borage, which is another good +honey-plant. + +Spider flower (_Cleome pungens_), the Rocky Mountain bee-plant (_Cleome +integrifolia_), and figwort (_Scrofularia venalis_) have all been +planted by bee-keepers in their honey-gardens, because they give such a +great amount of honey per plant. + +During September and early October the bees work busily on the various +species of goldenrod and asters, and gather from them a considerable +amount of honey, which is rich in colour and taste. The two common +species of _Impatiens_ also give the bees good fall pasturage. + +Fireweed (_Epilobium angustifolium_) comes wherever forests have been +cleared and burned off. It blooms late and yields a fine quality of +honey. The unlovely Spanish needle (_Coreopsis_) also gives much honey. +The milkweed yields good honey, yet it overdoes the matter by loading +the feet of the bee with its pollen sacs, until the poor messenger dies +of exhaustion under the burden of its message, or dies a prisoner in +the blossom. + +The cheerful and ubiquitous dandelion has this much in its favour, that +it is beloved by the bees and often gives them honey and pollen at a +time in the spring when they need it for brood-rearing. + +Of all the weeds which will pay the apiarist to establish in waste +places, the most profitable are the mellilots, or sweet clovers, of +which there are two species, the white and the yellow. These are most +beneficent weeds, for they carry nitrogen to the soil like other +clovers, and they are easily exterminated by cultivation, so they are +not to be feared. + +Sweet clover in blossom fills the atmosphere of the country road with +perfume, for it is almost everywhere a roadside weed; and, as might be +expected, it is most attractive to the bees. While the honey made from +it is rather strong in flavour, yet it is of good colour, and sells +well. When it is mixed with the honey from other flowers, it adds much +to the excellence of the flavour. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +BEE-KEEPERS AND BEE-KEEPING + + +Most business occupations lead to rivalry and all the selfish +emotions incident to competition; not so is bee-keeping; quite the +opposite, indeed, as there is a freemasonry that holds bee-keepers +together and renders their attitude toward each other friendly and +helpful. Bee-keeping is everywhere a bond of brotherhood and a sign +of congenial tastes. One night at a dinner-party the gentleman on +my right was a stranger, known to me only by reputation as a lawyer +of high standing and great erudition. He was reserved and silent, +and evidently bored by the trivialities of table-talk. Some one +incidentally spoke of our bees, when the face of my neighbour became +illumined with interest, and he said, “I am sure that by becoming a +lawyer I spoiled a good bee-keeper. I have never found anything else +so interesting as bee-keeping;” and thus was swept away the curtain of +cold conventionalism which had hung between us, and we began, from that +moment, to be friends. + +Nowhere is this brotherly interest more noticeable than in the +bee-books and the bee-journals. The former bear evidence, on every +page, of kindness and courtesy to all; while the latter are like +friendly correspondence published, wherein John Smith of Maine +explains his views on the bee business to Timothy Jones of Oregon, and +incidentally sends his kindest regards to the family. + +I never take into my hands that delightful book, “A B C of Bee +Culture,” without turning to the biographies of noted bee-keepers, and +looking again at the faces there depicted, noting the noble forehead of +Huber; the keen, scholarly face of Dzierzon; the judicial countenance +of Friend Quinby and the beautiful expression of the venerable +Langstroth. And thus on, page by page, and getting, by the way, a +friendly greeting from the kindly eyes of Professor Cook, that most +excellent of good teachers; and finally deriving sincere satisfaction +from a long look at the keen, humorous face of Mr. A. I. Root himself. +These leaders in apiculture are men with whom one is proud to be +associated. And the fact that there are, in the United States, 300,000 +persons engaged in bee-keeping, makes one hopeful that our republican +institutions are to be guarded by intelligent citizenship. + +It is interesting to note that knowledge of bees has been given to +the world by men who have attained the high peaks of scientific fame. +Such knowledge began with Aristotle and Pliny in ancient times, and +received no additions during the uncertain Dark Ages. It began anew +with Swammerdam, in the seventeenth century, was augmented by Linnæus, +De Geer, Réaumur, Bonnet, Lyonnet, Fabricius, Latreille, Lamarck, and +finally reached a climax in the study of the habits of the bee by the +blind Huber, who was born in Geneva in 1750. His observations made +with his own brain, but with the eyes of his wife, niece and servant, +form a classic in bee literature. In 1811 there were born, a continent +apart, two great bee-keepers: Langstroth in Philadelphia, and Dzierzon +in Silesia. Both were clergymen, but were also true scientists, and +both invented means by which the combs could be moved and examined. +Langstroth carried his invention farther, and in 1852 devised the +movable frame which revolutionised bee-keeping. + +Up to this time the business of the bee-man was largely guess-work. He +did not know anything about the condition of his bees in the hive, for +he had no way of penetrating that dark chamber. The ways of reaping +the honey-harvest were devious; at best the combs were torn from the +hives with little regard for the rights and lives of the bees. Finally, +there was devised the truly infernal plan of killing the bees with the +fumes of burning brimstone, before taking their treasure; this method +undoubtedly originating in the turgid theology of the times. + +However, about the time of Langstroth, someone, or perhaps many, had +discovered that bees stored their honey in the upper part of the hive; +and the old box-hive had a few auger-holes in the top, over which +was inverted a box, which the bees usually filled, and thus saved +themselves from the brimstone pit. We remember well the delight in our +family when we used, for the first time, such boxes with glass sides; +and as we saw they were being filled with combs, we rejoiced that we +need not “take up” any more swarms, as the suffocation by sulphur fumes +was termed. + +When, to the invention of the box super, was added the greater +invention of Langstroth, and finally thereunto was added the invention +of the honey-extractor, bee-keeping became a science, instead of a +haphazard avocation. + +Bee-keeping in America has since then passed through many phases and +survived many experiments. Our bee-keepers have been wide awake and +willing to try all things and hold fast to the good. Once, having read +of the floating apiaries of the Nile, which follow the flower bloom +along the banks, an enthusiast tried the same scheme on the Mississippi +River, starting at the southern part early in the season and coming +north abreast of the spring; but too many bees were left behind to make +this profitable. Another enterprising gentleman took his bees south +winters, but the cost of transportation took away the profits. Now, +however, another plan for gaining pasturage is proving most successful; +_i. e._, the establishment of out-apiaries. As seventy-five or a +hundred colonies will usually take all the nectar of a given locality, +the bee-keeper places his surplus colonies in other apiaries far enough +distant, so there is good pasturage for all. Mr. A. L. Coggshall has +about 3,000 colonies in out-apiaries in central New York. + +The up-to-date bee-keeper is not merely an operator in his apiary, +but a co-operator with his bees, and we firmly believe that the bees +are being educated by the partnership, as well as the bee-keeper. +Bees certainly do learn by experience, as is well instanced by some +Cyprians, which, in their native home, build columns of wax and +propolis at the hive-entrance to keep out the large death’s-head moth +which preys upon them. After living in this country for two years, +the bees discovered that there were none of these moths about, and so +ceased building these bars. The readiness with which our bees use the +comb-foundation and fit their combs to the frames and follow the hint +given by the starters in the sections, all point to their adaptability; +and however others may regard the matter, we never take off a section +filled with just one pound of pearly comb and amber honey that we do +not pay tribute to the bee intelligence which placed it there, and +regard the little artisans as true partners in our enterprise. And we +never doubt that in the future this co-operation and co-education of +bees and bee-keepers will result in a perfection of honey-production as +yet undreamed. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXX. BOX-ELDER + +Staminate and pistillate flowers. This and the other maples and the +willows give the bees pasturage in early Spring.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXXI. BLOSSOMS OF BLACK LOCUST + +The locusts often yield large crops of honey.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +BEE-HUNTING + + +The mere mention of these words always brings to us memories of high +hills, wound about by picturesque roads, bordered by rail fences, +from the corners of which the goldenrod still flung its banners to +the breeze, though September and, mayhap, frosts had come. Beyond the +fences were knolly pastures, cropped close except where the mullein, +the thistle and the immortelle vaunted their immunity from the attacks +of grazing herds; and still beyond were upland meadows, green with +second-crop clover; and crowning all were forests beginning to glow +with autumnal hues. Forth into such roads, pastures, meadows and +woodlands were we wont to fare of a sunny morning, to hunt bees with +our father, whose woodcraft was not the empty accomplishment of the man +of this generation, but was attained on those same hills of western +New York when he was a pioneer boy, and the deer and the wolves roamed +those forests, and the beavers built their dams in the valley. + +Our equipment for hunting was a bottle of diluted honey; a box with +a sliding glass cover, containing pieces of empty comb; and a sharp +stake, four feet high, topped with a cross-piece on which to set the +box. When we were far enough afield, some unwary bee was lifted from +its goldenrod revel and imprisoned in the box, where one of the empty +combs had been filled from the bottle for her special delectation. +Like a worthy bee, she began to fill at once; meanwhile, the stake was +pushed into the ground and the box placed upon it, the cover removed, +and we all retired for a little distance to watch. When the bee +finally lifted herself and our honey into the air, we gave her closest +attention. To make sure of the exact position of her bonanza, she +always arose in a spiral, each circle being larger than the one before, +and finally turned the spiral in a certain direction. When she suddenly +darted away with almost the speed of a bullet, it was always the eyes +of our father, blue as the sky against which the bee was outlined, that +detected her direction; for young eyes, however keen, counted little +against trained eyes in this competition. + +Then there always followed a time of anxious waiting for the return +of the bee. Meanwhile we stretched out on the dry sod in the sun and +listened to the chirping of the crickets, or the sweet notes of the +meadow larks and idly watched a hawk circle on even pinions above our +heads; or we told stories of other days of successful bee-hunting. +If the bee returned within fifteen minutes, all was well and we were +confident that the tree was distant not much more than a mile. But if +we had to wait a half hour we usually caught other bees and started +over again, hoping to find some nearer colony. If our first visitor +came back soon, and especially if she was followed by her anxious +sisters, we were satisfied. With several bees flying in the same +direction, it was always easy to get the “line,” which we marked by +some peculiar tree or other noticeable object in the landscape. When +several of our visitors were eagerly filling themselves with honey, +the cover was shoved over them and they were carried for a distance +along the line and then liberated, and the line from this new location +ascertained. Thus were they followed, up hill and down dale, and even +through woodlands; finally, we would come to a place in a forest where +we could follow the line no farther, and then we took our first lesson +in geometry by getting a cross-line. This was done by carrying some of +the bees in the box for some rods to the right or left; and when they +were established there we knew that at the apex of the angle made by +the two intersecting lines stood the bee-tree. + +The triumph which filled us when we finally discovered that stream +of black particles entering some knothole or the broken top of a +tree, made us breathless; and all the way home we tried to temper our +excitement so as to make the announcement of our discovery with a +nonchalance characteristic of invariably successful hunters. + +However, we were by no means always successful. Sometimes it would be +too late in the day before we established a line; and again a line +would lead us in a disgusting fashion to some unsuspected apiary; and +now and then in a woodland tangle we crossed and crisscrossed lines, +nearly breaking our necks gazing into tree-tops, all to no avail. Then, +too, even our victory might be tempered by conditions. If the bee-tree +were small, we judged it contained little honey; if the tree were +valuable, we doubted if the owner would allow it to be cut. As a matter +of fact, we seldom cut a bee-tree; and when we did, we wrested from it +a combination of rotten wood, bee-bread, crushed brood and bees that +made a potpourri which would prove disastrous to the enfeebled stomachs +of this generation. But, though we rarely cut a bee-tree, bee-hunting +lost none of its fascination. For what could be more delightful than +long days spent in the autumn sunshine, enlivened by an occupation +vitally interesting that needs must be lazily carried on! So we never +gave it up until the October frosts had killed all the flowers, and the +fumes of the honey-comb that we burned failed to entice an enterprising +bee from her winter quarters to our box. + + + + +APPENDIX + +BEE BOOKS + + +The bibliography of bee literature is extensive. Scientists of all +nations have contributed the results of their investigations on bee +anatomy and bee physiology, and have made bee literature, as a whole, +most profound and technical reading. However, there are among these +books many that were written for popular audiences, and that deal with +the practical side of bee-keeping; of such we add a few titles of those +best known and of special excellence. + + BENTON, FRANK. “The Honey-Bee.” Mr. Benton, who is our national + expert of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, always + writes practically, and has carried on experiments with races of + bees, which the private bee-keeper could hardly afford to make. + The enterprising bee-keeper should keep in close touch with Mr. + Benton’s bulletins. + + CHESHIRE, FRANK R. Two volumes. This is one of the finest works + that has ever been published upon the honey-bee and bee-keeping. + It is delightfully written and has many fine illustrations. + + COOK, PROFESSOR ALBERT J. “The Bee-keeper’s Guide or Manual of + the Apiary.” This is the most extensive of all the bee-keeping + manuals written for American bee-keepers. It deals with all + phases of the subject minutely, and new editions are published + frequently enough to keep the book up-to-date. Professor Cook has + a wide reputation as a most excellent teacher, and bee-keeping is + one of the subjects which he taught for years in the Agricultural + College of Michigan. + + COWEN, T. W. “The Honey-bee, Its Natural History, Anatomy and + Physiology.” + + COWEN, T. W. “Bee-Keeper’s Guide Books.” The first of these + little volumes is a clear and excellent account of the anatomy of + the bee. The second is a concise and helpful book on the methods + of bee-keeping as practiced in England. + + HUBER, FRANZ. “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,” + published in 1792. English translation in 1841. This classic in + bee literature is one of the most delightful of all the bee books + that have been written. It shows the careful methods of this + blind scientist who has given us more of the understanding of the + bee and its life than any other investigator or writer. + + HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Advanced Bee Culture.” + + HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Comb Honey.” Mr. Hutchinson is one of our most + successful bee-keepers, and he writes clearly and understandingly + of his methods. + + LANGSTROTH, L. L. “The Hive and Honey-Bee.” This classic in + American apiculture has been revised and kept up-to-date by the + scholarly Dadants, father and son, who are well known on two + continents as successful bee-keepers. This book written by the + father of American apiculture is comprehensive, and is good + literature as well as good bee-keeping. + + LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN. “Ants, Bees and Wasps.” Although this is + a book of scientific experiments, it should be read by every + bee-keeper. No other book tells so well the patience and + ingenuity necessary to discover what the bee knows and why it + does certain things. + + MAETERLINCK, MAURICE. “The Life of the Bee.” This exquisite piece + of literature and social philosophy has attracted much attention, + and has introduced the world at large to the wonderful life of + the honey-bee in such a poetic and dramatic manner, that most + people have regarded it as a work of fiction. Maeterlinck is + said to be a practical apiarist, and his book is based upon the + facts of bee life as he understood them at the time the book was + written. Though some of his facts be questioned, yet probably his + statements are no more doubtful than would be those of almost any + bee-keeper should he try to write what he thinks he knows about + bees. Maeterlinck is the Homer of the bees and, therefore, he has + a right to poetic license. + + MILLER, DR. C. C. “Forty Years Among the Bees.” This is a simply + told history of the experiences of a successful bee-man. It is a + most honest and often a humorous record of bee-keepers’ successes + and failures. + + MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Bee People.” + + MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Honey-Makers.” The first of these books + is written charmingly and simply for children and covers in an + interesting manner the life of the bee. “The Honey-Makers” gives + a most extended account of the relation of bees to men, giving + extensive quotations from Hindu, Egyptian, Greek and Italian + literatures and also a most interesting chapter on the curious + superstitions and customs regarding the honey-bee. + + QUINBY, MOSES. “Mysteries of Bee-Keeping,” revised by L. C. + Root and now called, “Quinby’s New Bee Book.” This is a simple, + straightforward account of a practical man’s dealings with bees. + + ROOT, A. I. “A B C of Bee Culture.” The author may be pardoned + if she speaks with special enthusiasm of this book, as Mr. Root + was the special teacher that helped the Comstock apiary achieve + success. The interesting and truly human way that Mr. Root refers + to bees is not only inspiring, but is also most practically + helpful. The “A B C of Bee Culture” is arranged conveniently, + encyclopedia fashion, so that the discussion of any subject in + it may be readily found. Every page of it is interesting, and is + based upon the actual experience of a man who is at once a keen + observer, a sympathetic friend to the bees, and a most successful + apiarist. + + + + +INDEX + + + ABC of Bee Culture, 207. + + Abdomen, 187. + + Æsophagus, 191, Plate XXVI. + + After-swarms led by virgin queen, 81. + prevention of 81. + reason of and remedy for, 79, 81. + + Alder, 154. + + Alfalfa, 201. + + Alighting board, 15. + + Alimentary canal, 187, 191, Plates XXV., XXVI. + + Alley’s queen and drone trap, 12. + + Alsike, 200. + + Anatomy, external, 181, Plate XXV. + internal, 187, Plate XXVI. + + Antenna cleaner, 186, Plate VII. + + Antennæ, 183, Plate VII. + + Ants, 27. + + Apiaries, floating, 209. + out, 209. + + Apiary, high fence for, in city, 23. + in village garden, 22. + location and arrangement of 20. + mowing the, 23. + old-fashioned, Plate XXVII. + old orchard good place for, 20. + on city house tops, 22. + sheep in, 23. + windbreak for, 22. + + Apparatus for extracting, Plate XVIII. + + Apple, 196. + + Apple blossoms, Plate XVII. + + Apricot, 196. + + Aristotle, 172, 207. + + Artificial pasturage, 199. + + + _Bacillus alvei_, 176. + + Balling of queen, 32, 158. + + Basswood, 198. + blossoms, frontispiece. + + Bee, anatomy of, 181. + books, 206. + brush, Plate III. + Brush, Dixie, 19. + brush, use of, 101. + cellars, for wintering, the Bingham, 151. + gloves, 11, 17. + glue, its source, 60, 61. + glue made from varnish and cement, 61. + glue, various uses of, 62. + house-keepers, 34. + how she gathers pollen, 59. + how she collects propolis, 62. + ingratitude, 44. + journals, 206. + moth, 172. + moth, development of, 173. + moth, how to detect, 173. + moth, maxims, 176. + moth, remedy for, 174. + tent, 102, 168. + tree, 214. + veil, 11, 16. + worker, 59. + worker, brains of, 40. + worker—life and habits of, 42, 43. + worker, sex of, 39. + + Bee-bread, 59. + as food, 60. + in cells, 98. + + Bee-escape, Plate III. + Porter, 18. + Porter, use of, 101. + + Bee-gum, 83. + + Bee-hunting, 211. + + Bee-keepers, 206. + books written by, 9. + number of, 207. + + Bee-keepers’ supplies, catalogue of, 10. + + Bee-keeping, 206. + a beginner’s order, 11. + as a regular business, 10. + attractive materials of, 85. + how to begin, 8. + too successful, 73. + worst way to begin, 10. + + Bees, as a recreation, 5. + as socialists, 6. + a study in natural science, 6. + belong to the garden, 7. + control population, 34. + diseases of, 176. + enemies and diseases of, 172. + feeding of, 136. + German or black, 12, 47. + how they collect propolis, 60, 61. + how they secrete wax, 52. + how to handle them, 91. + how to keep from keeping too many, 73. + how to manage when swarming, 66. + how to reconcile swarm to new hive, 70. + how to unite colonies, 82. + how to winter, 145. + how to work with, 92. + hybrids, 48. + Italian, 12, 13. + Italian and black bees compared, 48. + Italian, Mr. Root’s test for, 48. + keep for sake of honey, 4. + keep for sake of money, 4. + legends and literature of, 3. + races of, 12. + races of domestic, 47. + reasons why one should keep, 3. + relations to plants, 194. + robbing, 164. + secreting wax, Plate X. + sense of smell, 92. + swarming of, 64. + telling the, 61. + watering, 143. + when they swarm, 65. + why they swarm, 64. + wild, 47. + + Beeswax, adulterated, 126, 134. + clarified by vinegar, 128. + how to make it, 126. + its value, 126. + maxims for making, 135. + press, 132. + primitive method of rendering, 127. + refining of, 134. + rendered in wash-boiler, 129. + + Beeswax-extractors, 130. + + Black brood, 179. + + Blue thistle, 204. + + Boardman wax extractor, 130, 131. + + Body wall, 181, Plate XXV. + + Bonnet, 207. + + Borage, 204. + + Bottom board, 83. + + Box elder in blossom, Plate XXX. + + Box hives, 83, 208. + + Brain, 188, Plate XXV. + + Brimstoning bees, 208. + + Brood, black, 179. + foul, 176. + foundation, 17. + how to examine, 97. + pickled, 179. + + Brood chamber, 83. + how to examine, 95. + size of, 14. + + Brood frame, Langstroth, how much honey it will hold, 146. + examining of, Plate XIII. + how to lift out, 96. + + Brushing or shaking-out method to control swarming, 77. + + Buckwheat, 201. + + Buckwheat in blossom, Plate XXIX. + + + Cabbage palmetto, 199. + + Cages, queen, 160, 161. + + Candy for feeding bees, how to make, 141. + Good, 141, 161. + + Cans for shipping extracted honey in bulk, 123. + + Carniolan bees, 47. + + Carton for comb-honey, 106, 113. + + Catnip, 204. + + Cell of queen, 29. + + Cellars for wintering bees, 150. + + Cerasin, wax adulterant, 134. + + Chaff hives, 11, 14. + + Chaff hives for wintering, 148, Plate XXII. + + Chyle food, 36. + how regurgitated, 58. + + City apiary, 22. + + Cleome, 204. + + Clipping wings of queen, 75. + + Clover, 200. + + Coggshall, 209. + + Colonies, how to unite, 82. + + Colony, queenless, 29. + queenless, Mr. Root’s method of testing, 159, 160. + + Comb building, Plate IX. + built by many workers, 56. + drone, 37. + cell caps, construction of, 56. + foundation for brood-chamber, 85. + how to tell honey from brood in capped cells, 97. + made without pollen, 50. + making, described by A. I. Root, 53. + making, Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s observation of, 53. + mathematics of, 54. + placing in extractor, Plate XIX. + shape of, not fortuitous, 54. + strength of, 56. + uncapping of, Plate XIX. + + Comb-honey and large hives, 77. + bee-moth in, 174, 175. + candied, 115. + compared with extracted honey, 106, 124. + conditions for production of, 107. + grading of, 112. + how to keep, 116. + how to make, 106. + in 8-frame hive, 14. + marketing of, 114. + maxims for producers of, 116. + shipping of, 113. + storing of, 115. + + Combs for extracting, Plate XVIII. + + Cook, Prof. A. J., method of uniting colonies, 82, 207. + observation on bee-moth, 172. + + _Coreopsis_, 204. + + Corneil smoker, 11, 16. + how to use, 93. + + Coxa, 185. + + Crabapple blossoms, Plate XXVIII. + + Crimson clover, 200. + + Cuticle, 182, Plate XXV. + + Cyprians, 47, 210. + + + Daisy foundation fastener, 11, 17. + + Dandelion, 205. + + De Geer, 207. + + Details concerning honey, 106. + + Development of worker, 40. + + Diarrhœa, prevention of, 180. + + Diseases of bees, 176. + + Division board, what it is, 13. + + Division board feeder, Plate XII. + + Dixie bee-brush, 12. + + Doolittle division board feeder, 12. + wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Drone, the, 34, Plate V. + appearance of, 35. + cell of, 37, Plate VIII. + cells, how capped, 97. + cells, size of, 56. + comb, 37. + death of, 35. + eggs in worker cells, 37. + flight of, 36. + food of, 36. + from unfertilised egg, 36. + head of, Plate VI. + leg of, Plate VII. + life-history of, 36. + killing of, 38, 39. + maturity of, 37. + physical characteristics of, 35, 36. + reproductive organs of, Plate XXVI. + trap, 19, Plate XVI. + wedding flight of, 38. + + Drones, great number of, 38. + males, 27. + + Dzierzon, 207, 208. + + + Egg, 192. + queen, 29. + tubes, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Eggs, unfertilised, 33. + + Egyptian bees, 47. + + Enemies of bees, 172. + + Entrance to hive, how to contract, 167. + + _Epilobium angustifolium_, 204. + + Eucalyptus, 199. + + Extracted honey and large hives, 77. + candied, 122, Plate XXI. + care of, 121. + compared with comb-honey, 106, 124. + drawing from extractor, Plate XX. + hive for, 14. + how to bottle or can, 122. + how to produce it, 117. + in glass jars, Plate XXI. + maxims for the producers of, 124. + packages for, 123. + + Extracting room and apparatus, Plate XVIII. + + Extractor, honey, invention of, 117. + + Extractor, Solar wax, 130. + + Extractor, wax, 130. + + Eyes, compound, 183, Plate VI. + simple, 183, Plate VI. + + + Fabricius, 207. + + Feeder, Boardman, 138. + Division board, 138. + Doolittle, 19. + pepper-box, 139. + + Feeders, Smith, Hedden, Miller, 139. + + Feeding back, 143. + bees, 136. + candy, 140. + chunk honey, 140. + for honey, 142. + for winter, 137. + how to do it, 138. + how to feed inside the hive, 138. + how to feed outside the hive, 138. + in fall, 136. + in spring, 136. + maxims for, 144. + rye flour, 142. + syrup in combs, 140. + what to feed, 137. + + Females of social insects, 27. + + Fence, Plate III. + between sections, 88. + + Figwort, 204. + + Fireweed, 204. + + Flowers of the garden, 203. + + Food of worker, 40. + + Foul brood, 176, 179. + how to detect, 177. + remedy for, 177. + + Foundation, brood, 17. + super, 11. + + Foundation-comb, 126, Plate XII. + for brood-chamber, 85. + for sections, how to cut, 89. + how to place in frame, 85, 86. + size of, 86. + + Foundation-fastener, Daisy, 17. + Parker, 18. + super, 17. + for extracted honey, 119. + foundation for, 84. + + Frames, Hoffman brood, 86. + Hoffman self-spacing, 84. + Langstroth movable, 84. + self-spacing, Plate XII. + spacing of, 84. + + Fruit, not punctured by bees, 196. + + Fruit trees, 196, 197. + + + Gall-berry, 204. + + _Galleria mellonella_, 172. + + Garden flowers, 203. + + German bees compared with Italians, 48. + + German steam wax press, 133. + + Gill-over-the-ground, 204. + + Glands, 189. + + Glands of honey-bee, Plate XXV. + + Goldenrod, 204. + + Grapes, not punctured by bees, 197. + + Guajilla, 199. + + + Hatch-Gemmill wax press, 133. + + Head, 183, Plate XXV. + + Heart, 188, Plate XXV. + + Hetherington super springs, 90. + + Hive, arrangement in apiary, 24. + cover, 15, 83. + the description of, 14. + entrance, how to contract, 167. + essential parts of, 83. + history of, 83. + how to get the cover off, 95. + how to handle it, 83. + how to lift out the brood-frames, 96. + how to open, 92. + industries of, 50. + inhabitants of, 27. + Langstroth, 8-frame, 10-frame, 14. + maxims for opening, 104. + one and one-half story, Plate XV. + the reasons why it must be opened, 94. + telescope cover, 91. + tenement, for wintering, 149. + to change the location of, 25. + + Hive-stand, 15, 24. + + Hives, chaff, 14, 15. + chaff for wintering, 148, Plate XXII. + Dadant-Quinby, size of, 77. + decoy, 70. + devices for carrying into cellar, 152. + double-walled, 21. + double-walled, cover for, 22. + entrance toward south, 25. + how to group, 20, 25. + large, for extracted honey, 77. + large sizes limit swarming, 77. + observation, 103. + shade boards for, 21. + shaded by awning, 21. + shaded by thatched roof, 21. + shaded by trellis, 21. + well shaded, Plate IV. + where to put them, 20. + + Hiving bees, Plate XI. + maxims for, 72. + + Holy Land bees, 47. + + Honey, the amount produced in the United States, 58. + basswood, 198. + buckwheat, 202. + composition of, 57. + flowers, 194. + gardens, 199, 204. + healthful food, 58. + how produced, 57. + how to take off in supers, 101. + house, 25. + not made in the true stomach of the bee, 58. + of Hymettus, 204. + the only sweet of the ancients, 58. + plants, 199. + ripened in uncapped cells, 57. + ripening of, 120. + room, 25. + sage, 203. + uncapped, 120. + uncapping of, 120. + unripened for extracting, 119. + weeds, 199. + when to extract, 119. + white clover, 200. + + Honey-extractor, invention of, 117. + principles of construction of, 118. + use of, 119. + + Honey-stomach, 57, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Horsemint, 204. + + House top for apiary, 22. + + How to clip the queen’s wings, 100. + to examine frames of brood-chamber, 95. + to find the queen, 99. + to find the queen cells, 98. + to handle the bees, 91. + to introduce a queen, 160, 161. + to keep from keeping too many bees, 73. + to make comb-honey, 106. + to open the hive, 92. + to produce extracted honey, 117. + to rear queens, 156. + to stop robbing, 167. + to take off honey in supers, 101. + to winter bees, 145. + to winter bees in cellars, 150. + + Hruschka, Major Francesco de, inventor of honey-extractor, 117. + + Huber, 61, 103, 208. + + Hutchinson, W. Z., method of treating after-swarms, 81. + + Hymettus, honey of, 204. + + Hypodermis, 182, Plate XXV. + + + Indian meal moth, 175. + + Industries of the hive, 50. + + Inhabitants of the hive, 27. + + Introducing the queen, 157. + by nucleus method, 162. + + Interrelation of bees and plants, 194. + + Intestine, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Italian bees, 47, 204. + + Italian worker, description of, 47. + + + Jars for extracted honey, 123. + + + Kellogg, Prof. V. L., 53, 103, 172. + + Kitchen, how bees rob the, 165. + + + Labium, 184, Plate XXV. + + Labrum, 184, Plate XXV. + + Lamarck, 207. + + Langstroth, 207, 208. + + Latreille, 207. + + Laying worker, 45, 79. + + Leg, 185. + + Legs of honey-bee, Plate VII. + + Legumes, 200. + + Linnæus, 207. + + Location of hive, to mark, 25. + + Locust blossoms, Plate XXXI. + + Locusts, 197. + + + Males of social insects, 27. + + Malpighian tubes, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Malthusian practices of bees, 34. + + Mandibles, 184, Plate XXV. + + Manum swarm catcher, 12, 19. + + Maple, mountain, Plate XXIV. + + Maples, 154, 197. + + Marjoram, 203. + + Marketing comb-honey, 114. + + Mason’s cans for extracted honey, 123. + + Maxillæ, 184, Plate XXV. + + Maxims for beeswax making, 135. + for feeding, 144. + for hiving bees, 72. + for introducing queens, 163. + for opening the hive, 104. + for prevention of bee-moth, 176. + for producers of comb-honey, 116. + for the producer of extracted honey, 124. + for wintering, 154. + to prevent robbing, 171. + + McEvoy, William, treatment of foul brood, 177. + + Medics, 201. + + Mellilots, 205. + + Metatarsus, 185. + + Micropyle, 192. + + Milkweed, 204. + + Miller, Dr., 102, 162. + + Mignonette, 203. + + Motherwort, 204. + + Mouth parts, 184, Plate XXV. + + Muscles, 187, Plate XXV. + + Muth bottles for extracted honey, 123. + + + Nervous system, 188, Plate XXV. + + Nucleus, method of introducing queen, 162. + to begin with, 13. + + + Observation hives, 103, opposite frontispiece. + + Ocelli, 183, Plate VI. + + Out-apiaries, 209. + + Ovaries, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Oviduct, 192, Plate XXVI. + + _Oxydendrum arboreum_, 199. + + + Palpi, 185, Plate XXV. + + Paraffine, wax adulterant, 134. + + Parker foundation fastener, 18. + + Partnership of bees and plants, 195. + + Peach, 196. + + Pear, 196. + + Pickled brood, 179. + + Piping of queen, 31, 32. + + Planting for honey impractical, 199. + + Pliny, 207. + + _Plodia interpunctella_, 175. + + Plum, 196. + + Plum blossoms, Plate XXIII. + + Points about beeswax, 126. + + Poison glands, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Pollen, 59. + fed to drone, 37. + how gathered, 59. + in cells, 98. + how placed in cell, 60. + made into bee-bread, 60. + + Pollen-baskets, 59, 186, Plate VII. + + Pollen-comb, Plate VII. + + Porter bee-escape, 12, 18. + + Propolis, how collected, 62. + how to dissolve, 63. + its source, 60, 61. + made from varnish and cement, 61. + various uses of, 62. + + Pussy willows, 197. + + + Queen, Plate V. + armour of, 30, 31. + balling of, 32, 158, 159. + cages, 160, 161, Plate XVI. + cages, the Miller, 162. + capacity for egg-laying, 28. + cell, 29, Plate V. + cell, how to find, 98. + cell, how to cut out, 98. + clipping wings of, 75. + development of, 28. + duels, 30, 31. + egg, 29. + excluder, 78. + first flight of, 32. + head of, Plate VI. + her attendants, 28. + how she lays eggs, 33, 34. + how to find, 99. + how to handle, 99. + how to introduce, 160. + introducing by nucleus method, 162. + introducing cage, Plate V. + introducing of, 157. + issues from cell, 30. + larva, 30. + leg of, Plate VII. + maxims for introducing, 163. + mother of her subjects, 27. + piping of, 31, 32. + rearing, 156, 157. + removed to prevent swarming, 79. + reproductive organs of, 30, Plate XXVI. + selection of, 27, 28. + surrounded by workers, 99. + tested, 14. + trap, 19, 75, Plate XIV. + virgin, leads after-swarms, 79, 80, 81. + weapons, 30, 31. + wedding flight of, 32. + when to introduce, 159. + + Queen-clipping device, 100. + + Queen-excluding honey-board, use of, 108. + + Queenless colony, 29. + + Queens, development of new, 29. + females, 27. + + Queen’s wings, how to clip, 100. + + Quinby, 207. + + + Rape, 202. + + Rauchfuss wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Rearing queens, 156. + + Réaumur, 207. + + Red clover, 200. + + Red maple, 197. + + Red raspberry, 202. + + Reproductive organs, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Respiratory system, 188, Plate XXVI. + + Robbing, borrowing, 170. + fate of the robbed colony, 170. + how it is done, 166. + how to detect, 167. + how to prevent, 102. + how to stop, 167, 168, 169. + maxims to prevent, 171. + the result of, 164. + slow, 170. + when it is likely to happen, 165. + why, 164. + + Rocky Mountain bee plant, 204. + + Root, 207. + treatment of foul brood, 177. + views about smoking bees, 93. + + Royal jelly, 29. + + Rye flour for feeding, 142. + + + Sage, white, 203. + + Sage, black or button, 203. + + _Scrofularia venalis_, 204. + + Section glazed for comb-honey, 106. + holder, Plate XIV. + holders, 88. + of honey, Plate XIV. + + Section-boxes, 88, Plates II., III., XIV. + no bee-way, 88. + with beeways, 88. + + Sections, 11, 17. + fence between, 88. + foundation-comb for, 89. + how to put together, 89. + how to take off, 110. + no bee-way, 16. + scraping of, 112. + stained, 111. + unfinished, 110. + + Sense hairs, Plate VII. + + Sense organs, 183. + + Sense pits, Plate VII. + + Shade for hives, 21. + + Sheep in apiary, 23. + + Shipping-cases for comb-honey, 113. + + Skeleton, 181, 187, Plate XXV. + + Slumgum, 131. + + Smell, organs of, 184. + + Smoking bees, should be done carefully, 93, 94. + + Smoker, Corneil, 16, Plate II. + how to fill and use, 92, 93. + + Social insects, 27. + increase of, 64. + + Solar wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Sour wood, 198. + + Spanish needle, 204. + + Spraying fruit blossoms with arsenic, 196. + + Spermatheca, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Spermatozoa, 192. + + Spider flower, 204. + + Spiracles, 188, Plate XXVI. + + Spring dwindling, 154. + + Spur, Plate VII. + + Spur wire-embedder, 86. + + Stained sections, 111. + + Sting, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Stomach, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Sumach blossoms, Plate XXIV. + + Storifying, 110. + + Sunflower, 203. + + Super, 11. + boxes, 209. + cover, 11, 91. + description of, 87. + filled with section-boxes, Plate XV. + for comb-honey, 87. + for extracted honey, 87. + foundation, 17. + how to entice bees into, 108. + how to prepare, 90. + how to prepare and place in hive, 91. + partly filled, Plate III. + parts of, 87. + ready to be filled, Plate XII. + springs, 88, 90. + + Supers, 15, 83. + different kinds of, 88. + how to take off when filled with honey, 101. + + Swammerdam, 207. + + Swarm, how to hive, 66, 68. + how to manage in difficult places, 69. + how to reconcile to new hive, 70. + how to stop, 66. + size of, 65. + throwing dirt at, 67. + use, fountain pump with, 67. + Mr. West’s device for saving, 71. + when given off, 65. + + Swarm-catcher, the Manum, 19. + + Swarming, conditions that lead to, 65. + control by brushing out method, 77. + control by extracting honey, 76. + control by giving room, 76. + control by removing queen, 79. + lessened by use of large hives, 77. + necessary to produce comb-honey, 75. + of bees, 64. + owing to queen or workers, 65. + + Swarms, dividing of, 78. + + Sweet clover, 205. + + Swiss wax extractor, 131. + + Syrian, 47. + + Syrup, for feeding bees how to make, 137. + medicated for foul brood, 177. + + + Taking up bees, 208. + + Tallow, wax adulterant, 134. + + Tarsus, 185. + + Telescope cover, 15. + + Tenement hives for wintering, 149. + + Tents for bee-keepers, 102. + + Termites, 27. + + Thorax, 185. + + Thorn-apple blossoms, Plate XXVIII. + + Thyme, 203. + + Tibia, 185. + + Tiering up, 108. + + Tin pails for extracted honey, 123. + + Tinned wire, 12. + + Tongue, 184, Plate XXV. + + Tracheæ, 189, Plate XXVI. + + Trap for queen, 75. + + Trap, queen and drone, 19. + + Trees, 196. + + Trochanter, 185. + + Turnip, 202. + + + Uncapping, 120. + + Uncapping cans, the Dadant, 121. + + Uncapping knife, Bingham, 120. + + Urinary organs, 191. + + + Vagina, 192. + + Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, 12, 18, 86. + + Varnish used as bee glue, 61. + + Vas deferens, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Veil, need for, 16. + + Village garden for apiary, 22. + + + Wasps, 27. + + Watering bees, 143. + + Wax, amount of honey required to make, 50. + bees hang in curtains to make, 52. + bees secreting, Plate X. + the constituents of, 51. + how to make it, 126. + made in the fields, 52. + made when need for, 52. + press, 132, 133. + the secretion of, 50. + scales, 52. + + Wax-extractors, 130. + + Wax-glands, 52, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Wax-pincers, 186, Plate VII. + + Wax-plates, 51, Plates VI., XXV. + + Wax-tube fastener, 18, Plate III. + + Weeds, 203. + + When to feed, 136. + + When to introduce a queen, 159. + + When to put bees into cellar, 153. + + White clover, 200. + + Wild flowers, 203. + + Willow, 154, 197. + + Wings, 185. + + Wintering bees in single-walled hives, 145. + diarrhœa, 179. + getting ready for, 146. + how much food needed for, 146. + in cellars, 150. + in chaff hives, 148, Plate XXII. + in hive boxes, 147. + in tenement hives, 149. + maxims for, 154. + out doors, 147. + poor honey for, 147. + spring dwindling, 154. + when to put bees in the cellar, 153. + when to take bees out of cellar, 153. + ways of, 147. + + Wire embedded by heat, 87. + + Wire embedder, 86, Plate III. + + Wire, tinned, 18, 85. + + Worker, 39, Plate V. + cell of, 37, 40, 55. + cocoon of, 41. + death of, 39. + + Worker eggs, in drone cells, 37. + head of, Plate VI. + laying, 45, 46. + leg of, Plate VII. + life and habits of, 42, 43. + life-history of, 40, 41. + maturity of, 41. + moulting of, 41. + old age and death of, 44. + + Workers, labourers, 27. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + + Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs + and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support + hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead + to the corresponding illustrations. Illustrations without captions + have had a description added, this is denoted with parentheses. Where + possible illustrations have been shifted to be adjacent to their + first reference. + + The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct + page references. + + Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been + corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within + the text and consultation of external sources. + + Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, + when a predominant preference was found in the original book. + + Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the + text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. + + Pg 2: ‘Form’ replaced by ‘From’ in second caption. + Pg 16: ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. + Pg 16: ‘Plate I.’ replaced by ‘Plate II.’, in section on Corneil smokers. + Pg 70: ‘onorous’ replaced by ‘onerous’. + Pg 93: ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. + Pg 146: ‘extravgance’ replaced by ‘extravagance’. + Pg 164: ‘prevades’ replaced by ‘pervades’. + Pg 179: ‘disscribed’ replaced by ‘described’. + Pg 183: ‘from a compact box’ replaced by ‘form a compact box’. + Pg 184: ‘known at the _labrum_’ replaced by + ‘known as the _labrum_’. + Pg 196: ‘pollenation’ replaced by ‘pollination’. + Pg 221: ‘Cogshall’ replaced by ‘Coggshall’. + Pg 223: ‘Guagilla’ replaced by ‘Guajilla’. + Pg 224: ‘Latrielle’ replaced by ‘Latreille’. + Pg 225: ‘Œsophagus’ replaced by ‘Æsophagus’ and moved to pg 219. + Pg 227: Page for ‘Thyme’ changed from 230 to 203. +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 *** diff --git a/79076-h/79076-h.htm b/79076-h/79076-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f18fe1 --- /dev/null +++ b/79076-h/79076-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10258 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> + <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no"> + <title> + How to keep bees | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; 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+ vertical-align: top;} + .tdrt {text-align: right; + vertical-align: top;} + .tdrb {text-align: right; + vertical-align: bottom;} + + .wd5 {width: 5%;} + .wd80 {width: 80%;} + .wd100 {width: 100%;} + + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; + } /* page numbers */ + /* Transcriber's notes */ + .transnote { + background-color: #ffffff; + border: 1px solid; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; + } + + .corr { + text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: thin dashed blue;} + + .x-ebookmaker .corr { + text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: none;} + + + /* Illustration classes */ + .illowp20 {width: 20%; max-width:12em;} + .illowp60 {width: 60%; max-width:28em;} + .illowp80 {width: 80%; max-width:35em;} + .illowp100 {width: 100%; max-width:40em;} + +/* Poetry indents */ +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3.0em;} + + </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 ***</div> + + + + +<div class="transnote"> +<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong> + +<p class="noindent">The new original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#END_NOTE">end of the book</a>.</p> +</div> + +<main> +<h1> +HOW TO KEEP BEES +</h1> + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate_i" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_i.jpg" alt="A branch of a vine hangs down. Clusters of small pale flowers hang at the bottom."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div> + <figcaption> + + <p class="ccap">PLATE I. BASSWOOD BLOSSOM</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center wsp3 p4"> + <span class="fs250">How to Keep Bees</span><br> + <br> + <span class="fs150">A Handbook for the Use<br> + of Beginners</span> +</p> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 wsp3"> + By<br><br> + Anna Botsford Comstock, B. S.</p> +<p class="center p4 pb2 wsp3"> + <i>With Illustrations</i><br> + +</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp20" id="colophon" > + <img class="w100" src="images/colophon.jpg" alt="Colophon"> +</figure> + +<p class="center p2"> + <span class="smcap">Garden City</span> <span class="smcap pad2">New York</span><br> + DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY<br> + MCMXI +</p> + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center fs90 wsp1 p2"> + Copyright, 1905, by<br> + Doubleday, Page & Company<br> + Published April, 1905 +</p> +</div> + +<blockquote class=c> +<p class="noindent p2 fs80 center wsp2" ><i>All rights reserved, including that +of translation—also right of translation +into the Scandinavian languages</i></p> +</blockquote> + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + <h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE"> + PREFACE + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> book has been prepared especially to meet +the needs of the beginner in bee-keeping. It is not +intended to be a complete treatise for the professional +apiarist, but rather a handbook for those +who would keep bees for happiness and honey, +and incidentally for money. It is hoped, too, that +it will serve as an introduction to the more extended +manuals already in the field.</p> + +<p>When we began bee-keeping we found the wide +range of information and varying methods given in +the manuals confusing; but a little experience taught +us that bee-keeping is a simple and delightful business +which can be carried on in a modest way without a +great amount of special training. After a beginning +has been made, skill in managing the bees is gained +naturally and inevitably, and interest is then stimulated +by the wider outlook which bewilders the +novice.</p> + +<p>For the sake of simplicity this volume is restricted +to knowledge gained in practical experience in a +small apiary; and the writer has sought to exclude +from it those discussions which, however enlightening +to the experienced, are after all but devious digressions +from the simple and straight path which the +feet of the inexperienced must tread to success in +the apiary.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<nav data-epub-type="toc"> +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS"> + CONTENTS + </h2> +</div> + + + +<table class="toc wd80"> +<tr class=fs60> +<td class="tdrb"> +CHAPTER +</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdrb"> +PAGE +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt wd5">I.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Why Keep Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">II.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +How to Begin Bee-Keeping +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">III.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Location and the Arrangement of the Apiary +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IV.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Inhabitants of the Hive +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">V.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Industries of the Hive +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VI.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Swarming of Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +How to Keep from Keeping Too Many Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Hive and How to Handle It +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IX.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Details Concerning Honey +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">X.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Extracted Honey +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XI.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Points About Beeswax +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Feeding Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XIII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +How to Winter Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XIV.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Rearing and Introducing Queens +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XV.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Robbing in the Apiary +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XVI.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Enemies and Diseases of Bees +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XVII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +The Anatomy of the Honey-Bee +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td> + +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XVIII.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Interrelation of Bees and Plants +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XIX.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Bee-Keepers and Bee-Keeping +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XX.</td> +<td class="tdl hang1"> +Bee-Hunting +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1" colspan=2> +Bibliography +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1" colspan=2> +Index +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</nav> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> + +<nav data-epub-type="loi"> + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"> + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + </h2> + + + +<table class="toc wd80"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> I.—Basswood blossom +</td> +<td class="tdrb fs90"> +<a href="#plate_i"><i>Frontispiece</i></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="pad2p5">Observation hives</span> +</td> +<td class="tdrb"> +<a href="#i_003a">Page 2</a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr class=fs60> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> + +</td> +<td class="tdr"> +FACING PAGE +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> II.—(a) Two flat section-boxes +(b) Corneil smoker +</td> +<td class="tdrb"> +<a href="#plate_iia">14</a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> III.—(a) Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder +and Van Deusen wax-tube +fastener. (b) A super with fences. (c) +The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_iii_a">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> IV. Hives well shaded by a tree +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_iv">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> V. (a) Queen; drone; worker. +(b) Queen cell. (c) Miller’s queen introducing +cage +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_v">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VI. Head of drone; head of queen; +head of worker; ventral surface of +worker showing plates of wax +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_vi">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VII. Legs and antennæ of the honey-bee +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_vii">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VIII. Drone cells in a comb of honey +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_viii">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> IX. Side of hive removed showing +the bees at work +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_ix">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting +wax +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_x">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XI. Hiving bees; cutting down a +swarm +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xi">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XII. (a) Two self-spacing frames. +(b) An empty super. (c) The Doolittle +division board feeder +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xii_a">90</a><span class="pagenum">[viii]</span> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIII. Examining the brood-frames +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xiii">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIV. (a) Alley’s queen and drone +trap. (b) A well filled section. (c) +One empty section-holder, and one +filled with section-boxes +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xiv_a">106</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XV. One and a half story hive for +comb-honey +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xv">107</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVI. Drone and Queen trap; queen +mailing and introducing cage; queen-protector +and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, +and bee-escape +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xvi">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVII. “In apple-blossom time” +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xvii">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVIII. (a) Taking off upper story of +hive containing combs for extracting. +(b) Extracting-room showing apparatus +for extracting honey +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xviii_a">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIX. (a) Uncapping comb before +extracting the honey. (b) Placing uncapped +comb in one of the pockets of +the extractor +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xixa">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XX. (a) Drawing honey from extractor. +(b) Pouring extracted honey +into keg for shipping in bulk +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxa">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXI. (a) Extracted honey in pails, +candied. (b) Extracted honey in glass +jars ready for market +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxi_a">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXII. Winter quarters in chaff hives +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxii">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIII. Plum blossoms +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxiii">155</a><span class="pagenum">[ix]</span> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIV. Sumac in blossom. Blossom +of mountain maple +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxiv">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXV. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal +section of the body of a larva of an +insect. Fig. 2. Section of the body-wall +of insect. Fig. 3. Head of a bee and +its appendages. Fig. 4. Glands of a +honey-bee. Fig. 5. The wax plates +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxv">185</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVI. (a) The reproductive organs +of the honey-bee. (b) Fig. 1. The +internal anatomy of the honey-bee. +Fig. 2. The respiratory system of the +honey-bee +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxvi_a">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVII. An old-fashioned apiary +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxvii">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVIII. (a) Thorn-apple blossoms. +(b) Wild crab-apple blossoms +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxviii_a">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIX. Buckwheat in blossom +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxix">199</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXX. Box-elder, staminate and pistillate +flowers +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxx">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlt hang2"> +<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXXI. Blossoms of black locust +</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxxi">211</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</nav> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + <p class="center fs150 p4 pb4 wsp2" id="HOW_TO_KEEP_BEES"> + HOW TO KEEP BEES + </p> +</div> +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + + <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_003a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_003a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap">An ordinary beehive made into an observation-hive by inserting glass panes in + sides and putting a glass sheet under the wooden cover. (From V. L. Kellogg.)