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diff --git a/79076-0.txt b/79076-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..996b052 --- /dev/null +++ b/79076-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7317 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 *** + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. + + Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. + + + + +HOW TO KEEP BEES + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE I. BASSWOOD BLOSSOM] + + + + + How to Keep Bees + + A Handbook for the Use + of Beginners + + By + Anna Botsford Comstock, B. S. + + _With Illustrations_ + + [Illustration: Colophon] + GARDEN CITY NEW YORK + DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY + MCMXI + + + + + Copyright, 1905, by + Doubleday, Page & Company + Published April, 1905 + + + _All rights reserved, including that of + translation—also right of translation + into the Scandinavian languages_ + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book has been prepared especially to meet the needs of the +beginner in bee-keeping. It is not intended to be a complete treatise +for the professional apiarist, but rather a handbook for those who +would keep bees for happiness and honey, and incidentally for money. +It is hoped, too, that it will serve as an introduction to the more +extended manuals already in the field. + +When we began bee-keeping we found the wide range of information and +varying methods given in the manuals confusing; but a little experience +taught us that bee-keeping is a simple and delightful business which +can be carried on in a modest way without a great amount of special +training. After a beginning has been made, skill in managing the bees +is gained naturally and inevitably, and interest is then stimulated by +the wider outlook which bewilders the novice. + +For the sake of simplicity this volume is restricted to knowledge +gained in practical experience in a small apiary; and the writer has +sought to exclude from it those discussions which, however enlightening +to the experienced, are after all but devious digressions from the +simple and straight path which the feet of the inexperienced must tread +to success in the apiary. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. Why Keep Bees 3 + + II. How to Begin Bee-Keeping 8 + + III. The Location and the Arrangement of the Apiary 20 + + IV. The Inhabitants of the Hive 27 + + V. The Industries of the Hive 50 + + VI. The Swarming of Bees 64 + + VII. How to Keep from Keeping Too Many Bees 73 + + VIII. The Hive and How to Handle It 83 + + IX. Details Concerning Honey 106 + + X. Extracted Honey 117 + + XI. Points About Beeswax 126 + + XII. Feeding Bees 136 + + XIII. How to Winter Bees 145 + + XIV. Rearing and Introducing Queens 156 + + XV. Robbing in the Apiary 164 + + XVI. The Enemies and Diseases of Bees 172 + + XVII. The Anatomy of the Honey-Bee 181 + + XVIII. Interrelation of Bees and Plants 194 + + XIX. Bee-Keepers and Bee-Keeping 206 + + XX. Bee-Hunting 211 + + Bibliography 215 + + Index 219 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PLATE I.—Basswood blossom _Frontispiece_ + + Observation hives Page 2 + + FACING PAGE + + PLATE II.—(_a_) Two flat section-boxes (_b_) Corneil smoker 14 + + PLATE III.—(_a_) Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder and Van + Deusen wax-tube fastener. (_b_) A super with fences. (_c_) The + Porterbee-escape in a honey-board 15 + + PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree 26 + + PLATE V. (_a_) Queen; drone; worker. (_b_) Queen cell. (_c_) + Miller’s queen introducing cage 27 + + PLATE VI. Head of drone; head of queen; head of worker; ventral + surface of worker showing plates of wax 30 + + PLATE VII. Legs and antennæ of the honey-bee 31 + + PLATE VIII. Drone cells in a comb of honey 50 + + PLATE IX. Side of hive removed showing the bees at work 51 + + PLATE X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax 62 + + PLATE XI. Hiving bees; cutting down a swarm 63 + + PLATE XII. (_a_) Two self-spacing frames. (_b_) An empty super. + (_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder 90 + + PLATE XIII. Examining the brood-frames 91 + + PLATE XIV. (_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap. (_b_) A well + filled section. (_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled + with section-boxes 106 + + PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey 107 + + PLATE XVI. Drone and Queen trap; queen mailing and introducing + cage; queen-protector and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, and + bee-escape 110 + + PLATE XVII. “In apple-blossom time” 111 + + PLATE XVIII. (_a_) Taking off upper story of hive containing combs + for extracting. (_b_) Extracting-room showing apparatus for + extracting honey 122 + + PLATE XIX. (_a_) Uncapping comb before extracting the honey. + (_b_) Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the + extractor 123 + + PLATE XX. (_a_) Drawing honey from extractor. + (_b_) Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk 126 + + PLATE XXI. (_a_) Extracted honey in pails, candied. + (_b_) Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market 127 + + PLATE XXII. Winter quarters in chaff hives 154 + + PLATE XXIII. Plum blossoms 155 + + PLATE XXIV. Sumac in blossom. Blossom of mountain maple 184 + + PLATE XXV. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal section of the body + of a larva of an insect. Fig. 2. Section of the body-wall of + insect. Fig. 3. Head of a bee and its appendages. Fig. 4. + Glands of a honey-bee. Fig. 5. The wax plates 185 + + PLATE XXVI. (_a_) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. + (_b_) Fig. 1. The internal anatomy of the honey-bee. Fig. 2. + The respiratory system of the honey-bee 192 + + PLATE XXVII. An old-fashioned apiary 193 + + PLATE XXVIII. (_a_) Thorn-apple blossoms. + (_b_) Wild crab-apple blossoms 198 + + PLATE XXIX. Buckwheat in blossom 199 + + PLATE XXX. Box-elder, staminate and pistillate flowers 210 + + PLATE XXXI. Blossoms of black locust 211 + + + + +HOW TO KEEP BEES + +[Illustration: An ordinary beehive made into an observation-hive by +inserting glass panes in sides and putting a glass sheet under the +wooden cover. (From V. L. Kellogg.)] + +[Illustration: An observation-hive holding only two frames, with the +two sides wholly of glass, so that any single bee can be continuously +watched. (From V. L. Kellogg.)] + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WHY KEEP BEES + + +The reasons for keeping bees are many and various; for it is an +industry as many-sided as the cells of a honey-comb, one of its chief +charms being that it appeals equally to “many men of many minds.” To +know all the reasons why one should keep bees one must be conversant +with the history of man; he must be familiar with the Vedas of India +and master of the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt; he must study the +life of the common people in the Hebrew Scriptures and the classic +literatures of Greece and Italy, and must be able to translate into +terms of common human experiences the myths and legends of diverse +peoples. For bees have been a part of the conscious life of man from +the beginning. Not only have they sweetened his daily bread with +beneficent honey, but they have had their place in his religious rites, +and also in his family observances, as millions of happy lovers may +attest who have experienced the “honeymoon.” However, lacking the +erudition necessary to enumerate all, the author of this book is quite +content to mention a few of the more cogent reasons why anyone should, +in this day and generation, undertake the keeping of bees. + +One may keep bees for the sake of the honey, which is a most legitimate +and fit reason. Honey is a wholesome and delicious addition to the +family table. Though it is a luxury, yet it may be afforded by one +living in moderate circumstances, if he be willing to give a modicum +of time and care to the happy little creatures that gladly make it for +him, free of all expense. But for the one possessed of great wealth, +and able to corner the honey-market any day, there is sure delight, as +well as education, in raising his own honey. Any person of experience +well knows that