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + <br> + <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_003b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_003b.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap">An observation-hive holding only two frames, with the two sides wholly of glass, + so that any single bee can be continuously watched. (<ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Form" id="Form">From</ins> V. L. Kellogg.)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + + +</div> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p> + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I"> + CHAPTER I + <br><br> + WHY KEEP BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reasons for keeping bees are many and various; +for it is an industry as many-sided as the cells of +a honey-comb, one of its chief charms being that +it appeals equally to “many men of many minds.” +To know all the reasons why one should keep bees +one must be conversant with the history of man; he +must be familiar with the Vedas of India and master +of the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt; he must study +the life of the common people in the Hebrew Scriptures +and the classic literatures of Greece and Italy, +and must be able to translate into terms of common +human experiences the myths and legends of diverse +peoples. For bees have been a part of the conscious +life of man from the beginning. Not only have they +sweetened his daily bread with beneficent honey, but +they have had their place in his religious rites, and +also in his family observances, as millions of happy +lovers may attest who have experienced the “honeymoon.” +However, lacking the erudition necessary +to enumerate all, the author of this book is quite +content to mention a few of the more cogent reasons +why anyone should, in this day and generation, +undertake the keeping of bees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p> + +<p>One may keep bees for the sake of the honey, +which is a most legitimate and fit reason. Honey is +a wholesome and delicious addition to the family +table. Though it is a luxury, yet it may be afforded +by one living in moderate circumstances, if he be +willing to give a modicum of time and care to the +happy little creatures that gladly make it for him, +free of all expense. But for the one possessed of +great wealth, and able to corner the honey-market +any day, there is sure delight, as well as education, in +raising his own honey. Any person of experience +well knows that the honey made by one’s own bees +has quality and flavour superior to that made by +other people’s bees. In fact, the only way to become +a connoisseur of honey is to keep bees, for thus +only may one learn to discriminate between honey +made from basswood and that gathered from clover; +or to distinguish, at first taste, the product of orchard +in bloom from that drawn from vagrant blossoms, +which, changing day by day, mark the season’s +processional. He who has once kept bees and become +an artist in honey-flavours, would never again, +willingly, become a part of the world at large, which, +in its dense ignorance, dubs all white honey “basswood” +or “clover” indiscriminately, and believes +all dark honey is gathered from buckwheat.</p> + +<p>Some, perhaps, might keep bees for the sake of +making money. For him who would get rich keeping +bees, this book manifestly is not written; its title +explains that it is meant to show how to keep bees, +and not how to make bees keep him. The person who +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>would, from the first, make bee-keeping his chief +work should receive his training in a large apiary. +As a vocation it demands the entire time and energy +of a shrewd and able person to insure success; of +such, America already has a great number, with +yearly incomes varying from $1,000 to $10,000. +However, the desire to make the bees keep themselves +and add more or less to the family income is a +practical and sensible reason for keeping bees. +Fifteen or twenty colonies may be managed with +comparatively little time and attention and the work +may be done largely by women or the younger members +of the household. If proper care be given to +such an apiary, it will prove of material benefit to the +family purse; for, if the season be favourable, the +product of one colony should net the owner from +four to ten dollars. We know of boys who have thus +earned their college expenses; and many women have +bought immunity from the drudgery of the kitchen +with money paid them for their crops of honey. It +should be borne in mind that honey-money is not +obtained without thought, energy, and some hard +work. The bees would have been less beneficent +to mankind had they bestowed honey without demanding +a return in care and labour.</p> + +<p>Many have kept bees as a recreation, and there is +none better. It gives delightful and absorbing occupation +in the open air and is not merely a rest from +mental and sedentary labours, but is a stimulus to +health and strength as well. In the various bee +journals are recorded testimonials from thousands +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>who, when tired, ill, and nervously worn out, began +bee-keeping, and through it regained vigour and +found a new interest in life. Notwithstanding the +fact that bees have honest stings, they can work the +miracle of changing a dyspeptic pessimist into a +cheerful optimist with a rapidity and completeness +that merits our highest admiration.</p> + +<p>A love for natural science is a very good reason for +keeping bees. Nowhere are there more fascinating +problems for the investigator than those still unsolved +in the hive. Of all the lower animals, bees are, perhaps, +the most highly developed in certain ways; +and it is more probable that the mysteries of the +eternal heavens and the distant stars be made plain +than that we ever learn the truths that underlie the +development of the “Spirit of the Hive.”</p> + +<p>Another reason for keeping bees is the insight to +be gained therefrom into the conditions of perfect +communism. The bees and their relatives are the +most intelligent and consistent socialists that have +yet been developed in this world; and, through +studying their ways, one may discern with startling +clearness how the perfect socialism grinds off all +the projecting corners of the individual until it fits +perfectly in its communal niche. In the hive individual +traits, as exemplified in kindness, selfishness, +love and hate, are moved up a notch in the scale and +characterise the whole community, even though +they are eliminated from its members. If one is +a social philosopher, he may become very wise, +indeed, by studying the results of the laws of socialism +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>which have been executed inexorably through countless +centuries in the bee commune.</p> + +<p>Last, but by no means least, one may keep bees +because they belong to home life and should have +place in every well-kept garden or orchard. There +is no more beautiful domestic picture to be found in +the world than a fine garden with a row of hollyhocks +hiding the boundary fence and affording a +fitting background for a neat row of white hives. It +is not alone the æsthetic beauty the bees bring to the +garden which touches the deeper currents of feeling +and is productive of profound satisfaction; it is something +more fundamental; for since the thyme of +Hymettus yielded nectar, the happy hum of the bee +has yielded comfort to the human senses. The +garden without bees seems ever to lack something; +mayhap, the silent longing of the flowers for their +friendly visitors, intangible but real, so permeates +the place that we are dimly conscious of it. Be +that as it may, the perfect garden can only be attained +through the presence of happy and populous bee-hives.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"> + CHAPTER II + <br><br> + HOW TO BEGIN BEE-KEEPING + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>THE VARIOUS WAYS OF BEGINNING</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are so many ways of beginning this interesting +work that no classic way obtains. Many +people have received the stimulus from a swarm of +bees, escaped from some apiary, which has alighted +on a tree or bush on the premises, and which seemed +too much like a gift of the gods to be ignored. In +fact, no one with blood in him would do otherwise +under such circumstances than to hunt up a soap-box +or a nailkeg and, with an intrepidity amounting +almost to heroism, place it under the cluster and +shake the bees into it. Then, if the swarm feels +content, the fact is accomplished; and the involuntary +owner finds a new interest in life, and enthusiastically +becomes a bee-keeper. This is an excellent and +inexpensive way to begin, and for all who are thus +favoured it is by far the best way. But one may +wait many years before this happens, and after all +there are other and more direct methods. The +best way is to begin by wishing sincerely to keep +bees, and then to adopt one of the following plans:</p> + +<p>The cheapest way is to visit the nearest neighbour +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>who keeps bees, and buy of him a swarm, which will +cost, perhaps, two or three dollars. If the neighbour +be a good apiarist, this may be an excellent method, +for he will give practical advice and be a most helpful +friend in time of future difficulties and doubts; +he will also explain appliances and make the labours +and perplexities of the beginner much smoother. +Besides these advantages, it is a help to neighbourliness, +for keeping bees is almost as close a bond between +two neighbours as an interest in golf or +automobiles, and has a much broader and more +philosophical basis.</p> + +<p>Of course, the bees may be bought at any time of +the year convenient, but the early spring is the +best season for beginning, for then one has the advantage +of increase by swarms. If one is ingenious +and inventive, one may easily construct other hives +like the one bought; but there are other things +needed which may be obtained cheaper and better +from firms that sell apiarists’ supplies. However, +we are acquainted with several apiarists who furnish +all of their own supplies except the sections for comb-honey, +the wax foundations, the smoker, the cartons +and the honey-extractor.</p> + +<p>The usual way of beginning is to send to some of +the dealers in bee-keepers’ supplies for a catalogue +and to invest in a library of bee books. There is +something most fascinating about these books +written by bee-keepers, for no one makes a success of +bee-keeping unless he loves the bees; and if he loves +bees he writes of them so persuadingly, and his lines +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>are so full of insidious allusions to the enchantments +of the occupation, that whoever reads one of these +volumes finds life arid without bees.</p> + +<p>Then the catalogue of bee-keepers’ supplies has +its own attractions. Never were such breathlessly +interesting pamphlets written; and I would add +that, on the whole, they are the most honest and +reliable of all advertising catalogues. They almost +invariably give good and sensible advice to beginners, +suggesting proper outfits at moderate prices. To +the would-be bee-keeper these catalogues are so +delightful that, if the purse is long enough, he feels +inclined to order a specimen of everything listed. +However, this is not the best way to do. A moderate +number of things can be ordered at first, and other +things may be ordered later as the growing sense of +their need develops.</p> + +<p>If one is minded to go into bee-keeping as a +regular business, the best way to begin is to spend a +year with a successful bee-keeper, working for him +and with him and paying for the tuition, whatever +may be charged. Thus one may gain his knowledge +of the business and get his practical training under +the guidance of experience. The very worst way +to begin, and one that is sure to result in disaster, is +to buy a large number of colonies at first. This is +a too expensive way of learning the extent of one’s +own ignorance and limitations as a bee-keeper.</p> + +<p>As we have begun keeping bees three times in the +course of our lives, we feel more or less competent to +give advice about this special phase of bee-keeping. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>We first began when we were children and two +swarms were bestowed upon us by an uncle who +moved away from the neighbourhood. This was +long before the idea of supers and box comb-honey +had been thought of. We were among the first +to adopt the old glass-sided super when it was +introduced. The second and third times we +purchased our outfit of a dealer in apiarists’ supplies, +and both of these beginnings were good and successful; +so perhaps the best way to tell others how to +begin is to describe how we began. The following +is the order which we sent to a dealer.</p> + + +<h3 id="A_BEGINNERS_ORDER"> + A BEGINNER’S ORDER +</h3> + +<p>One colony of bees, in an eight-frame, dovetailed, +chaff hive with a deep telescope cover, and with a +tested Italian queen.</p> + +<p>Two complete supers ready for use, with 4¼ × 4¼ × +1½ plain sections.</p> + +<p>One super cover.</p> + +<p>Three extra 1½-story chaff hives uniform with the +above, and with super covers.</p> + +<p>One standard Corneil smoker.</p> + +<p>One bee-veil.</p> + +<p>One pair bee-gloves.</p> + +<p>Two hundred and fifty sections, plain, no bee-way, +4¼ × 4¼ × 1½.</p> + +<p>One pound medium brood foundation.</p> + +<p>Two pounds thin super foundation.</p> + +<p>One Daisy foundation-fastener.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p> + +<p>One Van Deusen wax-tube fastener.</p> + +<p>One ¼-pound spool No. 30, tinned wire.</p> + +<p>One Porter bee-escape, with board.</p> + +<p>One Manum’s swarm-catcher.</p> + +<p>One Dixie bee-brush.</p> + +<p>One Doolittle division board feeder.</p> + +<p>One Alley’s queen and drone trap.</p> + + +<h3 id="NOTES_ON_A_BEGINNERS_ORDER"> + NOTES ON A BEGINNER’S ORDER +</h3> + + +<h4 id="THE_BEES"> + THE BEES +</h4> + +<p>The selection of the bees is the first and most important +consideration, since race and heredity +determine to so great an extent the bee’s efficiency +and disposition.</p> + +<p>The consensus of opinion to-day is in favour of the +Italian bees; this is so much so that the other races, +except the German, are hardly on the general +market in America. Taking all points into consideration, +the Italian has a higher average of satisfactory +qualities than has any of the other races.</p> + +<p>Our earliest experiences were with the ordinary +black German bees, and it was through them that +we first learned to love bees, although their nervousness +and their unhappy habit of considering us intruders +when we neared their domain were always +somewhat embarrassing, and made us feel like +James Whitcomb Riley’s visiting base-ball team, +that “we weren’t so welcome as we aimed to be.” +Therefore, when we decided to buy bees, we unhesitatingly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>ordered Italians. These are much +more gentle and friendly than the others, and it is +one of our greatest pleasures to be on good terms +with our bee-folk. Under all ordinary circumstances +the Italian bees are not only tolerant of human +interference, but are sweet tempered and optimistic, +believing that we mean well by them; and one cannot +work with them without learning to love them.</p> + +<p>If one begins bee-keeping in the spring, some +money can be saved by buying a nucleus and tested +queen, instead of a full colony of bees. A nucleus +in bee-keeping parlance is a small colony with only +one, two, or three frames. The colony should be +large enough to build combs with sufficient rapidity +to keep the queen fairly busy, so as not to encourage +in her the habit of loafing, and so that too much time +shall not be required to build up a full colony. Two +frames with about a quart of bees will accomplish +this well.</p> + +<p>Such a nucleus as this in a hive, with a division +board on either side of the two adjacent frames, +can be soon built up into a full colony if there is +plenty of nectar and pollen to be had. A division +board is a solid board of the shape of the frame, +but a little larger so that it is close-fitting in the +hive. The frame should be watched closely, and +as soon as the comb is filled with brood, and there +are enough bees to cover the brood well, another +frame filled with brood foundation should be added; +this should be continued until the hive is filled with +frames.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p> + + +<h4 id="A_TESTED_QUEEN"> + A TESTED QUEEN +</h4> + +<p>As the queen is the mother of the whole colony, her +powers for transmitting a kind disposition and +superior honey-making qualities are of the greatest +importance. It is essential, therefore, to know that +the queen, which is to serve as a foundation for the +apiary, has mated with a drone of the desired race. +A tested queen is one that has been kept until some +of her offspring have been reared. The colour of +these will indicate whether the queen has mated with +a drone of her own race.</p> + + +<h4 id="THE_HIVE"> + THE HIVE +</h4> + +<p>Next to choosing the bees comes the selection of +the hive, for there are several kinds of hives in general +use, and all of them are apparently good. We +chose the Langstroth hive because its merits are +attested by the fact that it is more largely used than +all others taken together. We chose the eight-frame +in preference to the ten-frame form because we +wished to produce comb-honey, and it is easier to +induce bees to store surplus in the sections when the +brood-chamber is small. If one wishes to produce +extracted honey, the ten-frame hive is the better +one. We ordered the more expensive chaff hives, +as we wished to save the trouble of moving the bees +into winter quarters; and we think this would be +the case with anyone with whom bee-keeping is an +avocation instead of a vocation. In fact many people +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>who make bee-keeping their principal business +prefer chaff hives, for they not only keep out the +cold in winter, but also protect the bees from the +heat in summer. The objections to them are that +they are heavy to handle and are expensive, though +the expense can be reduced considerably if one has +the ability to make them. Another thing we like +about the chaff hives is that they are fine and dignified +in appearance, and we find that their majestic +proportions, white and beautiful, set against the +background of our larches, add much to our conscious +pleasure every time we look upon our apiary. +We ordered a deep telescope cover, as we wished +room for two supers on the hive at once.</p> + + +<p>The hive stand we ourselves made from lumber +taken from dry-goods boxes. It is simply a smooth +platform, six inches wider than the hive on three +sides and extending about a foot out in front of the +hive, thus serving as an alighting-board.</p> + + +<h4 id="TWO_COMPLETE_SUPERS"> + TWO COMPLETE SUPERS +</h4> + +<p>We knew that we would need these very soon, +for the basswood harvest was imminent; we +ordered them ready for use, as we wished to see +all the “new wrinkles” in supers, and exactly how +the parts are arranged. We used the supers as +models later in putting together and fitting other +supers. This proved a wise precaution, as it saved +us much time in reading directions and studying +out independently the arrangement of parts. We +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>ordered 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ sections, as this is the size most +generally used, and we chose the no-beeway, or +“plain” style, because we think it presents a better +appearance when filled with honey. We will return +to this question in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII</a>.</p> + + +<h4 id="THREE_EXTRA_HIVES"> + THREE EXTRA HIVES +</h4> + +<p>We wished to have these on hand for any swarms +which might possibly issue.</p> + +<div class="col50"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iia" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ii_a.jpg" alt="Hands shown bending wooden frame to form a small box."> + <figcaption class=ccap> + +(<i>a</i>) Two flat section-boxes; and one being bent together. + + + + </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="col50"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iib" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ii_b.jpg" alt="Smoker has a billows on the left, connected to a metal cylinder. A lid for the cylinder with a spout is titled to be open."> + <figcaption class=ccap> + (<i>b</i>) A Corneil smoker. + </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> + <p class="center fs80">PLATE II.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_STANDARD_CORNEIL_SMOKER"> + ONE STANDARD CORNEIL SMOKER +</h4> + +<p>I do not know just why we chose this of the many +excellent smokers, but perchance the name called +to mind happy experiences with sundry <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Cornell" id="Cornell1">Corneil</ins> +smokers of quite a different feather, and we were +thus favourably disposed toward this one. It has +not disappointed us in the least, for it is both handy +and practical. It may seem an unfriendly act to +smoke one’s own bee-people, but a little smoke +wisely applied is as efficacious in preserving pleasant +relations with the bees, as was the smoke from the +pipe of peace in preserving similar relations between +our forefathers and the savages. (<ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text:Plate I." id="plt_1"><a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>.</ins>)</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_BEE-VEIL"> + ONE BEE-VEIL +</h4> + +<p>The senior partner of our apiary rarely uses a +veil, but when he does use one he needs it very much, +and it is an article necessary to have at hand. To +the beginner it gives a calmness of nerve and a surplus +of courage which are highly desirable when dealing +with such high-strung creatures as bees. Also +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>there always occur times during the year when the +bee-tempers are on edge for some reason or other; +and at such times, if one be intrenched behind a bee-veil, +it facilitates work and encourages a serene +spirit.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_PAIR_OF_BEE-GLOVES"> + ONE PAIR OF BEE-GLOVES +</h4> + +<p>While we do not use these ordinarily, yet when +we have some special work to do which involves +changing many bees from one location to another, +we find these gloves most convenient to keep the +disturbed little citizens from crawling up our sleeves, +thus saving both them and ourselves from a most +embarrassing situation.</p> + + +<h4 id="250_SECTIONS"> + 250 SECTIONS +</h4> + +<p>Only a small supply of sections was ordered, as +but few would be needed the first year in addition to +those in the two complete supers. (<a href="#plate_iia">Plate II.</a>)</p> + + + +<h4 id="ONE_POUND_BROOD-FOUNDATION"> + ONE POUND BROOD-FOUNDATION +</h4> + +<p>This was for use in the frames in the extra hives.</p> + + +<h4 id="TWO_POUNDS_THIN_SUPER-FOUNDATION"> + TWO POUNDS THIN SUPER-FOUNDATION +</h4> + +<p>This was for use in the sections.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_DAISY_FOUNDATION-FASTENER"> + ONE DAISY FOUNDATION-FASTENER +</h4> + +<p>In the early days of our bee-keeping we fastened +the foundation into the sections and frames with a +common kitchen-knife which we heated over a lamp +and then applied to the edge of the wax foundation +held against the section, thus melting it and pressing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>it fast to the wood. Afterward we used a Parker +fastener, and found it a great improvement over the +primitive method. But this Daisy foundation-fastener +as described in the catalogue appealed to +the modern spirit in us. When we tried to use the +machine, we were bitterly disappointed at the end +of five minutes, but that was because the iron was +not hot enough to properly melt the wax. After a +little we learned to hold the foundation on the plate +just long enough to melt it to a proper consistency +so that it adhered to the section as soon as it was +dropped upon it. Then it was that filling sections +was placed on the list of sports. The rapidity with +which we filled four dozen sections almost took our +breath away.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_VAN_DEUSEN_WAX-TUBE_FASTENER"> + ONE VAN DEUSEN WAX-TUBE FASTENER +</h4> + +<p>This was ordered under the impression that it +would be needed for fastening the foundation in the +brood-frames, but when the hives came we found +that a much better method of fastening the foundations +had been devised. This is described in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter +VIII</a>. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_a.jpg" alt="A brush with bristles on both top and bottom. To the left a small rod of metal with a handle on one end and a small wheel with long gear like teeth. On the right there is a tool that looks like a basting tube with a handle on one end."> + <figcaption> + + <p> + (<i>a</i>) The Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder, and Van Deusen<br> + wax-tube fastener.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_b.jpg" alt="A super box sits open, showing the frames installed inside. One frame is out showing that it looks like a short section of fence."> + <figcaption> +<p>(<i>b</i>) A super with fences and two rows of section-boxes in place;<br> + a separate fence.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_c" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_c.jpg" alt="A framed roughly square made of two planks of wood, with a hole in the center."> + <figcaption> <p>(<i>c</i>) The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board.</p> + <p>PLATE III.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4 id="TINNED_WIRE"> + TINNED WIRE +</h4> + +<p>This is used for strengthening the foundation in +the brood-frames, as described later.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_PORTER_BEE-ESCAPE"> + ONE PORTER BEE-ESCAPE +</h4> + +<p>The Porter bee-escape is a simple and most useful +device. It is set in a thin board just the size of +the top of the hive; in the middle is a bit of tin which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>forms a round pit on the upper side. The bees +descend into this pit, and, trying to get out, push +apart two strips of tin set at angles to each other, +fastened at the ends, which act like a valve, letting +the bee out but not permitting her to push back. +This is put between the super and the hive in order +to free the super of bees before removing the honey. +This escape is also used on the doors and windows +of workshops or extracting-rooms or other places +where bees get in and it is desirable to get them out. +(<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III.</a>, <a href="#plate_viii">XVIII.</a>)</p> + + + +<h4 id="THE_MANUM_SWARM-CATCHER"> + THE MANUM SWARM-CATCHER +</h4> + +<p>We bought this because we liked the idea of it, +but as yet we have never had occasion to use it; however, +we never look at its long handle without being +filled with a mad desire to try it on a provoking +swarm of bees clustered in the top of a cherry tree.</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_DIXIE_BEE-BRUSH"> + ONE DIXIE BEE-BRUSH +</h4> + +<p>This is an exceedingly useful instrument for brushing +bees from frames and from sections. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p> + + +<h4 id="ONE_DOOLITTLE_FEEDER"> + ONE DOOLITTLE FEEDER +</h4> + +<p>Bee-keepers of extended experience consider this +the best and most satisfactory kind of feeder in use +for small apiaries. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p> + + +<h4 id="QUEEN_AND_DRONE_TRAP"> + QUEEN AND DRONE TRAP +</h4> + +<p>This is not a necessity; we bought it in order to try +experiments in preventing swarming by its use, and +also to have on hand in case an excess of drones should +be developed in any of our colonies. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"> + CHAPTER III + <br><br> + THE LOCATION AND THE ARRANGEMENT + OF THE APIARY + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Where</span> to put the hives is the first question, and +this must be determined by two or three conditions +necessary for the health and comfort of the bees. +Hives should be placed where the sunshine may +reach them in the morning up to eight or nine o’clock, +and in the afternoon from three to four o’clock. An +old orchard such as is kept because of picturesque +beauty rather than for its crop of apples is an ideal +place. The clean-culture orchards of the modern +horticulturists are undoubtedly more efficient as +producers of apples and money; but we are always +grateful that there are still remaining many fine old +orchards, on sod ground where the trees, more or less +gnarled and twisted, are a joy to the artistic eye. +Little wonder that such a place is the ideal spot for +the apiary; if the hives are grouped four or five +together beneath one tree, the requirements of shade +will be met.</p> + +<p>If there is no old orchard, what then? A young +orchard will do, unless clean culture is practised; in +the latter case horses and cultivator will not be permitted +on the domain of the bee-people. If no +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>orchard offers, then a trellis of vines extending east +and west, eight feet high, may shade a few hives, +and may be a thing of beauty in the garden as well. +Grape vines, hops, Virginia creeper, or any other +rapidly growing vines will do. To the one who +loves his garden, there will be many ways suggested +whereby the hives may be placed to compass both +comfort for the bees and joy to the beholder. We +started an apiary at the north of the lilac trees, and +made it a part of the lawn.</p> + +<p>If no such happy position for natural shade is to +be found for the hives, then one must have recourse +to artificial shade or double-walled hives. A very +good method of shading, much in vogue among the +farmers of our country, consists of a few boards +placed awning-fashion above the row of hives. This +is not an attractive solution to the problem, although +perhaps it might be made so if this method were ever +resorted to by anyone with a sense of beauty; but +usually it is limited to a simple cover consisting of +two or three boards nailed together, slanting a little +toward the back of the hives to shed rain, supported +by four posts, which hold it a foot or more above +the row of hives.</p> + +<p>In California instead of boards a thatched roof is +made for this sort of protection, and is ample enough +to allow an aisle for the apiarist between the rows of +hives set back to back.</p> + +<p>Many people use a single shade board, which +consists of slats fastened together by cleats made +large enough to project a foot beyond the hive on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>either side. This is placed directly on top of the +hive, and has to be weighted down with stones, and +is therefore awkward to handle when working with +the bees. If the climate is hot, or in any case, a +double-walled cover to the hive is most excellent, +since it affords a chance for free circulation of air +between the two boards which form it. However, +these double covers do not obviate the need of shade, +and natural shade is the most desirable sort.</p> + +<p>In case the region is exposed to high winds, there +should be a windbreak around the apiary. Mr. +Root, who is one of the greatest of American bee-keepers, +uses for this a row of hardy evergreens +which grow together into a solid hedge. In case a +windbreak, either natural or made, is impracticable, +a board fence about eight or ten feet high, built on +two sides of the apiary, usually the north and west +sides, will be found to serve the purpose. This +fence may be made the trellis for vines.</p> + +<p>In the rear of the village garden is an excellent +place for bees. A high board fence as a boundary, +and perhaps a barn at the side will act as a windbreak, +while the fruit trees yield a grateful shade. +We know several such modest apiaries which are +most attractive in appearance. There are those +who live in cities or towns who are filled with the +bee-keeper’s ambitions; and even they need not +despair. There are on record accounts of several +small apiaries kept on the housetops of the owners, +who believe that roofs are for more than mere protection. +Where bees kept thus get their honey is a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>bee secret, but undoubtedly every flower in the region +yields them tribute. If bees be kept in town, they +must be placed on a roof or else a high fence must +intervene between the hives and the highway, so +that the plane of bee flight shall be set above the +heads of horses and drivers; for these brave little +honeymakers have never been taught to turn to the +right, and so they often dispute the way with teams +and usually come off victorious; and this might make +the bee-keeper unpopular in his community.</p> + +<p>Another necessity in the apiary is that the grass in +front of the entrance to the hives be kept mown; +otherwise many a heavily laden bee will experience +loss or injury among interfering grass blades. It is +not practicable, even if one were heroic enough to +try it, to run a lawn mower nearer than four or five +inches from the hives, so many bee-keepers place +salt or coal ashes on the grass within this area. Mr. +Root goes so far as to advise the use of sheep as +automatic lawn mowers in the apiary, as nothing +else can cut grass so short as does the sheep. People +say “as silly as a sheep,” but that is a silly saying, +for many people may learn something of value about +the management of bees from the sheep, which, when +attacked by them, thrusts its head philosophically +into a bush where the bees cannot reach the tender +parts, and trusts to its wool to protect it elsewhere. +As a matter of experience, sheep kept in apiaries +are rarely stung at all.</p> + +<p>In our own apiary, where it was not practical to +mow close to the hives, we followed two methods: +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>When we had many bees we placed a rough board +over the ground in the immediate front of the hive; +when we had only a few swarms, it was one of our +joys to get on our knees on cold days, when only a +few adventurous workers were going into the field, +and with shears cut the grass close to the ground; +and this period spent on our knees was not penance, +but joy. However, it might well get to be penance +in a large apiary.</p> + +<p>Having found the place for the apiary, the next +thought is of hive stands. Many bee-keepers use a +hive that has a combination bottom board and hive +stand; this has an inclined plane up which the loaded +bees may climb if they strike the ground. This is +a device which also saves the lives of many bees in +cool weather, when they would scarcely be able, +through numbness, to reach the entrance of the hive +otherwise. However, there are other bee stands +which hold two or three hives, which are very comfortable +in height for the work of the bee-keeper. +But it is always well to remember that the opening +of a hive should be low down, as it is easier for the +weary wings to let the honey-weighted bee down +than to lift her up to the doorway. We use a simple +platform, with blocks under the corners, so that there +may be circulation of air beneath, and extending +about a foot out in front of the hive, thus serving as +an alighting-board.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the hives in the apiary is a +subject which will pay for thought. When beginning, +this is easy enough, as they may be arranged +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>almost any way, so long as shade and short grass are +assured. After the apiary grows they may be +arranged in several convenient ways; one is to have +the lines of hives facing each other, thus making an +alley for the bees; while there is a safe passageway +for the man in the rear of the two rows.</p> + +<p>When there are only a few hives, it is best to have +the entrances face the south. In fact, the entrance +should never face northward in a climate as cold as +that of New York State. There is one thing to bear +in mind in arranging an apiary; make the groups +under the trees individual, so that the bees will have +no tendency to become confused as to the location +of their own homes. If two face west, then let two +others face east, or perhaps a group of three face to +the south, etc.</p> + +<p>When it becomes necessary, for any reason, to +change the location of a colony, a board should be +set against the hive, in front of its entrance. The +bees, meeting this obstruction as they emerge from +the hive, will fly about the hive for some time, and +thus mark the new location, to which they will return. +If this precaution is not taken, many bees will fly +from the hive, directly into the field, without noticing +the change, and will then return to the old location +and thus be lost.</p> + +<p>A honey-house near the apiary is a great convenience. +If this is not practicable, the next best arrangement +is a honey-room in house, cellar, or shed. Such +a room is a necessity even in a small apiary. This +room should be well ventilated and screens should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>cover the windows, and a swinging automatic screen +protect the door; bee-escapes should be placed in +door and windows.</p> + +<p>The room should contain workbench and tools; +a table, chairs of varying height, an oil-stove, and +boxes or cupboards in which all of the apiary supplies, +implements, and machinery may be stored +and kept ready for use.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iv" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iv.jpg" alt=""> +<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p class="ccap"> + PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree, but the grass ought to have been cut long ago.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"> + CHAPTER IV + <br> + THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the remarkable peculiarities of bees, which +is also shared by other social insects, as ants, wasps +and termites, is that there are three distinct kinds of +individuals in the community. For, in addition to +the males and females, which are the reproducing +members of the colony, there is a third class which +performs the labours of the community. The +females, of which there is usually only one in a +colony, are known as queens; the males as drones; +and the labourers as workers. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p> + + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_v" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_a.jpg" alt="Three bees: A queen, a drone, and a worker"> + <figcaption> + <table class="wd100"><tr><td><i>Fig. 1</i></td><td> + <i>Fig. 2</i></td><td> + <i>Fig. 3</i></td></tr></table> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate_vb" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_b.jpg" alt="Sketch of a honeycomb, showing queen cells"> + <figcaption> <p class="ccap"><i>Fig. 4</i></p><br> + </figcaption> +</figure><figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vc" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_c.jpg" alt="A small box. A small enterince at one end. A section in the middle is made of fine wire mesh."> + <figcaption> <p class="ccap"><i>Fig. 5</i></p> + + + <p class="pcap">PLATE V. <i>1.</i> Queen Bee, enlarged. <i>2.</i> Drone. <i>3.</i> Worker. <i>4.</i> Queen + Cells. <i>5.</i> Miller’s Cage for Introducing Queens. + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<h3 id="THE_QUEEN_Plates_V_VI_VII"> + THE QUEEN <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plates V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>The bee-queen is the acme of a long line of communistic +development. It is little wonder that those +men of ancient times who observed her, and the +attitude of the other bees toward her, regarded her +as regal and called her queen. But she is a much +more important element in the perfect commune +than a mere sovereign, since she is the actual mother +of her subjects.</p> + +<p>Too much care cannot be shown in the selection of +the queen, or mother of the bee-colony. Her blood +is their blood; her faults are their faults; her weaknesses +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>are their weaknesses. Any apiarist is likely +to have had two colonies side by side, perhaps each +equalling the other in amount of brood and number +of bees, and one may have produced five dollars’ +worth of honey in a season, while the other did not +produce half of that; and the queens alone caused +this discrepancy. One produced energetic, capable +offspring, while the progeny of the other were unenterprising. +The offspring of one were perhaps +sweet-tempered and obliging, and those of the other, +cross and cranky. Thus it is all-important to give +the colony a good mother. A queen, to be perfect, +should be well-bred, handsome and strong, and +capable of laying from two to three thousand eggs +per day during the height of the season, and especially +should she have offspring possessing a kindly +disposition.</p> + +<p>The laying queen is a very graceful insect; her +body is long and pointed, and extends far behind +the tips of her closed wings. <i>Svelte</i> is a graphic +word applied to her figure by the <cite>Spectator</cite>; just a +glance at her reveals her splendid physical development +and proves her a queenlier bee than those that +gather around her. It is a sight that makes men feel +how very limited is their knowledge of any other +world than their own to see the queen bee, surrounded +by her ring of attendants, each with head toward her, +as if she were the centre of a many-rayed star.</p> + +<p>The development of the queen from the egg has +ever been a most interesting and, at the same time, a +most puzzling subject for investigation on the part of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>the scientists; even now after a century of study her +growth is as miraculous as ever; and the problems in +physiology that lie as yet unsolved in her development +will keep many an investigator busy in the future.</p> + +<p>When a colony is queenless, and has young brood +or unhatched eggs, it makes haste to develop new +queens; not one alone, but several, since it cannot +afford to put its “eggs all in one basket.” At the +height of the honey season, every day that a colony +is queenless means two or three thousand less bees +than should be present to make it successful in +securing the harvest. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p> + +<p>In developing a queen the bees usually proceed as +follows: They select the important egg, which +differs in no wise from any other worker egg, and +destroying the partitions between its cell and two +adjoining cells, give it more room. In order to make +the royal apartment of good size a projection is built +out over this large cell. This is made of thick wax +and ornamented on the outside with hexagonal +fretwork, as if it were to be the basis of comb with +small cells. It seems as if the hexagonal pattern +were in the bee brain and must be expressed, whether +it be of any use or not. As soon as the little white +larva hatches from the egg, it is fed on the regular +larval food. Royal jelly is a food developed in the +head glands of the workers; and when it is the +fate of a bee larva to develop into a worker, it is fed +with this food for three days, and then it is weaned by +having other food substituted; but the queen larva +is fed with it during her entire development, and thereby +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>her reproductive organs are stimulated and fully +developed, which is not the case with the workers. +Think how much farther advanced are the bees than +we, since, by giving the proper food, they are able +to develop and fit each class of citizens to do the +work required of it in the social organisation!</p> + +<p>The queen larva is fed for five days on this most +nourishing food, and then her cell is sealed. Within +this cell the royal princess is for the first time self-dependent, +and weaves about herself a silken cocoon +and changes into a pupa. When she issues from +this state she waits a little until she “finds herself,” +and then starts to cut an opening in the cell. She is +a good mathematician, and with her jaws, cuts a +circle very accurately, usually leaving it hinged like +the lid to a pot. Professor Kellogg tells us that sometimes +when she cuts this door, the workers do not +wish her to come out. They accomplish their purpose +by carrying wax and pasting it over the +opening as fast as she cuts it, at the same time +quite devotedly feeding her through a small crevice. +But if they wish her to come out, they rush to assist +her, and perhaps for two or three days before she +issues, make the wax thin where she is to cut. It +usually requires sixteen days to develop a queen +from the egg to the adult.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vi" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vi.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + PLATE VI. (Original, drawn by A. G. Hammar.) <i>d</i>, head of drone; <i>q</i>, + head of queen; <i>w</i>, head of worker; <i>x</i>, ventral surface of worker showing plates + of wax. + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vii.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + PLATE VII. Legs and antenna of the honey-bee (original drawn by A. G. + Hammar). <i>A</i>, outer surface of hind leg showing the nine segments and claws; + <i>pb</i>, the pollen basket of tibia; <i>B</i>, inner surface of part of hind leg; <i>wp</i>, wax-pincers; + <i>pc</i>, pollen-combs; <i>C</i>, inner surface of part of hind leg of queen; <i>D</i>, + inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; <i>E</i>, part of middle leg of worker; <i>s</i>, + spur; <i>F</i>, part of fore leg showing the antenna cleaner <i>a</i>; <i>G</i>, part of antenna + showing sense-hairs and sense-pits. + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>When a queen issues from her cell, she is light-coloured +and, as her body is not yet distended with +eggs, it is scarcely larger than that of one of the +workers. Sometimes she chooses to stay in her +cell for a day or two after it is opened. When she +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>comes out, she runs about over the comb, taking +exercise on her own royal legs, and perhaps taking +a little honey out of the cells on her own account; +especially does she hunt for other queen cells, for +she has no wish to share her duties or honours with +another. If she finds such a cell, she usually makes +a hole in its side, and in some way, she stings to +death the hapless princess within. Some observers +claim that she merely takes the initiative, tearing +down the wall of the cell, and the bees finish by +tearing it down as they would any broken comb, and +destroy the inmate in the process. If, in her promenade, +she discovers another full-grown queen, a +contest ensues; it is a duel to the death and the +weapons are stings, which are kept sacred for this +special occasion. It is interesting that the queen +reserves her weapon for her peers, and never attempts +to sting workers, and may be handled fearlessly by +the bee-keeper. As the plate armour of the bee is +so arranged that the sting may enter in only at certain +spots, this duel resolves itself into a fencing match, +until one thrusts her weapon into some vulnerable +portion of the other. One morning we found fifteen +dead queens outside of one of our hives; a grim +tribute to the prowess of the queen within, and quite +as much a tribute to our carelessness in letting so +many queens be developed uselessly.</p> + +<p>The belligerent attitude of the queens toward each +other seems to have been so strong an emotion that a +voice has been developed to express it, and is eloquent +with rage and fear. This note must be heard to be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>understood; as nearly as I am able to spell it, it is +“tse-ep, tse-e-e-ep, tse-e-ep, tsep, tsp, tsp, ts,” in a +sort of diminuendo. She makes the noise when she +discovers another queen cell; if there is within this +cell a full-fledged queen, she pipes back, but it +sounds quite differently and the note is more like +“quock, quock.” This piping of queens is especially +evident before an after-swarm is to issue. The +queen will also pipe when the bees gather about her +and try to ball her, which is often the fate of a new +queen introduced into a colony not ready to receive +her. In this case the note is one of righteous anger +at the indignity to her royal person. She makes +this piping with some vocal instrument, not well +understood. Her wings vibrate tremulously while +she is piping, but she can pipe quite as vociferously +after her wings have been entirely cut off.</p> + +<p>After she has made good her title to empire, the +queen thinks about marriage; some warm day she +will run out of the hive to see how the world looks, +and especially to determine beyond doubt upon just +what point of the universe her own hive is situated. +The first flight of the queen bee is very pretty to see. +She makes many graceful circles about, and plays in +the sunshine as if she were thoroughly enjoying +herself. When she finally leaves the hive to find a +prince, she makes several little <i lang="fr">détours</i>, always +coming back so that she can commit to memory, +beyond peradventure, the home place, and then off +she goes in the sunshine to find her lover. Unfortunately +she is not discriminating in the matter of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>love, and any sort of a prince, however lowly, is +acceptable. Thus does many a fine, highly bred +queen return to her hive, to bestow upon her progeny +the undesirable traits of some low-bred drone. This +is one reason why it is so difficult to keep an apiary +of pure blood; and these <i lang="fr">mésalliances</i> of queens are +a source of much tribulation to the bee-keeper. +She returns from her wedding journey with a part of +the reproductive organs of her mate in her possession, +often still visible, but soon after withdrawn into her +body. With the sperm cells now under her control, +she will fertilise the eggs of perhaps a million workers, +more or less, which she may mother during her life +of three or four years.</p> + +<p>Biologists have of late achieved the miraculous +in being able to stimulate the unfertilised eggs of sea-urchins +and starfish, so that they will develop. The +queen bee is able to do this with her own eggs. +When the time comes for drones to be developed, +she lays unfertilised eggs, which, unfailingly, produce +the drones. If our poor human queens possessed +this power of producing male heirs at will, much +trouble would have been saved to many of them and, +to some of them, their heads. However, the perfect +socialists do most things better than we.</p> + +<p>As soon as the queen returns from her honeymoon, +which is usually taken from eight to ten days from +the time she issues, she acts decidedly like a business +person. She runs about on the comb, pokes her head +into a cell to see if it is all ready, and then, turning +about, thrusts her abdomen in and neatly glues an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>egg fast to the bottom. When the honey season is +at its height, she works with great rapidity; sometimes +she lays at the rate of six eggs per minute, often +laying three thousand or twice her own weight of +eggs per day. She is a wise queen, however, and +has in mind the dangers of overpopulation. When +there is much honey brought in, and the swarming +season is at hand, she enlarges her empire rapidly; +but when there is little honey, she keeps the amount +of brood down to what can be cared for. Whether +this question of limiting the population is decided +by the queen, or whether she simply acts in response +to the food given her by the workers, is a question +not yet settled. However this may be, it is certain +that Malthusian doctrines are rigorously and successfully +practised by the perfect socialists of the +hive.</p> + +<p>Sometimes when the honey flow is very great an +intoxication of work seems to possess the colony. +The bees, coming in from the field, will drop the +honey anywhere, and the queen, agitated by the +general spirit of the hive, will drop her eggs everywhere; +and the poor, overworked, bee housekeepers +have to pick up the honey and store it in the cells, +and pick up the eggs and glue them fast to the cell-bottoms.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_DRONE_Plates_V_VI_VII"> + THE DRONE <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plates V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>Of all the denizens of the hive the lot of the drones +is the least enviable. That one may surely fulfil the +destiny as king father, many are born, only to be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>slain when the honey harvest runs low, and meanwhile +they are denied all interests in the business +of the colony except that of pensioners upon its +bounty. And he, the fortunate one, who lives his +life to its fullest measure and becomes queen consort +must in the end lose his life for love and die, heartlessly +abandoned by her whom he sought and won.</p> + +<p>In appearance the drone differs much from the +queen and the worker; he is broad, and the rear end +of his body is so blunt that it looks almost as if it had +been cut off with shears. He is made for a life of +idleness; his hind legs bear no pollen baskets, so he +could not fetch and carry if he would; his tongue +is so short that he must needs eat from honey stored +in a cell or be fed by his sisters, since he could not +possibly extract nectar from a deep flower; nor is +there any occasion that he should hang suspended +weary hours for the secretion of wax, since he has +no wax glands. His special accomplishment is his +buzz, which is of extraordinary calibre and sonorousness. +So fierce and loud is this, the song he sings +when on the wing, that the novice feels inclined to +retreat before him. But this music is undoubtedly +meant to attract a queen to his vicinity, and is by no +means a sound of menace; he is a burly, good-natured +fellow, who is obliged to express himself +in this rather coarse song. The term “good +natured” is applied to him, not because we are +certain that his temper is sweet, but because he has +no means of expressing ill temper should he experience +it, since niggard nature has given him no sting. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>He is always a clumsy chap, as awkward as his +queen is graceful; but he can scramble out of the +way with astonishing celerity when a murderously +inclined sister attacks him. The time when he shows +his princely qualities is when he is flying, for his +wings are large and strong and carry him easily +several miles if he needs to travel so far to win his +lady. In his physical makeup he is a fine example +of a purely feminine product; for the drone is a very +perfect creature, even if he is reared from an unimpregnated +egg. His magnificent compound eyes +almost completely encircle his head, nearly meeting +at the top, and thus crowding his simple eyes down +into his “forehead.” And such eyes as these mean +something surely, for they are developed that he +may be better able to see his heart’s desire from afar. +He also has marvellous antennæ, the nine distal +joints of which are completely pitted with smelling +organs. The reason for this is that his queen has a +fragrance all her own, sweeter to him than the attar +of roses, and thus he is equipped, as Cheshire has +proven, with thirty-seven thousand eight hundred +nostrils, in order to detect the perfume of her royal +person at a distance. (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, <i>G</i>.)</p> + +<p>The life-history of the drone after he hatches from +his unfertilised egg is much like that of other bees, +except that for him is provided a cell larger than that +of the worker; he hatches from the egg about three +days after it is laid, and during the week following he +is carefully attended by the nurses who feed him on +the rich chyle food at first; after four days they give +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>him some undigested pollen, a food not granted to +the larvæ of the workers. At the end of a week his +cell is sealed over with a cap that looks more like the +crown of a derby hat than a cap, so spherical is it. +Cheshire has shown that this cap is an especially +fine example of engineering, being girdered by six +struts of wax, the apex of the dome being not a skylight +exactly, but rather a ventilator for the admission +of air. (<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</p> + +<p>It has been a question of much dispute whether the +workers inspire the queen to drone-raising through +building drone comb, or whether she takes the +initiative in the matter. Certain it is the bees seem +to love to build drone comb, perhaps because it is +more easily constructed and requires less wax. It +is also a fact that the queen prefers the worker cells, +and in the spring or fall when there is little honey +coming in, the queen will voluntarily pass drone +comb, leaving it empty, and lay eggs in the worker +cells, so she evidently knows her own mind. Sometimes +when reduced to dire extremity the queen will +lay worker eggs in the drone cells, but she does not +do this unless the openings of the cells have been +previously constricted by the bees. Sometimes also +when the conditions are abnormal the queen will lay +drone eggs in the worker cells and from these will +be developed runty drones, which seem of little +account. However, such conditions as these are +very unusual.</p> + +<p>When the drone is twenty-four days from the egg +he cuts a circular lid out of the cap of his cell, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>crawls out into a hazardous world. After a fortnight +or so of moving about the combs and eating his fill +he goes out of the hive and tries his wings. This +he does on some pleasant day, about noon or a little +after. As soon as he is sure of himself, he makes +his flight longer, and the length of his journeys may +only be guessed at. When he meets the queen they +unite at once in the air, and after this they fall to the +ground and she frees herself by tearing off and holding +within herself the generative appendages of her +dying consort.</p> + +<p>In every hive are developed thousands of these +princes royal, who are maintained at the expense of +the colony until the dawn of that fatal day when the +honey crop runs short; and then an unhappy experience +lies before these useless brothers of the +reigning house. Then their sisters chase them +out of the hive apparently attempting to sting +them, and, changed to furies, bite off their +wings and harry them until they give up, great +helpless creatures that they are, and fulfil their +final destiny, which is to die for the sake of the +colony.</p> + +<p>Even the drone eggs, larvæ, and pupæ are not +exempt on this appointed day of execution, but are +ruthlessly killed, and their remains thrust forth +from the hive. If conditions should change and +more honey be made, a reprieve to the unhappy +drone may be granted, for the length of his life is +measured by the food supply. Any time during the +summer when the bee-keeper finds the workers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>attacking the drones he may be very sure it means +that the honey crop is exhausted.</p> + +<p>Our pity is usually much more excited for the +fate of the drone than for that of the busy worker, +which dies from overwork at the end of a few weeks; +and this is undoubtedly because the death of the +worker seems voluntary, while the drones are manifestly +murdered. Once we witnessed the slaughter +of the drones in an observation hive, the entrance of +which was too contracted to allow the bodies of the +drones to pass. For several days the bloody-minded +workers spent their energies in tearing their wretched +victims limb from limb, and carrying them out in +sections. Below a small crevice at the bottom of the +hive we found a row of disjointed legs, wings and +antennæ from the mutilated drones, while the heads +and broken bodies were thrown out of the front of +the hive.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_WORKERS_Plate_V_VI_VII"> + THE WORKERS. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>.)</span> +</h3> + +<p>It is interesting to note that in the socialistic bee-community +the work is carried on by unsexed +females. It evidently has not been a part of the +true economy of the perfect socialism to unite motherhood +and business life in one individual; therefore, a +division of labour takes place. The queen mother +is developed into a highly efficient egg-laying machine, +while all her worker sisters remain undeveloped +sexually, and thus have time and energy to devote +themselves to bringing up the young, keeping the +house, getting the food, and administering the affairs +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>of the body politic. Little wonder is it that the brain +of the worker bee is much larger than that of the +queen or drone, for she needs must exercise her +mental powers far more than either. She is obliged +also to pass through certain industrial stages in her +development as a worker before she attains the full +height of citizenship.</p> + +<p>The life-history of a worker is usually as follows: +The cell in which she is developed is the smallest of +the comb, such as is ordinarily used for storing +honey. She is not merely a fatherless creation, like +the big drone, but hatches from an impregnated +egg during the fourth day after it is laid by the queen +mother. She is supplied with royal jelly, presumably +the same as that which nourishes the queen +larva, for about three days; afterward she is fed +honey and digested pollen. This food is placed +in the bottom of the cell, and the young larva floats +in it and absorbs it through the body walls as well as +through the mouth, which a little later she opens up +pleadingly that it may be filled by the nurse bees. +She grows like other infantile insects by shedding +her skeleton skin as fast as she outgrows it; she does +this with thoroughness, for she sheds the lining of +the mouth, the gullet, the larger intestines and the +tracheal tubes as well as the outside, this being a +very thorough change of clothes, indeed; she does +this about six times. Soon after she hatches she +querls up in the cell, floating in her food, and at the +end of four days’ feeding she is a very fat, contented +youngster. Six days from the hatching the nurse +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>bees place over the cell, a cap which is made of wax +and pollen, and admits the air freely. Then the +young bee in the solitude of her own cell eats all the +food that has been provided, spins about herself a +cocoon of finest silk, which she weaves from a gland +which opens in her lip; this is a very, very delicate +cocoon, which remains in the cell as a lining, but so +delicate is it that not until years have elapsed do the +brood cells become contracted by these many silk +wrappings of bees which have been developed in +them. When the worker sheds for the last time her +skeleton, she sheds the lining of the stomach and +alimentary canal and all its contents, and changes +to a pupa, which is a state of utter quiescence and +during which wonderful changes take place in her +anatomy. These changes which occur in the pupa +are almost like new creation, for the legs, wings, antennæ, +and all of the other organs of the adult bee +are developed from what was within the body of the +footless, white grub.</p> + +<p>Twenty-one days from the date of the laying of +the egg, twelve days after the cell is capped, the +worker bee sheds her pupa skin, pushes it behind +her to the bottom of the cell, cuts a lid in the cap of +her cell and pushes her way out, very likely after +some friendly nurse has given her a little food to +“stay her stomach.” As she crawls out, she is a +silvery-gray bee, as damp as if she had been out in +a fog; no one hastens to greet her, or pays her the +slightest attention, which is quite different from the +case with the young ant, which is always fussed over +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>and patted and petted by the nurses for some time +after it emerges from the pupa skin. But the +worker bee has to pat herself, and so she gives her +face a rubbing, stretches and tries to straighten out +her draggled clothing, and walks around trying to +get acquainted as best she can with her sisters, who +are too intent upon work to notice her. The first +twenty-four hours of her life as a bee are spent +orienting herself; but on the second day she learns +to put her head down into the cells of unsealed +honey and drink her fill. This is not a selfish and +thoughtless act, for almost immediately she enters +on her first duty, that of bee-nurse; and she must eat +pollen and honey and digest them in order to make +chyle for the bee brood, which she soon learns to +care for most solicitously. It may be her lot to +supply royal jelly to a queen cell and thus become +a lady-in-waiting. In any event she very soon learns +to be useful in many ways; she helps to build comb, +and works very hard at capping the cells of the young +bees when they are ready to pupate. She also helps +to clean house if necessary, carefully removing all +of the dirt and refuse at the bottom of the hive and +dumping it out of the front door. During the extreme +heat of the summer she must exert herself tremendously +by fanning with her wings so that a draft may +be set up in the hive for the sake of the bees as well +as to ripen the honey in the uncapped cells. During +very hot weather, when the bees hang out, some of +these young workers may be seen fanning “for dear +life” on the outside of the hive. Having more zeal +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>than wit, they dance a little glide back and forth, +and fan as if they thought they were really accomplishing +something.</p> + +<p>The young worker usually takes her first flight +when she has had her wings for about a week; she +runs out on the threshold of the hive on some pleasant +afternoon, and may be easily recognised, as she is +callowness incarnate. She runs around a little, +giving the impression of holding on with all her six +feet as if scared, and then she lifts herself gingerly +to see whether she truly can use her wings; then she +circles around in great joy and learns to know well +the place where her hive stands. About a week later +she goes out into the wide world to seek her fortune +and is likely to come back with a little load of pollen +on her legs. When she comes back thus laden +she buzzes around before alighting, and then rushes +into the hive excited and delighted with her achievement, +and as Mr. Root says so graphically, “tries her +best to show off.” Soon after, she becomes a staid +worker and plays her part in the economy of the hive +by bringing in honey, pollen, and propolis, secreting +wax if need be, ready to defend her colony at the cost +of her life, and so courageous that she as readily +attacks a man as a mouse. Later it may fall to her +lot to become executioner of her brother drones, or to +devote herself to the queen and help lead out the +swarm; or, by some mysterious election of the hive, +she may be sent as a scout to find a proper home +for her queen and her colony after they have +swarmed. She is at the height of her powers and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>usefulness when about a month old, and at that time +she will do any of the duties of the hive which she +deems necessary, even to helping the young bees in +the housework. She still has all her fur and her +wings are as yet whole; but if there is much to do she +is untiring and unremitting in her labours and, with +never a thought of self, wears herself out. Her old +age is evident by the loss of the fuzz, which was the +pride of her youth, and the segments of her body +become bald and shiny. Then her hard-worked +wings begin to fray at the edges until there comes a +day when, out on her quest for food for the colony, +the broken wings and tired muscles refuse to support +her, and she falls into the grass and dies; even +then her last thought is not for self, but for the +precious load which she struggles to carry home. +Better thus for her to die in the field than to faint +in the hive, for then do her vigorous sisters seize +her and thrust her forth, and she falls into the refuse +heap in front of the home, which she has so eagerly +wasted her life to sustain. There is no gratitude +and no pensioning in the bee-world; death and +oblivion are meted mercilessly to the most ardent +workers when they fail, for thus, and thus only, can +the colony be kept strong. The individual is nothing +in the perfect socialism, and the colony is everything; +the treatment is Spartan, with none of the weakness +which makes us keep alive the hopelessly insane, +the idiotic, and the criminal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="THE_LAYING_WORKER"> + THE LAYING WORKER +</h3> + +<p>When the colony is queenless, worker bees may +develop the ability to lay eggs. As they have never +mated, they lay unfertilised eggs, which develop into +drones, and thus stock the hive with these royal +cumberers of the commune. It is interesting to note +the difference in prejudices that obtain in the hive +and in human society. In the latter we regard it +as scandalous when the female, avoiding the duties +of motherhood, goes abroad gathering honey and +pollen at her own sweet will; but in bee society it is +not merely a scandal, but a misfortune, when the +worker bee has ambitions to be a mother. The laying +worker is a bee gone wrong and a menace to the +colony. At the same time she is a nuisance to the +bee-keeper and great may be his tribulation before +he is rid of her. As might be expected, she does not +do her work well; she usually does not lay her eggs +in regular order, as does the queen, but scatters +them here and there and everywhere, and is quite +likely to fasten them to the sides of the cells, instead +of to the bottom. She lays her eggs sometimes +several together in worker as well as in drone cells.</p> + +<p>As a laying worker looks like any other worker, +it is useless to try to find her. However, her presence +may be detected by the irregular appearance of the +brood, and especially by the high drone caps on the +worker cells and, finally, by a superabundance of +drones. To meet this difficulty, an ounce of prevention +is worth several pounds of cure, and great care +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>should be taken to prevent colonies from becoming +queenless. In case, through carelessness, a colony +is thus victimised it will usually refuse to accept a +queen, though sometimes it may be induced to accept +a capped queen cell. If this is not successful, the +combs, with the bees adhering, should be removed +to an empty hive nearby, placing a frame of brood +containing a queen cell, if possible, and a frame or +two of foundation in the old hive. The workers, +coming back from the field, will enter their hive and +the moved comb will soon be deserted by all except +the laying worker; she, with her characteristic +fatuity, will remain on the deserted combs, laying +eggs until she dies of exhaustion. A surer remedy +than this, but a more troublesome one, is to unite +this colony with another, or to scatter the combs +from the victimised hive, bees and all, among other +colonies of the apiary; meanwhile giving the depleted +hive a frame or two of good brood, with a queen cell, +if possible, so that the bees that return to it will +find normal conditions. What happens to the laying +worker when she finds herself in a colony with +a queen, we do not know. Probably, if she persists +in laying eggs, she is killed; possibly she forsakes her +evil ways, and returns to the straight and narrow +path of respectable citizenship.</p> + +<p>We do not understand why laying workers are +developed. Some have claimed that too much royal +jelly was given them when larvæ; and some, that after +a colony is queenless, the jelly is fed to workers and +thus develops them so they are able to lay eggs. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>They appear among the Cyprian and Syrian bees +more frequently than among the Italians.</p> + + +<h3 id="RACES_OF_DOMESTIC_BEES"> + RACES OF DOMESTIC BEES +</h3> + +<p>Several races of the honey-bee have been developed +in different countries. Some of these have +been imported into the United States, and many +experiments have been made to determine their +relative values.</p> + +<p>There were no native honey bees in North America +north of Mexico, and the black or German bees +were the first to be brought to this country by the +pioneers. The wild bees which stock the woods of +our country to-day are chiefly black bees, the descendants +of swarms which have escaped from apiaries. +For many years the black or German race was the +only kind in general use here. Within recent years +the eastern races of bees, Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or +Syrians, and also the Egyptians and Carniolans and +Italians have been introduced. Of all these, only the +Italians have come into universal favour.</p> + +<p>The Italians are the classic bees which were discussed +by Aristotle, and sung about by Virgil, who +describes their bodies as “shining like drops of +sparkling gold.” The Italian worker has five yellow +bands that mark the front portions of the five segments +of the abdomen which lie next to the thorax; +the two posterior bands are made by yellow hairs +and are therefore likely to disappear as the bee gets +old and bald. But the three front ones are made +not only by yellow hairs, but also by the yellowish +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>transparency of the front part of each of the three +anterior segments, or body-rings. As the segments +of the abdomen telescope, more or less, these three +yellow rings may not always be visible. Mr. Root’s +test is to feed the bee with honey until the abdomen +is distended and place her on a window pane. +If three distinct translucent bands can be seen, the +insect is a pure Italian. If only two bands are evident, +she is a hybrid.</p> + +<p>In comparison with the Italians the black bees are +inferior in many particulars. Their only superiority +is that their honey in the comb is a trifle whiter, and +they are more easily shaken from the frames than are +the Italians, and thus are sometimes preferred by the +man who works for extracted honey. Their points +of inferiority are their nervousness and irritability, +their tendency to rob, their inability to cope with +the bee-moth, and the difficulty with which the +queen may be found.</p> + +<p>The Italians are far more “civilised” than are +the black bees, and seem willing to credit the operator +with good intentions; they can defend themselves +better from pests, their queens are more prolific and, +on the whole, they are more industrious than the +blacks, and having longer tongues than the blacks, +they can get nectar from a wider range of flowers.</p> + +<p>The hybrids are the result of crossing the Italians +and the blacks. They are likely to be excellent +honey-gatherers, but unfortunately they usually +inherit the irritability of the blacks, which they +express with the strength and energy inherited from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>the Italians. Therefore, they are not looked upon +with favour. These unwelcome hybrids are likely +to appear in any apiary, for, however pure the +Italian queen, she is likely to mate with a black +drone in almost any locality.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"> + CHAPTER V + <br><br> + THE INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>THE SECRETION OF WAX</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Very</span> little do we know of the mysterious process +of wax-making. The interior of the bee is a chemical +laboratory where no visitors are allowed; at best we +have been obliged to stand outside and guess at the +formulas used within. We know that honey enters +largely into the composition of wax, and that the +bees when secreting wax usually have pollen in their +stomachs, although Huber and Cook have both +demonstrated that bees make successful comb when +deprived of pollen, and when fed on sugar syrup +instead of honey. But to make this experiment of +much value the bees must needs have been deprived +of pollen all of their lives instead of a few days. It +seems to be generally conceded that nitrogenous food +is needed for the best product of wax-manufacture, +though nitrogen does not enter into the composition +of the wax itself.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_viii" > + <div> + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_viii.jpg" alt=""> + + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div> + </div> + <figcaption> +<p>PLATE VIII. DRONE CELLS IN A COMB OF HONEY</p> + <p class="ccap">Honey capped over; drone cells bulged out; upper cells partly filled with honey but + not capped over.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_ix" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ix.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson</i></div> + <figcaption><p class=ccap> + PLATE IX. Side of hive removed, showing bees at work; comb being made without artificial foundation.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It is variously estimated that it requires from ten +to twenty pounds of honey to produce one of wax; +so it is apparent to even the novice in bee-keeping +that wax is a very expensive product. One of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>results of the process of wax-making is the elimination +of oxygen from the honey. There is of weight eight +times as much oxygen in honey as of hydrogen and +carbon combined; while in wax there is at least +sixteen times as much carbon and hydrogen as of +oxygen. Though wax is a fatty substance, yet it +is not the animal fat of bees, as is so often asserted; +it is a product especially developed for a far different +purpose than is the fat of animals. The bees are +much superior to us in this respect, since they manufacture +from their own bodies the building materials +for their homes.</p> + +<p>The special apparatus for the secretion of wax is +very interesting to the student skilled in microscopic +investigation. The outward or visible portion of +this apparatus consists of four pairs of little membranous +plates on the under side of the abdomen; +these are not visible unless the body is torn apart and +dissected, because they are on the front portions of +the second, third, fourth and fifth abdominal segments, +and each is covered by the rear portion of the +segment just in front of it. Immediately within +each of these wax plates is a gland which secretes +the wax in liquid form, and it passes through the +membrane by a kind of osmosis, considerably more +mysterious than is that most mysterious process +ordinarily. As the wax passes through the membrane +it hardens and is pushed backward behind the +segment which covers it and protects the wax plate, +and appears as a pearly scale on the abdomen of the +bee. (<a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p> + +<p>The wax glands, when studied by the histologists, +are found to consist each of a specialised area of the +layer of cells that form the active living part of the +body-wall of the insect. When active these cells are +much thicker than the corresponding cells in other +parts of the body-wall; but if examined during the +winter, they do not differ greatly in appearance +from other cells of the hypodermis. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, +Fig. 5.)</p> + +<p>When wax is needed, a certain number of self-elected +citizens gorge with honey and hang up in +chains or curtains, each bee clinging by her front +feet to the hind feet of the one above her, like Japanese +acrobats; and there they remain, sometimes for +two days, until the wax scales appear pushed out +from every pocket. It is not hard to understand +that, since much honey is needed for the manufacture +of wax, a bee after filling with the raw material +would produce much more wax by keeping quiet +than by using any of the gorged honey for energy in +moving about and working. But the necessity of +“holding hands” while this work goes on must ever +remain to us another occult evidence of the close relations +of the citizens in the bee commune. (<a href="#plate_x">Plate X.</a>)</p> + +<p>While most of the wax is produced from these +quiescent suspended individuals, yet any bee-keeper +who is observant has discovered that at the height +of the honey season many of the workers coming in +laden from the fields will have wax scales protruding +from some or all of the pockets. We once captured +one of our bees, working on a white clover blossom, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>which had six of these wax scales ornamenting her +abdomen, and which proved her a bee of resource, +since she was able to work and make wax at the same +time. However, there is a choice about the wax-making. +It is no willy-nilly production caused by +gorging with honey, for it is never made except when +the colony needs more comb.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_COMB-MAKING_Plate_IX"> + THE COMB-MAKING <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_ix">Plate IX.</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>It is often stated that after the wax is secreted +and pushed through the wax pockets the scales are +removed by the wax shears on the hind legs of the +producers, and are passed forward to the front claws, +and then thrust into the mouth; here the wax is +warmed and perhaps chewed with saliva and made +malleable, thus somewhat changing the chemical +composition and fitting it to be moulded into comb. +But there is a hiatus in our knowledge just at this +point as to whether the bees which secrete the +wax take it off and make comb, or whether other +workers harvest wax scales from the suspended +individuals and mould them into shape; or whether +perhaps the scales fall from the suspended “curtain” +to the bottom of the hive and there are gathered by +the ever-busy young workers. Professor Kellogg, +who studied bees in an observation hive, is inclined +to think that all of these methods are used, while +Mr. A. I. Root describes the process graphically thus:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales but +a short distance she takes it in her mandibles, and looks as +businesslike with it thus as a carpenter with a board on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>his shoulder. If she has to carry it from the bottom of the +honey-box she takes it in a way I cannot explain better +than to say she slips it under her chin; when thus equipped +you would never know she was encumbered with anything, +unless it chanced to slip out, when she will dexterously tuck +it back with one of her forefeet.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Honey-comb has been the delight of mathematicians +from the earliest ages. The plan on which it +is built, if perfectly carried out, would be the incarnate +perfection of strength and space for holding +fluid contents. This fact so delighted the earlier +mathematicians that they set to measuring the +angles of the cells and their pyramidal bases, with +truly wonderful results. But with the later methods +of exact measurement it has been demonstrated +that the cells are rarely perfect in construction; and +that the angles, as well as the faces of the rhombs on +which they are built, vary. Because of this there +have been developed doubters and pessimists who +declare that honey-comb is the result of chance; +and that cells, crowded together, must, from the +nature of things, become six-sided; and that bees +are not mathematically wise. With this conclusion +we do not agree in the least, although we admit that +the fortuitously six-sided cell may have been a step +in the education of the bee-artisans. But we would +ask the pessimists to explain why, if all is chance, the +bees build so perfectly the central part of the comb +which forms the bases of the cells. This central +part is built first and is fashioned of rhombs, which +are made into alternating three-sided pyramids. +Who dare assert that reasonably perfect, alternating +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>rhombic pyramids are fortuitous! The fact that the +combs are rarely perfect in construction proves +naught against the mathematical prowess of the +bees; it simply proves that the bees are a practical +race, and not bigoted, and are therefore unwilling to +sacrifice everything for the sake of precision. The +construction of their waxen cells is for economic +purposes rather than for proving mathematical +formulæ. Honey-comb shows how economy of +room, building materials and mathematical theories +may coincide, and shows also that the bees have +taken advantage of the fact. Some of the savants +have asserted that the rectangle or the equilateral +triangle would have been quite as efficient as working +plans for constructing cells for storing honey. But +probably the bees, originally, made their cells to +fit their brood and would not thus build a cell which +would surround a larva with unfilled corners. The +hexagonal cell was better fitted for their needs, so +they developed it.</p> + +<p>After a piece of the central portion of comb has +been constructed the bees begin, usually, at the +centre and pull out the sides of the cells from the +foundation. Experiments in coloured foundation +shows that this may, if thick, be pulled almost to the +margin of the cell. This is why bees so readily +utilise machine-made foundation; they pull out the +edges of these pressed combs and thus save themselves +much labour in wax-making. The worker cells +are a little more than one-fifth of an inch in diameter, +and a little less than one-half an inch deep; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>drone cells are a little more than one-fourth an inch +in diameter and a little more than a half-inch in +depth. It is interesting to see the comb which has +in it both worker- and drone cells, and note how the +transition is made; the two sizes are harmonised by +a row or two of cells that are irregular. Honey is +stored in both drone- and worker-cells, usually in +the latter; although our bees seem to have a fondness +for making drone cells for storage. When the bees +begin to cap a cell, they commence at the outside +and work toward the centre. There is not a prettier +piece of engineering anywhere than the cap of a +honey-cell, with six little girders extending from the +angles of the cell and holding the flat cap at the +centre. Honey is capped with wax, but brood is +capped with a mixture of wax and pollen, which +admits air. Though the cell-walls may be thinner +than .0018 of an inch, comb is wonderfully strong, +and may weigh one-twentieth or less than the weight +of the honey stored within it.</p> + +<p>An interesting fact about the manufacture of comb +is that no one bee constructs a cell and no one bosses +the job. A bee will come along with a little wax +and put it in place at the side of a cell, and then +will run off and do something else; another bee +passing sees this bit of unfinished work, gives it +a few pinches and polishes it a little, and then +does something else. Several bees may thus lend +a mandible before the cell is perfected. Any bit +of comb-building seems to be the result of a consensus +of public opinion and not of individual skill +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>and enterprise. There is a oneness in bee enterprises +which harmonises capital and labour, and which +precludes strikes and lockouts.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_PRODUCTION_OF_HONEY"> + THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY +</h3> + +<p>In trying to fathom the mysteries of honey-production, +scientists have dissected the bee with greatest +care; but they have usually been obliged to guess at +the uses of such organs as they could not understand +by analogy. To-day, after all the excellent work of +investigators, the process and formulæ of honey-making +remain unrevealed.</p> + +<p>The nectar, when taken from the flowers by the +bees, is received in a special reservoir, called the +honey-stomach. It is supposed that the secretion +from the glands in the head and thorax is added +to the nectar as it is swallowed, and induces the +chemical action which, in the honey-stomach, changes +the cane-sugar to the more digestible grape-sugar, +and brings about the other changes that finally result +in the production of honey. The chemical composition +of honey varies, perhaps for two reasons: It +may be more perfectly digested sometimes than at +others; and the nectar of different flowers may vary +chemically. However, all honey contains water, +glucose, a small amount each of albumenoids, mineral +matter, essential oils and formic acid. While most +of the chemical changes take place in the honey-stomach +of the bee, yet the honey is made perfect by +ripening in the cells; these are left uncapped for a +period of time and the current of air, always in action +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>in the hive, evaporates the water and thus thickens +the honey.</p> + +<p>Ignorant people believe that honey is regurgitated +from the true stomach of the bee, which is far from +true. The honey-stomach is simply a reservoir in +which the honey is made and then stored until the +bee can empty it into a cell. Her true stomach lies +behind the honey-stomach and connects with it by +a mouth that can be opened or closed at will; when +she wishes to eat some honey, she opens the stomach +mouth and takes in what she needs. The chyle +which she manufactures in her true stomach to feed +the young bees, when regurgitated, does not pass +through the honey-stomach; instead, the mouth of +the real stomach is pushed up through the centre of +the honey-reservoir until it connects directly with the +æsophagus. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_b">Plate XXVI</a>, Fig. 7 <i>p</i>.)</p> + +<p>When an ancient Roman was asked on his hundredth +birthday how he had preserved his vigour, +physically and mentally, he answered laconically, +<i lang="la">Inerius melle, exterius olea</i>—“Inside with honey, outside +with oil.” He spoke wisely, for honey is undoubtedly +the most healthful of sweets, because it is +so largely composed of the predigested grape-sugar.</p> + +<p>It is hard for us to realise that, until comparatively +recently, honey was the only sweet in general use. +Cane-sugar was not commonly eaten in Europe +until the seventeenth century, and previous to that +time honey held sway as the sweetening medium of +all foods. The amount of honey produced in the +United States now is estimated to be more than +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>125,000,000 pounds per year, which shows that it has +retained its value as a food, though it must compete +with cheaper cane- and beet-sugars. It still remains +the most wholesome and digestible of all the forms +of sugar, and should be used even more generally +than it is at present.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_MAKING_OF_BEE-BREAD"> + THE MAKING OF BEE-BREAD +</h3> + +<p>Flower wisdom is scarcely appreciated by those +who deem all wisdom the product of consciousness; +but if wisdom may be attained through the experiences +of living and overcoming difficulties, then +there must be such a thing as flower wisdom. Otherwise +there would not have been such a prodigal +production of pollen that a tithe could be spared for +the bees, to induce them to become common carriers +of the flower world. Many blossoms which do not +secrete nectar pay their taxes in pollen, the bread-stuff +of the bees, while others pay in both commodities.</p> + +<p>A bee when gathering pollen for food collects it +with her tongue and forelegs, mixing it, perhaps, +with nectar or saliva so it will hold together. It is +cleaned off the tongue and front legs by the middle +and hind legs, and by them packed in the pollen +baskets on the tarsi of the hind legs, and moulded +there into great golden balls. Little wonder that +the ancient Greeks, noticing bees thus laden, and +consequently flying low, declared that the bees of +Hymettus tied pebbles on their legs to weigh them +down. (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p> + +<p>When the bee arrives at the hive she selects, usually, +a worker-cell and, backing up to it, thrusts in +her legs and scrapes off the pollen by a dexterous +movement like that made by a cook scraping dough +off her hands. The bee bringing the pollen considers +her duty done in furnishing the flour, and +leaves the bread-making to one of her younger sisters, +who is devoting the day to domestic duties. +Needless to say, bee-bread is unleavened; it is made +by the very simple process of packing the pollen +firmly into the cell, the utensil employed being the +head of the bread-maker, which she uses cheerfully +as a mallet for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Bee-bread is necessary as a food for young bees +and admirably supplements honey in its composition, +being rich in albumenoids and nitrogen. To our +taste it is rather bitter and disagreeable, as those of +us can attest who ate comb-honey from the hives of +old, before movable frames and supers were generally +used. However, under the new régime, it is rarely +placed in the sections of the supers, but sensibly +stored in the brood-combs, near where it is used, +and thus seldom appears upon the table.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_PROPOLIS_OR_BEE-GLUE"> + THE PROPOLIS, OR BEE-GLUE +</h3> + +<p>Though bees are most successful manufacturing +chemists, yet they are not above using ready-made +substances if they find such to their liking. Thus, +propolis is not produced by bees, but is gathered by +them from various sources, and is used as a cement +and a varnish. Certain trees and smaller plants +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>protect their buds in winter by resinous coats; and +it was quite like the adaptable bee to find use for this +resin in her own domicile.</p> + +<p>The elder Huber, whose observations of a century +ago have been verified, discovered the source of +propolis; he planted poplars in pots and placed +them near the hives, and the bees were seen in the +act of collecting the resin from the buds. They +have been observed by others, working on the buds +of the horse-chestnut, birch, willow, alder, and even +the balsam fir. However, the bees have no prejudices +in favour of any kind of resin, anything will +do so long as it answers the purpose; hence they visit +shops where furniture is being finished and appropriate +the varnish without saying “please.” And +Darwin mentions the fact that bees collected a cement +of wax and turpentine, used to cover trees from which +the bark has been removed. If any old hives or +fixtures with propolis on them be left around the +apiary, the bees make all haste to save every particle +of the precious stuff.</p> + +<p>One of the oldest superstitions about bees is that +they will gather on the coffin of their dead master; +and authenticated instances of the kind are on record. +But this beautiful tradition is made empty of sentiment +by the assertion that the bees assemble there +not to mourn their dead master, but to gather the +varnish from the coffin. Some iconoclasts ascribe +to this the origin of “telling the bees” when some +member of the family dies; but we believe this +beautiful custom originated before varnished coffins +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>were in use, and was the natural outgrowth of the +close relations of bees and the home for many centuries.</p> + +<p>The bee collects the propolis by cutting it off with +her mandibles and packing it in her pollen baskets; +and when she arrives at the hive, she never attempts +to unload it herself, evidently deeming it safer to let +the sister, whose business it is at the moment to stop +cracks and crevices, take it from her legs and apply +it at once.</p> + +<p>There are various uses in the hive for the bee-glue: +It is used as a filler to make smooth the rough places +of the hive; it holds the combs in place; it calks +every crack; it may serve as a sarcophagus for any +intruder too large to be pitched out: snails and slugs +have been found thus encased; it is applied as a +varnish to the cells of the honey-comb if they remain +unused for a time; and it is especially useful as a +window shade. A nature-study teacher of our +acquaintance established an observation hive in her +school-room, which had an uncovered pane of glass +set in one side so that the pupils might observe the +interesting life of the hive. To her dismay the bees +straightway hung a curtain of propolis over the window +and so shut out intrusive eyes.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_x" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_x.jpg" alt=""> +<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson</i></div> +<figcaption> + <p class=ccap> + PLATE X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax; comb being built in the centre above.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xi" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xi.jpg" alt="A person stands under a tree branch. They are in a full suit with hat and veil. They are reaching up to cut a branch on which bees are swarming. An open bee hive is on the ground nearby."> + <div class="attr"> + <i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div> +<figcaption> + PLATE XI. HIVING BEES<br>Cutting down the swarm. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p> + +<p>One of the chief uses of propolis is to try the temper +of the bee-keeper. If there is the least crack +between hive and super, or cover, the two are glued +together so that nothing but a knife and much muscular +force can loosen them. Cover blankets are stuck +fast; the frames are welded to their places by it, +and it plasters into immobility all the modern appliances +of the hive which man invented to be movable; +and section-boxes are so stained with it that they +have to be scraped before being sent to market. +Above all, it gets on the hands of the operator, so +that the digits of each act as one, or not at all, and +everything touched sticks to them as if they were +magnets; it also daubs the clothing, and if profane +men were ever bee-keepers, it would incite them +to wicked remarks. However, alcohol, applied to +hands and clothing, solves the difficulty by dissolving +the propolis; and a bottle of it is a most necessary +adjunct to the equipment of the apiary. Benzine, +gasoline, ether, and chloroform are as efficacious +as alcohol, but not so pleasant to use. Boiling lye +will clean clothes and apparatus that have become +clogged with bee-glue.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"> + CHAPTER VI + <br><br> + THE SWARMING OF BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>WHY BEES SWARM</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> case of most of the higher animals, including +man, the species are spread over the face of the earth +through the simple plan of “marrying off” the +younger individuals, and allowing them “to set up +for themselves.” As there is no individualism, no +indulging in love or hatred for each other among the +perfect socialists, this plan is manifestly not at all +adapted to provide for the increase of social insects +where the colony acts as an individual. The bee +plan is as follows: When a colony gets large enough +and strong enough it divides into two. As the +Amœba, the simplest of animal organisms, divides +the individual in order to multiply its numbers, so +the bee-colony as an organism divides and multiplies. +It is interesting that the method of increase +characteristic of the lowest order of animals should +repeat itself among beings so highly organised +physically, when the individuals merge into a social +unit. This analogy might well give the social +philosophers an opportunity for some real thinking.</p> + +<p>Much discussion has found place in human annals +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>as to whether the queen or the workers take the +initiative in this hegira of the bees, and much evidence +is advanced on both sides of the question. But it is +a profitless discussion for us to indulge in; the more +we study bees, the more firmly we are convinced that +we know little of the forces which govern the bee +body politic. We only know that at certain seasons +of the year when the successful colony has plenty of +brood and honey, the old queen and many of the old +and experienced citizens, go away from the hive and +form a new colony elsewhere, leaving the young +queen and the younger bees in possession of the +homestead, thus reversing the human custom. While +in the air, or when clustered, the swarm looks +sufficiently large to be composed of the whole colony, +yet the swarms are smaller than they look, for rarely +more than 20,000 bees go away with the old queen.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_BEES_SWARM"> + WHEN BEES SWARM +</h3> + +<p>The swarms usually come off in June in a climate +like that of New York State. Some strong colonies +may swarm in May if the season is early, thus making +us glad; for the old verse, “A swarm of bees in May +is worth a load of hay,” is based upon practical +experience.</p> + +<p>The when and the immediate why of the swarming +of bees are closely connected. There are several +conditions which conduce to swarming: the presence +of young queens ready to issue from the cells; the +crowding of the hive with brood, bees, and honey; +the presence of too many drones; the extreme heat +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>of an overcrowded hive on a hot day; this latter is a +most cogent reason, and it is well for the bee-keeper +to shade his hives to prevent this. The swarms are +likely to issue between 9 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> and 2 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span>, although +enough swarms come off at unseemly hours to make +any rule valueless except as a prophecy. (<a href="#plate_xi">Plate XI.</a>)</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_HIVE_A_SWARM"> + HOW TO HIVE A SWARM +</h3> + +<p>“The bees are swarming!” These are magical +words, which arouse every member of that family +whose pride is a few hives in the garden. It is a +cry that starts the sluggish blood, and sends a quiver +of excitement up and down the spinal column while +one rushes to the scene of action. How gracefully +that moving mass of black particles undulates in the +air, as if it were a drifting cloud instead of a self-willed, +one-minded colony of socialists! How the +heart rises and sinks inversely to this rise and fall, +and how hopeless it seems when the swarm lifts +itself superbly over all surrounding obstacles, and +disappears above the tree tops! No one who has +had this experience will wonder at the ancient custom +which obtains even now in the country districts +on such occasions of beating tin pans, ringing bells, +and shouting “whoa” at the top of the lungs. All +of this racket had its inception in the needs of the +bee-keeper to adequately express his feelings at this +crisis. If the bees ever stopped and settled because +of this din, it was probably from sheer amazement +at witnessing such folly on the part of human beings; +this explanation would hold, perhaps, if bees ever +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>evinced any interest in human beings, except when +they obstruct the bee-path. However, most of our +ancient customs were founded in utility, and it is not +likely that this traditional pandemonium would have +been practised for centuries without some reason. +Mr. Root, who thinks before he speaks, suggests that +the swarm follows the queen and the scouts through +listening to their song, that of the queen being easily +distinguished from the hum of the workers when on +the wing; and that it is quite possible, therefore, +that the noise, if loud enough to drown the voice of +the queen, would cause confusion on the part of the +flying bees and a consequent settling. But from +what we remember of our own early experience, we +are convinced that the bees were less confused by +the noise than were the people engaged in making it.</p> + +<p>The next most widely practised of the ancient +methods is that of throwing dirt on the swarm to +stop it; this certainly is efficacious if there happens +to be enough loose earth at hand. However, throwing +dirt is a reactionary performance in the physical +as well as the moral sense; and usually the bee-keeper +who throws dirt at a soaring swarm must +needs stop soon to get the motes out of his own eyes +before he is able to see where the swarm has alighted.</p> + +<p>In these enlightened days everyone who has a +cherry tree or an apple tree, a currant bush or a +potato patch, is sure to have a fountain pump of +some sort; and never is this instrument a greater +boon than when it throws a fine spray upon an +absconding swarm of bees. It brings them to a stop +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>very soon; it may injure the feelings of the bees, but +it certainly does not injure them physically, as it +simply impairs their power of flight by wetting the +wings. Even after a swarm has settled, a little +sprinkle of water will keep it clustered safely until +the hive is made ready to receive it.</p> + +<p>It is highly desirable that the swarm should cluster +on the tip of a branch not far from the ground; +for then the process of hiving is comparatively simple. +My personal plan has been to place a sheet, +kept for the purpose, on the ground near the clustering +swarm; place on this a covered hive filled with +frames containing brood foundations. Lift the +front edge of the hive about an inch by putting +blocks under the two corners; then cut the branch +above the cluster, and taking it in hand shake the +bees off in front of the hive and placidly watch them +hive themselves with true bee celerity. This use of +the sheet is a habit formed in childhood, and I persist +in it, though my partner derides the practice. He +shakes the bees down on the board on which the hive +is standing; or he takes the top off the hive, and +shakes the bees down among the frames in the most +summary fashion. But I think the sheet makes a +softer mattress for the little citizens to fall upon, and +certainly they find their way from it more easily into +the hive. I am a conservative person, and like to do +things as I always have done them before—a conservatism +that is by no means dangerous in our apiary +where the senior partner is given to new ways and +many inventions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span></p> + +<p>If the bees alight high in a tree, then our methods +have been to get at them by climbing the tree, or +attaining the branch by the use of a ladder. However, +I doubt if there was ever a fruit found on any +tree that needs quite so much care in the picking as +does this; and it is decidedly a ticklish performance +to clamber down a tree holding gingerly a branch +laden with a swarm of bees in one hand and clutching +at supporting branches with the other. Sometimes +the bees are not accommodating enough to +alight on the end of a branch that may be cut off. +They may even go so far as to cluster on the large +branch itself; then there is nothing to do but to +brush them off in a box with a bee-brush, a performance +which they object to; or to dip them off +with a tin dipper, or to jar them into a basket, and +then to dump them out in front of the hive. The +most embarrassing situation of all is when the swarm +clusters on a tree trunk. Squaring the circle is not +a much more difficult feat mathematically than to +brush all the bees into a square box from this cylindrical +position. It is usually necessary to bring the +smoker to help in elucidating this problem; for, +paradoxical as it may seem, smoke properly applied +clears up many a situation in the bee business.</p> + +<p>If only one were able to find the queen in the clustering +swarm and secure her by placing her in the +hive, the work would be easy, for the other bees +would soon follow. But to hunt for the queen in +the clustering swarm is, for most of us, quite like +hunting for the traditional needle in the haystack; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>and while we are hunting we are wasting precious +time, as the swarm may make up its collective mind +to remove from our vicinity its component atoms. +In shaking, or dipping, or brushing the bees into the +hive, we should remember to deal with them as +gently as the situation and mental perturbation will +permit.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the bees seem to feel defrauded at having +a house chosen for them, and insist upon swarming +out of their new quarters within a day or two +after they are placed in possession. Thus it is a +wise precaution to give the hives of the newly +swarmed attention for two or three days, lest they +indulge in this sort of perversity. If the bees seem +unsettled and unhappy, and hang around home +instead of going into the fields to work, it is advisable +to place in the middle of the hive a frame of unsealed +brood taken from some other colony. A bee’s +motherly instinct may always be depended upon, +since caring for the young is a shining civic virtue +as well as a domestic duty among the bee-people. +When there are helpless larvæ to care for, the bees +willingly forego every personal inclination to pack +up and move, and cheerfully proceed to give the +youngsters every attention.</p> + + +<h3 id="DECOY_HIVES"> + DECOY HIVES +</h3> + +<p>When the self-appointed scouts of a bee-colony +start out house-hunting for the swarm which is about +to issue, they evidently examine the premises carefully; +if they find a house for rent in the immediate +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>neighbourhood, they are likely to go no farther in +their quest. Thus it is the practice of many bee-keepers +to place about the apiary hives empty, except +for brood-frames filled with foundation, hoping +thus to entice the swarms to take possession, and save +all trouble. Mr. Root goes so far as to advise that +such hives be fastened in the lower forks of trees in +the neighbourhood of the apiary, and thus provide +a most expedient bee-tree. A decoy hive should not +contain more than three brood-frames, as other +frames may be added when the bees move in. The +reason for this is that the sheets of wax foundation, +when sufficiently close together for the convenience +of the bees, prove also entirely convenient for the +occupancy of the bee-moth; and one ought to be +particular about one’s tenants when renting houses +in the apiary.</p> + +<p>Mr. West’s device for saving swarms is the most +alluring of any about which we have read. Since +the clipped queen cannot fly, she expresses the aspiration +within her breast by climbing anything at +hand, like a blade of grass or a shrub. Mr. West +observing this, drives a bare, forked branch into the +ground a few inches in front of the hive, having +cleaned the ground between it and the hive of all +obstacles. This branch having a few twigs upon it, +is leaned away from the hive entrance. The queen +promptly climbs this tree, like Zaccheus, and the +swarm clusters around her and remains there conveniently +at hand for hiving.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_HIVING_BEES"> + MAXIMS FOR HIVING BEES +</h3> + +<p>Clip the old queen’s wings.</p> + +<p>Go through the hives every ten days to destroy +queen cells.</p> + +<p>As the swarming season approaches, have hives +ready with foundation in brood-frames, and hive stands +ready to receive them.</p> + +<p>Keep a serene spirit while hiving bees.</p> + +<p>The hive in which the colony is placed should be +kept cool and not heated from standing in the sun; +it should be shaded, as the swarm will not enter a hot +hive.</p> + +<p>If the bees refuse to accept a hive, give them a +frame of unsealed brood to reconcile them.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII"> + CHAPTER VII + <br><br> + HOW TO KEEP FROM KEEPING TOO MANY + BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>THE PROBLEM</h3> + +<p>“<span class="smcap">Aye</span>, there’s the rub!” For the beginner who +wishes to keep a few bees, this is the most difficult +problem to solve on the bee-keeper’s slate, and it +must finally be solved by each according to his own +capacity and method.</p> + +<p>We confess frankly that we were once driven out +of the bee business because we were too successful. +Caring for fifteen or twenty hives was a delightful +avocation. We kept our colonies strong, for we +wished to make comb-honey; consequently, splendid +swarms came off, and we had the fatal gift of seeing +them when they came and of hiving them successfully. +Thus our avocation began to intrench upon our +vocation in a most alarming manner. While we +enjoyed taking care of our bees, we were nevertheless +following the vocation which we had chosen, and +which we liked best; and the time came when we +were obliged to decide whether we would leave our +regular business and become bee-keepers, or abjure +bee-keeping and attend to our regular business.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p> + +<p>We gave away what swarms we could and we sold +some; but selling bees is a business quite as much as +caring for them, so that was not practicable. Philosophically, +we argued that since we had enough bees +we would let the swarms that came off abscond and +bid them God-speed; but here we reckoned without +properly considering the amount of human nature +which had fallen to our share. Although we knew +that every swarm in our apiary above twenty would +be an embarrassment and a tribulation, we could +never rest content not to hive a swarm when it +issued; and the more unattainable the place where it +clustered and the less we wanted the bees, the more +determined we were to secure that special swarm.</p> + +<p>Such inconsistency brought its own punishment, +and our only resource was to sell out; and for many +years the spot in our garden which our apiary once +occupied was never viewed without a sense of loneliness +and longing for its busy little tenants. During +these years we thought it over and finally came +around to the right frame of mind, and firmly concluded +to keep bees for our own honey and our own +happiness. We limited our ambitions to ten +hives; and last summer when our best-tested Italian +queen took us unawares and departed with a large +and enthusiastic following, we did not mourn; all we +did was to venture to hope that the young queen left +in the hive had mated with one of our own handsome +drones, and not with a mad black prince from one +of Mr. Coggshall’s take-care-of-itself apiaries in our +neighbourhood. As soon as our new brood made us +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>sure that our queen had made no <i lang="fr">mésalliance</i> we +were entirely content.