the honey made by one’s own bees has quality and +flavour superior to that made by other people’s bees. In fact, the only +way to become a connoisseur of honey is to keep bees, for thus only may +one learn to discriminate between honey made from basswood and that +gathered from clover; or to distinguish, at first taste, the product of +orchard in bloom from that drawn from vagrant blossoms, which, changing +day by day, mark the season’s processional. He who has once kept bees +and become an artist in honey-flavours, would never again, willingly, +become a part of the world at large, which, in its dense ignorance, +dubs all white honey “basswood” or “clover” indiscriminately, and +believes all dark honey is gathered from buckwheat. + +Some, perhaps, might keep bees for the sake of making money. For him +who would get rich keeping bees, this book manifestly is not written; +its title explains that it is meant to show how to keep bees, and not +how to make bees keep him. The person who would, from the first, make +bee-keeping his chief work should receive his training in a large +apiary. As a vocation it demands the entire time and energy of a shrewd +and able person to insure success; of such, America already has a great +number, with yearly incomes varying from $1,000 to $10,000. However, +the desire to make the bees keep themselves and add more or less to +the family income is a practical and sensible reason for keeping bees. +Fifteen or twenty colonies may be managed with comparatively little +time and attention and the work may be done largely by women or the +younger members of the household. If proper care be given to such an +apiary, it will prove of material benefit to the family purse; for, +if the season be favourable, the product of one colony should net the +owner from four to ten dollars. We know of boys who have thus earned +their college expenses; and many women have bought immunity from the +drudgery of the kitchen with money paid them for their crops of honey. +It should be borne in mind that honey-money is not obtained without +thought, energy, and some hard work. The bees would have been less +beneficent to mankind had they bestowed honey without demanding a +return in care and labour. + +Many have kept bees as a recreation, and there is none better. It gives +delightful and absorbing occupation in the open air and is not merely a +rest from mental and sedentary labours, but is a stimulus to health and +strength as well. In the various bee journals are recorded testimonials +from thousands who, when tired, ill, and nervously worn out, began +bee-keeping, and through it regained vigour and found a new interest +in life. Notwithstanding the fact that bees have honest stings, they +can work the miracle of changing a dyspeptic pessimist into a cheerful +optimist with a rapidity and completeness that merits our highest +admiration. + +A love for natural science is a very good reason for keeping bees. +Nowhere are there more fascinating problems for the investigator than +those still unsolved in the hive. Of all the lower animals, bees are, +perhaps, the most highly developed in certain ways; and it is more +probable that the mysteries of the eternal heavens and the distant +stars be made plain than that we ever learn the truths that underlie +the development of the “Spirit of the Hive.” + +Another reason for keeping bees is the insight to be gained therefrom +into the conditions of perfect communism. The bees and their relatives +are the most intelligent and consistent socialists that have yet been +developed in this world; and, through studying their ways, one may +discern with startling clearness how the perfect socialism grinds off +all the projecting corners of the individual until it fits perfectly in +its communal niche. In the hive individual traits, as exemplified in +kindness, selfishness, love and hate, are moved up a notch in the scale +and characterise the whole community, even though they are eliminated +from its members. If one is a social philosopher, he may become very +wise, indeed, by studying the results of the laws of socialism which +have been executed inexorably through countless centuries in the bee +commune. + +Last, but by no means least, one may keep bees because they belong to +home life and should have place in every well-kept garden or orchard. +There is no more beautiful domestic picture to be found in the world +than a fine garden with a row of hollyhocks hiding the boundary fence +and affording a fitting background for a neat row of white hives. It +is not alone the æsthetic beauty the bees bring to the garden which +touches the deeper currents of feeling and is productive of profound +satisfaction; it is something more fundamental; for since the thyme +of Hymettus yielded nectar, the happy hum of the bee has yielded +comfort to the human senses. The garden without bees seems ever to lack +something; mayhap, the silent longing of the flowers for their friendly +visitors, intangible but real, so permeates the place that we are dimly +conscious of it. Be that as it may, the perfect garden can only be +attained through the presence of happy and populous bee-hives. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOW TO BEGIN BEE-KEEPING + + +THE VARIOUS WAYS OF BEGINNING + +There are so many ways of beginning this interesting work that no +classic way obtains. Many people have received the stimulus from a +swarm of bees, escaped from some apiary, which has alighted on a tree +or bush on the premises, and which seemed too much like a gift of +the gods to be ignored. In fact, no one with blood in him would do +otherwise under such circumstances than to hunt up a soap-box or a +nailkeg and, with an intrepidity amounting almost to heroism, place it +under the cluster and shake the bees into it. Then, if the swarm feels +content, the fact is accomplished; and the involuntary owner finds a +new interest in life, and enthusiastically becomes a bee-keeper. This +is an excellent and inexpensive way to begin, and for all who are thus +favoured it is by far the best way. But one may wait many years before +this happens, and after all there are other and more direct methods. +The best way is to begin by wishing sincerely to keep bees, and then to +adopt one of the following plans: + +The cheapest way is to visit the nearest neighbour who keeps bees, and +buy of him a swarm, which will cost, perhaps, two or three dollars. +If the neighbour be a good apiarist, this may be an excellent method, +for he will give practical advice and be a most helpful friend in time +of future difficulties and doubts; he will also explain appliances +and make the labours and perplexities of the beginner much smoother. +Besides these advantages, it is a help to neighbourliness, for keeping +bees is almost as close a bond between two neighbours as an interest +in golf or automobiles, and has a much broader and more philosophical +basis. + +Of course, the bees may be bought at any time of the year convenient, +but the early spring is the best season for beginning, for then one has +the advantage of increase by swarms. If one is ingenious and inventive, +one may easily construct other hives like the one bought; but there are +other things needed which may be obtained cheaper and better from firms +that sell apiarists’ supplies. However, we are acquainted with several +apiarists who furnish all of their own supplies except the sections +for comb-honey, the wax foundations, the smoker, the cartons and the +honey-extractor. + +The usual way of beginning is to send to some of the dealers in +bee-keepers’ supplies for a catalogue and to invest in a library of bee +books. There is something most fascinating about these books written by +bee-keepers, for no one makes a success of bee-keeping unless he loves +the bees; and if he loves bees he writes of them so persuadingly, and +his lines are so full of insidious allusions to the enchantments of +the occupation, that whoever reads one of these volumes finds life arid +without bees. + +Then the catalogue of bee-keepers’ supplies has its own attractions. +Never were such breathlessly interesting pamphlets written; and I would +add that, on the whole, they are the most honest and reliable of all +advertising catalogues. They almost