</p> + +<p>Our lack of success in preventing swarming when +trying to produce comb-honey was a source of great +chagrin to us until we read that so eminent a bee-keeper +as Mr. Hutchinson declared that “there is +no way of preventing first swarms profitable to the +comb-honey producer,” and then our feelings were +salved. The following are in brief a few of the +more successful ways practised to prevent increase:</p> + +<p><i>By clipping the queen’s wings.</i>—Almost all bee-keepers +practise this now, whatever their method of +preventing increase or securing it. A queen with +clipped wings is necessarily a “stay-at-home body,” +and the swarm will not leave without her. However, +when depending upon this method it is very important +to guard against the hatching of new queens, and +this can only be done by closely scrutinising the brood-comb +to discover and destroy the queen cells. The +brood-frames should be examined in each hive about +once a week during the months of June and July, if +this method is to succeed. Many a time have we sat +smilingly by and watched a swarm come out of the +hive with great pomp and circumstance, only to sneak +back when it was discovered that her majesty was +unfit for travel.</p> + +<p><i>By the use of a queen trap.</i>—This is a device used +by some instead of clipping the wings of the queen. +It is a box of perforated zinc placed over the entrance +of the hive, the slots in it large enough to allow the +workers to pass in and out, and small enough to hold +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>back the queen and drones. Although this method +saves time, yet comparatively few recommend it. +The cost of the trap is one objection; but the greater +objection seems to be that it inconveniences the +workers when returning from the fields; and is, +therefore, likely to affect the amount of honey stored, +since much time is lost and some annoyance occasioned +to the bees by being obliged to squeeze through; +it also scrapes the pollen off their legs. (<a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI.</a>)</p> + +<p><i>By giving-room.</i>—Supposing that our queen is +clipped or confined, which is the first step, the next +is to give plenty of room in the brood-chamber. +Lack of room for brood and honey is one of the +most potent reasons for inducing swarming. So +the first thing to do after the disappointed swarm +comes back to the hive is to tier up the supers. It is +also well to remove from the hive a frame or two of +brood which may be put in the hive of some weaker +colony; in place of the removed frame is substituted +another containing a starter of foundation; and the +would-be swarm, finding that there is plenty to do, is +content to remain at home for a time.</p> + +<p><i>By extracting honey.</i>—It will often pacify a colony +to take the frames from the brood-chamber and +extract the honey from them. This may be done +when the brood is present, if care is taken not to +run the separator so rapidly as to throw out the +larvæ, a performance quite as distasteful to the young +bees as to the consumer. However, this should not +be practised unless much honey is coming in, as +otherwise the brood may be starved.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p> + +<p><i>By using large hives.</i>—Many bee-keepers of high +standing have practically solved the swarming +problem by using large hives. The Dadants, +well known on two continents as successful apiarists, +use the large Quinby hives in their own apiaries, and +have introduced them into France and Switzerland. +The Dadant-Quinby hive has about the capacity +of a twelve-frame Langstroth. The frames are both +deep and large, measuring 18½ by 11½ inches, and so +give the queen plenty of room. The Dadants have +no trouble with swarming, as only enough swarms +come off to make good the winter losses in their +apiaries.</p> + +<p>There are three reasons why we have not used +these large hives: first, they are too heavy to handle +well, being altogether too productive of backaches. +Second, they are necessarily much more expensive, +as wider pieces of perfect lumber are used in the +making. Third, and most important to us of all, we +find it difficult to produce comb-honey in a large +hive; when the bees have so much room in the brood-chamber, +they discover no reason for carrying honey +up into the supers. If we made extracted honey, as +do the Dadants and the European apiarists, we would +certainly use the larger hives, simply to be rid of this +nuisance of constant swarming. The colonies grow +to be so much stronger in the larger hives that they +are much better able to withstand the vicissitudes of +winter than are smaller colonies, which is a great +advantage.</p> + +<p><i>By the brushing or shaking-out method.</i>—When the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>bees at the beginning of the honey-flow seem to be +getting ready to swarm, the hive is moved to one +side of the stand and on the exact site is placed +another just like it, which contains frames set with +foundation-starters. As gently as possible the bees +are shaken or brushed from the frames of the old +hive upon the threshold of the new, great care being +taken to include the queen. The supers from the +old hive are then placed upon the new hive with a +queen-excluder between. The old hive may stand +beside the new one until the brood has emerged, +when all of the inhabitants of the old tenement are +shaken in front of the new habitation. This shaking +of a colony into a new hive so surprises and confounds +the bees that they get the impression that they have +already swarmed, and go to work with all diligence +in their new quarters. The partly filled supers +from the old hive encourage them mightily in the +ways of well-doing.</p> + +<p><i>By dividing swarms.</i>—This method we have +practised with quite satisfactory results. The +troublous question is just when to divide. If we +divide too soon we weaken the colonies, and decrease +the honey harvest. If we wait until too late, the bees +do the dividing themselves. The process is as follows: +The queen’s wings are clipped before the new +queen is to emerge, and she is placed in a new hive +furnished with brood-frames containing foundation-starters; +enough of the bees are taken to the hive +with her to start a good colony, and the deed is done. +However, the fact remains that in this way the number +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>of colonies is increased as much as if the swarm had +come off naturally.</p> + +<p><i>By removing the queen.</i>—Some apiarists remove +the queen during the honey-harvest and cut out all +the queen cells. They give the queen a nucleus if +they wish more brood; meanwhile the colony will +not swarm without her. Whether queenless bees +are as easy in their minds and, therefore, as ready +and enthusiastic in the task of gathering honey, is a +mooted question. Bees, like people, work to the +best advantage when they have fewest worries. +One difficulty with this method is that before we are +aware of it a queen may be reared despite our careful +and <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: onorous" id="onorous">onerous</ins> labours in hunting for queen cells. +Another difficulty with this practice is the encouragement +of the egg-laying workers, which is a most +demoralising influence to introduce into a hive.</p> + + +<h3 id="AFTER-SWARMS"> + AFTER-SWARMS +</h3> + +<p>An after-swarm is one that is led by a virgin queen +and may come off within sixteen days after the first +natural swarm departs; usually it occurs within a +week. Most bee-keepers consider the after-swarm +as a manifestation of “pure cussedness” on the part +of a colony; but it is only a poorly adjusted method +practised by the bees for getting rid of superfluous +princesses. After the old queen decamps with her +followers, there are usually several queens ready +to emerge from their cells; the ordinary story, as +told in books, is that the first queen that emerges +hastens to slay her yet helpless sisters, or battles with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>them singly until but one queen is left in the hive; +and this actually does occur often. However, there +are differences between bee-colonies, as there are +between individual people, and every young queen +does not seem blood-thirsty; or perhaps in some +instances the citizens restrain her from carrying out +her murderous intent, and try to get rid of her by +sending her forth with as many followers as can well +be spared from the parent colony. Other queens +may issue, and if this charitable instinct still persists, +another and still another swarm may be sent out. +This misguided kindness to young queens is as +demoralising to the colony as unwise giving of alms +is in the human world, and finally a swarm may be +sent off so small that a teacup would hold it. Of +course, this means certain death to all of its members. +Finally the limit of endurance is reached, and with +the last possible swarm are sent out all the young +queens left in the hive save the one retained as queen +mother. Whether the workers send out these burdensome +members of royalty as a measure of good +riddance, or whether in their excitement they fail +to guard the queen cells and so let them out and +they voluntarily join the procession, is not as yet +surely ascertained. One of the formalities of the +after-swarm is that before it occurs the queen sounds +her pibroch, a tune which probably excites her +listening subjects to rash departure. The bee-keeper +gets to know this sound very well, and when +he hears it, he knows that an after-swarm will issue +very soon unless he does something immediately to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>prevent it. One thing particularly exasperating +about the after-swarm is that the virgin queen, being +lighter bodied and lighter minded than the old +queen, may take the occasion of swarming to get +married, and go on her wedding journey; and thus +is likely to lead her followers a mad chase and leave +her proprietor so far in the rear that he loses the +swarm entirely.</p> + +<p>For the real reason of after-swarming we must +look upon the colony as an individual; and as nature +is wasteful in the production of individuals, these +weak after-swarms are analogous to the weaklings +among animals or plants, which must be sacrificed +for some inscrutable reason on the altar of the +preservation of the species.</p> + + +<h3 id="PREVENTION_OF_AFTER-SWARMS"> + PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMS +</h3> + +<p>Mr. Hutchinson practises the following method: +When the first swarm comes off he places it in a new +hive like the old one, and puts the new hive on the +exact site of the old one, while the latter is moved +away just a little and faces in a different direction +than before. The new hive has four or five frames +with foundation-starters, and on it is placed the super +with partially filled sections from the old hive, with +a queen-excluding board between the two; thus the +new swarm, having no brood ready, will store in +the supers until the brood-comb is built. Most of +the bees from the old hive, returning from the field, +will enter the new hive because the entrance to the +old hive is turned away. The old hive is then turned +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>a little each day, until its entrance, which should be +contracted, is parallel to the entrance of the new +hive, and very close to it. If, on the seventh day +after the first swarm issued, the old hive be removed +to some new location, its numbers will have been so +depleted that there will be no attempt to send off +after-swarms.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_UNITE_COLONIES"> + HOW TO UNITE COLONIES +</h3> + +<p>If two colonies are weak late in the season, it is +often best to unite them. This may be done by +moving the hives nearer to each other, a little each +day, until they are side by side. The queen of one +colony is killed, the best frames from each hive are +alternated with each other in one hive, and the +bees shaken into this; the other hive removed, and +the one remaining placed midway between where +the two stood. Sweetened water flavoured with +peppermint may be sprayed over both colonies just +before uniting, so that they will all be scented alike. +The above is the method advised by Professor Cook.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII"> + CHAPTER VIII + <br><br> + THE HIVE, AND HOW TO HANDLE IT + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>THE BROOD-CHAMBER</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> essential parts of a hive are the following: +A bottom board, the first story, or brood-chamber, +containing frames for the support of the combs, and +a cover. When extracted honey is to be produced, +a second story like the first may be placed between it +and the cover; when it is desired to have the surplus +honey stored in section-boxes, one or more shallow +stories containing the section-boxes are placed above +the brood-chamber; these shallow stories are known +as the supers.</p> + +<p>Formerly the brood-chamber was a mere cubiform +box with two horizontal cross-pieces passing through +the centre at right angles to each other for the support +of the combs. Sometimes the bee-keeper +furnished the bees with a hive made from a section of +a hollow log, with a board nailed over one end for +a cover, or the hollow log was placed in a horizontal +position. Such a hive was known as a “bee-gum,” +probably because it was often made from the trunk +of a gum tree; but the bee-gums with which we were +familiar in our childhood were made from hollow +basswood logs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p> + +<p>To-day in every well-regulated apiary the brood-chamber +is furnished with the movable hanging +frames for the support of the combs, which were +invented by Langstroth a half-century ago, or by +some modification of these frames. It was the +invention of these frames that made the science of +modern bee-keeping possible. A large part of the +manipulations of the hive is dependent upon the +ability to remove the combs from the hive separately. +Two of these frames, one empty and one +containing a sheet of foundation, are shown in +<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>. These are of one of the newer styles, +known as the Hoffman self-spacing frames. In these +frames the upper part of the end-bars are wide, so +that, when the frames are in contact, there is room +for a bee-way between the combs; the lower part of +the end-bars are narrower, so that the bees can pass +freely around the ends of the frames.</p> + +<p>In the old days, and at present in some apiaries +where home-made frames are used, the spacing +between the frames has to be done by eye or rather by +finger; the thickness of the tip of the finger between +two frames being necessary to afford a bee-way. +But with the new frames in the market to-day this is +done away with, as they are arranged to space themselves, +thus relieving the novice of much anxiety and +some embarrassment in deciding whether his finger +is as thick as that of the average apiarist. Also +in these newer frames a little staple at each end of the +top sets each frame exactly right in relation to the +ends of the hive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p> + +<p>Before the frame is placed in the brood-chamber +it is to be supplied with a sheet of comb-foundation; +this insures the building of the comb in the desired +position, so the frames can be removed from the hive. +Bees do not naturally make their combs straight, +but curve them so that they are less likely to be +broken. It is necessary, therefore, in order to +get straight combs to confine the operations of the +bees within set bounds; this is done by putting a +sheet of foundation in each frame.</p> + +<p>One of the attractions of bee-keeping is that much +of the material we work with is pleasing, and some +artistically beautiful. A sheet of foundation-comb +made of the most delicate wax, frescoed on either +side with rhomb insets in hexagonal pattern, is a joy +to the artistic eye. It is absolutely necessary that +the foundation should be put into the frame in such +a manner that it will not sag or bulge when it is built +out into the comb and filled with the heavy honey or +brood. To keep these large sheets from bulging and +breaking they are held in place by fine wire which +is strung back and forth across the frame, passing +through holes made with a small awl in the end-bars. +These holes should be about two inches apart, the +upper one one inch from the top bar, and the lower +one something less than an inch from the bottom +bar, making four wires in the Langstroth frame. +After these holes are made, put a small tack at one +end near the lower hole, twist the wire around it, then +thread the wire back and forth, making four wires +parallel with the top and bottom bars, and fasten +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>the wire with a tack; care should be taken not to +draw the wire too tightly; simply draw up the slack.</p> + +<p>The sheets of foundation as sold by the dealers are +a little smaller than the space in the frame, so that +when they are fastened to the top bar a bee-space is +left between the sheet and the bottom and end-bars. +See <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</p> + +<p>The sheet of foundation is fastened to the top bar +of an ordinary frame by means of a Van Deusen +wax-tube fastener, which is simply a hollow tube that +may be dipped in and filled with the hot wax which +issues through a small hole at the sharp, bent end of +the tube; as the point is drawn along where the +foundation and frame meet it leaves a stream of hot +wax that seals the two together. However, the most +satisfactory way is to get brood-frames, like the +Hoffman, which have two grooves in the top bar. +Set the foundation in the groove at the centre, and +introduce a strip of wood which is wedge-shaped in +cross-section, thin edge first, into the adjoining +groove, driving it or pressing it in hard so that it +pushes the thin partition over, and wedges the +foundation firmly in place. These strips for wedging +come with the frames.</p> + +<p>After the foundation is fastened to the top bar the +frame and foundation are laid, wire side up, on a +board just the size of the piece of foundation so that +it will slip inside the frame. This board is kept wet +to prevent the wax from sticking to it. Then we use +the spur wire-embedder, which is like the tracing-wheel +used by dressmakers, except that the teeth +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>are spread apart alternately so that they pass astride +the wire and press it down into the foundation; to do +this successfully, the foundation should be warm; +working near a lamp or in a warm room will suffice. +Embedding the wires by heating them with electricity +instead of using the spur-embedder is a common +practice in large apiaries where electricity is +available, or where it pays to buy a battery with +proper attachments. This outfit with the dry cells +costs about five dollars, and is a paying investment +when the apiary is large. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_SUPER"> + THE SUPER +</h3> + +<p>The super is that part of the hive that is placed +above the brood-chamber and is designed to receive +the surplus honey, either comb or extracted.</p> + +<p>When extracted honey is produced the super may +resemble the brood-chamber described above, or it +may not be so high, fitted to receive a frame little +more than half as deep as the standard Langstroth +frame used in the brood-chamber.</p> + +<p>When comb-honey is produced, the super is only +about half as high as the brood-chamber. For this +reason a hive consisting of a brood-chamber and one +super for comb-honey is termed a one-and-a-half-story +hive. (<a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV.</a>)</p> + +<p>A complete super fitted for comb-honey consists +of the following parts: (1) The outer wall, which +is of the same length and width as the brood-chamber +and of the right height to hold the style of +section-boxes used; on the lower side of each end a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>tin strip is fastened to support the fixtures that it is to +contain; (2) the section-boxes; these are the wooden +frames containing the comb-honey when it is placed +on the market; each holds about one pound of honey; +four of these are shown in the <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>; (3) the +section-holder; this is a rack fitted to hold and +support one row of section-boxes, as shown in +<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>; when in place in the super, it rests on the +strips of tin mentioned above; (4) the fence; this is +a device placed between the rows of section-boxes +to keep the bees from building the comb beyond the +edges of the section-boxes; the style used with the +plain or no-beeway section is shown in <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>; +the vertical cleats on this fence provide for a bee-space +between it and the section-boxes, so that the +bees can build out the comb even with the edge +of the section-box; (5) the super springs; these are +three flat springs, fastened to the inner face of one +side-wall in such a way that they press the fences and +the section-boxes closely together. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p> + +<p>There are several types of supers in use that differ, +in certain details, from the one described above. +In some, the rows of section-boxes and fences are +pressed together by thumb-screws which pass +through one side-wall of the super. Many bee-keepers +still use section-boxes with beeways, that is, +boxes having the top and bottom narrower than the +two sides. When such boxes are used, the fences +lack the vertical slats, or posts; in fact, a simple strip +of tin may serve as a fence.</p> + +<p>Most of the section-boxes in use now are made of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>a single piece, which is dovetailed at the ends and +has three transverse V-shaped grooves cut in one +side so that it can be bent into shape, as shown in +<a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>. These flat basswood sections afford very +pretty material with which to work. The novice, +in putting them together, almost always bends them +with grooves outside at the corners, instead of +inside, and then wonders why they are askew, and +break. We wet the sections where they are grooved +before we begin working with them. This may be +done by brushing each individual flat with warm +water, which is a very tedious process; but it is better +to take a handful of them as they lie, the grooves +all in a line, set them on edge and pour a little water +from a pitcher on the grooves. This wets many at a +time with little trouble. To set up a section, it +should be taken in the hands, grooves up, bend the +ends upward evenly, fastening the dovetailed edges +together gently. Haste and jerkiness are as disastrous +in handling sections as in handling bees.</p> + +<p>The foundation for the comb-sections is much +lighter in weight than that intended for the brood-frames. +Some apiarists fill the entire section with +this foundation, except for the bee-spaces at the bottom +and at the sides. But we never do this, unless +we are obliged to do it to coax the bees to use the +supers; for it is not so satisfactory as to use a narrow +strip for a guide at the top of the section, as a starter +to show the bees where to build the comb. We cut +these strips about an inch deep and almost as wide +as the section, and, with the Daisy fastener, fix each +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>strip at just the middle line of the upper bar of the +section. The objection to filling a section with a complete +sheet is, first, the expense of the foundation; and, +secondly, that it is likely to give a tough central portion +or “fish-bone” to the comb-honey. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_PREPARE_THE_SUPER"> + HOW TO PREPARE THE SUPER +</h3> + +<p>If they are not ordered set up ready for use, the +supers come in flat pieces with dovetailed ends, and +putting them together is a pleasing occupation, +after one has learned how. The best way to learn +how is to carefully observe a super already properly +set up; for, though the directions for putting these +together are as plain as may be, yet a person may err +therein and yet not be a fool. Unless one has +learned, or can learn, to drive a nail, one had best +not undertake bee-keeping, for the bee-keeper must +become a carpenter to be successful; it adds much +to the interest of the occupation to make all sorts of +things for one’s own bees. The principle on which +the super is built is that it may hold the sections +tightly in place, and not allow them to drop through. +Therefore, at the bottom of the super, along each +narrower end, is a tin strip to support the ends of the +section-holders; to keep the ends of the section-holders +even a wedge-shaped strip of wood is nailed +across the end of the super, thick edge down and +flush with the bottom edge, resting against the tin +strips. We use the Hetherington super springs, +one at each end and one at the middle of one side +of the super; the trick of putting these in is to set +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>them opposite the posts of the fence, one at either +endpost, and one at the middle post, else the spring +will be of no use. Driving in the sharp end of this +spring successfully requires a little practice. The +super is now ready to be filled. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xii_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class=ccap>(<i>a</i>) Two self-spacing frames; one of them fitted with a sheet of foundation.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xii_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_b.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> +<p class=ccap>(<i>b</i>) An empty super, showing the springs and the wedge-shaped + piece at the end.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100 pb2" id="plate_xii_c" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_c.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption><p class=ccap>(<i>c</i>) The Doolittle division board feeder.</p> + <p class=ccap>PLATE XII.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiii.jpg" alt="A man in a white shirt, vest and straw hat is kneeling on the grass next to an open beehive. He is holding one frame aloft, it is covered in bees."> +<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div> +<figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XIII. EXAMINING THE BROOD-FRAMES</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>First place a fence in the super on the side opposite +the spring; then a section-holder filled with four +starters, always remembering that these foundation-starters +should be at the top of the section. Then +place another fence and another section-holder. The +eight-frame super will hold six of these rows, with +fences between and one on each side. Putting in +the last fence is the final test of whether the springs +are in the right place, for, if they are right and press +against the posts of the fence, it will be very hard +to push in this last fence; when it is in, the sections +are all held snugly in place. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III</a>, <a href="#plate_xv">XV</a>.)</p> + +<p>Where the super is placed on the hive, it should +closely fit the top of the brood-chamber, with no +cracks between. If the hive has a flat cover, which +leaves only a bee-space above the sections, the cover +may be placed immediately above the super, with +nothing between. With covers like the telescope +cover, a super-cover is needed. This may be a +quilt or a piece of enamelled cloth; but we prefer a +super-cover made of a thin board, bound on the +ends to prevent warping, which is now on the market.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_HANDLE_THE_BEES"> + HOW TO HANDLE THE BEES +</h3> + +<p>It is generally believed, and for good reasons, +apparently, that bees like some people and despise +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>others, who are just as good, so far as we can detect. +This apparent capriciousness has been explained +in many ways. Some hold that the bees have a +fine sense of smell, and thus distinguish us by odours +rather than by sight; and in this case their ire is +aroused because they do not like the perfume +exhaled by the obnoxious person. Others claim +that it depends upon the movements; if one +moves nervously and quickly, he is much more +subject to attacks. It is certainly true that if a bee, +which is buzzing threateningly, is struck at, she +becomes more enraged and is more certain to sting, +but this is because she recognises an aggressive foe +because of the act. However, the senior partner +in our apiary is an exceedingly active and nervous +man, and I have seen him move with all haste and +energy while working with bees, and though he +seldom uses bee-veil or gloves, he is rarely stung. +Our bees seem to be acquainted with him, and +accept his rapid movements as one of the common-places +of bee existence. It is well for anyone who +wishes to work with bees to spend some time in the +bee-yard just watching the little citizens coming and +going, and listening to the peculiarly soothing hum +which always fills the air around the hives. It is +sympathy with the bees more than actions that +finally results in handling them without harm.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_OPEN_THE_HIVE"> + HOW TO OPEN THE HIVE +</h3> + +<p>First of all, fire up the smoker. The way to do +this properly is to place some easily ignited material +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>in the bottom of the fire-chamber, touch a match to +it, and crowd in above it material which will make +plenty of smoke, and will not burn too rapidly; +give a puff or two with the bellows to be sure that +the fire is started. We have used excelsior in our +smoker because it was near at hand, but it is not a +perfect or lasting fuel. Fine chips, especially +planer shavings, old rags, greasy cotton waste, and +even pine needles are used. Anything is desirable +that will make a smudge and will not burn out too +quickly; for when we are working with the bees we +have little time or inclination to stop and “putter” +with the smoker; and we cannot afford to have the +smoke give out at the critical moment when we most +need its protecting incense. A minimum amount +of fire with the maximum amount of smoke is the +desirable quality in the smoker. If the fire gets too +hot the blasts will burn the bees, which is an outrage, +and which is never permitted by a civilised individual. +The <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Cornell" id="Cornell2">Corneil</ins> smoker has a hook attached to +the bellows, so it may be hung on the edge of the +open hive to be at hand in time of need. If it becomes +too hot, we lay it flat on the ground so as to +stop the draft. Each time after the smoker is used +it should be emptied, otherwise it is likely to start +a conflagration. We have an ash pail near the +apiary in which we always empty the smoker on our +way back to the bee-room. Mr. Root speaks of +never using the smoker until it is needed; when his +bees trouble him, he gently pats them on the back +with a little grass to get them out of his way as he +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>lifts up the frames. And we never can admire Mr. +Root enough for dealing thus gently with his bee-people. +But we would not advise the novice to +try this, as a person has to be on very intimate terms +with bees to be able to pat them on the back with +grass and impunity. However, this is an ideal to +work toward. The nervous beginner almost invariably +uses too much smoke, and this makes his +little dependents unhappy. The breathing of +smoke is hardly a pleasant experience for us, and it +seems to be still more distressing to the bees. We +remember once how, in the enthusiasm of our novitiate, +we inadvertantly smoked the bee-man instead +of the bees in our misguided efforts to help, +and the result was a blueness of the atmosphere +which rendered more smoke superfluous. +Every beginner ought to get at least one headache +from the fumes of the smoker to teach him +charity and care.</p> + +<p>There are several reasons why the hive must be +opened, aside from the fun one derives from the +experience. First, the brood needs to be examined +occasionally to see that it is all right, and in the fall +the brood-comb must be examined to see that there +is enough honey stored within it to winter the bees. +Second, during the swarming season to find and +remove the queen cells. Third, to hunt for the +queen to be sure she is present and active, or perchance +to find her and clip her wings. Fourth, to +take off supers filled with honey. A warm day +should be selected for opening the hive for whatever +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>reason, and the middle of the day is the best time +for the work.</p> + +<p>Send two or three puffs of smoke in at the entrance +to drive back the frightened sentinels who keep careful +watch of the portals of the hive. Then lift one +edge of the cover of the hive a little and send two or +three puffs in the crack; then lift off the cover and +set it down beside you; then lift the quilt or super-cover +at one edge, and give two or three puffs of +smoke beneath it to drive the bees down among the +frames, always remembering that under ordinary +circumstances a very little smoke is necessary to +frighten and subdue the bees. In fact the same +rule applies to smoking bees as to smoking tobacco; +if one is moderate in its use, the least harm will +result.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_EXAMINE_THE_BROOD-CHAMBER_Plate_VIII"> + HOW TO EXAMINE THE BROOD-CHAMBER. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>Stand at one side of the hive, and not in front of it. +Hang the smoker on the side of the hive, so as to +have it within reach. Mr. Root advises sitting on +the cover of the hive set on edge while you examine +the brood-frame. This will do for a well-poised +person, but we prefer a little stool, which we can +carry easily from hive to hive, as we wish something +that we can sit on calmly as the situation requires. +Commence at one side and loosen the outside section +with a knife, or what is better, an old screw-driver. +Take the frame by the projecting ends, and lift it up +so that you may examine it on one side, then twirl it +half-way over to examine it on the other. It requires +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>some experience to placidly lift out a frame, covered +with what at first sight looks like a dark, boiling, +viscous fluid, fit only for a witch’s cauldron, but +which soon to the startled eye resolves itself into bee +particles. If the brood must be examined or queen +cells found, then it becomes necessary to get rid of +this seething, enveloping bee-mass, which is done in +a manner that seems like nothing less than tempting +Providence. The brood-frame is seized firmly in +the operator’s hands, and held about waist high in +front of the hive, then let to drop, hands and all, +swiftly to within about six inches of the doorstep of +the hive, then suddenly jerked back again; the bees +being heavy and receiving the downward impetus, +keep right on as a man keeps on when his bicycle +stops suddenly in a rut—with this difference that the +bees land safely at the entrance of the hive, into +which they scamper as soon as their dazed wits will +allow. One would naturally think that the bees +would attack the active agent of this indignity, but +while bees are ever ready to fight recognised enemies, +they have evolved no plan of action which is equal +to a cataclysm, except to get under cover as soon as +possible. Thus being shaken from their foundations +is to them what an earthquake is to us, and the +attitude of Riley’s boy is theirs.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container fs90"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“Where’s a boy a-goin’ an’ what’s he goin’ to do,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">An’ how’s he goin’ to do it, when the world bu’sts through?”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Thus it is that among the first accomplishments +of the apiarist is the one that enables him skilfully +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>and with dispatch, and without harming the individuals +to shake the surprised little mob off the frame +or out of the boxes, to a place where its members +may recover shelter and equanimity as expeditiously +as possible.</p> + +<p>After the comb is freed from the bees, it requires +some experience with honey-comb topography to +see at a glance just the condition of the brood. +There may be cells that look empty until a ray of +light reveals at the bottom a glistening egg; and +there may be cells with a little milky substance at the +bottom in which the young larva is floating; or in +some cells the bee grubs may be distinctly seen if +they are four or five days old. If the cells are +capped, it may puzzle the novice to know what lies +behind that closed waxen door. If the cells contain +honey, the substance of which the cap is made +is whiter than that which covers the brood. In case +of worker-brood the cap is depressed slightly below +the plane of the comb, which is not the case if the +cells contain honey. The large size of the drone +cells distinguishes them readily from the cells of the +workers. Often honey is stored in drone cells, for +the bees seem to like to make these larger cells, and +for good reason, since they give greater storage +capacity for the amount of wax used. However, +the drone cells which contain brood are covered +with dark, dirty, yellow caps which are quite convex, +looking like kopjes on the comb plain. At the +height of the honey season there should be plenty +of brood, and later the cells in the brood-frames +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>should be filled with honey. The cells containing +bee-bread are not capped, as this staff of bee life is +packed so hard that it does not need to be covered. +All honey remains uncapped until it is properly +evaporated and ripened. (<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</p> + +<p>After one frame has been thus examined, it should +be leaned up against the side of the hive so as to give +space to lift out the next frame without crushing the +bees.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_FIND_THE_QUEEN_CELL"> + HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN CELL +</h3> + +<p>Fortunately for us, this is quite prominent, being +a veritable oriel in shape. However, there may be +other excrescences of the comb which somewhat +resemble a queen cell; sometimes the queen cell may +be more or less embedded and so escape observation. +The bee-keeper who is cocksure that he can find all +the queen cells in his hives has to be most experienced, +and even then cocksureness may come to grief. +But this unglazed oriel window in which the queen +develops is usually quite noticeable, and is ordinarily +decorated with a small, hexagonal pattern +in relief. We have often wondered if this was +done for the sake of decoration, or because the +bees are so in the habit of fashioning wax into +hexagonal patterns that they do it involuntarily. +For the person who rashly asserts that honey-comb +is the result of fortuitous force and pressure, +this queen cell with its hexagonal frescoes +is a poser. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p> + +<p>To cut out the queen cell a sharp, pointed knife +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>is necessary, in order to injure the comb beneath the +cell as little as possible.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_FIND_THE_QUEEN"> + HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN +</h3> + +<p>If we simply need assurance that the queen is +present and active, the discovery of eggs or young +larvæ in the cells is sufficient evidence of her presence, +and saves the tiresome search for her majesty. But +if we wish to find her, she is usually present on the +middle frame of the hive. It is not safe to pull out +this middle frame from the narrow place which it +occupies for fear of hurting the queen and crushing +the other bees; so it is best always to take out an end +frame, first looking at it carefully to make sure she +is not upon it; then shake off the bees and set it +beside the hive, and move the other frames along +in the space thus made until we are able to remove +the middle frame with ease. It requires some experience +to ferret out the queen from the bee-mob +which seethes over the comb. The burly, big, blunt-ended +drones are much more readily detected. +However, after a little training in the devious ways +of royalty one becomes expert in seeing that long, +graceful, pointed body extending far back of the +wings which characterises the queen. If the bees +are not too much disturbed, she is likely to be surrounded +by a rosette of workers, all with their faces +toward her, for even in the court of the hive etiquette +does not permit that the ladies-in-waiting turn their +backs to the queen. If for any reason the queen is +to be lifted out, she should be seized by the wings or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>thorax or imprisoned in a queen trap, but never +under any circumstances should she be seized by +the abdomen. (<a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>, Queen trap.)</p> + + +<h3 id="CLIPPING_THE_QUEENS_WINGS"> + CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WINGS +</h3> + +<p>This does not mean cutting off all four of the +wings, but that the wings on one side should be +clipped, leaving stubs not more than an eighth of an +inch long. Various devices have been invented to +aid clumsy hands in cutting off the royal petticoats. +One, the Monette queen-clipping device, is a little +cone-shaped cage made of wire laid in spirals. She +goes into this cage head first and the door is shut +behind her. Then the scissors are slipped between +the spirals at the proper point and the deed is done. +Another simple device is a bit of section-board +whittled in the shape of a tiny bootjack with a rubber +band stretched rather tightly across the prongs. +The forks are placed across the queen so that the +rubber presses against the thorax, thus pinning her +fast to the comb while she is barbered. The only +skill needed in this device is in fixing the tension of +the rubber band so that it will be sufficient to hold +her majesty fast, and yet not stiff enough to hurt her. +Our invariable plan is as follows: After the queen +is discovered, we hold the brood-frame in one hand, +pick up her royal highness in the other most gently, +then still more gently set the frame down, leaning +it against the hive; then, holding her royal person +firmly but carefully in our own unworthy thumb and +fingers, clip her wings with presuming scissors; then, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>putting the scissors down as we pick up the frame, +and put her back as nearly as possible on the spot +where we found her. We always use the sharp-pointed +embroidery scissors for this delicate operation.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_TAKE_OFF_HONEY_IN_SUPERS"> + HOW TO TAKE OFF HONEY IN SUPERS +</h3> + +<p>Lift the hive cover and quilt with a slight introduction +of smoke, then lift off completely. Smoke +from above for a moment, being very careful not to +burn the bees, always remembering that smoke is +meant to scare and not to punish. Then loosen the +super with a screw-driver if the bees have fastened +it down with bee glue, lift it and place it on a bottom board +near at hand. Put on an unfilled super if it +is needed and cover the hive. Lift the honey-sections +out of the super, brushing off the adhering +bees with a bee-brush, so that they will fall on the +doorstep of the hive, and place each section as it is +cleaned in a basket or box in which it is to be carried +to the store-room. This is our usual way of procedure +when our apiary is small, and we do this +work during spare moments which are not predictable +the night before. However, there is one best +way to do this work, and that is to put on a Porter +bee-escape the night before the super is to be removed. +Wise from experience, we advise beginners +to study this device and become imbued with a knowledge +of its workings to the extent of being able to +tell which is the upper and which the under side, lest +disastrous results ensue and all of the bees escape +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>into the super instead of out of it. If the bee-escape +is placed on the night before, there will be no +bees in the super when it is removed next day. To +introduce a bee-escape one does not need to lift off +the super; simply lift it up at one side, send a little +smoke into the crack, push in the bee-escape, and +then set it straight upon the hive and the super +straight upon it. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III</a>, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">XVIII.</a>)</p> + +<p>The novice might conclude that a good plan would +be simply to set off the super near the hive, and let +the bees find their own way back to their brood and +kindred. But bee-nature has to be reckoned with +in this instance, and the bees, conscious that the +honey is their own, are likely to uncap the cells and +carry the honey into the hive; or worse still, the bees +from other hives will be attracted to these open +stores and will begin to rob. And in the bee courts +of equity, when bees begin to rob, then the “devil is +to pay.”</p> + +<p>There have been various bee-tents devised under +which the supers are placed after being removed +from the hive. These tents are arranged with a +little hole at the top by which the bees may escape, +but may not return. Doctor Miller invented a simple +plan of piling several supers filled with honey on +top of each other, leaving no crevices between them; +over these was spread a cloth with a hole in the +middle, over which was placed a wire cone with a +hole in the top large enough to let a bee pass out. +Thus the bees from all of the sections escaped, one +by one, and robbing was avoided. However, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>bee-escapes introduced between the super and the +hives are used to-day by most enterprising bee-men.</p> + + +<h3 id="OBSERVATION-HIVES_Frontispiece"> + OBSERVATION-HIVES <span class="fs90">(Frontispiece)</span> +</h3> + +<p>Anyone who has worked long with bees, cannot +fail to become filled with curiosity concerning the +way their work is carried on in the mysterious darkness +of the hive; to such a person, the observation-hive +is a source of perennial delight, as well as of +interesting and useful knowledge.</p> + +<p>Observation-hives have been used by bee-keepers +from the time of Huber to the present, and naturally +many forms of them have been devised. The type +in most common use now is a small hive, containing +one, two or three frames, and furnished with glass +sides, through which the bees can be observed. The +glass sides are covered with a door or curtain, except +when observations are being made; for, if not, the +bees will cover the glass with a coat of propolis, rendering +it opaque.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat difficult to keep a colony in good +condition upon a single frame; and if two or more +frames are used side by side the observer is unable +to see what goes on between the frames. Professor +Kellogg, of Stanford University, has devised a perfectly +satisfactory two-frame observation-hive for his +laboratory. It consists of a glass-sided box, large +enough to hold two Langstroth frames, one above +the other; as both sides of the comb are exposed, +any individual bee may be kept constantly in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>sight while she is working. The passage which +leads from the hive to the opening in the window +has a glass top, so the actions of the bees as they +enter the hive may be watched. A hood of thick +black cloth is pulled down over the hive when the +observations are finished. Similar observation hives +may be purchased of dealers in apiarists’ supplies.</p> + +<p>Such an observation-hive would be of great value +to the enterprising bee-keeper, as it would be the +means of helping him to understand conditions +which were puzzling, and thus aid him in dealing +with crises that are sure to occur. The advantage +of this hive over any other is that frames from any +hive may be kept under closest observation. But if +the hive were a means of interest merely, it would +still be worth while, for the bee-keeper cannot know +too much about the ways of bees, <em>supposing all he +knows is true</em>.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_OPENING_THE_HIVE"> + MAXIMS FOR OPENING THE HIVE +</h3> + +<p>Have the smoker ready to give forth a good volume +of smoke.</p> + +<p>Use the smoker to scare the bees rather than to +punish them.</p> + +<p>Do not stand in front of the hive lest the bees +passing out and in take umbrage.</p> + +<p>Be careful not to drop any implements with which +you are working; take hold of all things firmly.</p> + +<p>Move steadily, and not nervously.</p> + +<p>Do not run if frightened, for the bees understand +what running away means as well as you do.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p> + +<p>If the bees attack you, move slowly away, smoking +them off as you go.</p> + +<p>If a bee annoys you by her threatening attitude +for some time, kill her ruthlessly.</p> + +<p>If stung by a bee, rub off the sting, instead of +pulling it out with the nails of the thumb and forefinger +and thus forcing more venom into the +wound.</p> + +<p>Ammonia applied to the wound made by a bee-sting +will usually afford immediate relief.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX"> + CHAPTER IX + <br> + DETAILS CONCERNING HONEY + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>HOW TO MAKE COMB-HONEY</h3> + +<p><span class="fs90">Every</span> bee-keeper who sends to the market honey +in the comb enfolded in an attractive carton, or with +the section neatly glazed, has produced a work of +art; for comb-honey as now marketed is an æsthetic +production, and the bee-keeper is an artist as much +as if he had painted a picture or had fashioned a +jewel. To most people who have an apiary as a +pleasurable adjunct to life in the country, the production +of comb-honey is most attractive, while the +production of extracted honey does not appeal to +them at all. Just the word “honey” calls to the +mind of most people a vision of amber sweetness +set in white-walled, waxen cells.</p> + +<p>The production of comb-honey is attended by +more difficulties than is the production of extracted +honey. The reason for this is largely because the +bees work more readily in cells already made from +which the honey has been extracted, than they do in +sections where they must undertake all of the expense +and labour of producing wax for the comb. More +than this, honey may be extracted from the comb +of the brood-chambers, a harvest which is lost to the +producer of comb-honey.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + + <p>(<i>a</i>) Alley’s queen and drone trap.</p> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_b.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> <p>(<i>b</i>) A well filled section.</p> +</figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_c" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_c.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> <p>(<i>c</i>) One empty section-holder, and one filled with section-boxes, in which + are foundation-starters; two of these have been added to by the bees.</p> + <p>PLATE XIV</p> +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xv" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xv.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey; the super is filled with section-boxes.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>For the production of comb-honey it is necessary +that the colony winter in excellent condition and +develop much well-fed brood early in the season, +so that there shall be a great number of active young +workers in the hive just before the chief honey-harvest +of the summer begins. In New York State +we have two large honey harvests, that of the basswood +in July and the buckwheat in August, so our +colonies are made strong and ready by the last of +June. In order to have the bees ready to work, the +swarming fever must be subdued or controlled before +this period of honey-flow. The colonies are carefully +watched early in the season, and if after the first +pollen-gathering occurs there is no honey coming in, +the bees are fed so that the brood may be developed. +We rarely have to feed at this season of the year as +the fruit bloom gives our bees plenty of honey for +rearing their brood, and we never expect any surplus +before the basswood season.</p> + +<p>The supers are put on when there is plenty of +brood and plenty of honey to feed to it in the hive; +and under such conditions our bees, though Italians, +usually push up into the sections at once. We +prepare the sections with mere strips of wax foundation +for starters. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p> + +<p>Supers thus equipped put on at this time and under +such conditions seem to take away all desire to +swarm on the part of the bees, if the queen cells have +been previously removed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p> + +<p>If the brood-chambers are crowded when the super +is put on, the queen may go up into it and start +brood. This rarely occurs with us, but in case it +does a queen-excluding honey-board may be introduced +between the super and the brood-chamber. +Sometimes a colony seems unwilling to go into the +super after it has been added, and the bees will hang +on the outside of the hive and threaten to swarm, +and through doubt and vacillation lose two or three +of the precious days of the basswood harvest.</p> + +<p>The usual reason why the bees will not go into +the super is that they are not sufficiently crowded +below; if they have room they prefer to store their +honey in the brood cells rather than carry it to the +upper story.</p> + +<p>If a colony is strong and has plenty of brood and +honey and is still obstinate, men of experience +advise the taking of a frame of sections from a colony +which is storing in the supers and putting bees and +all in the midst of the unused super of the reluctant +colony. We have never tried this because we were +never obliged to. It sounds very practical and +sensible, and it is practised by Mr. Root, and that +is sufficient recommendation.</p> + +<p>Our way of coaxing the bees into a super which +they have sedulously ignored is to place in it some +of the imperfect sections, which are not worth much +in the market and which contain some capped +honey and many empty cells. One section-holder +filled in this way seems to encourage the reluctant +colony to climb and to store as rapidly as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p> + +<p>In large apiaries the following plan is followed: +First, put on a super of shallow extracting frames +from which the honey has been removed; as these +cells are all ready, the bees are likely to go to work +in them at once; and after they are working well +raise the super, and put in one below it filled with +sections containing starters, and all will be well. +In dealing with this phase of bee-keeping it is well +to remember that full sheets of foundation in the +sections are more attractive to the bees than starters; +and that sections containing comb already made are +still more pleasing, and if some of these made cells +contain honey, their attractiveness is doubled. One +condition should be observed in putting on a super +in the summer: it should be shaded in some way; +if it is in the direct rays of the sun, the heat is likely +to keep the bees out of it. However, later in the +season bees may be induced to work in the super +by placing over it a cushion so that it will be warm.</p> + + +<h3 id="TIERING_UP"> + TIERING UP +</h3> + +<p>If the honey is coming in at a good rate, and the +bees are working well, when the sections in the super +are something more than half full, lift it up and place +another containing sections with starters beneath +it. The reason for this is that the bees would not +naturally go into the empty super if it were placed +on top until the other was completely filled. But +with this plan they continue working in the super, +even though it be on top, and meanwhile find it +“handy” to fill the intervening sections. If the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>honey-flow is great, even another super may be +placed next the hive and below the other two. However, +in our practice we rarely put on more than two, +usually taking off the top one when we need to interpolate +another. This process is called “storifying” +in the English books, which is a most graphic term +and should be introduced into our nomenclature.</p> + + +<h3 id="TAKING_OFF_SECTIONS_Plate_XX"> + TAKING OFF SECTIONS. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xxa">Plate XX.</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>In taking off the sections we do not need to wait +for the completion of every one in the super. The +outside rows are rarely perfect, and we usually put +these unfinished sections back on some other hive +to be finished.</p> + +<p>These unfinished sections, if not too empty, serve +very well to sweeten the daily bread of the home +table. If sent to the market they bring low prices, +and the bee-keeper who is working for comb-honey +should plan to have as few of them as possible. While +the honey left long in the super has a much finer +flavour than that which is removed early, yet care +should be taken not to leave the sections on +the hive so long that the comb becomes soiled. +It is an interesting fact that honey ripened in +the hive gains special richness, as if it were +somehow imbued with the spirit of the little +socialists that make it.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xvi" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xvi.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p class=pcap> + + PLATE XVI. Drone and queen trap, below; queen mailing and introducing cage, above at the left; queen-protector + and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, in centre; and bee-escape, at the right. + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xvii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xvii.jpg" alt="A woman stands under an apple tree in full blossom. She is wearing a long sleeve full length dress, and her arm reaches up to the branches. A story hive with lid on, sits at the base of the tree."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XVII. “IN APPLE-BLOSSOM TIME”</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Toward the end of the season it is best not to tier +up, but to place an empty super on top. The bees +will not use it unless necessary, but will devote their +energies to the sections below. The great danger +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>to be avoided in tiering up is a surplus of partly +filled sections, and the way we avoid this is not to +interpolate a super until the one on the hive is at +least three-fourths filled.</p> + + +<h3 id="STAINED_SECTIONS"> + STAINED SECTIONS +</h3> + +<p>A regular part of bee exercise consists of promenading +up and down and across the sealed honey; +the bee has not as yet, unfortunately, attained the +fastidiousness which leads her to wipe any of her +six feet carefully before entering her domicile, consequently +the sections of honey thus walked over +may be stained and unmarketable. There is no +remedy for this except to look after the supers carefully, +and take out the sections before they are +soiled.</p> + +<p>Some sections may look dirty because old wax is +used in making the caps. If such is the case, and +it is simply yellow, the wax may be bleached by +standing it in the sun or by subjecting it to sulphur +fumes. Some apiarists have special rooms and +others tight boxes for the sulphur bleaching. Only +two things are necessary to accomplish this successfully; +first, that the room or box be tight; second, +that the sulphur placed in an iron dish be heated +so that the fumes are strong and all-pervading. Some +say that the sulphur should be heated so that if a +match be touched to it, it will flame. The combs +need not be subjected to such fumes more than +a half-hour to become as white as they can +be bleached.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="SCRAPING_THE_SECTIONS"> + SCRAPING THE SECTIONS +</h3> + +<p>In preparing comb-honey for the market, it is +necessary to first scrape the propolis from the +sections so as to leave the wood white and beautiful. +To do this the section should be set square on and +in line with the edge of a table, and below should be +a pan to receive the scrapings. Hold the section +firmly in one hand and scrape the side that is in line +with the edge of the table with a downward stroke +of the knife; a case-knife is best for this. To scrape +the wood clean and not in any way injure the honey, +and to do the work rapidly, measure the skill attained +in this business. In scraping the sections it is best +to have four of the shipping-boxes at hand, so that +the honey may be graded and placed in its proper +class as it is cleaned.</p> + + +<h3 id="GRADING_COMB-HONEY"> + GRADING COMB-HONEY +</h3> + +<p>First, as to the way the sections are filled, or in +other words, as to the bee technique. There are +three grades—Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. In the +fancy grade almost every cell is well filled, and the +comb has the surface evenly built and well capped. +No. 1 has an even surface and is well filled, but may +not be so perfect in the corners as is the fancy. +No. 2 must be at least three-fourths full. Anything +below No. 2 is called chunk honey if sold in the +comb, but it is more profitable to extract honey from +all sections that range below No. 2.</p> + +<p>Second, as to the colour of honey: It is graded +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>as white, amber, buckwheat and dark, and these +need no explanation. Thus honey is listed perhaps +as “fancy white,” or “fancy buckwheat”; in each +case it is the best of its kind.</p> + + +<h3 id="SHIPPING-CASES"> + SHIPPING-CASES +</h3> + +<p>These should be ordered rather than made, as a +good-looking shipping-case adds materially to the +value of the honey. These cases come in different +sizes, and have one side made of glass so that the +handlers may see that the contents are fragile, and +therefore may possibly be persuaded to deal with +them gently; the cases come in flats and are easily +put together. For anything that looks so well put +up as honey sealed in its perfect cells, it has a most +amazing capacity for leaking. Once, in the enthusiasm +of girlhood and inexperience, I carried some +honey carefully packed in a box in my trunk, hoping +to give a friend a treat. Needless to say that honey +was “linked sweetness long drawn out,” by the time +I arrived at my destination; and all the clothes that +I carried in my trunk were literally “too sweet for +any use.”</p> + +<p>Shipping comb-honey to market is likely to be a +disastrous performance at best, since it is almost +impossible to guard against careless handling. Some +ship in glass-covered sections which protect the +comb, and make a very attractive appearing product.</p> + +<p>Shipping the sections in cartons is winning its way +now for fancy grades. A carton is a pasteboard +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>box which may be bought in flats with the shipper’s +name printed upon it. While these cartons may be +bought in almost any style, from perfectly plain to +those highly ornamented, and provided with tape +handles, yet we believe there is a chance for personal +initiative in this particular field. An artistic design +in pretty colours, individual and unique, would +certainly prove a special attraction for selling honey +in cartons. The great advantage gained from the +use of the carton is that the honey reaches the consumer +in a neat package without further handling, +and may be carried like a box of bonbons. When +cartons are used the shipping case should be a size +larger than for the plain sections.</p> + + +<h3 id="MARKETING_COMB-HONEY"> + MARKETING COMB-HONEY +</h3> + +<p>There are two ways of marketing honey open to +most bee-keepers. First and best, the local market. +If the honey can be placed in the hands of the grocer +directly from the bee-keeper, certain advantages +accrue. The comb is not broken by much careless +handling, and it reaches the market in good shape. +Though the price may be somewhat lower perhaps +than the highest quoted prices, yet it is reliable, and +there is no discount for breakage in shipping, and +for differences of opinion in grading. It is certainly +far more satisfactory for all concerned to place +comb-honey on the home market; this is usually +practicable for all except the greater apiarists. We +know one man who has about forty hives, and who +lives in a town of about three hundred inhabitants; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>though he produces a reasonable amount of honey +he very inadequately supplies the demand for it in +this little village, and he receives city prices.</p> + +<p>The second and least desirable method of marketing +comb-honey is to ship it to a commission +merchant. If this is done, it is well to select a middleman +in whom we have absolute confidence, or +we are likely soon to become pessimistic regarding +his honesty; so frequently is the price of honey +reduced on account of breakage and leaking and +other accidents which this very frail delicacy is heir +to, that we rarely realise the prices quoted in the +newspapers. If a good middleman can be found, +then our advice is to stick to him, and send him the +very best product possible, fairly graded and in the +most attractive form, hoping that he may be able to +do for us what we should do for ourselves, and that +is, work up a special market.</p> + + +<h3 id="STORING_COMB-HONEY"> + STORING COMB-HONEY +</h3> + +<p>It is far better to market comb-honey the year +it is made. However, if it is to be stored, it must +be placed in a room that has a constant temperature +above 60°F. It is best to fumigate the sections if +there is any danger from the bee-moth, for this little +rascal will destroy a great amount of comb-honey in +a very short time. (See “Bee-Moth.”)</p> + + +<h3 id="CANDIED_COMB-HONEY"> + CANDIED COMB-HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Some kinds of honey will granulate much sooner +than others. The longer the honey is left in the hive +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>and the more perfectly it is ripened, the less liable +it is to granulate. Extracted honey will candy +much sooner than honey left in the comb. We have +kept comb-honey more than a year without crystals +appearing in it. The only way to prevent comb-honey +from candying is to keep it in a temperature +that does not fall below 60 degrees. After honey +is candied in the comb, nothing can be done with +it except to sell it at a lower price, or keep it to feed +back to the bees. The latter is probably the most +profitable way to dispose of it. Some people like +comb-honey after it is granulated and the home-table +may use a certain amount of it.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_PRODUCING_COMB-HONEY"> + MAXIMS FOR PRODUCING COMB-HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p> + +<p>The bees should be kept warm and well fed in the +spring.</p> + +<p>The bees must have wintered well.</p> + +<p>The colony must have brood and plenty of honey in +the brood-chambers at the beginning of the honey +season.</p> + +<p>Never let the honey in sections or supers be +exposed in the apiary to incite robbery.</p> + +<p>Keep the sections in a room in which the temperature +never falls below 60°.</p> + +<p>Fumigate the sections before they are stored if +you are troubled with bee-moth.</p> + +<p>Send the honey to market in as attractive form +as possible. Make your product individual in appearance, +and strive to create for it a special market.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X"> + CHAPTER X + <br><br> + EXTRACTED HONEY + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>HOW TO PRODUCE IT</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is certainly fortunate for bee-keepers that +centrifugal force is one of the unalterable laws of +the physical world. However, this force might never +have been of any use to the apiarist had it not been +for a certain Major Francesco de Hruschka of +Venice, who is a most interesting figure in the history +of bee-keeping. Next in importance to the invention +of the movable frames by the venerable Langstroth +was the invention of the honey-extractor. We +have a picture of Major Hruschka in our minds +as not only a brave man of war as indicated by his +military rank, but also as a happy man of peace, +who loved his hives with their little citizens, and +who also possessed notable domestic virtues and +loved the companionship of his children and was +interested in their doings. For it was when his +little son accompanied him to his apiary and, having +a comb full of honey set up in a basket, began whirling +it boy-like by the rope attached to the handle, +that the Major discovered the honey was being +thrown out of the comb by this action. Instead of +spanking the boy as most fathers would have done, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>the thoughtful Major cogitated on the fact that such +a simple motion should have emptied the comb of +honey, and he straightway proceeded to invent the +first honey-extractor. This was in 1865; up to that +time the liquid honey was extracted by a method +which we remember well. The comb was crushed, +and with it too often, alas! the dead bees, larvæ +and any dirt whatsoever that happened to be present; +this mixture was suspended in a cloth bag, over a +tub or vat in a warm room; and the honey, carrying +with it much of the débris, slowly dripped out reeking +with an aroma and a flavour quite unknown in these +regenerate days, and forming a product that may +well be spared from the world’s marts.</p> + +<p>Since 1865, many honey-extractors have been +invented in America, and almost all of them which +have survived the test of use are satisfactory. The +perfection of the invention is an automatically +reversible machine with ball bearings, highly geared +in order to attain the maximum of steadiness and +rapidity with the appliance of a minimum of power.</p> + +<p>The principle of construction underlying all of the +best extractors is a cylindrical can containing wire +pockets in which the combs are set on edge, and +which are revolved by being geared to a crank at the +top of the can. There is room for more or less +honey below the wire pockets, and at the bottom of +the can is a faucet or honey gate, through which +the extracted honey may be drawn off into a pail or +vat.</p> + +<p>The extractor is a very excellent adjunct to any +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>apiary, however small, even if comb-honey is the +chief product, for it saves much honey that otherwise +would be wasted. When the apiary consists of +less than forty hives of bees, one of the small non-reversible +extractors may be used. These weigh +less and cost less; but every frame of comb has to be +taken out after the honey has been extracted on one +side and reversed and put back in order to clear the +honey from the other side. Though the automatic +reversible machine costs more and is heavier, it is +far more satisfactory on the whole, if there is much +honey to be extracted.</p> + + +<h3 id="EXTRACTING-FRAMES"> + EXTRACTING-FRAMES +</h3> + +<p>The frames used for extracting honey are in form +similar to those which hold the brood, except they +may not be so deep. However, most bee-keepers +use both supers containing the shallow extracting-frames, +and also those filled with frames of the full +depth. The bees will go into the shallow frames +more readily than into the deeper ones, as they are +better able to keep the small chambers warm. But +if the colony is very strong and the harvest good, the +deeper frames are acceptable to the bees and save +the time of the bee-keeper. (<a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII.</a>)</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_TO_EXTRACT_HONEY"> + WHEN TO EXTRACT HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Some producers practice extracting the honey +before it is capped, so as to save the trouble and +expense of uncapping. There is one danger attending +this method: the green, unripened honey is thus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>often extracted, and it is the most insipid of sweets. +Honey needs to ripen slowly in a warm temperature +in order to be palatable. Some, like Quinby, advocate +the ripening of honey in vats or evaporators +after it has been extracted. But it is the consensus +of opinion that honey to be of perfect flavour needs +to ripen in the warm, bee-odour-laden atmosphere +of the hive. The bees ordinarily leave the honey +uncapped for some time as it thus ripens more +readily. Therefore, those who produce an especially +fine quality of extracted honey usually begin +to tier up as soon as the super is fairly filled and +before the honey is capped. The bees have ample +room to go on storing honey in the interpolated +super, and do not bother to cap the honey already +stored above. Thus these supers, three or four or as +many as practicable, are left on the hive until the +end of the honey harvest, and thus the honey attains +its proper ripeness and flavour.</p> + +<p>There are others who claim that honey is never +properly ripened until capped, and therefore practice +tiering after the cells of comb are at least partly +covered.</p> + + +<h3 id="UNCAPPING_Plate_XIX"> + UNCAPPING. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX.</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>There are various knives invented for this process, +the Bingham uncapping knife being the favourite. +It is used thus: The frame containing the honey +standing on one end and leaning over a receptacle +for the caps is held with the left hand, the knife in +the right hand begins at the bottom of the comb +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>and running backward and forward as it is moved +upward shears off very neatly the covering of the +cells. The knife must be very sharp, and skill in +cutting is shown in just the merest film of wax which +is removed. A pan of hot water should be at hand +on an oil stove perhaps; every time a sheet of capping +is removed, the knife needs to be scraped on a stick, +which will not dull it; and quite often it should be +dipped in the hot water to clean it. If there is +much uncapping to be done, it is best to have two +knives, keeping one in the pan; for cleanliness and +heat are quite as potent factors as is sharpness in +making the uncapping knife effective.</p> + +<p>There are on the market uncapping-cans, the +Dadant being the most popular. It is a double can +with an arrangement on top convenient for holding +the end of the frame on a pivot and with wooden +cross-pieces on which the knife may be wiped. Below +there is a wire screen for holding the cappings, with +a space in the bottom of the can for the honey which +drains off, and which is always of the most excellent +and delicious quality. Of course, the cappings are +saved to be made into beeswax.</p> + + +<h3 id="CARE_OF_EXTRACTED_HONEY"> + CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Honey, whether in the comb or out, will crystallise +when subjected to low temperature or when left +standing for a long time. However, extracted honey +crystallises much more readily than that which is +in combs; and this crystallisation is one of the +problems of putting up and marketing extracted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>honey. To prevent it extracted honey should be +evaporated until it is thick, sealed while hot in air-tight +cans, and kept in a room the temperature of +which never falls below 65° F. It should be kept +in tin or galvanised iron cans, rather than in wood. +Some people seem to have been successful in using +wooden vessels for holding the honey after having +given them a coating of wax; but the way honey gets +through small places is more proverbial among bee-keepers +than is the ability of the stingy man to do +the same; even when a tub or pan seems water-tight +the honey will triumphantly work its passage +through.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xviii_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xviii_a.jpg" alt="A set of four beehives sit in front of a house or barn. The left three are two level, the fourth has had its top level removed. A person is removing the top story from the third bee hive. They are wearing long sleeves, heavy gloves, and a hat with a vail."> + <figcaption> + <p>Taking off upper story of hive containing combs for extracting. The bees have + been moved from the supers by the bee-escape seen at the right.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xviii_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xviii_b.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + Extracting-room showing extractor, strainer, uncapping can, bee-escape, + smoker, uncapping knife, gloves, funnel, supers and sections, extractor pocket + containing extracted sections, partly filled sections as yet uncapped, extracting + frame with comb, etc. + </p> + <p class="ccap">PLATE XVIII</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<div class=col50> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xixa" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xix_a.jpg" alt="A person stands in a storeroom. They are scraping a frame of honey over a bucket."> + <div class="attr"> </div> + <figcaption> + Uncapping comb before extracting the honey. + </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class=col50> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xixb" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xix_b.jpg" alt="In the same room the person is putting the frame into the extractor. The extractor is a metal barrel about the size of a steel drum, with a handle at the top."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the extractor. </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<p class="center fs80">PLATE XIX</p> + +<p>In order to preserve extracted honey in packages +it must be canned or bottled, and the air entirely +excluded. There are two methods of accomplishing +this: First, the honey is heated in bulk, and run +off into hot cans or bottles. Second, the honey is +put in the bottles first and then heated; in both +cases the honey is heated by hot water. Perhaps the +easier method is to heat it in bulk, and if there is not +at hand a double boiler, one can be improvised by +using a wash-boiler in which pails containing the +honey may be set. In any case the honey and the +water surrounding it should be of the temperature of +the room to begin with; then a slow, steady fire is +needed to bring the temperature of the water up to +160° F. Mr. Root advises the use of a gasoline +stove for this purpose as the heat may thus be carefully +regulated, and it is very important that the +process be a slow one. After the temperature of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>honey reaches 160° F. it may be poured into freshly +scalded cans or bottles and sealed, air-tight. If +bottles are used, the corks should have paraffine +poured over them so as to make sure of excluding +the air.</p> + + +<h3 id="PACKAGES_FOR_EXTRACTED_HONEY_Plate_XXI"> + PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI.</a>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>Mason fruit jars are extensively used for this as +they are practical, cheap and useful afterward. The +No. 25 honey-jar, somewhat resembling the Mason +can, is made purposely for putting up honey, and is +attractive in appearance. The Muth bottles are +made in four sizes for extracted honey; the largest +holding two pounds, and the smallest a quarter +of a pound. These bottles are decorated with a +design of an old straw skep, and bear the prophetic +inscription “pure honey” moulded into the glass. +Jelly-glasses are often used and paraffined paper is +placed over the honey, just as it is placed over jelly +to exclude the air before the tin cover is put on. +Glass packages are by all means the most attractive +for extracted honey in small quantities. However, +tin pails of various sizes are in use, and may be serviceable +for a cheap and inferior grade of honey, +which is thus made ready for the consumer who is +willing to buy “aside unseen.” But a fine quality +of honey rejoices in the light of day and in the +scrutiny of eyes which may look at it first critically +and then longingly.</p> + +<p>The most practical packages for shipping honey +in quantity are the large, square cans in common use +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>which hold sixty pounds each. These are convenient +for shipping and for measuring and are safe from +breakage.</p> + +<p>The advantages of extracted honey over that of +comb-honey are: Almost double the honey may be +produced, because the bees having no comb to build, +devote their energies to storing honey; and also the +honey from the brood-combs may be extracted; it is +more easily and safely handled and shipped; it is +more easily produced, since the bees work more +readily in the emptied cells of the extracted combs +than in sections where they are obliged to build new +cells; swarming is more easily controlled, because the +bees more readily accept the enlargement of their +quarters when the supers contain fully made comb, +also larger hives may be used.</p> + +<p>The disadvantages are: It is more “mussy” and +requires special apparatus; and unless great care +is given, the bees will be starved through this convenient +way of pilfering their stores.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_THE_PRODUCER_OF_EXTRACTED_HONEY"> + MAXIMS FOR THE PRODUCER OF EXTRACTED HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Use glass or tin, rather than wood, for honey +receptacles.</p> + +<p>Be careful not to expose the honey as you take it +out of the supers, lest the bees begin robbing.</p> + +<p>Honey should be canned while hot, and kept from +the air.</p> + +<p>Heating honey to a higher temperature than 160° +destroys its flavour.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p> + +<p>Cooling honey to a temperature below 60° produces +granulation.</p> + +<p>Work in a warm room.</p> + +<p>Have a label of your own, with some unique and +individual design, which, when placed on the package, +will render it attractive.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI"> + CHAPTER XI + <br><br> + POINTS ABOUT BEESWAX + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>HOW TO MAKE IT</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Beeswax</span> is a unique product; the little socialists +of the hive have formed a trust for its manufacture, +which for many and good reasons has never been +infringed upon. The special value of beeswax is +that it retains its cohesiveness and ductibility, under +both higher and lower temperatures, than do other +kinds of wax. It has a specific gravity of 960–972, +and melts at 143–145° F.</p> + +<p>Beeswax has been in demand in the world since +ancient times, being put to many and diverse uses. +Now, however, the making of foundation-comb is +the most important of these uses and most affects +the beeswax market of to-day. Countless thousands +of sheets of wax foundation are manufactured +yearly in America. When foundation was first +used it was thought that it might be adulterated +safely with paraffine, but it was soon found that +beeswax thus adulterated, when subjected to the +heat of the hive in summer, would invariably bulge, +buckle and sag. We know an apiarist who lost +money, honey, bees and temper through trying to use +this kind of foundation, which did not stand firm.</p> + +<div class=col50> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxa" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xx_a.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"> </div> + <figcaption> + Drawing honey from extractor. The honey is strained through + a fine wire strainer set in the top of the pail. </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class=col50> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxb" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xx_b.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk. + </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<p class="center fs80">PLATE XX</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxi_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxi_a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + + <p>Extracted honey in pails—candied</p> +</figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxi_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxi_b.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market.</p> + <p>PLATE XXI</p> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="THE_PRIMITIVE_METHOD"> + THE PRIMITIVE METHOD +</h3> + +<p>The process of making wax from honey-comb +may be primitive and yet quite successful. Well do +we remember the method as practised in the days +of our early youth in the kitchen of the old farmhouse, +usually a comfortable and altogether delightful +room. Its yellow-painted floor seemed to have +caught the sunshine streaming in through white-curtained +windows and held it there for us to tread +upon. The chintz-covered settee and Boston rockers, +and a few widths of bright rag carpet, made one end +a cozy sitting-room. At the opposite end the cupboards, +their shelves covered with elaborately scalloped +newspapers, and beset with orderly dishes and +tinware, bespoke the kitchen. Midway between +stood the heavy cherry drop-leaf table which revealed +the dining-room; in the midst of this Protean apartment +stood the cook-stove, polished so that it would +put to shame the rosewood case of a piano, bearing +on its top the pink-copper tea-kettle singing gayly +after its daily bath of cleansing buttermilk, and +holding within the roaring fire which ever seemed +the spirit and soul of the place. The neatness that +held sway in this kitchen was the perfect sort that +conduces to comfort, and not to misery. Only +at certain periods was this delectable room given +over to discomfort and untidiness; these included +“wash-days,” the days following the yearly sacrificial +rite of butchering and the days when beeswax +was made.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p> + +<p>We were wont to make beeswax as follows: The +broken combs were packed in a muslin bag which +was weighted by a sinker and hung in the wash-boiler +by tying the bag to the poker, which was +placed crosswise the top. By this contrivance the +bag was completely surrounded by water, which +filled the boiler, and yet did not touch the bottom, +and so there was no danger of burning; the cloth +acted as a strainer and the bag was pressed occasionally; +this act being judiciously performed by +means of the tongs, which had previously been +cleaned. After the wax had boiled out the boiler +was taken off and the whole contents cooled, after +which the wax was taken from the top in pieces and +remelted in a dish set on the back side of the stove +so as not to burn, then poured into oiled bread-tins, +and thus caked for the market. Some of it was +clarified for special use thus: It was allowed to +simmer on the back of the stove for some hours in +water to which vinegar had been added, and then +was dipped off into scalloped patty-tins and a neat +little loop of cord inserted at one side. These cakes +when cooled had a long though scarified existence +ensconced in work-baskets with spools of thread, +for wax thus cleaned and prepared made very +pretty little gifts for lady-friends. But the experience +of rendering wax was never complete +without spilling some of it on the stove, which +spread with fearful rapidity and smoked with +stifling smoke; because of the certainty of this +accident we always made the beeswax in the late +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>fall, lest our bees regarding the pungent smoke as a +direct invitation should come visiting in embarrassing +numbers.</p> + +<p>Sundry old pieces of rag carpet were spread on the +floor around the stove to keep the yellow paint intact +from the wax, which was so hard to clean off. We +had no benzine in those days, and our only resort +was boiling hot water, which cleaned off the paint as +well as the wax.</p> + +<p>One privilege that was always granted to us +children on this day was that of having “our fingers +made.” As the wax was cooling the finger was +dipped in it, and the film was cooled while the finger +was held very still; then the film was slipped off, +a crucial point in the process, and used as a mould +into which was poured the cooling wax; and presto! +there was the finger as natural as life to every crease +and wrinkle, but with a death-like pallor that +rendered the row of fingers thus made a fascinatingly +gruesome collection, as if they had been chopped off +with a hatchet.</p> + +<p>This old process of rendering wax in the wash-boiler +is still practised where apiaries are small. +Mr. Root advises the following modification: +Sticks are placed crosswise the bottom of the boiler +on which the bag is placed; the bag is packed very +full of wax by pressing the comb into balls with the +hands before it is put in. Water is added and the +whole is placed upon the stove and brought slowly +to a boil, then a board that acts as a follower on the +bag is placed on top with a heavy weight upon it; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>this acts as a press and decreases the bulk in the +bag, leaving the wax floating on the surface.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_SOLAR_WAX-EXTRACTOR"> + THE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR +</h3> + +<p>There are many modern and up-to-date methods +advised for extracting wax. The most common is +through the use of the Solar wax-extractor, which +was invented for extracting honey in California, +where the sun can be depended upon to do its work +unflinchingly day after day. There was more than +myth in the story of Icarus who fastened his wings +on with wax, and then dared to face the sun. The +ancients evidently knew that no other substance of +the sort is so susceptible to the sun’s rays. I +shall never forget my amazement at the efficiency of +the first Solar extractor that I ever saw; it was home-made +and there was naught in its appearance to +indicate its power. The comb was hard and blackened +and full of dirt, while the wax that oozed out +and hardened below was as shining and yellow as if +the sun itself had exhaled it. A Solar extractor +ought to be in every apiary where twenty colonies or +more are kept, and into this every fragment of comb +should be put instead of storing it to become infested +by the bee-moth, or leaving it around to +incite the bees to robbing. The fragments thus are +saved and without any expense or trouble are made +into a beautiful product for the market.</p> + +<p>There are several of these Solar extractors made +and sold by dealers. The Doolittle, the Rauchfuss +and the Boardman are the three commonly used. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>The Doolittle is small and all right for a small apiary. +The Rauchfuss has a clever arrangement by which +the wax in flowing out overflows from one pan to +another and thus cleanses itself automatically. The +Boardman is especially adapted for large apiaries, +and is on rockers so that it may be tilted to face the +sun. The general plan of the Solar wax-extractor +is as follows: It consists of a shallow box lined with +sheet-iron on which is a frame for holding the comb +with a strainer below it, and a place where the wax +thus extracted is received. The box has a tight-fitting +glass cover, and all the woodwork on the box +is painted black so as to absorb all the heat possible. +The box is tilted so as to get the direct rays of the +sun, and it is important that the cover be of one pane +of glass, or several panes matched without cross +sash, as such sash interferes with the rays of the sun. +Here in the East this extractor works excellently +during the summer months. If the wax does not +look clean as it comes from the extractor, it may be +put through again. The only difficulty with the +Solar extractor is that here in the East it works only +in the summer time, and that it does not extract all +the wax from the refuse which bears the graphic and +euphonious name of “slumgum.”</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_SWISS_WAX-EXTRACTOR"> + THE SWISS WAX-EXTRACTOR +</h3> + +<p>There are many patent wax-extractors which are +run by the heat of a stove. The best of these utilise +steam for heating the wax, though some of them use +hot water in a sort of a modification of the old wash-boiler +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>method. The best of these machines for a +small apiary is the Swiss extractor, which may be +set over a kettle of hot water, like an ordinary vegetable +steamer, which it resembles. The comb is +placed in a wire basket, which has a cone-shaped +bottom, over which the wax flows down as it melts +and drains off through a spout into a pan in +which it is to be caked. This machine costs only +three or four dollars and is simple and excellent; +though it takes but comparatively little comb at a +time, it keeps up a continual performance and +there is no danger whatever of burning the wax. +The basket may be replenished from time to time, and +a large amount of wax may be extracted in a day +while other work is being performed in the room. +Mr. Root has an improved Swiss extractor and so +has Mr. D. A. Jones, and both of them are most +satisfactory. Mr. Jones’s machine is the larger and +may be used as an uncapping can as well; the cappings +when taken off falling directly into the extractor.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_WAX-PRESS"> + THE WAX-PRESS +</h3> + +<p>Wax is such a precious product in these days of +the manufacture of foundation-comb that every +particle of it should be saved. This is quite impossible +with any of the extractors; as the slumgum +always holds much wax, to extract which a wax-press +is needed. All wax-presses are necessarily rather +expensive machines when bought, and not very +easily manufactured at home. In some of them the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>comb is melted by steam and in some by hot water; +in others the heated wax is dipped from a kettle of +hot water and poured into the press.</p> + +<p>The German steam wax-press is in general use in +America, Mr. Root having an improvement on it. +It is a strongly built can, at the bottom of which is a +place for water, and above it an arrangement to +receive the wax drippings. A basket of perforated +metal holds the comb and occupies the larger and +upper part of the can; a follower worked by a screw +presses down upon the heated comb and forces the +wax down and out through a spigot. This machine +weighs sixty pounds and costs fourteen dollars, and +if the apiary contains more than forty hives of +bees, such a wax-press will pay for itself soon with +the wax which would otherwise be lost.</p> + +<p>We have seen one home-made press constructed +from a half barrel worked by the machinery of a +cheese-press. The follower was cleated on the under +side, and the barrel was filled with boiling water; +the wax as it was pressed out was run off by a spout +at the top. Another which was used successfully +was simply a box with cleated bottom and a cleated +follower into which the hot wax was poured and +pressed out most successfully. One of the wax +presses used by many is called the Hatch-Gemmill +press, which is run on the principle of dipping the +hot wax off hot water and squeezing it through the +press.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="REFINING_WAX_WITH_SULPHURIC_ACID"> + REFINING WAX WITH SULPHURIC ACID +</h3> + +<p>On a small scale this may be done in an agate +or porcelain-lined kettle. Mr. Root even advises +on occasion the use of a large iron kettle. The +kettle is filled half full of water, 100 parts to one part +acid, and is brought nearly to the boiling point over +a slow fire; the wax is then added and is kept hot +for a little time after it is melted, and then the fire is +allowed to die down; as soon as it is cool enough so +that the dirt has settled, the wax is dipped off, great +care being taken not to stir up the settlings. If an +iron kettle is used it should afterward be thoroughly +washed with boiling water, and rubbed with fresh +lard or some other unsalted grease to stop the action +of the acid upon it. Beeswax may be bleached by +exposing it in thin sheets to the sunlight.</p> + + +<h3 id="ADULTERATED_BEESWAX"> + ADULTERATED BEESWAX +</h3> + +<p>Dishonest dealers have attempted to adulterate +beeswax with several substances; tallow, paraffine +and cerasin being more commonly used. Tallow +or other greasy adulterants may be detected by the +smell; and because the cakes of wax containing them +feel and look greasy. But paraffine and cerasin are +not so easily detected by the eye or feel. The +specific gravity test is the one used by dealers. A +piece of wax known to be pure is placed in a jar of +water, and enough alcohol is added so that the wax +will just settle to the bottom. Then a piece of the +suspected wax is placed in the jar, and if it contains +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>either paraffine or cerasin it will still float. Another +test but not so exact is made by chewing the wax; if +it is pure it will be brittle and break as it is chewed, +but adulterated wax is cohesive like gum.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_BEESWAX_MAKING"> + MAXIMS FOR BEESWAX MAKING +</h3> + +<p>The wax-market is always good, and the wise bee-keeper +saves every scrap of this precious material.</p> + +<p>Do not be mussy when making beeswax, or it +will take longer to clean up than to make the wax.</p> + +<p>Do not use galvanised iron vessels for boiling wax +as the quality is thus injured.</p> + +<p>Clean wax off with hot water or benzine.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII"> + CHAPTER XII + <br><br> + FEEDING BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>WHEN TO FEED</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">At</span> least twice during the season bees are likely to +need more food than they can get in the fields, if +the bee-keeper is to do a profitable business. Once +early in the spring when for some reason the nectar +supply fails, and it is desirable to stimulate the rearing +of brood; again, late in the season when the colony +has not enough honey for winter use. When the +cupidity of the bee-keeper leads him to extract +too much honey, then must he forsooth open his +pocketbook and buy expensive sugar to feed back +to those whom he has robbed. However, bees +should be watched closely; they may need feeding at +any time, for it is hard to predict when the honey +or pollen harvest may fail in a given locality.</p> + +<p>When food is given the bees in the spring, it is +largely for the sake of stimulating them to extra +activity; and thus develop large, strong colonies +ready for work as soon as the harvest occurs. The +brood-chambers should be closely watched in the +early spring and if there is not sufficient food for the +brood present, it should be provided. In the fall +the hive should be examined by the middle of September +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>or the first of October. A colony of ordinary +size ought to have at least thirty pounds of capped +honey. The ordinary Langstroth frame, when +filled on both sides, contains about five pounds of +honey; therefore, there should be an equivalent of +six filled frames in each hive. If the swarm lacks this +amount, an estimate should be made of how much +more it needs, and this amount should be fed.</p> + +<p>Bees are usually fed upon honey or syrup made +from the best granulated sugar, although some +have claimed that the best grade of coffee-sugars +make a good syrup; but the consensus of opinion is +in favour of the granulated. The syrup is made +in two ways: First, by heat. Melt the granulated +sugar in its own weight or measure of water; it +should be heated slowly, and never reach a temperature +higher than 180° F. lest it burn, for scorched +syrup fed in winter is as fatal to bees as so much +poison. The mixture should be stirred until the +sugar is entirely dissolved, then allowed to cool +slowly, and it is ready for use. If there are many +to feed, a wash-boiler is a very convenient utensil to +use, as it is easier to make a large quantity at a time. +Because of the danger of scorching a cold process has +been evolved. It consists of taking equal measures +of sugar and water; the latter should be boiling hot +and the two stirred together until the sugar is dissolved. +This may be done in a churn or in the +honey-extractor. In following this process it is +best to add the sugar a bowlful at a time, while +stirring the mixture industriously. The syrup +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>should be thin when finished, as it is better to let +the bees attend to the ripening of it.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_FEED"> + HOW TO FEED +</h3> + +<p>There are two general plans for feeding bees. One +is to place the syrup outside the hive, and the other +to place it within the hive. The first is much more +convenient for the apiarist, but unless the work be +done very carefully or in the evening, and the +syrup well guarded, the bees may become demoralised +and begin robbing. Feeding outside the hive can +be done only during warm weather. There are +several simple feeders in which the syrup is placed at +night, and taken away in the morning; but the method +most generally followed is to fill a Mason fruit can +with the syrup and place on it a perforated cover, +then invert it in a box in front of the hive; the +entrance to this box is so connected with the entrance +to the hive that robbing is impossible. The box +and cover are sold under the name of the Boardman +feeder. As there is very little air in the can, the +syrup oozes out very slowly through the perforated +cover, and the bees take it as fast as it comes. This +feeder is satisfactory in that we can tell at a glance +when it needs replenishing.</p> + +<p>However, most apiarists follow the custom of +feeding within the hive, and strive to accomplish +this without loss of warmth in the brood-chambers, +and without disturbing or daubing the bees. Of +all the devices for feeding within the hive, the +division board feeder is the most practical. It consists +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>simply of a division board made to hold the +syrup, which is placed in the hive instead of a frame, +<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>. There is a hole at the top so that it may +be refilled by simply pushing back the cover, and +pouring in the syrup from a pitcher. The only +objection to this feeder is its size, as it does not hold +more than two pounds of syrup, and if used for fall +feeding would need to be filled many times. This +feeder is especially useful for stimulating the bees in +the spring, and is also most practical in developing +nuclei. In a small apiary it is quite practical for all +purposes.</p> + +<p>Of the larger inside feeders the Smith, the Heddon +and the Miller are generally used. These are alike +in one respect; they are flat boxes placed directly +above the frames and beneath the quilts. The +Heddon and the Miller each take a certain specified +number of pounds of syrup, so that when we use +them we can tell just how much we are feeding. +The Miller is especially convenient in this respect, +and has one advantage over the others in that the +entrance for the bees is directly above the centre of +the brood-chamber, so that the bees may enter it +easily without loss of heat. This fact renders it an +excellent feeder for cold weather. Some still use +the pepper-box feeder, which consists of a tin can +with perforated cover, inverted above the frame, but +this lifts the quilts and lets in the cold, and is awkward +to use; and as it does not hold very much it is +quite inconvenient to manage.</p> + +<p>Some altruistic people take the frames of comb +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>from which honey has been extracted and fill the +cells with syrup. This is done by laying the comb +flat and letting the syrup into it through a fine sieve, +or by using a force-pump with a spray nozzle. After +the frame is filled it is allowed to stand on edge until +the drain has ceased and then it is hung in the hive, +and presto! the bees never know that they have been +robbed.</p> + +<p>In the happy days, when we were getting our first +experience, we fed some colonies for the winter by +introducing chunk honey into the bottom of the hive +and it worked like a charm, except that we were +obliged to lift the hive to put in the honey, and again +to remove the beautifully cleaned comb. One never +realises how beautiful empty honey-comb may be +unless he has had the privilege of examining a freshly +made comb or one which the bees have cleaned. +Bee-books advise putting in the chunk honey above +the brood-frames, using Hill’s device above it so it +will not be crushed by the quilt. We have done this, +setting the comb in every direction, and our bees +ignored it in a most provoking way; but when they +found it at the bottom of the hive, they carried it up at +once. We never knew why our bees were so contrary +in refusing to take the honey from above +because other people’s bees seem to like it administered +in that way.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_AND_WHEN_TO_FEED_CANDY"> + HOW AND WHEN TO FEED CANDY +</h3> + +<p>If necessary to feed the bees in midwinter many +people use candy. This is made by boiling granulated +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>sugar in a double boiler until it is brittle when +dropped in cold water. It is then taken off and +stirred and poured into flat dishes to harden, from +which it can be taken as a cake and placed on top of +the frame at the centre of the hive. Some pour the +candy into the wooden butter-trays and after it +hardens invert the tray over the middle of the brood-nest. +Some, instead of caking it thus, mould it in +a brood-frame by holding the frame flat on a table +or board covered with oil paper and pouring the +candy in; it thus hardens fast to the frame, and may +be put directly in the brood-nest. The famous +Good candy, so called because it was invented by +Mr. Good, although the excellence of the product +would have given it that name anyway, is made by +taking extracted honey, and heating it until it is +quite thin, but not allowed to boil, and mixing into it +confectioner’s sugar until the spoon can no longer +stir it; then the mixture is taken out, and placed on a +board and more sugar kneaded into it until it is of +firm consistency. In hot weather more sugar is +needed than in the winter. In making this candy +skill is evinced in getting it as soft as possible, and +yet stiff enough so that it will not flow. Only the +best honey is used for this; and if the confectioner’s +sugar seems impure, then granulated sugar should +be pounded in a mortar or rolled under a rolling-pin +until fine and used instead. The confectioner’s +sugar may be tested by putting a little in a glass of +water and noting if there is a sediment.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="FEEDING_RYE_FLOUR"> + FEEDING RYE FLOUR +</h3> + +<p>This is given as a substitute for pollen, and is +often of great use in the spring when the flowers are +late in blossoming, or when severe rains wash the +pollen from the fruit bloom. Pollen or its equivalent +is absolutely necessary for rearing the brood. The +unbolted rye flour, or even oatmeal, or whole-wheat +flour may be used by the bees as a substitute with +perfect success. The meal may be mixed with the +candy if it is desirable; but the usual way is to place +it in a trough or box that is shallow, press it down hard +so that it will be not more than an inch or two thick, +to prevent the bees from getting suffocated while +working in it. We must remember that the bee has +two rows of holes along each side of the body through +which it breathes, and thus could be suffocated +as easily in soft flour as in water. The box containing +the meal is usually placed a few rods distant +from the apiary, and often some old combs with +honey in them are placed on top so as to attract the +bees to the box, and let them know that it contains +food for them. Most bee-keepers say that the box +needs to be placed in the sun or the bees ignore it.</p> + + +<h3 id="FEEDING_FOR_HONEY"> + FEEDING FOR HONEY +</h3> + +<p>Some bee-keepers practise feeding all the colonies +early in the season so that the brood has plenty of +sugar-syrup stored near it when the honey season +opens; and since the brood-comb is full the bees +begin at once to store in the supers. Mr. Boardman +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>who invented the best entrance-feeder practises this, +with the result of getting more honey than other bee-keepers +of his neighbourhood, who do not feed at +this time. It is especially valuable in years when the +honey is scarce, for then the bees store all the honey +they gather in the supers. However there is one thing +to consider carefully in this feeding, and that is the +relative price of syrup and honey. If the market +is glutted and honey is plentiful and cheap, this sort +of feeding would better be practised cautiously; +but when honey is scarce and dear, it is certainly a +safe experiment.</p> + + +<h3 id="FEEDING_BACK"> + FEEDING BACK +</h3> + +<p>When the sections are not well filled in the late +season, it is the practice of some apiarists to feed +extracted honey in order to fill them. For this only +the best honey is used; it is mixed with water, ten +pounds of honey to one of water, and heated so that +it is a fluid and then poured in the larger kind of +feeders, and is put in at night, as the smell of the +heated honey particularly incites bees to robbing. +However, the flavour of honey which has been fed +back is inferior to that which is only once made, and +but a few apiarists practise feeding back successfully.</p> + + +<h3 id="WATERING_BEES"> + WATERING BEES +</h3> + +<p>If there is no fresh water in the immediate vicinity +of the hives, special provision should be made to +secure it, as it is a highly desirable adjunct to a well-regulated +apiary. While there are times during the +season when the bees get most of the moisture they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>need from the nectar, there are other times when +they drink water eagerly. This is especially so in +the spring when they are gathering much pollen and +little water, and the weather is warm. Running water +is more desirable, and if the drip from a faucet flow +over a board, or on pebbles, it affords a nearly ideal +drinking place for the bees, since they can drink +freely and are in no danger of drowning. Some bee-keepers +invert a Mason jar filled with water, on a +board that has a few shallow groves, perhaps one-eighth +inch deep; the water flows out slowly owing +to atmospheric pressure; if a little salt be added to +the water the bees lap it up eagerly.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_FEEDING"> + MAXIMS FOR FEEDING +</h3> + +<p>Keep close watch of the bees during the entire +season, so as to know whether they need feeding or +not.</p> + +<p>Feed only good honey or the best sugar.</p> + +<p>Never feed scorched sugar in the winter, as it will +surely kill the bees.</p> + +<p>Observe the practice of feeding at nightfall to +preclude robbing.</p> + +<p>Never spill the syrup or honey around the yard +lest robbers be led on to black deeds.</p> + +<p>Feed small amounts to stimulate a swarm or nucleus. +Bees are susceptible to small encouragements.</p> + +<p>Be careful never to cool off the brood-chamber +when feeding in early spring or late fall.</p> + +<p>See to it that the bees have water near by, especially +early in the season.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII"> + CHAPTER XIII + <br><br> + HOW TO WINTER BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>IDEAL CONDITIONS</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wintering of bees in the northern latitudes is +usually attended with more or less loss. Although +we now think we know the conditions necessary +for perfect wintering, it is only now and then +that they are attained. There are so many +unhappy and unpredictable circumstances and +vicissitudes, that one must needs be a true prophet +as well as a good bee-keeper to be sure that all +his swarms will successfully pass the period of snow +and cold.</p> + +<p>The problem of wintering hinges as much on +protection from dampness as on protection from the +cold. We all know that double windows in a room +keep the frost off the panes. The reason for this +is that the dampness of the room is not allowed to +come in contact with the cold outside glass. So it is +with the beehive; if it is single-walled the dampness +from the breath of the bees causes the frost to gather +on the walls of the hive, which later melts and wets +the bees so that they chill easily; the double-walled +hive is a guard against this condition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="GETTING_READY_FOR_WINTERING"> + GETTING READY FOR WINTERING +</h3> + +<p>First of all that watchward of the bee-keeper must +be fully realised, “Keep the colonies strong.” Most +men of experience do not attempt to winter a colony +that is not large enough to cover at least four of the +Langstroth brood-frames. If a colony is as small +as this, the division boards should be used to contract +the hive and make it as cosy and comfortable as possible. +It is far safer to try to winter a colony that +covers six frames than one that covers only four; +the more the bees the warmer the hive, the less the +loss, and also the less missed are those that die. To +secure good swarms it is best to keep up the breeding +throughout the summer, which can be done by feeding +if the honey is scarce.</p> + +<p>Next in importance to a strong colony is good +honey and plenty of it sealed in the combs, so that +wholesome food may help to sustain the bees during +this trying period. With a four-frame colony four +frames of sealed stores will be enough. A Langstroth +brood-frame should hold about five pounds +of honey if it is well filled. If the colony is larger, +then more honey must, of course, be given. We +never allow any of our colonies to begin winter +without at least thirty pounds of sealed honey, and +when a colony is very large we have given it +thirty-five pounds. This may seem wasteful <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: extravgance" id="extravgance">extravagance</ins> +on our part, but the honey not used in the +winter is of use in the spring. It is necessary that +the honey be of good quality; the bee is such a neat +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>housekeeper that she will suffer death rather than +let food pass through her alimentary canal when she +is dormant, and thus render unsanitary the bee-city, +a devotion to municipal sanitation which is hardly +found elsewhere in the annals of living beings. If +honey of poor quality is fed to the bees and they +hold within themselves such food, disaster is likely +to ensue. In preparing the hive for winter what is +known as the Hill’s device, which is a series of curved +pieces of wood held in place by a strip of tin, is +placed above the frames to support the cushion so as +to allow the bees to readily climb over them. We +use a super cover in our chaff hives instead of the +Hill’s device.