invariably give good and sensible +advice to beginners, suggesting proper outfits at moderate prices. To +the would-be bee-keeper these catalogues are so delightful that, if +the purse is long enough, he feels inclined to order a specimen of +everything listed. However, this is not the best way to do. A moderate +number of things can be ordered at first, and other things may be +ordered later as the growing sense of their need develops. + +If one is minded to go into bee-keeping as a regular business, the +best way to begin is to spend a year with a successful bee-keeper, +working for him and with him and paying for the tuition, whatever may +be charged. Thus one may gain his knowledge of the business and get his +practical training under the guidance of experience. The very worst way +to begin, and one that is sure to result in disaster, is to buy a large +number of colonies at first. This is a too expensive way of learning +the extent of one’s own ignorance and limitations as a bee-keeper. + +As we have begun keeping bees three times in the course of our lives, +we feel more or less competent to give advice about this special +phase of bee-keeping. We first began when we were children and +two swarms were bestowed upon us by an uncle who moved away from +the neighbourhood. This was long before the idea of supers and box +comb-honey had been thought of. We were among the first to adopt the +old glass-sided super when it was introduced. The second and third +times we purchased our outfit of a dealer in apiarists’ supplies, and +both of these beginnings were good and successful; so perhaps the +best way to tell others how to begin is to describe how we began. The +following is the order which we sent to a dealer. + + +A BEGINNER’S ORDER + +One colony of bees, in an eight-frame, dovetailed, chaff hive with a +deep telescope cover, and with a tested Italian queen. + +Two complete supers ready for use, with 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ plain sections. + +One super cover. + +Three extra 1½-story chaff hives uniform with the above, and with super +covers. + +One standard Corneil smoker. + +One bee-veil. + +One pair bee-gloves. + +Two hundred and fifty sections, plain, no bee-way, 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½. + +One pound medium brood foundation. + +Two pounds thin super foundation. + +One Daisy foundation-fastener. + +One Van Deusen wax-tube fastener. + +One ¼-pound spool No. 30, tinned wire. + +One Porter bee-escape, with board. + +One Manum’s swarm-catcher. + +One Dixie bee-brush. + +One Doolittle division board feeder. + +One Alley’s queen and drone trap. + + +NOTES ON A BEGINNER’S ORDER + + +THE BEES + +The selection of the bees is the first and most important +consideration, since race and heredity determine to so great an extent +the bee’s efficiency and disposition. + +The consensus of opinion to-day is in favour of the Italian bees; this +is so much so that the other races, except the German, are hardly on +the general market in America. Taking all points into consideration, +the Italian has a higher average of satisfactory qualities than has any +of the other races. + +Our earliest experiences were with the ordinary black German bees, and +it was through them that we first learned to love bees, although their +nervousness and their unhappy habit of considering us intruders when we +neared their domain were always somewhat embarrassing, and made us feel +like James Whitcomb Riley’s visiting base-ball team, that “we weren’t +so welcome as we aimed to be.” Therefore, when we decided to buy bees, +we unhesitatingly ordered Italians. These are much more gentle and +friendly than the others, and it is one of our greatest pleasures to be +on good terms with our bee-folk. Under all ordinary circumstances the +Italian bees are not only tolerant of human interference, but are sweet +tempered and optimistic, believing that we mean well by them; and one +cannot work with them without learning to love them. + +If one begins bee-keeping in the spring, some money can be saved by +buying a nucleus and tested queen, instead of a full colony of bees. +A nucleus in bee-keeping parlance is a small colony with only one, +two, or three frames. The colony should be large enough to build combs +with sufficient rapidity to keep the queen fairly busy, so as not to +encourage in her the habit of loafing, and so that too much time shall +not be required to build up a full colony. Two frames with about a +quart of bees will accomplish this well. + +Such a nucleus as this in a hive, with a division board on either side +of the two adjacent frames, can be soon built up into a full colony if +there is plenty of nectar and pollen to be had. A division board is a +solid board of the shape of the frame, but a little larger so that it +is close-fitting in the hive. The frame should be watched closely, and +as soon as the comb is filled with brood, and there are enough bees to +cover the brood well, another frame filled with brood foundation should +be added; this should be continued until the hive is filled with frames. + + +A TESTED QUEEN + +As the queen is the mother of the whole colony, her powers for +transmitting a kind disposition and superior honey-making qualities are +of the greatest importance. It is essential, therefore, to know that +the queen, which is to serve as a foundation for the apiary, has mated +with a drone of the desired race. A tested queen is one that has been +kept until some of her offspring have been reared. The colour of these +will indicate whether the queen has mated with a drone of her own race. + + +THE HIVE + +Next to choosing the bees comes the selection of the hive, for there +are several kinds of hives in general use, and all of them are +apparently good. We chose the Langstroth hive because its merits are +attested by the fact that it is more largely used than all others taken +together. We chose the eight-frame in preference to the ten-frame +form because we wished to produce comb-honey, and it is easier to +induce bees to store surplus in the sections when the brood-chamber is +small. If one wishes to produce extracted honey, the ten-frame hive +is the better one. We ordered the more expensive chaff hives, as we +wished to save the trouble of moving the bees into winter quarters; +and we think this would be the case with anyone with whom bee-keeping +is an avocation instead of a vocation. In fact many people who +make bee-keeping their principal business prefer chaff hives, for +they not only keep out the cold in winter, but also protect the bees +from the heat in summer. The objections to them are that they are +heavy to handle and are expensive, though the expense can be reduced +considerably if one has the ability to make them. Another thing we +like about the chaff hives is that they are fine and dignified in +appearance, and we find that their majestic proportions, white and +beautiful, set against the background of our larches, add much to our +conscious pleasure every time we look upon our apiary. We ordered a +deep telescope cover, as we wished room for two supers on the hive at +once. + +The hive stand we ourselves made from lumber taken from dry-goods +boxes. It is simply a smooth platform, six inches wider than the hive +on three sides and extending about a foot out in front of the hive, +thus serving as an alighting-board. + + +TWO COMPLETE SUPERS + +We knew that we would need these very soon, for the basswood harvest +was imminent; we ordered them ready for use, as we wished to see all +the “new wrinkles” in supers, and exactly how the parts are arranged. +We used the supers as models later in putting together and fitting +other supers. This proved a wise precaution, as it saved us much time +in reading directions and studying out independently the arrangement +of parts. We ordered 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ sections, as this is the size most +generally used, and we chose the no-beeway, or “plain” style, because +we think it presents a better appearance when filled with honey. We +will return to this question in Chapter VIII. + + +THREE EXTRA HIVES + +We wished to have these on hand for any swarms which might possibly +issue. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE II. + + (_a_) Two flat section-boxes; and one being bent together. + + (_b_) A Corneil smoker.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE III. + + (_a_) The Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder, and Van Deusen + wax-tube fastener. + + (_b_) A super with fences and two rows of section-boxes in place; + a separate fence. + + (_c_) The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board.] + + +ONE STANDARD CORNEIL SMOKER + +I do not know just why we chose this of the many excellent smokers, but +perchance the name called to mind happy experiences with sundry Corneil +smokers of quite a different feather, and we were thus favourably +disposed toward this one. It has not disappointed us in the least, +for it is both handy and practical. It may seem an unfriendly act to +smoke one’s own bee-people, but a little smoke wisely applied is as +efficacious in preserving pleasant relations with the bees, as was the +smoke from the pipe of peace in preserving similar relations between +our forefathers and the savages. (Plate II.) + + +ONE BEE-VEIL + +The senior partner of our apiary rarely uses a veil, but when he does +use one he needs it very much, and it is an article necessary to have +at hand. To the beginner it gives a calmness of nerve and a surplus of +courage which are highly desirable when dealing with such high-strung +creatures as bees. Also there always occur times during the year when +the bee-tempers are on edge for some reason or other; and at such +times, if one be intrenched behind a bee-veil, it facilitates work and +encourages a serene spirit. + + +ONE PAIR OF BEE-GLOVES + +While we do not use these ordinarily, yet when we have some special +work to do which involves changing many bees from one location to +another, we find these gloves most convenient to keep the disturbed +little citizens from crawling up our sleeves, thus saving both them and +ourselves from a most embarrassing situation. + + +250 SECTIONS + +Only a small supply of sections was ordered, as but few would be needed +the first year in addition to those in the two complete supers. (Plate +II.) + + +ONE POUND BROOD-FOUNDATION + +This was for use in the frames in the extra hives. + + +TWO POUNDS THIN SUPER-FOUNDATION + +This was for use in the sections. + + +ONE DAISY FOUNDATION-FASTENER + +In the early days of our bee-keeping we fastened the foundation into +the sections and frames with a common kitchen-knife which we heated +over a lamp and then applied to the edge of the wax foundation held +against the section, thus melting it and pressing it fast to the wood. +Afterward we used a Parker fastener, and found it a great improvement +over the primitive method. But this Daisy foundation-fastener as +described in the catalogue appealed to the modern spirit in us. When +we tried to use the machine, we were bitterly disappointed at the end +of five minutes, but that was because the iron was not hot enough to +properly melt the wax. After a little we learned to hold the foundation +on the plate just long enough to melt it to a proper consistency so +that it adhered to the section as soon as it was dropped upon it. +Then it was that filling sections was placed on the list of sports. +The rapidity with which we filled four dozen sections almost took our +breath away. + + +ONE VAN DEUSEN WAX-TUBE FASTENER + +This was ordered under the impression that it would be needed for +fastening the foundation in the brood-frames, but when the hives came +we found that a much better method of fastening the foundations had +been devised. This is described in Chapter VIII. (Plate III.) + + +TINNED WIRE + +This is used for strengthening the foundation in the brood-frames, as +described later. + + +ONE PORTER BEE-ESCAPE + +The Porter bee-escape is a simple and most useful device. It is set in +a thin board just the size of the top of the hive; in the middle is a +bit of tin which forms a round pit on the upper side. The bees descend +into this pit, and, trying to get out, push apart two strips of tin +set at angles to each other, fastened at the ends, which act like a +valve, letting the bee out but not permitting her to push back. This is +put between the super and the hive in order to free the super of bees +before removing the honey. This escape is also used on the doors and +windows of workshops or extracting-rooms or other places where bees get +in and it is desirable to get them out. (Plates III., XVIII.) + + +THE MANUM SWARM-CATCHER + +We bought this because we liked the idea of it, but as yet we have +never had occasion to use it; however, we never look at its long handle +without being filled with a mad desire to try it on a provoking swarm +of bees clustered in the top of a cherry tree. + + +ONE DIXIE BEE-BRUSH + +This is an exceedingly useful instrument for brushing bees from frames +and from sections. (Plate III.) + + +ONE DOOLITTLE FEEDER + +Bee-keepers of extended experience consider this the best and most +satisfactory kind of feeder in use for small apiaries. (Plate XII.) + + +QUEEN AND DRONE TRAP + +This is not a necessity; we bought it in order to try experiments in +preventing swarming by its use, and also to have on hand in case an +excess of drones should be developed in any of our colonies. (Plate +XIV.) + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE LOCATION AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY + + +Where to put the hives is the first question, and this must be +determined by two or three conditions necessary for the health and +comfort of the bees. Hives should be placed where the sunshine may +reach them in the morning up to eight or nine o’clock, and in the +afternoon from three to four o’clock. An old orchard such as is kept +because of picturesque beauty rather than for its crop of apples is an +ideal place. The clean-culture orchards of the modern horticulturists +are undoubtedly more efficient as producers of apples and money; but +we are always grateful that there are still remaining many fine old +orchards, on sod ground where the trees, more or less gnarled and +twisted, are a joy to the artistic eye. Little wonder that such a place +is the ideal spot for the apiary; if the hives are grouped four or five +together beneath one tree, the requirements of shade will be met. + +If there is no old orchard, what then? A young orchard will do, unless +clean culture is practised; in the latter case horses and cultivator +will not be permitted on the domain of the bee-people. If no orchard +offers, then a trellis of vines extending east and west, eight feet +high, may shade a few hives, and may be a thing of beauty in the garden +as well. Grape vines, hops, Virginia creeper, or any other rapidly +growing vines will do. To the one who loves his garden, there will be +many ways suggested whereby the hives may be placed to compass both +comfort for the bees and joy to the beholder. We started an apiary at +the north of the lilac trees, and made it a part of the lawn. + +If no such happy position for natural shade is to be found for the +hives, then one must have recourse to artificial shade or double-walled +hives. A very good method of shading, much in vogue among the farmers +of our country, consists of a few boards placed awning-fashion above +the row of hives. This is not an attractive solution to the problem, +although perhaps it might be made so if this method were ever resorted +to by anyone with a sense of beauty; but usually it is limited to +a simple cover consisting of two or three boards nailed together, +slanting a little toward the back of the hives to shed rain, supported +by four posts, which hold it a foot or more above the row of hives. + +In California instead of boards a thatched roof is made for this sort +of protection, and is ample enough to allow an aisle for the apiarist +between the rows of hives set back to back. + +Many people use a single shade board, which consists of slats fastened +together by cleats made large enough to project a foot beyond the hive +on either side. This is placed directly on top of the hive, and has +to be weighted down with stones, and is therefore awkward to handle +when working with the bees. If the climate is hot, or in any case, a +double-walled cover to the hive is most excellent, since it affords