</p> + +<p>There are three ways of wintering bees in common +use. First in the chaff or double-walled hives left +in the open. Second, in tenement-hives. Third, +the hives are carried into cellars. The reprehensible +way of leaving bees out of doors in single-walled +hives with no protection during the winter is no +longer practised by civilised people.</p> + + +<h3 id="OUTDOOR_WINTERING"> + OUTDOOR WINTERING +</h3> + +<p>Many apiarists protect the hive by a box, several +inches larger than the hive in every diameter, +placed over the hive, the spaces between being packed +with chaff or dried leaves. A passage-way out is +always preserved so that the bees may fly out during +the early warm days, and free themselves from the +accumulated waste. This is a cheap way of securing +the advantages of a chaff hive. Such boxes are sold +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>by the dealers, and many good words are said for +this method of wintering.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_CHAFF_HIVE"> + THE CHAFF HIVE +</h3> + +<p>The chaff hive is probably the most perfect of all +of the devices for out-of-door wintering when convenience +and the saving of work as well as success +are taken into consideration. The chaff hive is +a double-walled hive with wall spaces packed with +chaff. It is a certain guard against extremes and +sudden changes of temperature, as it remains cool in +the hot and warm in the cold weather.</p> + +<p>The chaff for packing should be fine. That from +timothy hay, oats or wheat is commonly used; saw dust +and planer shavings and dried leaves closely +packed are also often resorted to. The packing +should be below as well as on the sides of the hive. +A cushion made of burlap and filled with chaff is +put above a Hill’s device or super cover, as this is +the most convenient method of packing the hive +on top. The bees should be thoroughly established +and have their stores ready as early as October 1st. +It is claimed by the admirers of the chaff hive that +they prevent spring dwindling by keeping the bees +warm in the early spring; and also that they keep the +hive cool enough so that the brood is not developed +in the combs until the proper time for it.</p> + +<p>The chaff hives are sufficiently warm to preserve +bees during ordinary winters, but neither they nor +any other out-door device were entirely successful +during the long, protracted cold of the winter of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>1903–04 when many bee-keepers in the Northern +States lost 40 per cent. of their bees. It might be +wise when such a winter occurs to give some temporary +protection to the hives, like covering them +with boughs of evergreen or building a close windbreak. +The entrance to a chaff hive should always +be contracted in winter to keep out cold and mice.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_TENEMENT_HIVE"> + THE TENEMENT HIVE +</h3> + +<p>This is a box made for holding from two to ten +hives, and which we have used with perfect success. +Our favourite tenement-hive was arranged for six +hives in two stories. The bottom was packed well +with dry leaves or chaff, and three hives were set +somewhat near each other. Entrances were boxed +back, affording a front hall for each hive-entrance. +After three hives were thus set in and packed with +chaff on every side and between, a shelf was put across +and on this were set three more hives which were +likewise packed. The entrances to the upper +row were on the same side as those to the lower row, +and the cover of the box sloped back from the front +of the hives and was hinged along its highest edge; +thus when we wished to examine the hives we lifted +the cover and examined the bees from the back side +instead of standing directly in front of the entrance. +Our losses were rare and small while using these +tenements. The advantage of the tenement over the +chaff hive is that it is cheaper, and that several +colonies packed together help to keep each other +warm.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="WINTERING_IN_CELLARS"> + WINTERING IN CELLARS +</h3> + +<p>The way we always wintered bees in the old days +was by placing them in a cellar which was used for +vegetables and was ill-ventilated and damp. We +well remember that in the spring the cellar windows +were covered with arrested prisoners; we do not +recollect that we lost many colonies, but if we did not, +it was owing to the ways of inscrutable Providence +rather than our own understanding of the needs of +the bees. Probably most of the bees in the Northern +climates are wintered in cellars; and because they are +wintered in all sorts of cellars with varying degrees +of dampness the mortality among them is likely to be +great. A cellar fit for wintering bees should be +cemented on the floor and sides, made mouse and rat +tight, and should be well drained, well ventilated and +so arranged that the temperature may be kept in +the neighbourhood of 45° F. In such a cellar the +hives lifted off the bottom boards should be placed +four or five inches apart on two scantlings laid on +the floor. In the next tier the middle of a hive +should bridge the opening between the lower hives +on which it rests. This arrangement gives plenty +of ventilation to the hive from below, and it is very +important that the air be introduced below rather +than above. The cellar should be kept dark, and if +the weather is warm and the bees seem uneasy it +should be ventilated at night by opening the windows, +which, by the way, should have wire screens to keep +out intruders. Some leave the bottom boards out +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>on the summer stands, each board bearing the same +number as the hive which rests upon it, and thus in +the spring it is easy to find the home of each colony; +but if the bees are brought into the cellar without the +bottom boards on the hive they are quite likely to +fly out more or less. Usually, therefore, they are +brought in on the bottom boards, and these are piled +in some convenient place until needed in the spring. +In this case it is advisable to have a map made of the +apiary, and the hives and their places numbered on +the map, and thus each hive may be returned to its +old stand in the spring.</p> + +<p>If bees are wintered in the ordinary house-cellar it +is far better to partition off the part used for the bees +from that used for vegetables, and much pains should +be taken to keep the air good and the cellar well +ventilated.</p> + +<p>Special bee-cellars are in vogue in some large +apiaries. The cellar is sometimes made beneath the +bee-house, and sometimes it is a structure by itself. +Of all such cellars, the Bingham seems to us the +cheapest, and surely quite as practical as the others. +It is built like a square cistern, twelve feet square at +the bottom, sixteen feet at the top and six feet deep; +it is cemented at the bottom and on the sides, and +the ceiling is flush with the level of the ground. +Over this is built a gable roof, the eaves extending +down to a drain on either side so that all the water +is carried off. The ventilation is secured through +a pipe extending from the cellar ceiling to the top of +the roof. The floor over the cellar is tight and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>covered with sawdust; access to the cellar stairs is +gained through a trap door. Such a cellar as this +should be built on a dry knoll. Mr. Bingham has +wintered successfully ninety colonies in this house; +and it will hold nearly twice as many.</p> + +<p>The bees may come out of the hives and die in +great numbers when they are wintered in a cellar. +If any such seem distended and swollen they have +probably died of dysentery, and the matter should +be looked into immediately. However, many of the +bees that die in winter are likely to be the old ones +which are not vigorous enough to stand the strain of +the cold. The cellar floor should be swept several +times during the winter and all the dead bees removed +so they shall not pollute the atmosphere. +The cellar should always be dark, but the bees can +be easily examined with a lamp, or what is better, a +bull’s-eye lantern.</p> + +<p>The carrying of hives into the cellar is an onerous +task when the apiary is large. The entrance to the +hive should be closed the night before so as to be +sure the whole family is moved. The hives should +be carried with as little perturbance to the occupants +as may be; several methods of carrying the hives +easily and quietly have been invented. Mr. Root +uses a wire bent like a V with the wooden piece of a +common pail bale at the angle. The prongs of the +V are bent at right angles into hooks which hook +under the bottom board; two men carry the hive, one +on each side, each with a carrier just described. +Mr. Miller has a simple rope carrier that slips under +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>the cleated ends of the hive. Mr. Boardman has a +delightful device, which is a carrier in the shape of a +push-cart with two wheels. A board just large enough +to set the hive upon with rope handles at either side +serves admirably.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_TO_PUT_BEES_IN_THE_CELLAR"> + WHEN TO PUT BEES IN THE CELLAR +</h3> + +<p>This should be done as soon as steady cold weather +comes on. In this northern climate the colonies +should be ready in October, for the appointed time +for putting them in the cellar is likely to occur +between the first and fifteenth of November. If put +in too soon and the weather is warm they become +uneasy; they should be put in during a dry day so +that the hives will not be dampened by rain or fog.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_TO_TAKE_BEES_OUT_OF_THE_CELLAR"> + WHEN TO TAKE BEES OUT OF THE CELLAR +</h3> + +<p>This is decided somewhat by the bees themselves; +if they awaken and push out and try to escape in +great numbers, it is a sign that they had best be put +out as soon as it can be safely done. Mr. Root makes +the practice of putting his bees out of the cellar in the +middle of a warm day in midwinter, so that they +may have a cleansing flight, and then puts them +back in the cellar that night; which shows that a +merciful man is good to his bees. However, some +other bee-keepers think that this taking them out in +midwinter is fraught with danger.</p> + +<p>In a climate like that of New York it is hardly safe +to take the hives from the cellar before the last +of April or the first of May. The general rule is to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>wait until there is a prevalent temperature of 70°, and +the willow, the alder, and the soft maples are in +blossom, so that the bees may gather pollen as soon +as they are put out. The glowing banners of the red +maple blossoms give signal to most of the bee-keepers +in the northern climate that it is time that +the bees were on the wing.</p> + + +<h3 id="SPRING_DWINDLING"> + SPRING DWINDLING +</h3> + +<p>The cause of this is attributed to various conditions +by various bee-keepers. The evidence of it is shown +by the listlessness of the swarm, and by the dying of +the bees. Whatever the reason, all apiarists agree +it is more common during cold, backward springs, +and that it is less prevalent when the bees are put out +in warm, sunny locations. The only remedies suggested +are that the brood-chambers be contracted so +that the bees can easily keep the comb warm, and +that plenty of good syrup and rye flour and water +be given to the bees if they are unable to get food +from the flowers. Many apiarists have tried the +joining of two colonies when this dwindling appears, +hoping thus to get enough bees in a hive to keep it +warm, but they all agree that this does not help the +matter.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_WINTERING"> + MAXIMS FOR WINTERING +</h3> + +<p>Keep the colonies strong. Be sure that a good-sized +swarm has at least thirty pounds of sealed +stores.</p> + +<p>Pollen should not be left in the comb for winter use.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxii.jpg" alt="Two beehives sit on a hillside covered in snow. There are leafless trees behind them."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by M. V. Slingerland</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXII. WINTER QUARTERS IN CHAFF HIVES</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxiii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxiii.jpg" alt="Close up pictures of bunches of plum blossoms at the end of branches."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXIII. PLUM BLOSSOMS</p> + <p>The fruit-bloom is a great aid to the bees while rearing their brood.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p> + +<p>Be sure that the honey is of good quality, and not +made from decayed fruit or honey-dew.</p> + +<p>Give the hive ventilation from below.</p> + +<p>If wintered out of doors, give the bees a chance +to fly.</p> + +<p>If wintered in cellars, do not put too many bees +in a cellar. If you have space for fifty colonies, do not +try to winter more than thirty in it.</p> + +<p>In cellars take off the bottom boards and arrange +the hives so that the bees will get plenty of ventilation +from below.</p> + +<p>Have a thermometer in the cellar and keep watch +of it. This should not show more than ten degrees +of variation. If the temperature rises to 55°, open +the windows at night.</p> + +<p>Keep the cellar dark and the air sweet.</p> + +<p>Sweep the dead bees off the cellar floor several +times during the winter.</p> + +<p>Contract the brood-chamber in the fall, and again, +if necessary, when the hives are set out in the +spring, until there is only comb enough so that the +bees can cover it well.</p> + +<p>See that the bees have plenty of food and good +water near by when set out in the spring.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV"> + CHAPTER XIV + <br><br> + REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>QUEEN-REARING</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a small apiary there is little need for the special +rearing of queens; the natural increase may safely be +depended upon to supply all the colonies which lose +their queens or which have unprofitable ones. It is +always well for even the most casual bee-keeper to +take the trouble to re-queen from his strongest and +best colonies. However, the time when queen cells +are naturally built may not be the most convenient +or the most desirable time for giving certain colonies +a new mother. This being the case, queens may be +developed through the power of suggestion, as +follows: Select a frame of brood from the best +colony; with a toothpick tear down the partitions +between three worker cells which contain eggs or +larvæ less than two days old and destroy two of the +eggs or larvæ; repeat the operation in several places. +Place the frame back in the hive, being very sure +that there is sufficient space between it and its +neighbouring frame, so that good queen cells may +be built. If there is a scarcity of honey, feed the +bees. The cleverness of bees is clearly proven by +the readiness with which they take a hint, and they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>almost invariably build queen cells upon the comb +thus treated.</p> + +<p>This method we have found perfectly satisfactory, +but for those who rear queens for sale, other very +interesting practices have been invented. The +greatest of these was devised by Mr. Doolittle, one +of the foremost queen-breeders in America. He makes +artificial queen cells by dipping a small, smoothly +rounded stick in warm wax repeatedly, thus making +a little cup, thin at the edge and thick at the bottom. +Rows of these little cups are placed on a bar the thickness +of a brood-frame and fastened there with hot +wax. In each cup is introduced a bit of royal jelly +and a very young larva. The bar is then inserted +horizontally into a frame of brood-comb, part of +the latter being cut away to give room for the future +cells, which project down from the bar. In such +a royal nursery, he develops his queens for the market.</p> + + +<h3 id="INTRODUCING_QUEENS"> + INTRODUCING QUEENS +</h3> + +<p>Though royalty in the hive is of quite another +feather than in human society, yet there is quite as +much ado when it comes to installations in one as +in the other. While a bee-colony is absolutely +devoted to its own queen, it may seriously object +to a queen thrust upon it by some outside power. +And thus it happens that the introduction of a new +queen into a hive is fraught with danger to her +majesty as well as to the pocket-book of the bee-keeper.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p> + + +<h3 id="BALLING_THE_QUEEN"> + BALLING THE QUEEN +</h3> + +<p>“Balling” in the hive is an indignity that may well +have suggested to other societies the method of +black-balling unwelcome seekers after honours. The +bees ball an unwelcome queen by gathering around +her in a compact mass, remaining there until the +unfortunate usurper is smothered or starved, or both. +As if to live up to their mathematical reputation, +this ball is quite spherical because each bee is an +animated atom of centripetal force scrambling and +pushing toward the centre. This method of smothering +royalty is regarded as an evidence of the +worker’s reluctance to sting a fertile queen. But +observations are recorded which state that the bees +on the outside of the ball seem fiercely trying to +sting, and that the individuals nearest the queen +ofttimes share her fate because of this venomous +attitude of their sisters. Whether this use of the +sting by the outsiders is for the purpose of fighting +their way toward the centre, or whether they are +mad with a desire to kill the queen, is by no means +a settled question. However, if they were bent upon +stinging her to death, she would scarcely be alive +after having been balled for some time; while it is a +matter of common experience that by breaking up +the ball and driving off the murderers, the queen +may be saved. Sometimes the bees will ball a +queen for a time, then voluntarily release her and +accept her.</p> + +<p>There are two ways generally followed for dissolving +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>this lump of excited regicides and saving +the queen. One is to drop the ball in a shallow +bowl of water. This baptism seems to cool the hot +blood and the bees swim off, trying to preserve their +own lives. The other is to smoke the ball until it +dissolves into individual bees, so anxious to get breath +for themselves that they forget to shut off the breath +of the obnoxious queen. There is a danger attending +the latter method, for unless the smoking be +done carefully and without blowing hot air on the +bees, they will become infuriated by the heat and +surely sting the queen; as they evidently regard her, +and rightly, as the cause of their suffering.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_TO_INTRODUCE_A_QUEEN"> + WHEN TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN +</h3> + +<p>The colony should have been queenless long +enough to realise the danger of the situation, but +not long enough to have done much toward building +queen cells and developing larval queens; in +the latter case they prefer a queen of their own +dynasty and object to any other. Thus, if a +queen is to be superseded she should be removed +and, about two days later, the new one should +be introduced.</p> + +<p>It requires experience to know certainly that a +colony has become queenless, for often, when there +is no brood or eggs in the cells there is a virgin queen, +which eludes the eye, as she does not appear very +differently from the workers; a colony with virgin +queens of its own cannot be induced to accept an +introduced queen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p> + +<p>Mr. Root tests a colony which he suspects is +queenless in the following clever way: He takes a +cage containing a laying queen and holds it over the +frames so that it touches them and the bees may thus +get the scent. If the bees have no queen they express +their pleasure at this godsend in a very pretty +manner by a joyful fluttering of the wings, which +conveys the idea of happiness to even our dull +senses. To such a colony, the queen may be given +with no formalities.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_INTRODUCE_A_QUEEN"> + HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN +</h3> + +<p>The colony should be made good-natured by +having plenty of food. If there is scarcity of honey, +the bees should be fed for a day or so, great care +being taken not to start other colonies to robbing +by exposing the syrup. The queen is then introduced +in a queen-cage, which should be placed between +the brood-combs. This should be done as +carefully as possible without disturbing the bees. +At the end of forty-eight hours an examination should +be made, and if the bees are balling the cage, she +should be left twenty-four hours longer. When the +bees gather around the cage in normal numbers she +may be entrusted to them without fear.</p> + + +<h3 id="QUEEN-CAGES"> + QUEEN-CAGES +</h3> + +<p>First of these are the shipping-cages, and it is a +thrilling moment when one takes a package from +the mail, labelled “Queen Bee, Deliver Quick.” +And it is still more exciting when the cover slides +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>around, revealing her gracious majesty with a few +attendants, safe beneath the wire screen; for no bee-dealer +would be so heartless or foolish as to send a +queen on a journey without a few ladies-in-waiting +to give her companionship and care.</p> + +<p>The cage in which a queen is shipped is always +tagged or labelled with directions for introducing +the queen, which, if followed implicitly, almost +always insures success.</p> + +<p>The plan of a queen-cage is a cell made of wire +screen with twelve to fifteen meshes to the square +inch, large enough to allow the bees to thrust in +their antennæ and thus get acquainted with their +proposed sovereign, but not large enough to permit +a sting to be effectively thrust through. The cell, +itself, is large enough so that the prisoner will not +suffocate if the cage is balled. At one end of the +cage is an opening into which is pressed a cork of +candy, over which is tacked a piece of pasteboard, +through which is a central line of perforations. At +first the bees are wild to get at the queen, and incidentally +in their attack they get a taste of the +candy through the holes in the pasteboard. This +distracts their attention, and they work industriously +at biting away the pasteboard to get at the +candy. And by the time they have worked their +way through the delectable door, their attitude towards +the prisoner is naturally sweetened, and +usually they accept her at once. The “Good candy” +is used for this purpose, for the queen is also sustained +on this confection during her incarceration, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>and unless a moist candy is used, she will suffer for +lack of water.</p> + +<p>Home-made cages are usually employed in introducing +queens from the home apiary. These are of +various forms and devices, the Miller being a favourite. +His materials are as follows: One block of +wood 3 × 1¼ × ⅜ in.; two blocks of wood 1 × ⁷⁄₁₆ × ⅜ +in.; two pieces of tin 1 in. square; two pieces of fine +wire 9 in. long; one piece of wire-cloth 4½ × 3½ in.; +four wire nails ½ in. long. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p> + +<p>The illustration shows how the material is used. +The space between the two small blocks of wood, +held in place by the pieces of tin forms a door for +the candy. The large piece of wood serves as a plug +at the other end of the cage, which may be removed, +and the cage set down over the queen, thus capturing +her without handling her. When a queen is placed +in a cage she should always be allowed to climb up +into it. It is not natural for her to climb down.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_NUCLEUS_METHOD"> + THE NUCLEUS METHOD +</h3> + +<p>This method of introducing very valuable queens +is said by experts to be absolutely safe. It is accomplished +by making a nucleus of two or three frames +of brood, which is sealed and some of it just breaking +through the cell caps. Not an adult bee is permitted +to remain, and there should be as few uncapped +larvæ as possible, since such will starve. The +queen is placed on these combs and the young bees, +as they issue innocent of men’s scheming, accept +her as their legitimate mother, and a colony is soon +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>built up. A nucleus hive of this sort must be placed +in a warm room, unless it is hot weather, as there are +no bees to warm the brood. Care must also be +taken to put a wire screen over the entrance of the +hive for a day or two to prevent the queen from +escaping if she becomes uneasy midst such a dreary +waste of adolescence.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_INTRODUCING_QUEENS"> + MAXIMS FOR INTRODUCING QUEENS +</h3> + +<p>Be sure the colony is queenless before attempting +to introduce a queen.</p> + +<p>Be sure the bees have not progressed far in rearing +young queens.</p> + +<p>Be careful not to anger or disturb the bees by +smoke or hot blast or otherwise when placing the +queen in the hive.</p> + +<p>If honey is scarce, feed the colony before trying +to introduce the queen.</p> + +<p>Place the cage containing the queen on the frames +near the centre of the brood-chamber, wire cloth +below her, so that the cage rests on the bars of the +frames.</p> + +<p>Do not disturb the colony for forty-eight hours +after introducing the queen-cage.</p> + +<p>Be careful not to allow the queen to escape by +flight when liberating her.</p> + +<p>Remember, a queen crawls up instead of down.</p> + +<p>After queens are two or three years old they +should be replaced by young queens.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV"> + CHAPTER XV + <br><br> + ROBBING IN THE APIARY + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>A CAUSE OF DEMORALISATION</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> moral law seems to be as potent among the +bees as among men, and if the law be broken there +is a moral penalty attached. Nothing demonstrates +this more fully than robbing in the apiaries, +for as soon as it begins utter demoralisation ensues. +All legitimate work is stopped, and all the energies +of the bees are devoted to ill-gotten gain and in +fighting with each other, or attacking anything or +anybody that comes near them. One of the signs +of this demoralisation is that robbing makes the bees +very cross. The experienced bee-keeper can detect +robbing by the angry humming which <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: prevades" id="prevades">pervades</ins> the +apiary, which is a sound as different from the +ordinary contented hum of the working bee as martial +music is from a pastoral symphony.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHY_BEES_ROB"> + WHY BEES ROB +</h3> + +<p>Bees rob for the very human and natural reason +that the stores gathered by the hard work of others +are coveted and are more easily stolen than earned by +labour. When dealing with bees we must always +remember that the interest of the individual centres +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>in its own colony, and that it has neither love nor +devotion to any other colony, nor to bees in general; +indeed, quite otherwise. Endowed with an instinct +almost fiendish, bees seem to understand when +another colony is weak or discouraged, and, therefore, +offers a legitimate field for plunder. Strong +colonies are seldom robbed, as they are able to drive +out and kill the thieves; but the weak colony is a +constant temptation to ill doing, and should be +carefully watched and guarded.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHEN_BEES_ROB"> + WHEN BEES ROB +</h3> + +<p>This occurs usually when there is little honey to +be found in the field. Satan provides mischief for +the idle six feet and four wings quite as efficiently +as for hands. At the end of the honey-harvest there +may be a general temptation throughout the apiary +to break open vaults of precious stores belonging to +others, and escape with the contents. At the close +of the honey season strong colonies usually have +plenty of sentinels to guard the entrance and look +after suspicious strangers. Never at any time should +honey-comb be left open around the apiary, for +it always leads to robbing. It seems to suggest +to the bees that honey gathered is a much more +desirable product than that worked for in the fields.</p> + +<p>Sometimes when preserving or pickling is going on +in the house the bees start to rob the kitchen; and +while they may be deterred by screened windows, +yet the smell of the sweets may so excite them to +desires for forbidden wealth that they seem to become +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>discontented with the grind of daily toil, and so +begin robbing their neighbours.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_THE_ROBBING_IS_DONE"> + HOW THE ROBBING IS DONE +</h3> + +<p>The robber, unless she be hardened by success, +alights on the threshold of the hive which contains +coveted stores with an air that is decidedly apologetic, +having the general appearance of a prospecting +dog with his tail apprehensively between his legs. +She shows her guilty conscience by dodging back if +she meets one of the legitimate owners coming out +of the hive; she is thus trying the skill and prowess of +the sentinels, for if by assuming bravado she can pass +the sentinels she is usually safe; then she has nothing +to do but to fill with honey and to run the gauntlet +of the sentinels again, for perchance some of them +may stop her and ask her why she is going out of the +hive <em>filled</em> with honey, a proceeding altogether +reprehensible in the bee world. If she succeeds in +carrying back to her own hive the honey thus +stolen, she creates great excitement there and soon +she leads back a mob to pillage; and the air is full +of bees bent on wickedness. Mr. Root describes +graphically the successful robber thus: “A bee +that has stolen a load is generally very plump and +full, and as it comes out has a hurried and guilty +look; besides it is almost always wiping its mouth +like a man who has just come out of a beer shop. +Most of all it finds it a little difficult to take wing as +bees ordinarily do because of its weight.” As a +consequence a robber bee borne down with its load +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>of sweetness is likely to crawl up the hive a little way +so as to have the advantage of a high place to “jump +from” as it takes wing. The virtuous worker comes +out of the hive slim and depleted of her load and +flies off leisurely to the field, while the robber comes +out stuffed full and furtively climbs up the side of the +hive in order to be able to be off.</p> + +<p>We usually detect robbing in our apiary by the +fighting which we observe about the entrance; when +we see a pair of workers rolling over and over with +each other in the grass near the hive we know that +one of them is a robber, but as we do not know +which one we are obliged to apply the test meted to +the knights of old, and believe that the one who +survives is in the right. However, we take measures +at once to defend this hive. Also if we discover the +bees to be particularly cross some day, we look about +to see what has aroused their ire, and nine times out +of ten find that robbing is the cause of their ill +temper.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_STOP_ROBBING"> + HOW TO STOP ROBBING +</h3> + +<p>Contract the entrance to the hive being robbed. +To do this we place blocks in front of it, leaving only +enough space so that one or two bees can pass in at +a time. The robbers having to enter in single file +attract the attention of the suspicious sentinels and +are either driven back or killed at once. It is unsafe +to close the entrance entirely, unless it is done with a +wire screen, for the bees within will smother unless +the air is admitted through the entrance. It is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>always well to keep the entrance of the hive which +contains a weak colony or a nucleus somewhat contracted +as a measure of insurance. If contracting +the entrance does not stop robbing, Mr. Root advises +strewing long grass about the entrance which he wets +thoroughly. The robbers are too wary to try to rob +after they have wet their “feathers” in passing +through this grass; for thus handicapped they could +hardly escape from their enraged victims; while the +robbers already within the hive after having thus to +crawl out will hasten home to get their clothes dry. +Mr. Doolittle uses a common sheet which he places +over the hive that is being robbed, while Mr. Miller +places over the victimised hive a bee tent of mosquito +netting, which has a hole in the top which permits +the robbers to escape.</p> + +<p>A bee tent is a most useful adjunct to the apiary; +there are many times when it may be used, but it +is especially useful in preventing robbing. It is +simply a tent made of mosquito netting large enough +to be set over the hive and the operator. When +opening the hives at midday the tent is used to prevent +the robbers from attacking the exposed stores.</p> + +<p>Mr. Root advises working at nightfall when bees +are cross or given to robbing; but most bee-keepers +declare that the bees will crawl all over one at night, +and are no more to be gotten rid of than a porous +plaster, at which Mr. Root promptly responds, +“Do not stand near the lamp.”</p> + +<p>Enterprising men exchange places of the robbers +and victims, which produces a confusion that restores +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>quiet. The robbers come back to the weak colony +laden with its own stores and join it and help fight +off intruders; while a strong colony of robbers is +quite capable of defending itself.</p> + +<p>Another clever trick practised in Europe is to place +some disagreeable, strong-smelling substance on the +bottom board of the hive that is being robbed; +wormwood, musk, carbolised paper, are used for +this. The odour disconcerts the robber unless she +is lost to all sense of bee decency; and if she does steal +honey from such a hive and returns home her doom +is sealed; for although in the bee world the way of +the transgressor is not always hard, the way of the +citizen that smells differently from her sisters leads +to her murder and sudden death.</p> + +<p>If a robber colony has almost completed its +nefarious work, some people believe that it is best to +let it make a clean job, and thus become satisfied +there is no more plunder to be had, else the robbers +will hunt other hives for depredation. The bee +memory seems to be very good, and if the robbers +have not cleaned up all the honey which they +remember is there, they hunt for it elsewhere. We +could never bring ourselves to a frame of mind to +permit this calmly, though it seems like sensible +advice. Robbing makes us so indignant that we +refuse to allow the spoils to the victor.</p> + +<p>Bees are certainly very clever, and they are able +to learn. The old and successful robber soon +reasons it out that where the bee-keeper with a +smoker belches forth annoying fumes, there are to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>be found open hives ready for robbing; such bees +will follow the operator from hive to hive, taking their +tithe from the helpless colonies. For such robbers as +these a way to appease them is a device for letting +them rob where they can do little damage. Unsalable +comb partly filled is put in hives or supers +piled up. These are ventilated by having a wire +screen above, the cover lifted, and the entrance +contracted so that only one bee can pass in and out at +a time. This keeps the robbers busy and happy +and out of the way, and the process is called “slow +robbing.”</p> + +<p>Some apiarists remove the robbed colony to a cellar +for a day or two until it can recover its communal +courage.</p> + + +<h3 id="BORROWING"> + BORROWING +</h3> + +<p>When a colony is queenless, or for some reason has +no brood, it often allows the robbers to come and go +at will, as if it had found life worthless anyhow, and +that there was no use in struggling. It seems +possessed of the sort of pessimism which leads to +stoic recklessness. This can usually be stopped by +giving the plundered colony a queen and brood; as +soon as the bees find they have something worth +while to live for and fight for they are mightily +heartened and offer a brave defence.</p> + + +<h3 id="WHAT_BECOMES_OF_THE_ROBBED_COLONY"> + WHAT BECOMES OF THE ROBBED COLONY +</h3> + +<p>Some of the bees are adaptable, and when they +lose courage in defending their own stores they +turn about and help carry these stores to the hive of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>the robbers, which they join, thus swearing allegiance +to a new flag. Others, more loyal, will cling to the old +empty comb, cluster there, hopeless and despairing +until they die of starvation.</p> + + +<h3 id="MAXIMS_TO_PREVENT_ROBBING"> + MAXIMS TO PREVENT ROBBING +</h3> + +<p>Be sure that the bees are robbing, before applying +remedies.</p> + +<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p> + +<p>Keep watch of the hives in early spring and late +fall when there is no honey coming in.</p> + +<p>Leave no honey or loose comb open around the +apiary under any circumstances.</p> + +<p>If bees are determined to rob when the hives are +opened by the operator, it is best to work under a +bee tent or after nightfall.</p> + +<p>Robbing demoralises the whole apiary. If the +bees are cross, look out for robbers.</p> + +<p>Be very careful in uncapping not to let the bees +get a taste of the chyle food, as that makes them very +cross and wild to rob.</p> + +<p>Keep Italians.</p> + +<p>Do not let the colony become queenless, as a queenless +colony is legitimate prey for many depredators.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI"> + CHAPTER XVI + <br><br> + THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>THE BEE-MOTH <span class="fs90">(<i lang="la">Galleria mellonella</i>)</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> miserable little pest is classic in its devastations +as it is mentioned by the old writers, Aristotle +paying to it bitter tribute. It belongs to a family +of secretive moths which fold their dull wings +closely about the body, and thus look more like bits +of sticks than like insects. They are called the +snout moths (<i lang="la">Pyralidæ</i>) because the palpi extend out +in front of the head in a highly ornamental and +striking manner.</p> + +<p>The bee-moth is a most insidious creature, hiding +in cracks, and, when it flies, darting about with +almost inconceivable swiftness. It is only by such +means that it eludes the watchful bees. Professor +Kellogg observes that the moth simply works against +time when it rushes into a hive by laying its eggs +rapidly, dodging about with the utmost rapidity to +leave as many progeny as possible before the bees +can get hold of her and tear her asunder, a fate which +surely awaits her. So it seems that even a parasite +may be brave and go to certain death in fulfilling its +destiny. Mr. Cook says that the moth will lay eggs +while her head and thorax are being dissected, which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>shows that even after death she is efficient for mischief +in the hive.</p> + +<p>The eggs are small and white and are put into +crevices. From such an egg there hatches a caterpillar +which spins about itself a silken tube, wherein +it lives and in some mysterious way is protected from +the bees. It may be that these tubes are of such +texture that the bees cannot sting through them; or +they may simply be sufficiently thick to protect their +inmate from bee observation. The caterpillar lives +upon the wax and young bees, and also upon the bee-bread; +it is a voracious eater, and tunnels through +the comb, destroying everything in its path. Those +who have had experience with it say that by holding +an infested comb to the ear, the noise made by the +industrious jaws of the caterpillar can be distinctly +heard. Its presence can be detected by the filth and +the débris on the bottom board of the hive and also +by the silken tubes on the comb. When the caterpillars +destroy the bee larvæ, the bees take out the +remains and dump them in front of the hive, thus +gaining among the ignorant, a reputation for infanticide +which they little deserve.</p> + +<p>In favourable locations the growth of these moths +from egg to adult may require six weeks; the caterpillar +when about an inch in length changes to a +pupa, in a very thick, protecting cocoon of tough +silk. The silk made by these caterpillars is of a most +excellent quality; there is in the Cornell University +Museum a filmy but strong silken handkerchief +made by bee-moths passing and repassing over a flat +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>board; it was made quite involuntarily as the caterpillars +spin wherever they go. The bee-moth is +especially destructive to stored comb if it is piled +close together.</p> + + +<h3> + REMEDY +</h3> + +<p>To prevent the injuries of this pest the colonies +should be kept strong. The bee-moth follows the +rule of other parasites and attacks only the weak +and the irresolute, and never injures a comb that is +covered with bees. A queenless colony, dejected +and discouraged, is usually victimised by it. The +Italian bees have learned to cope with the bee-moth +and exterminate it whenever attacked by it. Some +bee-keepers, when a comb becomes infested, introduce +it into the centre of an Italian colony, being +sure that the little wretches will find there the fate +they deserve. But to us this seems rather an imposition +upon a self-respecting colony of bees.</p> + +<p>The use of plain, simple, well-made hives is a +protection from the bee-moth, as such hives do not +afford hiding-places for moths and eggs.</p> + +<p>Before comb is stored it should be put in a closed +box out of doors, and a saucer of carbon bisulphide +placed on top of the comb and left for a day. The +deadly gas of this poison is heavier than the air and +so falls instead of rising. Care should be taken not +to breathe the fumes more than is necessary and +hence the work should be done in the open air. +Another reason for this is that the gas is inflammable, +and hence no fire should be allowed near it. There +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>is another reason why the work should be done in +the open and that is because of the sickening stench +of the gas. Comb thus treated should be stored in a +perfectly tight receptacle, or else be set an inch or so +apart on shelves. The bee-moth caterpillar does +not seem to like to work in combs that are not set +as closely together, as they are in the hives.</p> + +<p>If combs infested with the bee-moth are subjected +to a temperature of 10° F. the moth is usually exterminated. +However, the pest normally passes the +winter in the pupa state, and seems to be able to +survive in hives left out of doors, wherever the bees +can survive. It should be remembered that the bee-moth +works only during the summer from May until +October, and remains quiescent during the winter. +As a matter of fact the modern up-to-date bee-keeper +has almost no trouble with the bee-moth. +It is a special enemy of the heedless and careless man +who neglects his hives, and thus may well deserve +to have his bees exterminated.</p> + +<p>If a colony is attacked by the bee-moth, the hive +should be thoroughly cleaned; new good comb +should be introduced and only enough so that the +bees can cover it. The infested comb should be +fumigated with carbon bisulphide, and after the +moths are killed it may be given to a strong colony +to clean out and use.</p> + + +<h3 id="THE_INDIAN-MEAL_MOTH_Plodia_interpunctella"> + THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH <span class="fs90">(<i lang="la">Plodia interpunctella</i>)</span> +</h3> + +<p>The Indian-meal moth sometimes forsakes its +bins of grain and meal and devastates the honey-comb. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>It does not measure more than one-eighth +of an inch across its wings, and its caterpillar is +almost too small to be noticed, unless it occurs in +great numbers. It sometimes attacks the honey-comb +in the North, and in the South it is often a +great nuisance. The only remedy for this very +small pest is to change the bees to smaller hives, and +expose the infested comb to the fumes of carbon bisulphide.</p> + + +<h3 id="BEE-MOTH_MAXIMS"> + BEE-MOTH MAXIMS +</h3> + +<p>The shiftless bee-keeper is the one who complains +of the wax-worm.</p> + +<p>Keep Italian bees.</p> + +<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p> + +<p>Do not leave more comb in the hive than the bees +are able to cover.</p> + +<p>Use well-made hives with no crevices.</p> + +<p>If you see a web upon the comb, hunt out the +caterpillar and kill it at once.</p> + +<p>If bee-moths get into the honey store-room, close +the room and fumigate it with brimstone or carbon +bisulphide.</p> + + +<h3 id="FOUL_BROOD"> + FOUL BROOD +</h3> + +<p>This is an infectious bacterial disease, and its +presence in the apiary may be attended by serious +results. When it first appeared in America, large +apiaries were completely destroyed. In 1874, Professor +Cohn discovered the organism which causes +the disease, and which bears the name of <i lang="la">Bacillus +alvei</i>. This microbe attacks the immature larvæ +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>and they die in the cells. It always attacks, to a +lesser extent, the adult bee; but these leave the hive +to die and are not such a dangerous source of infection +as are the decaying larvæ. Infected honey +is the medium by which the disease is ordinarily +spread from hive to hive. Undoubtedly robbing is to +a great extent responsible for its prevalence.</p> + + +<h3 id="HOW_TO_DETECT_FOUL_BROOD"> + HOW TO DETECT FOUL BROOD +</h3> + +<p>The brood appears in irregular patches and it +does not all hatch; the caps to the brood cells may +be sunken and broken at the centre, the holes being +irregular, instead of the neat circular perforations +which may be found above the healthy larvæ. +The sure test of the presence of the disease is found +in the dead body of the larva, which is dark and +discoloured; and if a toothpick or pin be thrust into +it and then drawn back, the body contents will adhere +to it in a stringy mass, to the extent of a half or even +an entire inch, as if it were mucous or glue; later the +bodies of the larvæ dry and appear as black scales in +the cell bottoms. Another evidence of the presence +of the disease is a peculiarly disagreeable odour +which permeates the hive, which Mr. Root likens to +that of a glue pot.</p> + +<p><i>Remedies.</i>—These have been worked out by +many bee-keepers, notably by Mr. William McEvoy, +inspector of bees in Ontario, Canada. His remedy +is as follows: When there is a good honey flow +so the bees will not suffer, all the comb is taken from +the infected colony and frames with foundation-starters +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>are given instead. Having no young to +feed, the bees use all the infected honey in their +stomachs for making comb. At the end of the +fourth day all this comb is removed and new +frames with foundation are substituted, and the +deed is done.</p> + +<p>Mr. Root’s practice is to remove the hive from its +stand about dark, to prevent robbing, and put +another just like it in its place which contains +frames filled with foundation. The bees are shaken +from the infected hive into the new one. Here they +are shut in without food for three or four days, thus +being compelled to use all the honey in their honey +sacs. Then they are fed and the disease does not +appear again in colonies thus treated. Mr. Root +burns all the infected comb and frames and disinfects +the hives with hot water before they are +used again; other apiarists of experience support +Mr. Root in this matter. Fumigating the hives with +burning brimstone would perhaps be an easier or a +surer way of disinfecting the hives.</p> + +<p>Many apiarists who do a large business do not +destroy the infected comb, but render it in a steam +wax press. They also thin the infected honey and +boil it for two hours, adding to it a little salicylic +acid, and use it to feed back to the bees. But this +would hardly pay, unless great care were taken, as +one drop of the infected honey would start the +disease anew.</p> + +<p>Some have tried medicated syrup as a remedy. +It is true that syrup made with salicylic acid or beta-naphthol +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>will retard the disease, but most bee-keepers +believe that it is not a sure remedy.</p> + + +<h3 id="BLACK_BROOD"> + BLACK BROOD +</h3> + +<p>This appeared in New York so frequently that it +was called the New York bee-disease. It was +differentiated from foul brood by Dr. Wm. R. +Howard, of Texas, who found the bacillus and +described it. The chief way of telling it from foul +brood is that the contents of the body of the dead +larva is jelly-like, instead of gluey. However, Dr. +Veranus Moore and Dr. G. Franklin White, of the +New York Veterinary College at Cornell University, +worked upon this disease for some time and, in +1903, reported that the bacillus of this disease is +<i lang="la">alvei</i> and identical with that discovered and <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: disscribed" id="disscribed">described</ins> +by Cohn as the cause of foul brood.</p> + + +<h3 id="PICKLED_BROOD"> + PICKLED BROOD +</h3> + +<p>This disease of the brood differs from the others +in that the body-contents of the dead larva are +watery and that no peculiar stench in the hive +emanates from them. Neither is it so contagious as +foul brood, though it may seriously cripple an apiary, +if not checked. The remedy for foul brood is applied +with success to colonies suffering from this disease.</p> + + +<h3 id="DIARRHOEA"> + DIARRHOEA +</h3> + +<p>This disease is part of the difficulty of wintering. +It is induced by the bees’ habit of retaining waste +matter in the body until they can fly out of the hive, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>for thus they preserve the cleanliness of their home. +The first symptom of the disease is the soiling of the +hive entrance with brownish excrement; the bees are +also likely to die in great numbers, their bodies +being much swollen.</p> + +<p>The cause of the disease is attributed to cold and +dampness, and poor food. If, in the fall, the bees +store honey made from the juices of rotting fruit or +cider refuse, or from honey-dew excreted by plant +lice, they are very likely to perish by feeding upon it +during the winter. But even with good honey bees +wintered in cold, damp hives are liable to contract +the disease.</p> + + +<h3 id="PREVENTION"> + PREVENTION +</h3> + +<p>Give the bees plenty of good food for winter. If +the honey they have gathered in August is extracted, +feed them syrup from the best of sugar. In winter +keep the hives in proper temperature, with sufficient +good air and ventilation. After the disease once +appears, there is no remedy, except warm weather, +which will promptly bring relief.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII"> + CHAPTER XVII + <br><br> + THE ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">A detailed</span> discussion of the anatomy of the +honey-bee does not fall within the scope of this book; +for such a discussion, special works on insect anatomy +must be consulted. But there are certain of the +more general features of the structure of the bee +which the bee-keeper should know; and a discussion +of these, merits a place even in an elementary book +on bee-keeping.</p> + +<p>In treating of insect anatomy it is customary to +divide the subject into two parts: first, external +anatomy, which treats of the structure of the body-wall; +and, second, internal anatomy, which treats +of the parts found inside the body-wall.</p> + + +<h3 id="I_EXTERNAL_ANATOMY"> + I. EXTERNAL ANATOMY +</h3> + +<p><i>The body-wall.</i>—Insects differ fundamentally from +man and other backboned animals. With us, the +muscles and other soft parts are supported by an +internal skeleton; with the insects the body-wall, that +part which corresponds to our skin, is hard and +serves as a skeleton. In some respects this is a better +arrangement than that which obtains with us, for +the skeleton of an insect serves as an armour to +protect the body as well as a support for the soft +parts.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p> + +<p>This arrangement of parts holds with the appendages +of the body of an insect as well as with the body +itself; the legs, mouth-parts and antennæ are all +tubular organs, having a firm outer skeleton supporting +the inner parts.</p> + +<p>Movement of the body and its appendages is +provided for by narrow, flexible, zone-like areas in +the skeleton which encircle the body and the appendages, +at frequent intervals. This segmented +condition of the body is easily seen in the hind part +or abdomen, which appears to consist of a series of +rings.</p> + +<p>The microscopic structure of the body-wall is +comparatively simple. There is an inner cellular +part which consists of a single layer of cells: this is +the hypodermis (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 2, <i>h</i>); and the outer or +hard part: this is the cuticle (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 2, <i>c</i>).</p> + +<p>The hypodermis is the active living part; it produces +the cuticle, which receives additions from +it constantly during the life of the insect. On +this account, when a section of the cuticle is +examined with a microscope it presents a layered +appearance.</p> + +<p><i>Moulting of the cuticle.</i>—From time to time during +the growth of the insect the outer layers of the +cuticle are shed; this is known as moulting. After +a moult, the inner layers of the cuticle, which have +now become the outer layers, but which are still +soft, stretch to accommodate the increased size of +the body, and then soon become hard. This moulting, +or shedding of the skin, takes place about six +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>times during the development of the bee. Several +moults occur during the larval life: one when the +larva changes to a pupa, and the last one when the +pupa changes to the adult or winged form, just +before leaving the cell in which it has been developed.</p> + +<p><i>The head.</i>—The segments of which the body of an +insect is composed are grouped into three regions: +the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.</p> + +<p>The head is the first of the three regions. It is +formed of several segments grown together so as to +<ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: from" id="from">form</ins> a compact box. It bears the eyes, the antennæ, +and the mouth-parts.</p> + +<p>The eyes are of two kinds, which are distinguished +as the compound eyes and the simple eyes.</p> + +<p>The compound eyes are two in number, one on +each side of the head; they are the organs commonly +recognised as the eyes. They are called compound +eyes because each consists of a great number of little +eyes closely pressed together. If a compound eye +be examined with a microscope, it will be seen to +present the appearance of a honey-comb, being +composed of a great number of six-sided elements; +each of these is a separate eye.</p> + +<p>In addition to the compound eyes, the bee has +three simple eyes, or <i lang="la">ocelli</i>, as they are termed. +They are situated on the upper part of the head +between the compound eyes.</p> + +<p>The antennæ are two slender, many-jointed +organs projecting from the front part of the head. +Their use has not been fully elucidated. They +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>are doubtless sense organs; and it is believed that +certain microscopic pits, which occur in great numbers +in their cuticle, are the organs of smell. It is +possible, also, that the antennæ function as organs +of touch, certain hairs with which they are furnished +being the tactile organs.</p> + +<p>The mouth-parts are very complicated. They consist +of an upper lip, a lower lip, and two pairs of +jaws between the lips.</p> + +<p>The upper lip is known <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: at" id="at">as</ins> the <i lang="la">labrum</i>. It is a flap-like +projection situated above, or in front of, the +other mouth-parts (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, <i>u</i>).</p> + +<p>The first pair of jaws, those situated nearest the +labrum, are the mandibles (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>md</i>). +Each mandible consists of a single hard piece. +They are the biting organs. Certain wild bees, +distantly related to the honey-bee, dig holes in wood +with their mandibles for nests for their brood. The +honey-bee uses its mandibles as tools for the manipulation +of wax and propolis, and as weapons in its +combats.