a +chance for free circulation of air between the two boards which form +it. However, these double covers do not obviate the need of shade, and +natural shade is the most desirable sort. + +In case the region is exposed to high winds, there should be a +windbreak around the apiary. Mr. Root, who is one of the greatest of +American bee-keepers, uses for this a row of hardy evergreens which +grow together into a solid hedge. In case a windbreak, either natural +or made, is impracticable, a board fence about eight or ten feet high, +built on two sides of the apiary, usually the north and west sides, +will be found to serve the purpose. This fence may be made the trellis +for vines. + +In the rear of the village garden is an excellent place for bees. A +high board fence as a boundary, and perhaps a barn at the side will act +as a windbreak, while the fruit trees yield a grateful shade. We know +several such modest apiaries which are most attractive in appearance. +There are those who live in cities or towns who are filled with the +bee-keeper’s ambitions; and even they need not despair. There are on +record accounts of several small apiaries kept on the housetops of the +owners, who believe that roofs are for more than mere protection. Where +bees kept thus get their honey is a bee secret, but undoubtedly every +flower in the region yields them tribute. If bees be kept in town, they +must be placed on a roof or else a high fence must intervene between +the hives and the highway, so that the plane of bee flight shall be +set above the heads of horses and drivers; for these brave little +honeymakers have never been taught to turn to the right, and so they +often dispute the way with teams and usually come off victorious; and +this might make the bee-keeper unpopular in his community. + +Another necessity in the apiary is that the grass in front of the +entrance to the hives be kept mown; otherwise many a heavily laden +bee will experience loss or injury among interfering grass blades. It +is not practicable, even if one were heroic enough to try it, to run +a lawn mower nearer than four or five inches from the hives, so many +bee-keepers place salt or coal ashes on the grass within this area. Mr. +Root goes so far as to advise the use of sheep as automatic lawn mowers +in the apiary, as nothing else can cut grass so short as does the +sheep. People say “as silly as a sheep,” but that is a silly saying, +for many people may learn something of value about the management of +bees from the sheep, which, when attacked by them, thrusts its head +philosophically into a bush where the bees cannot reach the tender +parts, and trusts to its wool to protect it elsewhere. As a matter of +experience, sheep kept in apiaries are rarely stung at all. + +In our own apiary, where it was not practical to mow close to the +hives, we followed two methods: When we had many bees we placed a +rough board over the ground in the immediate front of the hive; when +we had only a few swarms, it was one of our joys to get on our knees +on cold days, when only a few adventurous workers were going into the +field, and with shears cut the grass close to the ground; and this +period spent on our knees was not penance, but joy. However, it might +well get to be penance in a large apiary. + +Having found the place for the apiary, the next thought is of hive +stands. Many bee-keepers use a hive that has a combination bottom board +and hive stand; this has an inclined plane up which the loaded bees +may climb if they strike the ground. This is a device which also saves +the lives of many bees in cool weather, when they would scarcely be +able, through numbness, to reach the entrance of the hive otherwise. +However, there are other bee stands which hold two or three hives, +which are very comfortable in height for the work of the bee-keeper. +But it is always well to remember that the opening of a hive should be +low down, as it is easier for the weary wings to let the honey-weighted +bee down than to lift her up to the doorway. We use a simple platform, +with blocks under the corners, so that there may be circulation of air +beneath, and extending about a foot out in front of the hive, thus +serving as an alighting-board. + +The arrangement of the hives in the apiary is a subject which will +pay for thought. When beginning, this is easy enough, as they may be +arranged almost any way, so long as shade and short grass are assured. +After the apiary grows they may be arranged in several convenient ways; +one is to have the lines of hives facing each other, thus making an +alley for the bees; while there is a safe passageway for the man in the +rear of the two rows. + +When there are only a few hives, it is best to have the entrances +face the south. In fact, the entrance should never face northward in +a climate as cold as that of New York State. There is one thing to +bear in mind in arranging an apiary; make the groups under the trees +individual, so that the bees will have no tendency to become confused +as to the location of their own homes. If two face west, then let two +others face east, or perhaps a group of three face to the south, etc. + +When it becomes necessary, for any reason, to change the location of +a colony, a board should be set against the hive, in front of its +entrance. The bees, meeting this obstruction as they emerge from the +hive, will fly about the hive for some time, and thus mark the new +location, to which they will return. If this precaution is not taken, +many bees will fly from the hive, directly into the field, without +noticing the change, and will then return to the old location and thus +be lost. + +A honey-house near the apiary is a great convenience. If this is not +practicable, the next best arrangement is a honey-room in house, +cellar, or shed. Such a room is a necessity even in a small apiary. +This room should be well ventilated and screens should cover the +windows, and a swinging automatic screen protect the door; bee-escapes +should be placed in door and windows. + +The room should contain workbench and tools; a table, chairs of varying +height, an oil-stove, and boxes or cupboards in which all of the apiary +supplies, implements, and machinery may be stored and kept ready for +use. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree, but the grass ought to have been +cut long ago.] + +[Illustration: + + _Fig. 1_ + _Fig. 2_ + _Fig. 3_ + _Fig. 4_ + _Fig. 5_ + + PLATE V. _1._ Queen Bee, enlarged. _2._ Drone. _3._ Worker. _4._ + Queen Cells. _5._ Miller’s Cage for Introducing Queens.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE + + +One of the remarkable peculiarities of bees, which is also shared by +other social insects, as ants, wasps and termites, is that there are +three distinct kinds of individuals in the community. For, in addition +to the males and females, which are the reproducing members of the +colony, there is a third class which performs the labours of the +community. The females, of which there is usually only one in a colony, +are known as queens; the males as drones; and the labourers as workers. +(Plate V.) + + +THE QUEEN (Plates V, VI, VII) + +The bee-queen is the acme of a long line of communistic development. +It is little wonder that those men of ancient times who observed her, +and the attitude of the other bees toward her, regarded her as regal +and called her queen. But she is a much more important element in the +perfect commune than a mere sovereign, since she is the actual mother +of her subjects. + +Too much care cannot be shown in the selection of the queen, or mother +of the bee-colony. Her blood is their blood; her faults are their +faults; her weaknesses are their weaknesses. Any apiarist is likely +to have had two colonies side by side, perhaps each equalling the +other in amount of brood and number of bees, and one may have produced +five dollars’ worth of honey in a season, while the other did not +produce half of that; and the queens alone caused this discrepancy. One +produced energetic, capable offspring, while the progeny of the other +were unenterprising. The offspring of one were perhaps sweet-tempered +and obliging, and those of the other, cross and cranky. Thus it is +all-important to give the colony a good mother. A queen, to