</p> + +<p>The second pair of jaws, which are situated +between the mandibles and the lower lip, are the +maxillæ (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>mx</i>). Each maxilla is a long +blade. The maxillæ, combined with the lower lip, +constitute what, in popular language, is known as +the tongue, the organ by means of which the food is +conveyed to the mouth, or the nectar extracted from +a flower.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxiv" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxiv.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXIV. SUMAC IN BLOSSOM AND BLOSSOM + OF MOUNTAIN MAPLE</p> + <p>The Sumac is an excellent honey-producer.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxv" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxv.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + PLATE XXV. <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Vertical longitudinal section of the body of a larva + of an insect; <i>s</i>, body-wall or skeleton; <i>m</i>, muscles; <i>a</i>, alimentary canal; <i>h</i>, + heart; <i>n</i>, nervous system; <i>r</i>, reproductive organs. <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Section of the + body-wall; <i>c</i>, cuticle; <i>h</i>, hypodermis; <i>t</i>, trichogen or hair-forming cell. <span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Head + of a bee and its appendages; <i>a</i>, antenna; <i>c</i>, clypens; <i>u</i>, upper lip or + labrum; <i>m</i>, mandible; <i>mx</i>, maxilla; <i>l</i>, lower lip or labium; <i>p</i>, labial palpus. + <span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Glands of a honey-bee (after Girard); <i>1</i>, supracerebral glands; <i>2</i>, postcerebral + glands; <i>3</i>, thoracic glands. <span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—The wax plates (after Cheshire). + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The lower lip, or labium (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>l</i>), is the +long central part of the so-called tongue; it bears on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>each side a long appendage; these are the labial +<i lang="la">palpi</i> (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>p</i>).</p> + +<p><i>The thorax.</i>—The thorax is the central region of +the body. It consists of three body-segments, +which are grown together so compactly in the adult +insect that it is difficult to distinguish them. The +thorax bears the organs of locomotion, the wings and +the legs.</p> + +<p>There are two pairs of wings; but the two wings of +each side are so closely united that they appear as one. +The union is accomplished by a row of hooks on the +front edge of the hind wing, which fasten into a +fold in the hind edge of the fore wing. The wings +are strengthened by a framework of heavy lines, +which extend in various but definite directions. +Between these lines the wing is a thin membrane.</p> + +<p>There are three pairs of legs, a pair borne by each +of the three body-segments of which the thorax is +composed.</p> + +<p>Each leg consists of nine segments and a pair of +claws at the tip of the last segment. The first two +segments, the <i lang="la">coxa</i> and the <i lang="la">trochanter</i>, are short; +then follow the two principal segments, the <i lang="la">femur</i>, or +thigh, and the <i lang="la">tibia</i>, or shank; the five remaining +segments constitute the <i lang="la">tarsus</i> or foot. A striking +peculiarity in the <i lang="la">tarsi</i> of bees is that the first segment +differs greatly in form from the other segments +and is much larger, approaching the <i lang="la">tibia</i> in size. +This enlarged tarsal segment has received the special +name of <i lang="la">metatarsus</i>.</p> + +<p>The legs serve several functions besides that of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>locomotion. Thus, on each fore leg there is an +organ for cleaning the antennæ. The antenna +cleaner consists of a circular notch near the base of +the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i>, which is furnished with teeth like a +comb (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, F, <i>a</i>), and a spur projecting back +from the <i lang="la">tibia</i> in such a way as to close this notch +when the leg is bent. The antenna to be cleaned is +drawn through this notch and thus the dirt is +combed from it.</p> + +<p>On the middle legs there is a strong spur at the +distal end of the <i lang="la">tibia</i> which is used in loosing the +pellets of pollen brought to the hive on the hind legs.</p> + +<p>The third pair of legs are furnished with three +organs which deserve mention here. <i>First</i>: the wax +pincers. Both the <i lang="la">tibia</i> and the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i> are wide; +the joint uniting them is at one edge, hence by alternately +bending and straightening the leg at this +joint, the space between the two segments (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, +B, <i>wp</i>) is opened and shut like pincers. This organ +is used to loosen from the abdomen the scales of +wax. <i>Second</i>: the pollen-combs. These are several +comb-like series of spines, borne on the inner surface +of the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i> (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, B, <i>pc</i>). When a bee +visits a flower the pollen is gathered by the tongue and +fore legs and some of it becomes entangled among the +hairs on the thorax. It is then combed from these +parts by means of the pollen-combs and transferred +to the pollen baskets. <i>Third</i>: the pollen basket. +There is a pollen basket on the outer surface of the +<i lang="la">tibia</i> of each hind leg. It consists of a fringe of +hairs, surrounding a smooth, concave area which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>occupies the greater part of the outer face of this +segment of the leg. In it the pollen is packed when +combed from the hairs, and transported to the hive.</p> + +<p><i>The abdomen.</i>—The abdomen is the last of the +three regions of the body. It consists of a series of +comparatively simple, overlapping segments, without +conspicuous appendages.</p> + + +<h3 id="II_INTERNAL_ANATOMY"> + II. INTERNAL ANATOMY +</h3> + +<p><i>Relative position of the internal organs.</i>—As has +been shown in the preceding pages, the body-wall +serves as a skeleton, being hard and giving support +to the other organs of the body, which are contained +within it.</p> + +<p>The accompanying diagram (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 1), which +represents a vertical longitudinal section of the body +of the larva of an insect, will enable the reader to +gain an idea of the relative positions of some of the +more important organs. The parts shown in the +diagram are the following: The body-wall or skeleton +(<i>s</i>); this is made up of a series of overlapping +segments; that part of it which is between the segments +is thinner, and is not hardened, this remaining +flexible and allowing for the movements of the body. +Just within the body-wall, and attached to it, are +represented a few of the muscles (<i>m</i>); it will be seen +that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction +of those on the lower side of the body would bend +it down, while the contraction of those on the opposite +side would act in the opposite direction. The +alimentary canal (<i>a</i>) occupies the centre of the body +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>and extends from one end to the other. The heart +(<i>h</i>) is a tube open at both ends, and lying between +the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back.</p> + +<p>The central part of the nervous system (<i>n</i>) is a +series of small masses of nervous matter, connected +by two longitudinal chords; one of these masses, +the brain, lies above the alimentary canal; the others +are situated, one in each segment, between the +alimentary canal and the ventral wall of the body; +the two chords connecting these masses, or ganglia, +pass one on each side of the œsophagus to the brain. +The reproductive organs (<i>r</i>) lie in the cavity of the +abdomen and open near the hind end of the body. +The respiratory organs are omitted from this diagram +for the sake of simplicity.</p> + +<p><i>The respiratory system.</i>—The most striking peculiarity +in the structure of insects is the form of +their organs for breathing, for they do not breathe +through the mouth as we do. If an insect be carefully +examined, there can be found along the sides +of the body, a series of openings; these are the +openings through which the air passes into the respiratory +system, and are termed spiracles. The spiracles +of the honey-bee are small, and are not easily +found by one not trained to look for such things; +but if the reader will examine the sides of one of our +larger caterpillars, he will have no trouble in seeing +them. Typically, there is a pair of spiracles, one +on each side of the body, in each of the body-segments, +but they are lacking in the head and in some +of the other segments. The spiracles lead into a system +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>of air tubes, termed tracheæ, which carry the air +to all parts of the body. When the body of an insect +is opened, the tracheæ appear as silvery threads, on +account of the contained air. In the adult honey-bee +certain of the tracheæ are greatly expanded so +as to form large air sacs. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a> <i>b</i>, 2).</p> + +<p><i>The glands.</i>—Those glands found in the body of +the honey-bee that are of most interest to the practical +bee-keeper are the following:</p> + +<p>In the larva there is a pair of long, tubular glands, +which secrete the silk of which the cocoon is made. +These glands open through a common duct, which +has its outlet near the mouth.</p> + +<p>In the adult worker bee there are four pairs of +glands opening into the mouth, which have been +much discussed by students of this subject. These +glands are designated both by number and by +name as follows: System I. or supracerebral +glands; system II. or postcerebral glands; system +III. or thoracic glands; and system IV. or +mandibulary glands.</p> + +<p>The supracerebral glands or system I. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, +Fig. 4, 1) are situated in the head above the brain. +They open by two openings in the floor of the mouth +cavity, one on each side.</p> + +<p>The postcerebral glands or system II. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, +Fig. 4, 2) are situated in the head behind the brain; +their outlets unite into a common duct which opens +on the middle line of the anterior end of the œsophagus +at the base of the tongue.</p> + +<p>The thoracic glands or system III. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>Fig. 4, 3) are situated in the thorax; their outlets +unite into a common duct, which joins the ducts +from the postcerebral glands, the two systems of +glands opening through a common opening.</p> + +<p>The mandibulary glands or system IV. are two +small glands one on each side opening at the base +of the mandible.</p> + +<p>There has been much discussion regarding the +function of these different glands; and even now any +statement of conclusions must be regarded as provisional.</p> + +<p>The supracerebral glands are large in nurse bees +and shrunken in the old bees that no longer nurse +the brood; they are normally found only in the +workers. It is therefore believed that they secrete +the milky food, commonly called royal jelly, which +is fed to all larvæ during the first days of their +development, to the queen larvæ throughout their +development, and to the adult queen during the egg-laying +period. The food fed worker and drone larvæ +during the latter part of their development is produced +in the chyle-stomach of the nurse bees, and +is semi-digested food.</p> + +<p>The other systems of glands enumerated above +produce the saliva, which is supposed to perform +a great variety of functions. “It helps the digestion; +it changes the chemical condition of the nectar harvested +from the flowers; it helps to knead the scales +of wax of which the combs are built, and perhaps +the propolis with which the hives are varnished. It +is used also to dilute the honey when too thick, to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>moisten the pollen grains, to wash the hairs when +daubed with honey, etc.”</p> + +<p>The wax glands are found only in the worker. +There are four pairs of them. They are situated +on the ventral wall of the second, third, fourth and +fifth abdominal segments, and on that part of the +segment which is overlapped by the preceding segment. +Each gland is simply a disc-like area of the +hypodermis, the cells of which take nourishment from +the blood and transform it into wax. The cuticle +covering each gland is smooth and delicate, and is +known as a wax plate. The wax exudes through +these plates and accumulates, forming little scales. +(<a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>, <a href="#plate_x">X</a>, also <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, Fig. 5.)</p> + +<p><i>The alimentary canal.</i>—The form of the alimentary +canal of the adult honey-bee is shown in <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>. +The following parts can easily be recognised: the +œsophagus, a slender tube, beginning at the mouth +and extending through the head and thorax to the +base of the abdomen. Here there is a sac-like +enlargement of the canal, which is termed the honey-stomach; +it is in this that the nectar accumulates as +it is collected by the bee, and is carried to the hive. +Behind the honey-stomach lies the true stomach, +the chief digestive organ. Closely applied to the +true stomach are several small tubes, which open +into it; which are known as the Malpighian tubes; +they were named after one of the early anatomists +who described them; they are the urinary organs. +Next to the true stomach is the small intestine; and +behind this, the large intestine.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p> + +<p><i>The reproductive organs.</i>—The internal reproductive +organs are situated in the abdomen; there is +a set on each side, but the two sets open by a common +duct, whose outlet is at the hind end of the body.</p> + +<p>The reproductive organs of the female are shown on +<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a> (<i>a</i>), Fig. 1. There are two ovaries (<i>o</i>), +one on each side of the body. Each ovary consists of +a large number of parallel egg-tubes, within which +the eggs are developed. The egg-tubes of each ovary +open into an oviduct (<i>od</i>). The two oviducts unite +and form a single tube on the middle line of the body; +this is the <i lang="la">vagina</i>; the <i lang="la">vagina</i> leads to the external +opening of the system. Communicating with the +<i lang="la">vagina</i>, there is a sac-like pouch, the <i lang="la">spermatheca</i>, +which is the reservoir for the seminal fluid; this is +filled at the time of pairing, and the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> may +remain alive in it for several years.</p> + +<p>Each egg-tube produces many eggs. As the eggs +increase in size, they pass towards the oviduct. +When the egg is fully developed a shell is formed +about it. This shell has a minute opening through +it at one end; this is the micropyle. At the time the +egg is laid a <i lang="la">spermatozoon</i> may pass from the <i lang="la">spermatheca</i>, +where thousands of them are stored, into +the egg through the micropyle, and thus the egg is +fertilised.</p> + +<p>With most animals, the egg must be fertilised +in order that it may develop. But with bees, both +fertilised and unfertilised eggs develop, the former +into females, that is, workers or queens, the latter +into males, that is, drones.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvi_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvi_a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + PLATE XXVI. (<i>a.</i>) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. (From + Leuckart, slightly modified.) <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Reproductive organs of a queen; <i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, + ovaries; <i>od</i>, oviduct; <i>s</i>, spermatheca; <i>g</i>, gland; <i>p</i>, poison sac connected with + the sting. <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Reproductive organs of a drone; <i>t</i>, <i>t</i>, testes; <i>v</i>, vas deferens; + <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, seminal sacs; <i>m</i>, <i>m</i>, mucous glands; + <i>ed</i>, ejaculatory duct; <i>b</i>, pouch or bulb. + The bulb and the following parts are everted through the outer opening at the + time of pairing. + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvi_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvi_b.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption> + <p class="pcap"> + PLATE XXVI. (<i>b.</i>) <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—The internal anatomy of the honey-bee (after + Cheshire). <i>o</i>, œsophagus; <i>hs</i>, honey sac; <i>p</i>, stomach-mouth; <i>cs</i>, true stomach + or chyle-stomach; <i>m</i>, malpighian tubes; <i>si</i>, small intestine; <i>li</i>, large intestine; + <i>h</i>, heart or dorsal vessel; <i>n</i>, central nervous system; <i>1</i>, supracerebral glands; + <i>2</i>, postcerebral glands; <i>3</i>, thoracic glands. The respiratory system and the + reproductive organs are not shown in this figure (after Cheshire). <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—The + respiratory system of the honey-bee. <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, spiracles; <i>a</i>, enlarged trachea + or air sac (adapted from Leuckart). + </p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvii" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvii.jpg" alt="Old-fashioned beehives made of inverted baskets, and covered with grass on top. They are sitting in a flower garden, with a fence and trees behind them."> + <div class="attr"><i>Courtesy of Ginn & Company</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXVII. AN OLD-FASHIONED APIARY</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p> + +<p>Closely associated with the reproductive organs +of the female is the sting; this is a barbed dart connected +with a poison gland, whose use is well known.</p> + +<p>In the abdomen of the male there is a pair of +organs, the testes, in which the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> are developed. +These correspond in position to the ovaries +of the female, but are much smaller. From each +testis there extends a tube corresponding to the +oviduct, this is the <i lang="la">vas deferens</i>. The two <i lang="la">vasa +deferentia</i> unite and form the single ejaculator duct. +Each <i lang="la">vas deferens</i> is enlarged just before it joins +the ejaculatory duct, forming a reservoir for the +accumulation of <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i>; these reservoirs are +termed the seminal sacs. Appended to each seminal +sac there is a large glandular sac, which adds mucus +to the seminal fluid. Near the outer end of the +ejaculatory duct there is a pouchlike enlargement +into which the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> pass. Here they are +massed into a compact body, known as the spermatophore, +which is transferred to the female at the +time of pairing. The terminal part of the reproductive +organs of the male, the intermittent organ, +has several appendages, which are firmly grasped +in the opening of the reproductive organs of the +female and are torn from the male when the two +pairing individuals separate. This causes the death +of the male. The male has no sting. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>, +Fig. 2.)</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"> + CHAPTER XVIII + <br><br> + INTERRELATION OF BEES AND PLANTS + </h2> +</div> + + +<h3>HONEY-FLOWERS</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> facts revealed by science are not always +beautiful, however interesting they may be. But +the discovery of the interrelation of flowers and +insects, that partnership which has existed so long +that it has modified both partners, seems to belong +to the realm of art or poetry rather than to that of +science. Since plants must needs spend their lives +where they are developed from seeds, they may not +roam abroad like animals to seek their mates. But +this is a difficulty which they readily overcome, +through sending their messages by the uneasy, +flying insects; and of all these messengers, the bee +is surely the flowers’ favourite. Its fuzzy body, +admirably adapted to be a pollen brush, its swift +wings and its sedulous attention to business, all tend +to make it the most important of the flower-partners. +Thus, especially for the bee, have thousands of +flower species developed nectar, in pockets placed +cunningly to entice her to take upon herself a pollen +load. And for countless ages the flowers have +painted their petals various hues and shed on the +atmosphere their perfume, to advertise to the bee-world +that they had pollen and nectar to spare.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span></p> + +<p>This partnership has naturally modified the insects +less than the flowers, as the latter were obliged +to develop innumerable devices for winning attention +from their messengers; naturally also the insects have +been more largely modified in their mouth-parts +and appliances for carrying pollen, than in other +directions. Their habits have also been modified in +a measure, and the bee has in some mysterious way +been persuaded to work on one kind of blossom at a +time. The poetic reproach that the bee is a heartless +rover, rifling the lily of sweets only to desert her +for the rose, is as unjust as it is untrue. Repeatedly +have we watched a bee at work in a bed of pinks. +Though clover and other blossoms were near by, +she passed methodically from pink to pink, and +naught tempted her to fickleness. That the bees +use pollen for bread, is a part of the bargain; for +the flowers grow it in plenty for both themselves and +their partners.</p> + +<p>Each species of “honey-plant” has developed its +own special device for securing the services of bees +to carry its pollen; and no study is more interesting +than the unravelling of these flower secrets. Even +the novice may do this by asking the flower these +three questions: “Where is your nectar?” “Where +is your pollen?” “What is the path the bees must +follow to get to the nectar?” For ready and +accurate answers to such questions, the flowers are +not to be surpassed; and if there is any doubtful point, +the bees are ready to help elucidate it. There are +so many flowers that have become the special partners +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>of the bees that it is not within the scope of this +book to make an adequate list. Some of the more +important are the flowers of trees, and some of farm +crops; some bloom in gardens and some are mere +weeds.</p> + + +<h3 id="TREES"> + TREES +</h3> + +<p>Fruit trees, when in blossom, give much pollen +and honey at a time when these are greatly needed +by the bees for rearing brood.</p> + +<p>Peach, pear, apricot, plum and especially apple +trees, when in bloom are encompassed about with +the happy chorus of busy and grateful bees; and no +other creatures can so successfully vocalise blissful +contentment as they. Many careful experiments +have proved beyond doubt that the help of bees is +necessary for securing the <ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: pollenation" id="pollenation">pollination</ins> requisite to produce +good crops of fruit. The wise and successful +fruit-grower recognises this fact and, mindful of his +true interests, does not spray his fruit trees with +poisons while they are in blossom, lest he thereby +kill his friends, the bees. Moreover, to use arsenical +sprays, at such a time, is injurious to the petals and +the fruit-producing organs of the flowers; and it is +also too early to spray successfully against the +codlin moth. In many states, legislation forbids +the spraying of poisons during fruit-tree bloom, +because it is a useless and wanton destruction of the +bees.</p> + +<p>Some time since great injustice was done the bees +through the accusation that they punctured the ripe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>fruit for the sake of the juices. This was the special +complaint of grape-growers. Investigations have +proved that bees never puncture the rind of ripe +fruit, although they sometimes are tempted to sip +the oozing juices, after the rind is broken through +some other agency.</p> + +<p>Even before the fruit-bloom the willows offer a +feast to break the fast of the hungry swarms. Half +the winter the pussy-willow stands waiting in her +furs to be ready with her grist of pollen, so that the +bees may make bread during the first warm days of +spring. The willows burned their bridges behind +them eons ago and depend almost entirely upon the +bees for fertilisation, since they are diœcious. Some +apiarists have claimed that their bees get no +nectar from certain species of willow; but this could +hardly be so if trees of both sexes were present in a +locality; for the staminate flowers offer pollen and +the pistillate flowers give nectar to induce the bees +to fetch and carry for them.</p> + +<p>The maples are not much behind the willows in +offering the bees food after their winter fast. The +bloom of the red maple is regarded by most bee-keepers +as permission from Spring to bring out the +bee-hives from the cellar and tenements. All our +common species of maple are very much visited by +the bees.</p> + +<p>The locusts often yield large crops of honey, +although they vary with the seasons in this respect. +Honey-locust, when in bloom, is covered with bees.</p> + +<p>The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful of our +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>ornamental trees and it gives a great amount of +dark, rich honey. In New York it blossoms in May +and June and, like the locusts, is a great help to the +bees after the fruit-bloom is over. This is a common +tree in the woods of the South and is not rare in +Northern forests. It should be planted even more +generally than it is at present, for the sake of the +bees.</p> + +<p>The basswood, of all honey-producing trees, is +the most important and most beloved by the bees. +It blooms in July and only for a brief season; therefore, +it is important that the colonies be strong and +able to make the most of these few precious days of +harvest. Basswood honey has a strong flavour +when first gathered. But after it is ripened and +sealed it has a delightful flavour. The way our +forests have been stripped of basswood during the +past twenty-five years is nothing less than heartrending +to the bee-keeper; for to him this tree ranks +next to the white clover in importance. Mr. Root +had a single colony take forty-three pounds of honey +in three days from basswood, and Mr. Doolittle had +a colony take sixty pounds in the same period. +The tree is beautiful, and might well be used for +shade along roadsides and also in ornamental planting. +It grows rapidly; young trees, transplanted +from the woodland, blossom in five or six years +thereafter. No bee-keeper should allow the basswood +to be cut on his premises; and he should grow +as many young trees as possible.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxviii_a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxviii_a.jpg" alt="Close up view of thorn-apple blossoms on the branch."> + <figcaption> + + <p>Thorn-apple blossoms.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxviii_b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxviii_b.jpg" alt="Close up view of crab-apple blossoms on the branch."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + Wild crab-apple blossoms.</p> + <p>PLATE XXVIII</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxix" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxix.jpg" alt="Close up picture of blossoms on buckwheat stems."> + <figcaption> + <p>PLATE XXIX. BUCKWHEAT IN BLOSSOM</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p> + +<p>Other honey-producing trees of note are the sourwood +(<i lang="la">Oxydendrum arboreum</i>) of the South, the +guajilla of Texas, the cabbage palmetto of Florida, +and the eucalyptus of California.</p> + +<p>The flowers of sumac often yield much nectar +and are sedulously worked by the bees. This +picturesque shrub is not properly appreciated because +it is so common. Its foliage is beautiful in the +summer and is brilliant in the fall. Its blossoms, +as well as its fruit, conduce to make it an interesting +and ornamental shrub for planting.</p> + + +<h3>HONEY PLANTS WHICH YIELD OTHER VALUABLE +CROPS</h3> + +<p>To raise plants solely for the sake of the honey +they produce has not proved a financial success so far +in America. Mr. Root estimates that it would +require 500 acres covered with plants blooming in +succession to keep 100 colonies of bees busy; and, +at present, most land here is worth too much to be +put to such use. It is doubtful if artificial pasturage +will ever prove a paying investment in agricultural +sections.</p> + +<p>However, many apiarists devote some land to +honey-gardens, and such a garden may be a beautiful +and interesting place, for many of the honey-plants +are ornamental. Also, many apiarists have +introduced certain honey-weeds on waste land in +the vicinity of their apiaries with excellent results.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, many plants very valuable to the +agriculturist and horticulturist are the best honey-producers; +and if a farmer has only twenty colonies +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>of bees, it will pay him to reap one crop from his +land and let his bees reap another.</p> + +<p>Of all such plants the clovers are the most important. +Not only do they make the best of forage and +hay, but they also help to fertilise and aërate the +soil, and should be a factor in every crop rotation. +Clovers and other <i>legumes</i> have upon their roots +nodules filled with bacteria, which are underground +partners of the plant. These bacteria fix the free +nitrogen of the air and leave it in the soil available +for plant food. Red clover is not so great a source +of honey as are the other clovers, since its corolla +tubes are so long that usually it is only worked by +bumblebees. But the long-tongued Italians are able +to get considerable honey from red clover at times.</p> + +<p>Crimson clover grew as a weed for a long time in +America before it became an important factor in +horticulture. It is an annual and its home is in +southern Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy +soils and is of great value as a cover crop for orchards. +It is a good honey-plant.</p> + +<p>Alsike is a perennial and grows in low meadows, +from Nova Scotia to Idaho. Its blossoms look like +that of the white clover, except that they are larger +and are tinged with pink. This is a valuable clover +for pasturage, and also for hay, and it stands next +to the white clover as a honey-plant.</p> + +<p>The white clover is the very best plant for producing +honey in the United States east of the Rocky +Mountains, and the flavour of its honey is famous +the world over. While in hard soil, the white clover +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>lasts only two or three years, it is perennial on rich, +moist lands. It is a cosmopolitan plant and may be +found in almost all regions of the temperate zones. +It is an ideal plant for pastures and should be established +everywhere on land not under the plow. It +shows well its partnership with the bee by turning +down its flowerets as soon as they are fertilised, and +leaving those in need of pollen still erect. We have +seen a head of white clover with a single floweret, +erect and white, calling to the bees, while all of its +sister flowerets were deflected and brown.</p> + +<p>Among the medics we find the veteran of all +clovers, the alfalfa, which has been under cultivation +for twenty centuries, and came to America with the +Spanish invasion. It was established in California +in 1854, and has worked its way eastward. But +it is only recently that it has been practicable to +grow it in the East. This has been made possible +by the discovery that it will grow on soil inoculated +with its root bacteria. Alfalfa is a true perennial and +may be cut for hay three times a season, and is of +highest value as fodder or forage. It is a superb +honey-plant, furnishing great quantities of light-coloured +and excellent honey. It will support more +bees to the acre than any other plant known. For +artificial pasturage it is the most promising of all +honey-plants.</p> + +<p>Buckwheat is, in many localities, doubly profitable +as a grain and as a honey-plant; especially is it so in +middle and western New York, where the hills in +autumn are made brilliant with great fields of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>wine-red stubble. Buckwheat is usually sown late +in the season, often on ground where oats have already +been grown earlier in the year. It blossoms +in August and even in September, and furnishes a +wealth of nectar when there is little to be found elsewhere. +The honey made from buckwheat is dark, +reddish brown and brings a lower price in most +markets than do the lighter-coloured varieties. +Though it is strong in flavour, it is preferred by +many, and on our table it alternates with basswood +and clover. It has always seemed poetic justice +that the plant which produces buckwheat cakes +should produce the honey to eat with them. The +following are the good points of buckwheat as a +crop: It is profitable, the grain always brings a +good price; it grows well on poor soil; it is one of the +best agencies for ridding a field of weeds. There is +a certain gameness about buckwheat which we have +always admired and which was thus characterised +by a farmer of our acquaintance: “Buckwheat is a +gritty plant; if it can get its head above ground it will +blossom. I have seen it, during dry seasons, blossom +when its stalks were so short that the <em>bees had to get +down on their hands and knees to gather the honey</em>.” +While this may be putting the case rather strongly, +yet it expresses well the habits of the plant.</p> + +<p>Black mustard, rape and turnips all furnish nectar +for excellent honey. The seed of mustard and rape +brings a good price, and the root of the turnip is +always valuable.</p> + +<p>The blossoms of the red raspberry yield a delicious +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>honey, and the grower of small fruits may well add +bees to his farm as a source of profit.</p> + + +<h3 id="GARDEN_FLOWERS"> + GARDEN FLOWERS +</h3> + +<p>Most of the blooms in flower gardens, as well as +vegetable gardens, are worked by the bees. Mignonette +is a valuable honey-plant, as it blossoms for a +long time. Marjoram, thyme and sage give rich, +spicy honey. The sunflower is also a good honey-plant.</p> + + +<h3 id="WILD_FLOWERS_AND_WEEDS"> + WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS +</h3> + +<p>We shall never forget our profound amazement +when we saw, for the first time, in a narrow valley +of the Mojave Desert a great city of white bee-hives. +Nothing in that desolate landscape could we discern +that bore the slightest resemblance to a honey-plant. +The gray sage-brush which grew everywhere looked +to us about as promising for honey-production as so +much slag from a furnace; and yet this sage-brush +of the desert gives the bees the best of pasturage. +The bloom begins down in the valley and climbs the +mountain side slowly, thus giving bloom for a long +period.</p> + +<p>There are two species of sage that yield honey, the +white and the black, or button sage. They are +allied to the mints, which are generally good honey-plants. +We learned to care much for the spicy +sage-honey. A professor of Greek, who was for +some time in the American school at Athens, tells +us that the sage-honey is very similar in flavour to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>the famous honey of Hymettus, which is made from +thyme.</p> + +<p>The horse-mint is a very important honey-plant +of the lower Mississippi Valley and of Texas. Its +corolla tubes are so long that only the Italians and +other long-tongued bees can get its honey. Catnip, +motherwort and gill-over-the-ground and gall-berry +all furnish an abundance of nectar.</p> + +<p>The blue thistle emigrated to Virginia in colonial +times, and now covers with a heavenly blue thousands +of acres of the desolate, uncultivated, red Virginia +soil. It is a great boon to the bees of the region, as +its blossoms creep slowly up its stalks, thus affording +nectar for many weeks. It is related to borage, +which is another good honey-plant.</p> + +<p>Spider flower (<i lang="la">Cleome pungens</i>), the Rocky Mountain +bee-plant (<i lang="la">Cleome integrifolia</i>), and figwort +(<i lang="la">Scrofularia venalis</i>) have all been planted by bee-keepers +in their honey-gardens, because they give +such a great amount of honey per plant.</p> + +<p>During September and early October the bees +work busily on the various species of goldenrod and +asters, and gather from them a considerable amount +of honey, which is rich in colour and taste. The +two common species of <i>Impatiens</i> also give the bees +good fall pasturage.</p> + +<p>Fireweed (<i lang="la">Epilobium angustifolium</i>) comes wherever +forests have been cleared and burned off. It +blooms late and yields a fine quality of honey. The +unlovely Spanish needle (<i lang="la">Coreopsis</i>) also gives much +honey. The milkweed yields good honey, yet it +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>overdoes the matter by loading the feet of the bee +with its pollen sacs, until the poor messenger dies of +exhaustion under the burden of its message, or dies +a prisoner in the blossom.</p> + +<p>The cheerful and ubiquitous dandelion has this +much in its favour, that it is beloved by the bees and +often gives them honey and pollen at a time in the +spring when they need it for brood-rearing.</p> + +<p>Of all the weeds which will pay the apiarist to +establish in waste places, the most profitable are the +mellilots, or sweet clovers, of which there are two +species, the white and the yellow. These are most +beneficent weeds, for they carry nitrogen to the soil +like other clovers, and they are easily exterminated +by cultivation, so they are not to be feared.</p> + +<p>Sweet clover in blossom fills the atmosphere of the +country road with perfume, for it is almost everywhere +a roadside weed; and, as might be expected, +it is most attractive to the bees. While the honey +made from it is rather strong in flavour, yet it is of +good colour, and sells well. When it is mixed with +the honey from other flowers, it adds much to the +excellence of the flavour.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX"> + CHAPTER XIX + <br><br> + BEE-KEEPERS AND BEE-KEEPING + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Most</span> business occupations lead to rivalry and all +the selfish emotions incident to competition; not +so is bee-keeping; quite the opposite, indeed, as +there is a freemasonry that holds bee-keepers together +and renders their attitude toward each other +friendly and helpful. Bee-keeping is everywhere a +bond of brotherhood and a sign of congenial tastes. +One night at a dinner-party the gentleman on my +right was a stranger, known to me only by reputation +as a lawyer of high standing and great erudition. +He was reserved and silent, and evidently bored by +the trivialities of table-talk. Some one incidentally +spoke of our bees, when the face of my neighbour +became illumined with interest, and he said, “I am +sure that by becoming a lawyer I spoiled a good bee-keeper. +I have never found anything else so interesting +as bee-keeping;” and thus was swept away +the curtain of cold conventionalism which had hung +between us, and we began, from that moment, to be +friends.</p> + +<p>Nowhere is this brotherly interest more noticeable +than in the bee-books and the bee-journals. The +former bear evidence, on every page, of kindness and +courtesy to all; while the latter are like friendly correspondence +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>published, wherein John Smith of +Maine explains his views on the bee business to +Timothy Jones of Oregon, and incidentally sends +his kindest regards to the family.</p> + +<p>I never take into my hands that delightful book, +“A B C of Bee Culture,” without turning to the +biographies of noted bee-keepers, and looking again +at the faces there depicted, noting the noble forehead +of Huber; the keen, scholarly face of Dzierzon; the +judicial countenance of Friend Quinby and the +beautiful expression of the venerable Langstroth. +And thus on, page by page, and getting, by the way, +a friendly greeting from the kindly eyes of Professor +Cook, that most excellent of good teachers; and +finally deriving sincere satisfaction from a long look +at the keen, humorous face of Mr. A. I. Root himself. +These leaders in apiculture are men with whom one +is proud to be associated. And the fact that there +are, in the United States, 300,000 persons engaged in +bee-keeping, makes one hopeful that our republican +institutions are to be guarded by intelligent citizenship.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that knowledge of bees has +been given to the world by men who have attained +the high peaks of scientific fame. Such knowledge +began with Aristotle and Pliny in ancient times, and +received no additions during the uncertain Dark +Ages. It began anew with Swammerdam, in the +seventeenth century, was augmented by Linnæus, +De Geer, Réaumur, Bonnet, Lyonnet, Fabricius, +Latreille, Lamarck, and finally reached a climax in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>the study of the habits of the bee by the blind Huber, +who was born in Geneva in 1750. His observations +made with his own brain, but with the eyes of his +wife, niece and servant, form a classic in bee literature. +In 1811 there were born, a continent +apart, two great bee-keepers: Langstroth in Philadelphia, +and Dzierzon in Silesia. Both were clergymen, +but were also true scientists, and both invented +means by which the combs could be moved and +examined. Langstroth carried his invention farther, +and in 1852 devised the movable frame which revolutionised +bee-keeping.</p> + +<p>Up to this time the business of the bee-man was +largely guess-work. He did not know anything +about the condition of his bees in the hive, for +he had no way of penetrating that dark chamber. +The ways of reaping the honey-harvest were devious; +at best the combs were torn from the hives with +little regard for the rights and lives of the bees. +Finally, there was devised the truly infernal plan of +killing the bees with the fumes of burning brimstone, +before taking their treasure; this method undoubtedly +originating in the turgid theology of the times.</p> + +<p>However, about the time of Langstroth, someone, +or perhaps many, had discovered that bees stored +their honey in the upper part of the hive; and the old +box-hive had a few auger-holes in the top, over +which was inverted a box, which the bees usually +filled, and thus saved themselves from the brimstone +pit. We remember well the delight in our family +when we used, for the first time, such boxes with glass +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>sides; and as we saw they were being filled with +combs, we rejoiced that we need not “take up” any +more swarms, as the suffocation by sulphur fumes +was termed.</p> + +<p>When, to the invention of the box super, was +added the greater invention of Langstroth, and +finally thereunto was added the invention of the +honey-extractor, bee-keeping became a science, +instead of a haphazard avocation.</p> + +<p>Bee-keeping in America has since then passed +through many phases and survived many experiments. +Our bee-keepers have been wide awake and +willing to try all things and hold fast to the good. +Once, having read of the floating apiaries of the Nile, +which follow the flower bloom along the banks, an +enthusiast tried the same scheme on the Mississippi +River, starting at the southern part early in the +season and coming north abreast of the spring; +but too many bees were left behind to make this +profitable. Another enterprising gentleman took +his bees south winters, but the cost of transportation +took away the profits. Now, however, another plan +for gaining pasturage is proving most successful; +<i>i. e.</i>, the establishment of out-apiaries. As seventy-five +or a hundred colonies will usually take all the +nectar of a given locality, the bee-keeper places his +surplus colonies in other apiaries far enough distant, +so there is good pasturage for all. Mr. A. L. Coggshall +has about 3,000 colonies in out-apiaries in central +New York.</p> + +<p>The up-to-date bee-keeper is not merely an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>operator in his apiary, but a co-operator with his +bees, and we firmly believe that the bees are being +educated by the partnership, as well as the bee-keeper. +Bees certainly do learn by experience, as +is well instanced by some Cyprians, which, in their +native home, build columns of wax and propolis at +the hive-entrance to keep out the large death’s-head +moth which preys upon them. After living +in this country for two years, the bees discovered +that there were none of these moths about, and so +ceased building these bars. The readiness with +which our bees use the comb-foundation and fit +their combs to the frames and follow the hint given by +the starters in the sections, all point to their adaptability; +and however others may regard the matter, we +never take off a section filled with just one pound of +pearly comb and amber honey that we do not pay +tribute to the bee intelligence which placed it there, +and regard the little artisans as true partners in our +enterprise. And we never doubt that in the future +this co-operation and co-education of bees and bee-keepers +will result in a perfection of honey-production +as yet undreamed.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxx" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxx.jpg" alt=""> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXX. BOX-ELDER</p> + <p>Staminate and pistillate flowers. This and the other maples and the willows give + the bees pasturage in early Spring.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxxi" > + <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxxi.jpg" alt="Close up view of black locust blossoms on the branch."> + <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div> + <figcaption> + <p> + PLATE XXXI. BLOSSOMS OF BLACK LOCUST</p> + <p>The locusts often yield large crops of honey.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX"> + CHAPTER XX + <br><br> + BEE-HUNTING + </h2> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> mere mention of these words always brings +to us memories of high hills, wound about by +picturesque roads, bordered by rail fences, from the +corners of which the goldenrod still flung its banners +to the breeze, though September and, mayhap, +frosts had come. Beyond the fences were knolly +pastures, cropped close except where the mullein, +the thistle and the immortelle vaunted their immunity +from the attacks of grazing herds; and still beyond +were upland meadows, green with second-crop +clover; and crowning all were forests beginning to +glow with autumnal hues. Forth into such roads, +pastures, meadows and woodlands were we wont to +fare of a sunny morning, to hunt bees with our +father, whose woodcraft was not the empty accomplishment +of the man of this generation, but was +attained on those same hills of western New York +when he was a pioneer boy, and the deer and the +wolves roamed those forests, and the beavers built +their dams in the valley.</p> + +<p>Our equipment for hunting was a bottle of diluted +honey; a box with a sliding glass cover, containing +pieces of empty comb; and a sharp stake, four feet +high, topped with a cross-piece on which to set the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>box. When we were far enough afield, some unwary +bee was lifted from its goldenrod revel and +imprisoned in the box, where one of the empty +combs had been filled from the bottle for her special +delectation. Like a worthy bee, she began to fill +at once; meanwhile, the stake was pushed into the +ground and the box placed upon it, the cover removed, +and we all retired for a little distance to +watch. When the bee finally lifted herself and our +honey into the air, we gave her closest attention. To +make sure of the exact position of her bonanza, she +always arose in a spiral, each circle being larger than +the one before, and finally turned the spiral in a +certain direction. When she suddenly darted away +with almost the speed of a bullet, it was always the +eyes of our father, blue as the sky against which the +bee was outlined, that detected her direction; for +young eyes, however keen, counted little against +trained eyes in this competition.</p> + +<p>Then there always followed a time of anxious +waiting for the return of the bee. Meanwhile we +stretched out on the dry sod in the sun and listened +to the chirping of the crickets, or the sweet notes of +the meadow larks and idly watched a hawk circle +on even pinions above our heads; or we told stories +of other days of successful bee-hunting. If the bee +returned within fifteen minutes, all was well and we +were confident that the tree was distant not much +more than a mile. But if we had to wait a half hour +we usually caught other bees and started over again, +hoping to find some nearer colony. If our first +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>visitor came back soon, and especially if she was +followed by her anxious sisters, we were satisfied. +With several bees flying in the same direction, it was +always easy to get the “line,” which we marked by +some peculiar tree or other noticeable object in +the landscape. When several of our visitors were +eagerly filling themselves with honey, the cover was +shoved over them and they were carried for a distance +along the line and then liberated, and the line from +this new location ascertained. Thus were they +followed, up hill and down dale, and even through +woodlands; finally, we would come to a place in a +forest where we could follow the line no farther, +and then we took our first lesson in geometry by +getting a cross-line. This was done by carrying some +of the bees in the box for some rods to the right or +left; and when they were established there we knew +that at the apex of the angle made by the two intersecting +lines stood the bee-tree.</p> + +<p>The triumph which filled us when we finally discovered +that stream of black particles entering some +knothole or the broken top of a tree, made us breathless; +and all the way home we tried to temper our +excitement so as to make the announcement of our +discovery with a nonchalance characteristic of invariably +successful hunters.</p> + +<p>However, we were by no means always successful. +Sometimes it would be too late in the day before +we established a line; and again a line would lead +us in a disgusting fashion to some unsuspected +apiary; and now and then in a woodland tangle +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>we crossed and crisscrossed lines, nearly breaking +our necks gazing into tree-tops, all to no avail. +Then, too, even our victory might be tempered by +conditions. If the bee-tree were small, we judged +it contained little honey; if the tree were valuable, we +doubted if the owner would allow it to be cut. As a +matter of fact, we seldom cut a bee-tree; and when +we did, we wrested from it a combination of rotten +wood, bee-bread, crushed brood and bees that made +a potpourri which would prove disastrous to the +enfeebled stomachs of this generation. But, though +we rarely cut a bee-tree, bee-hunting lost none of its +fascination. For what could be more delightful +than long days spent in the autumn sunshine, enlivened +by an occupation vitally interesting that needs +must be lazily carried on! So we never gave it up +until the October frosts had killed all the flowers, +and the fumes of the honey-comb that we burned +failed to entice an enterprising bee from her winter +quarters to our box.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX"> + APPENDIX + <br><br> + BEE BOOKS + </h2> +</div> + + +<p>The bibliography of bee literature is extensive. Scientists +of all nations have contributed the results of their investigations +on bee anatomy and bee physiology, and have made +bee literature, as a whole, most profound and technical +reading. However, there are among these books many +that were written for popular audiences, and that deal with +the practical side of bee-keeping; of such we add a few +titles of those best known and of special excellence.</p> + + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Benton, Frank.</span> “The Honey-Bee.” Mr. Benton, who +is our national expert of the Department of Agriculture +at Washington, always writes practically, and has carried +on experiments with races of bees, which the private +bee-keeper could hardly afford to make. The enterprising +bee-keeper should keep in close touch with Mr. +Benton’s bulletins.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cheshire, Frank R.</span> Two volumes. This is one of the +finest works that has ever been published upon the +honey-bee and bee-keeping. It is delightfully written +and has many fine illustrations.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cook, Professor Albert J.</span> “The Bee-keeper’s Guide +or Manual of the Apiary.” This is the most extensive +of all the bee-keeping manuals written for American +bee-keepers. It deals with all phases of the subject +minutely, and new editions are published frequently +enough to keep the book up-to-date. Professor Cook +has a wide reputation as a most excellent teacher, +and bee-keeping is one of the subjects which he taught +for years in the Agricultural College of Michigan.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cowen, T. W.</span> “The Honey-bee, Its Natural History, +Anatomy and Physiology.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cowen, T. W.</span> “Bee-Keeper’s Guide Books.” The first +of these little volumes is a clear and excellent account +of the anatomy of the bee. The second is a concise +and helpful book on the methods of bee-keeping as +practiced in England.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Huber, Franz.</span> “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,” +published in 1792. English translation in 1841. +This classic in bee literature is one of the most delightful +of all the bee books that have been written. It shows +the careful methods of this blind scientist who has +given us more of the understanding of the bee and its +life than any other investigator or writer.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Hutchinson, W. Z.</span> “Advanced Bee Culture.”</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Hutchinson, W. Z.</span> “Comb Honey.” Mr. Hutchinson +is one of our most successful bee-keepers, and he writes +clearly and understandingly of his methods.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Langstroth, L. L.</span> “The Hive and Honey-Bee.” This +classic in American apiculture has been revised and +kept up-to-date by the scholarly Dadants, father and +son, who are well known on two continents as successful +bee-keepers. This book written by the father of +American apiculture is comprehensive, and is good +literature as well as good bee-keeping.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Lubbock, Sir John.</span> “Ants, Bees and Wasps.” Although +this is a book of scientific experiments, it should +be read by every bee-keeper. No other book tells +so well the patience and ingenuity necessary to +discover what the bee knows and why it does certain +things.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Maeterlinck, Maurice.</span> “The Life of the Bee.” This +exquisite piece of literature and social philosophy has +attracted much attention, and has introduced the +world at large to the wonderful life of the honey-bee +in such a poetic and dramatic manner, that most people +have regarded it as a work of fiction. Maeterlinck +is said to be a practical apiarist, and his book is based +upon the facts of bee life as he understood them at the +time the book was written. Though some of his facts +be questioned, yet probably his statements are no +more doubtful than would be those of almost any bee-keeper +should he try to write what he thinks he knows +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>about bees. Maeterlinck is the Homer of the bees and, +therefore, he has a right to poetic license.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Miller, Dr. C. C.</span> “Forty Years Among the Bees.” This +is a simply told history of the experiences of a successful +bee-man. It is a most honest and often a humorous +record of bee-keepers’ successes and failures.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Morley, Margaret.</span> “The Bee People.”</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Morley, Margaret.</span> “The Honey-Makers.” The first +of these books is written charmingly and simply for +children and covers in an interesting manner the life +of the bee. “The Honey-Makers” gives a most +extended account of the relation of bees to men, giving +extensive quotations from Hindu, Egyptian, Greek and +Italian literatures and also a most interesting chapter on +the curious superstitions and customs regarding the +honey-bee.