be perfect, +should be well-bred, handsome and strong, and capable of laying from +two to three thousand eggs per day during the height of the season, and +especially should she have offspring possessing a kindly disposition. + +The laying queen is a very graceful insect; her body is long and +pointed, and extends far behind the tips of her closed wings. _Svelte_ +is a graphic word applied to her figure by the _Spectator_; just a +glance at her reveals her splendid physical development and proves +her a queenlier bee than those that gather around her. It is a sight +that makes men feel how very limited is their knowledge of any other +world than their own to see the queen bee, surrounded by her ring of +attendants, each with head toward her, as if she were the centre of a +many-rayed star. + +The development of the queen from the egg has ever been a most +interesting and, at the same time, a most puzzling subject for +investigation on the part of the scientists; even now after a century +of study her growth is as miraculous as ever; and the problems in +physiology that lie as yet unsolved in her development will keep many +an investigator busy in the future. + +When a colony is queenless, and has young brood or unhatched eggs, it +makes haste to develop new queens; not one alone, but several, since it +cannot afford to put its “eggs all in one basket.” At the height of the +honey season, every day that a colony is queenless means two or three +thousand less bees than should be present to make it successful in +securing the harvest. (Plate V.) + +In developing a queen the bees usually proceed as follows: They select +the important egg, which differs in no wise from any other worker egg, +and destroying the partitions between its cell and two adjoining cells, +give it more room. In order to make the royal apartment of good size a +projection is built out over this large cell. This is made of thick wax +and ornamented on the outside with hexagonal fretwork, as if it were +to be the basis of comb with small cells. It seems as if the hexagonal +pattern were in the bee brain and must be expressed, whether it be of +any use or not. As soon as the little white larva hatches from the egg, +it is fed on the regular larval food. Royal jelly is a food developed +in the head glands of the workers; and when it is the fate of a bee +larva to develop into a worker, it is fed with this food for three +days, and then it is weaned by having other food substituted; but the +queen larva is fed with it during her entire development, and thereby +her reproductive organs are stimulated and fully developed, which is +not the case with the workers. Think how much farther advanced are +the bees than we, since, by giving the proper food, they are able to +develop and fit each class of citizens to do the work required of it in +the social organisation! + +The queen larva is fed for five days on this most nourishing food, and +then her cell is sealed. Within this cell the royal princess is for the +first time self-dependent, and weaves about herself a silken cocoon +and changes into a pupa. When she issues from this state she waits a +little until she “finds herself,” and then starts to cut an opening in +the cell. She is a good mathematician, and with her jaws, cuts a circle +very accurately, usually leaving it hinged like the lid to a pot. +Professor Kellogg tells us that sometimes when she cuts this door, the +workers do not wish her to come out. They accomplish their purpose by +carrying wax and pasting it over the opening as fast as she cuts it, at +the same time quite devotedly feeding her through a small crevice. But +if they wish her to come out, they rush to assist her, and perhaps for +two or three days before she issues, make the wax thin where she is to +cut. It usually requires sixteen days to develop a queen from the egg +to the adult. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE VI. (Original, drawn by A. G. Hammar.) _d_, head of drone; + _q_, head of queen; _w_, head of worker; _x_, ventral surface of + worker showing plates of wax.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE VII. Legs and antenna of the honey-bee (original drawn + by A. G. Hammar). _A_, outer surface of hind leg showing the + nine segments and claws; _pb_, the pollen basket of tibia; _B_, + inner surface of part of hind leg; _wp_, wax-pincers; _pc_, + pollen-combs; _C_, inner surface of part of hind leg of queen; + _D_, inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; _E_, part of + middle leg of worker; _s_, spur; _F_, part of fore leg showing + the antenna cleaner _a_; _G_, part of antenna showing sense-hairs + and sense-pits.] + +When a queen issues from her cell, she is light-coloured and, as her +body is not yet distended with eggs, it is scarcely larger than that +of one of the workers. Sometimes she chooses to stay in her cell for +a day or two after it is opened. When she comes out, she runs about +over the comb, taking exercise on her own royal legs, and perhaps +taking a little honey out of the cells on her own account; especially +does she hunt for other queen cells, for she has no wish to share her +duties or honours with another. If she finds such a cell, she usually +makes a hole in its side, and in some way, she stings to death the +hapless princess within. Some observers claim that she merely takes +the initiative, tearing down the wall of the cell, and the bees finish +by tearing it down as they would any broken comb, and destroy the +inmate in the process. If, in her promenade, she discovers another +full-grown queen, a contest ensues; it is a duel to the death and the +weapons are stings, which are kept sacred for this special occasion. +It is interesting that the queen reserves her weapon for her peers, +and never attempts to sting workers, and may be handled fearlessly by +the bee-keeper. As the plate armour of the bee is so arranged that the +sting may enter in only at certain spots, this duel resolves itself +into a fencing match, until one thrusts her weapon into some vulnerable +portion of the other. One morning we found fifteen dead queens outside +of one of our hives; a grim tribute to the prowess of the queen within, +and quite as much a tribute to our carelessness in letting so many +queens be developed uselessly. + +The belligerent attitude of the queens toward each other seems to have +been so strong an emotion that a voice has been developed to express +it, and is eloquent with rage and fear. This note must be heard to +be understood; as nearly as I am able to spell it, it is “tse-ep, +tse-e-e-ep, tse-e-ep, tsep, tsp, tsp, ts,” in a sort of diminuendo. +She makes the noise when she discovers another queen cell; if there is +within this cell a full-fledged queen, she pipes back, but it sounds +quite differently and the note is more like “quock, quock.” This piping +of queens is especially evident before an after-swarm is to issue. The +queen will also pipe when the bees gather about her and try to ball +her, which is often the fate of a new queen introduced into a colony +not ready to receive her. In this case the note is one of righteous +anger at the indignity to her royal person. She makes this piping +with some vocal instrument, not well understood. Her wings vibrate +tremulously while she is piping, but she can pipe quite as vociferously +after her wings have been entirely cut off. + +After she has made good her title to empire, the queen thinks about +marriage; some warm day she will run out of the hive to see how the +world looks, and especially to determine beyond doubt upon just what +point of the universe her own hive is situated. The first flight of +the queen bee is very pretty to see. She makes many graceful circles +about, and plays in the sunshine as if she were thoroughly enjoying +herself. When she finally leaves the hive to find a prince, she makes +several little _détours_, always coming back so that she can commit to +memory, beyond peradventure, the home place, and then off she goes in +the sunshine to find her lover. Unfortunately she is not discriminating +in the matter of love, and any sort of a prince, however lowly, +is acceptable. Thus does many a fine, highly bred queen return to +her hive, to bestow upon her progeny the undesirable traits of some +low-bred drone. This is one reason why it is so difficult to keep an +apiary of pure blood; and these _mésalliances_ of queens are a source +of much tribulation to the bee-keeper. She returns from her wedding +journey with a part of the reproductive organs of her mate in her +possession, often still visible, but soon after withdrawn into her +body. With the sperm cells now under her control, she will fertilise +the eggs of perhaps a million workers, more or less, which she may +mother during her life of three or four years. + +Biologists have of late achieved the miraculous in being able to +stimulate the unfertilised eggs of sea-urchins and starfish, so that +they will develop. The queen bee is able to do this with her own eggs. +When the time comes for drones to be developed, she lays unfertilised +eggs, which, unfailingly, produce the drones. If our poor human queens +possessed this power of producing male heirs at will, much trouble +would have been saved to many of them and, to some of them, their +heads. However, the perfect socialists do most things better than we. + +As soon as the queen returns from her honeymoon, which is usually taken +from eight to ten days from the time she issues, she acts decidedly +like a business person. She runs about on the comb, pokes her head into +a cell to see if it is all ready, and then, turning about, thrusts her +abdomen in and neatly glues an egg fast to the bottom. When the honey +season is at its height, she works with great rapidity; sometimes she +lays at the rate of six eggs per minute, often laying three thousand +or twice her own weight of eggs per day. She is a wise queen, however, +and has in mind the dangers of overpopulation. When there is much +honey brought in, and the swarming season is at hand, she enlarges her +empire rapidly; but when there is little honey, she keeps the amount of +brood down to what can be cared for. Whether this question of limiting +the population is decided by the queen, or whether she simply acts in +response to the food given her by the workers, is a question not yet +settled. However this may be, it is certain that Malthusian doctrines +are rigorously and successfully practised by the perfect socialists of +the hive. + +Sometimes when the honey flow is very great an intoxication of work +seems to possess the colony. The bees, coming in from the field, will +drop the honey anywhere, and the queen, agitated by the general spirit +of the hive, will drop her eggs everywhere; and the poor, overworked, +bee housekeepers have to pick up the honey and store it in the cells, +and pick up the eggs and glue them fast to the cell-bottoms. + + +THE DRONE (Plates V, VI, VII) + +Of all the denizens of the hive the lot of the drones is the least +enviable. That one may surely fulfil the destiny as king father, many +are born, only to be slain when the honey harvest runs low, and +meanwhile they are denied all interests in the business of the colony +except that of pensioners upon its bounty. And he, the fortunate one, +who lives his life to its fullest measure and becomes queen consort +must in the end lose his life for love and die, heartlessly abandoned +by her whom he sought and won. + +In appearance the drone differs much from the queen and the worker; +he is broad, and the rear end of his body is so blunt that it looks +almost as if it had been cut off with shears. He is made for a life +of idleness; his hind legs bear no pollen baskets, so he could not +fetch and carry if he would; his tongue is so short that he must needs +eat from honey stored in a cell or be fed by his sisters, since he +could not possibly extract nectar from a deep flower; nor is there any +occasion that he should hang suspended weary hours for the secretion +of wax, since he has no wax glands. His special accomplishment is his +buzz, which is of extraordinary calibre and sonorousness. So fierce and +loud is this, the song he sings when on the wing, that the novice feels +inclined to retreat before him. But this music is undoubtedly meant to +attract a queen to his vicinity, and is by no means a sound of menace; +he is a burly, good-natured fellow, who is obliged to express himself +in this rather coarse song. The term “good natured” is applied to him, +not because we are certain that his temper is sweet, but because he +has no means of expressing ill temper should he experience it, since +niggard nature has given him no sting. He is always a clumsy chap, as +awkward as his queen is graceful; but he can scramble out of the way +with astonishing celerity when a murderously inclined sister attacks +him. The time when he shows his princely qualities is when he is +flying, for his wings are large and strong and carry him easily several +miles if he needs to travel so far to win his lady. In his physical +makeup he is a fine example of a purely feminine product; for the drone +is a very perfect creature, even if he is reared from an unimpregnated +egg. His magnificent compound eyes almost completely encircle his head, +nearly meeting at the top, and thus crowding his simple eyes down into +his “forehead.” And such eyes as these mean something surely, for they +are developed that he may be better able to see his heart’s desire +from afar. He also has marvellous antennæ, the nine distal joints of +which are completely pitted with smelling organs. The reason for this +is that his queen has a fragrance all her own, sweeter to him than the +attar of roses, and thus he is equipped, as Cheshire has proven, with +thirty-seven thousand eight hundred nostrils, in order to detect the +perfume of her royal person at a distance. (Plate VII, _G_.) + +The life-history of the drone after he hatches from his unfertilised +egg is much like that of other bees, except that for him is provided +a cell larger than that of the worker; he hatches from the egg about +three days after it is laid, and during the week following he is +carefully attended by the nurses who feed him on the rich chyle food at +first; after four days they give him some undigested pollen, a food +not granted to the larvæ of the workers. At the end of a week his cell +is sealed over with a cap that looks more like the crown of a derby hat +than a cap, so spherical is it. Cheshire has shown that this cap is an +especially fine example of engineering, being girdered by six struts of +wax, the apex of the dome being not a skylight exactly, but rather a +ventilator for the admission of air. (Plate VIII.) + +It has been a question of much dispute whether the workers inspire the +queen to drone-raising through building drone comb, or whether she +takes the initiative in the matter. Certain it is the bees seem to love +to build drone comb, perhaps because it is more easily constructed and +requires less wax. It is also a fact that the queen prefers the worker +cells, and in the spring or fall when there is little honey coming +in, the queen will voluntarily pass drone comb, leaving it empty, and +lay eggs in the worker cells, so she evidently knows her own mind. +Sometimes when reduced to dire extremity the queen will lay worker eggs +in the drone cells, but she does not do this unless the openings of +the cells have been previously constricted by the bees. Sometimes also +when the conditions are abnormal the queen will lay drone eggs in the +worker cells and from these will be developed runty drones, which seem +of little account. However, such conditions as these are very unusual. + +When the drone is twenty-four days from the egg he cuts a circular lid +out of the cap of his cell, and crawls out into a hazardous world. +After a fortnight or so of moving about the combs and eating his fill +he goes out of the hive and tries his wings. This he does on some +pleasant day, about noon or a little after. As soon as he is sure of +himself, he makes his flight longer, and the length of his journeys may +only be guessed at. When he meets the queen they unite at once in the +air, and after this they fall to the ground and she frees herself by +tearing off and holding within herself the generative appendages of her +dying consort. + +In every hive are developed thousands of these princes royal, who are +maintained at the expense of the colony until the dawn of that fatal +day when the honey