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Quinby, Moses.</span> “Mysteries of Bee-Keeping,” revised by +L. C. Root and now called, “Quinby’s New Bee Book.” +This is a simple, straightforward account of a practical +man’s dealings with bees.</p> + +<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Root, A. I.</span> “A B C of Bee Culture.” The author may +be pardoned if she speaks with special enthusiasm of +this book, as Mr. Root was the special teacher that +helped the Comstock apiary achieve success. The +interesting and truly human way that Mr. Root refers +to bees is not only inspiring, but is also most practically +helpful. The “A B C of Bee Culture” is arranged +conveniently, encyclopedia fashion, so that the discussion +of any subject in it may be readily found. +Every page of it is interesting, and is based upon the +actual experience of a man who is at once a keen observer, +a sympathetic friend to the bees, and a most successful +apiarist.</p> + + +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span></p> +</div> +<nav data-epub-type="index"> + <h2 class="nobreak lsp2" id="INDEX"> + INDEX + </h2> + + + +<ul class="index"> + <li class="ifrst">ABC of Bee Culture, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Abdomen, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><ins class="corr" +title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Œsophagus, moved from 225" +id="Œsophagus">Æsophagus</ins>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">After-swarms led by virgin queen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">prevention of 81.</li> + <li class="isub1">reason of and remedy for, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Alder, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Alfalfa, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Alighting board, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Alimentary canal, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, Plates <a href="#plate_xxv">XXV</a>., <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">XXVI.</a></li> + + <li class="indx">Alley’s queen and drone trap, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Alsike, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Anatomy, external, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">internal, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Antenna cleaner, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Antennæ, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Ants, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apiaries, floating, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">out, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apiary, high fence for, in city, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in village garden, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">location and arrangement of 20.</li> + <li class="isub1">mowing the, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#plate_xxvii">Plate XXVII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">old orchard good place for, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">on city house tops, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">sheep in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">windbreak for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apparatus for extracting, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apple, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xvii">Plate XVII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Apricot, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Artificial pasturage, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst"><i lang="la">Bacillus alvei</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Balling of queen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Basswood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">blossoms, frontispiece.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee, anatomy of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">books, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">brush, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Brush, Dixie, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">brush, use of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cellars, for wintering, the Bingham, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">glue, its source, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">glue made from varnish and cement, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">glue, various uses of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">house-keepers, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how she gathers pollen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how she collects propolis, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">ingratitude, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">journals, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moth, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moth, development of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moth, how to detect, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moth, maxims, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moth, remedy for, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tent, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tree, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">veil, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">worker, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">worker, brains of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">worker—life and habits of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">worker, sex of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-bread, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as food, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>Bee-escape, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Porter, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Porter, use of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-gum, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-hunting, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-keepers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">books written by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">number of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-keepers’ supplies, catalogue of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bee-keeping, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">a beginner’s order, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as a regular business, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">attractive materials of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to begin, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">too successful, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">worst way to begin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bees, as a recreation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">as socialists, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">a study in natural science, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">belong to the garden, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">control population, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">diseases of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">enemies and diseases of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">feeding of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">German or black, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how they collect propolis, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how they secrete wax, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to handle them, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to keep from keeping too many, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to manage when swarming, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to reconcile swarm to new hive, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to unite colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to winter, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to work with, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">hybrids, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Italian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Italian and black bees compared, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Italian, Mr. Root’s test for, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">keep for sake of honey, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">keep for sake of money, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">legends and literature of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">races of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">races of domestic, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">reasons why one should keep, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">relations to plants, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">robbing, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">secreting wax, <a href="#plate_x">Plate X</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">sense of smell, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">swarming of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">telling the, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">watering, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when they swarm, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">why they swarm, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">wild, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Beeswax, adulterated, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">clarified by vinegar, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to make it, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">its value, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for making, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">press, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">primitive method of rendering, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">refining of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">rendered in wash-boiler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Beeswax-extractors, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Black brood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Blue thistle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Boardman wax extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Body wall, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bonnet, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Borage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Bottom board, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Box elder in blossom, <a href="#plate_xxx">Plate XXX</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Box hives, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brain, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brimstoning bees, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brood, black, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foul, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foundation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to examine, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">pickled, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brood chamber, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to examine, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brood frame, Langstroth, how much honey it will hold, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>examining of, <a href="#plate_xiii">Plate XIII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to lift out, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Brushing or shaking-out method to control swarming, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Buckwheat, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Buckwheat in blossom, <a href="#plate_xxix">Plate XXIX</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Cabbage palmetto, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cages, queen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Candy for feeding bees, how to make, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Good, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cans for shipping extracted honey in bulk, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Carniolan bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Carton for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Catnip, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cell of queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cellars for wintering bees, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cerasin, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Chaff hives, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Chaff hives for wintering, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Chyle food, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how regurgitated, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">City apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cleome, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Clipping wings of queen, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Cogshall" id="Cogshall">Coggshall</ins>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Colonies, how to unite, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Colony, queenless, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">queenless, Mr. Root’s method of testing, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Comb building, <a href="#plate_ix">Plate IX</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">built by many workers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">drone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cell caps, construction of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foundation for brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to tell honey from brood in capped cells, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">made without pollen, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">making, described by A. I. Root, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">making, Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s observation of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">mathematics of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">placing in extractor, <a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shape of, not fortuitous, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">strength of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uncapping of, <a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Comb-honey and large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">bee-moth in, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">candied, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compared with extracted honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">conditions for production of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">grading of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to keep, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to make, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in 8-frame hive, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">marketing of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for producers of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shipping of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">storing of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Combs for extracting, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cook, Prof. A. J., method of uniting colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">observation on bee-moth, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Coreopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Corneil smoker, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Coxa, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Crabapple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxviii_a">Plate XXVIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Crimson clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cuticle, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Cyprians, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Daisy foundation fastener, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Dandelion, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">De Geer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Details concerning honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Development of worker, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Diarrhœa, prevention of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Diseases of bees, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Division board, what it is, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Division board feeder, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Dixie bee-brush, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Doolittle division board feeder, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Drone, the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">appearance of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>cell of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cells, how capped, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cells, size of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">comb, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">eggs in worker cells, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">flight of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">food of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">from unfertilised egg, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">life-history of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">killing of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maturity of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">physical characteristics of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">reproductive organs of, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">trap, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">wedding flight of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Drones, great number of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">males, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Dzierzon, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Egg, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tubes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Eggs, unfertilised, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Egyptian bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Enemies of bees, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Entrance to hive, how to contract, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Epilobium angustifolium</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Eucalyptus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Extracted honey and large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">candied, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">care of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">compared with comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">drawing from extractor, <a href="#plate_xxa">Plate XX</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">hive for, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to bottle or can, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to produce it, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in glass jars, <a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for the producers of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">packages for, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Extracting room and apparatus, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Extractor, honey, invention of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Extractor, Solar wax, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Extractor, wax, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Eyes, compound, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Fabricius, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Feeder, Boardman, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Division board, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Doolittle, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">pepper-box, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Feeders, Smith, Hedden, Miller, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Feeding back, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">bees, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">candy, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">chunk honey, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for honey, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for winter, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to do it, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to feed inside the hive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to feed outside the hive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in fall, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in spring, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">rye flour, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">syrup in combs, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">what to feed, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Females of social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Fence, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">between sections, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Figwort, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Fireweed, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Flowers of the garden, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Food of worker, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Foul brood, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to detect, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">remedy for, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Foundation, brood, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">super, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Foundation-comb, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>for sections, how to cut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to place in frame, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Foundation-fastener, Daisy, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Parker, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">super, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foundation for, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Frames, Hoffman brood, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Hoffman self-spacing, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Langstroth movable, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">self-spacing, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">spacing of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Fruit, not punctured by bees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Fruit trees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Gall-berry, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Galleria mellonella</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Garden flowers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">German bees compared with Italians, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">German steam wax press, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Gill-over-the-ground, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Glands, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Glands of honey-bee, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Goldenrod, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Grapes, not punctured by bees, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Guagilla" id="Guagilla">Guajilla</ins>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Hatch-Gemmill wax press, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Head, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Heart, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hetherington super springs, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hive, arrangement in apiary, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cover, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the description of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">entrance, how to contract, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">essential parts of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to get the cover off, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to handle it, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to lift out the brood-frames, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to open, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">industries of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Langstroth, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-frame, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-frame, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for opening, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">one and one-half story, <a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the reasons why it must be opened, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">telescope cover, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tenement, for wintering, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to change the location of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hive-stand, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hives, chaff, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">chaff for wintering, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Dadant-Quinby, size of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">decoy, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">devices for carrying into cellar, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">double-walled, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">double-walled, cover for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">entrance toward south, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to group, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">large, for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">large sizes limit swarming, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">observation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shade boards for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shaded by awning, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shaded by thatched roof, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">shaded by trellis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">well shaded, <a href="#plate_iv">Plate IV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">where to put them, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hiving bees, <a href="#plate_xi">Plate XI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Holy Land bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Honey, the amount produced in the United States, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">basswood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">buckwheat, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">composition of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">flowers, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">gardens, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">healthful food, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how produced, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to take off in supers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>not made in the true stomach of the bee, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of Hymettus, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the only sweet of the ancients, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">plants, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">ripened in uncapped cells, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">ripening of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">room, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">sage, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uncapped, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">uncapping of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">unripened for extracting, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">weeds, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when to extract, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">white clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Honey-extractor, invention of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">principles of construction of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Honey-stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Horsemint, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">House top for apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">How to clip the queen’s wings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to examine frames of brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to find the queen, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to find the queen cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to handle the bees, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to introduce a queen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to keep from keeping too many bees, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to make comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to open the hive, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to produce extracted honey, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to rear queens, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to stop robbing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to take off honey in supers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to winter bees, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to winter bees in cellars, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hruschka, Major Francesco de, inventor of honey-extractor, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Huber, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hutchinson, W. Z., method of treating after-swarms, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hymettus, honey of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Hypodermis, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Indian meal moth, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Industries of the hive, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Inhabitants of the hive, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Introducing the queen, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">by nucleus method, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Interrelation of bees and plants, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Intestine, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Italian bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Italian worker, description of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Jars for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Kellogg, Prof. V. L., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Kitchen, how bees rob the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Labium, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Labrum, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Lamarck, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Langstroth, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Latrielle" id="Latrielle">Latreille</ins>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Laying worker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Leg, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Legs of honey-bee, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Legumes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Linnæus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Location of hive, to mark, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Locust blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxxi">Plate XXXI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Locusts, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Males of social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Malpighian tubes, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Malthusian practices of bees, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mandibles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Manum swarm catcher, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Maple, mountain, <a href="#plate_xxiv">Plate XXIV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Maples, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Marjoram, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Marketing comb-honey, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mason’s cans for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Maxillæ, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Maxims for beeswax making, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for feeding, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>for hiving bees, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for introducing queens, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for opening the hive, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for prevention of bee-moth, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for producers of comb-honey, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for the producer of extracted honey, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for wintering, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to prevent robbing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">McEvoy, William, treatment of foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Medics, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mellilots, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Metatarsus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Micropyle, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Milkweed, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Miller, Dr., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mignonette, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Motherwort, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Mouth parts, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Muscles, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Muth bottles for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Nervous system, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Nucleus, method of introducing queen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">to begin with, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Observation hives, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, opposite frontispiece.</li> + + <li class="indx">Ocelli, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Out-apiaries, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Ovaries, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Oviduct, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Oxydendrum arboreum</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Palpi, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Paraffine, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Parker foundation fastener, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Partnership of bees and plants, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Peach, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pear, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pickled brood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Piping of queen, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Planting for honey impractical, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Plodia interpunctella</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Plum, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Plum blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxiii">Plate XXIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Points about beeswax, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Poison glands, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pollen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">fed to drone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how gathered, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how placed in cell, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">made into bee-bread, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pollen-baskets, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pollen-comb, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Porter bee-escape, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Propolis, how collected, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to dissolve, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">its source, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">made from varnish and cement, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">various uses of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Pussy willows, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Queen, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">armour of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">balling of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cages, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cages, the Miller, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">capacity for egg-laying, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cell, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cell, how to find, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cell, how to cut out, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">clipping wings of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">development of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">duels, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">egg, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">excluder, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">first flight of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">her attendants, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how she lays eggs, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to find, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to handle, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to introduce, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>introducing by nucleus method, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">introducing cage, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">introducing of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">issues from cell, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">larva, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for introducing, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">mother of her subjects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">piping of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">rearing, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">removed to prevent swarming, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">reproductive organs of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">selection of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">surrounded by workers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">tested, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">trap, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">virgin, leads after-swarms, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">weapons, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">wedding flight of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when to introduce, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Queen-clipping device, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Queen-excluding honey-board, use of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Queenless colony, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Queens, development of new, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">females, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Queen’s wings, how to clip, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Quinby, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Rape, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Rauchfuss wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Rearing queens, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Réaumur, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Red clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Red maple, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Red raspberry, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Reproductive organs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Respiratory system, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Robbing, borrowing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">fate of the robbed colony, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how it is done, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to detect, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to prevent, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to stop, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims to prevent, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the result of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">slow, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when it is likely to happen, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">why, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Rocky Mountain bee plant, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Root, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">treatment of foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">views about smoking bees, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Royal jelly, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Rye flour for feeding, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Sage, white, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sage, black or button, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Scrofularia venalis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Section glazed for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">holder, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">holders, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of honey, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Section-boxes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, Plates <a href="#plate_iia">II.</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">III.</a>, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">XIV.</a></li> + <li class="isub1">no bee-way, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">with beeways, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sections, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">fence between, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foundation-comb for, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to put together, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to take off, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">no bee-way, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">scraping of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">stained, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">unfinished, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sense hairs, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sense organs, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sense pits, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Shade for hives, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sheep in apiary, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Shipping-cases for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Skeleton, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Slumgum, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Smell, organs of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>Smoking bees, should be done carefully, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Smoker, Corneil, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to fill and use, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">increase of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Solar wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sour wood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spanish needle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spraying fruit blossoms with arsenic, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spermatheca, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spermatozoa, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spider flower, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spiracles, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spring dwindling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spur, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Spur wire-embedder, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Stained sections, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sting, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Stomach, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sumach blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxiv">Plate XXIV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Storifying, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sunflower, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Super, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">boxes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cover, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">filled with section-boxes, <a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">foundation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to entice bees into, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to prepare, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to prepare and place in hive, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">partly filled, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">ready to be filled, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">springs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Supers, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">different kinds of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to take off when filled with honey, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swammerdam, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swarm, how to hive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to manage in difficult places, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to reconcile to new hive, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to stop, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">throwing dirt at, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">use, fountain pump with, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">Mr. West’s device for saving, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when given off, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swarm-catcher, the Manum, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swarming, conditions that lead to, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">control by brushing out method, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">control by extracting honey, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">control by giving room, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">control by removing queen, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">lessened by use of large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">necessary to produce comb-honey, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">of bees, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">owing to queen or workers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swarms, dividing of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Sweet clover, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Swiss wax extractor, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Syrian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Syrup, for feeding bees how to make, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">medicated for foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Taking up bees, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tallow, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tarsus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Telescope cover, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tenement hives for wintering, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tents for bee-keepers, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Termites, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Thorax, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Thorn-apple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XXVIII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Thyme, <a href="#Page_203"><ins +class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: 230" id="typo_230">203</ins></a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tibia, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tiering up, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tin pails for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tinned wire, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>Tongue, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Tracheæ, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Trap for queen, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Trap, queen and drone, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Trees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Trochanter, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Turnip, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Uncapping, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Uncapping cans, the Dadant, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Uncapping knife, Bingham, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Urinary organs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Vagina, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Varnish used as bee glue, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Vas deferens, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Veil, need for, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Village garden for apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + + + <li class="ifrst">Wasps, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Watering bees, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax, amount of honey required to make, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">bees hang in curtains to make, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">bees secreting, <a href="#plate_x">Plate X</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the constituents of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how to make it, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">made in the fields, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">made when need for, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">press, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">the secretion of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">scales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax-extractors, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax-glands, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax-pincers, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax-plates, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plates VI.</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">XXV</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wax-tube fastener, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Weeds, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">When to feed, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">When to introduce a queen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">When to put bees into cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">White clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wild flowers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Willow, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wintering bees in single-walled hives, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">diarrhœa, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">getting ready for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">how much food needed for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in cellars, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in chaff hives, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in hive boxes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">in tenement hives, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">out doors, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">poor honey for, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">spring dwindling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when to put bees in the cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">when to take bees out of cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">ways of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wire embedded by heat, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wire embedder, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Wire, tinned, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Worker, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cell of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">cocoon of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Worker eggs, in drone cells, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">life and habits of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">life-history of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">maturity of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">moulting of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + <li class="isub1">old age and death of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + + <li class="indx">Workers, labourers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +</ul> +</nav> +</main> +<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote" id="END_NOTE"> +<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong> + + +<p class="noindent">Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs +and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support +hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to +the corresponding illustrations. Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is denoted +with parentheses. Where possible illustrations have been shifted to be adjacent to their first reference.</p> + +<p class="noindent">The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page +references.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been +corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within +the text and consultation of external sources.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, +when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, +and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> + + +<table class="autotable fs90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Form">Pg 2</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Form’ replaced by ‘From’ in second caption. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Cornell1">16</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#plt_1">16</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Plate I.’ replaced by ‘Plate II.’, in section on Corneil smokers. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#onorous">70</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘onorous’ replaced by ‘onerous’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Cornell2">93</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#extravgance">146</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘extravgance’ replaced by ‘extravagance’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#prevades">164</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘prevades’ replaced by ‘pervades’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#disscribed">179</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘disscribed’ replaced by ‘described’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#from">183</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘from a compact box’ replaced by ‘form a compact box’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#at">184</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘known at the labrum’ replaced by ‘known as the labrum’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#pollenation">196</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘pollenation’ replaced by ‘pollination’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Cogshall">221</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Cogshall’ replaced by ‘Coggshall’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Guagilla">223</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Guagilla’ replaced by ‘Guajilla’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Latrielle">224</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Latrielle’ replaced by ‘Latreille’. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#Œsophagus">225</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +‘Œsophagus’ replaced by ‘Æsophagus’ and moved to pg 219. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> +<a href="#typo_230">227</a>: +</td> +<td class="tdl"> +Page for ‘Thyme’ changed from 230 to 203. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +</div> +</div> +<div 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c23aec --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +[Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook [#79076](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79076) |