crop runs short; and then an unhappy experience lies +before these useless brothers of the reigning house. Then their sisters +chase them out of the hive apparently attempting to sting them, and, +changed to furies, bite off their wings and harry them until they give +up, great helpless creatures that they are, and fulfil their final +destiny, which is to die for the sake of the colony. + +Even the drone eggs, larvæ, and pupæ are not exempt on this appointed +day of execution, but are ruthlessly killed, and their remains thrust +forth from the hive. If conditions should change and more honey be +made, a reprieve to the unhappy drone may be granted, for the length +of his life is measured by the food supply. Any time during the summer +when the bee-keeper finds the workers attacking the drones he may be +very sure it means that the honey crop is exhausted. + +Our pity is usually much more excited for the fate of the drone than +for that of the busy worker, which dies from overwork at the end of +a few weeks; and this is undoubtedly because the death of the worker +seems voluntary, while the drones are manifestly murdered. Once we +witnessed the slaughter of the drones in an observation hive, the +entrance of which was too contracted to allow the bodies of the drones +to pass. For several days the bloody-minded workers spent their +energies in tearing their wretched victims limb from limb, and carrying +them out in sections. Below a small crevice at the bottom of the hive +we found a row of disjointed legs, wings and antennæ from the mutilated +drones, while the heads and broken bodies were thrown out of the front +of the hive. + + +THE WORKERS. (Plate V, VI, VII.) + +It is interesting to note that in the socialistic bee-community the +work is carried on by unsexed females. It evidently has not been a +part of the true economy of the perfect socialism to unite motherhood +and business life in one individual; therefore, a division of labour +takes place. The queen mother is developed into a highly efficient +egg-laying machine, while all her worker sisters remain undeveloped +sexually, and thus have time and energy to devote themselves to +bringing up the young, keeping the house, getting the food, and +administering the affairs of the body politic. Little wonder is it +that the brain of the worker bee is much larger than that of the queen +or drone, for she needs must exercise her mental powers far more than +either. She is obliged also to pass through certain industrial stages +in her development as a worker before she attains the full height of +citizenship. + +The life-history of a worker is usually as follows: The cell in which +she is developed is the smallest of the comb, such as is ordinarily +used for storing honey. She is not merely a fatherless creation, like +the big drone, but hatches from an impregnated egg during the fourth +day after it is laid by the queen mother. She is supplied with royal +jelly, presumably the same as that which nourishes the queen larva, +for about three days; afterward she is fed honey and digested pollen. +This food is placed in the bottom of the cell, and the young larva +floats in it and absorbs it through the body walls as well as through +the mouth, which a little later she opens up pleadingly that it may be +filled by the nurse bees. She grows like other infantile insects by +shedding her skeleton skin as fast as she outgrows it; she does this +with thoroughness, for she sheds the lining of the mouth, the gullet, +the larger intestines and the tracheal tubes as well as the outside, +this being a very thorough change of clothes, indeed; she does this +about six times. Soon after she hatches she querls up in the cell, +floating in her food, and at the end of four days’ feeding she is a +very fat, contented youngster. Six days from the hatching the nurse +bees place over the cell, a cap which is made of wax and pollen, and +admits the air freely. Then the young bee in the solitude of her own +cell eats all the food that has been provided, spins about herself a +cocoon of finest silk, which she weaves from a gland which opens in her +lip; this is a very, very delicate cocoon, which remains in the cell as +a lining, but so delicate is it that not until years have elapsed do +the brood cells become contracted by these many silk wrappings of bees +which have been developed in them. When the worker sheds for the last +time her skeleton, she sheds the lining of the stomach and alimentary +canal and all its contents, and changes to a pupa, which is a state +of utter quiescence and during which wonderful changes take place in +her anatomy. These changes which occur in the pupa are almost like new +creation, for the legs, wings, antennæ, and all of the other organs +of the adult bee are developed from what was within the body of the +footless, white grub. + +Twenty-one days from the date of the laying of the egg, twelve days +after the cell is capped, the worker bee sheds her pupa skin, pushes +it behind her to the bottom of the cell, cuts a lid in the cap of her +cell and pushes her way out, very likely after some friendly nurse has +given her a little food to “stay her stomach.” As she crawls out, she +is a silvery-gray bee, as damp as if she had been out in a fog; no +one hastens to greet her, or pays her the slightest attention, which +is quite different from the case with the young ant, which is always +fussed over and patted and petted by the nurses for some time after +it emerges from the pupa skin. But the worker bee has to pat herself, +and so she gives her face a rubbing, stretches and tries to straighten +out her draggled clothing, and walks around trying to get acquainted +as best she can with her sisters, who are too intent upon work to +notice her. The first twenty-four hours of her life as a bee are spent +orienting herself; but on the second day she learns to put her head +down into the cells of unsealed honey and drink her fill. This is not a +selfish and thoughtless act, for almost immediately she enters on her +first duty, that of bee-nurse; and she must eat pollen and honey and +digest them in order to make chyle for the bee brood, which she soon +learns to care for most solicitously. It may be her lot to supply royal +jelly to a queen cell and thus become a lady-in-waiting. In any event +she very soon learns to be useful in many ways; she helps to build +comb, and works very hard at capping the cells of the young bees when +they are ready to pupate. She also helps to clean house if necessary, +carefully removing all of the dirt and refuse at the bottom of the hive +and dumping it out of the front door. During the extreme heat of the +summer she must exert herself tremendously by fanning with her wings so +that a draft may be set up in the hive for the sake of the bees as well +as to ripen the honey in the uncapped cells. During very hot weather, +when the bees hang out, some of these young workers may be seen fanning +“for dear life” on the outside of the hive. Having more zeal than wit, +they dance a little glide back and forth, and fan as if they thought +they were really accomplishing something. + +The young worker usually takes her first flight when she has had her +wings for about a week; she runs out on the threshold of the hive +on some pleasant afternoon, and may be easily recognised, as she is +callowness incarnate. She runs around a little, giving the impression +of holding on with all her six feet as if scared, and then she lifts +herself gingerly to see whether she truly can use her wings; then she +circles around in great joy and learns to know well the place where +her hive stands. About a week later she goes out into the wide world +to seek her fortune and is likely to come back with a little load of +pollen on her legs. When she comes back thus laden she buzzes around +before alighting, and then rushes into the hive excited and delighted +with her achievement, and as Mr. Root says so graphically, “tries her +best to show off.” Soon after, she becomes a staid worker and plays +her part in the economy of the hive by bringing in honey, pollen, and +propolis, secreting wax if need be, ready to defend her colony at the +cost of her life, and so courageous that she as readily attacks a man +as a mouse. Later it may fall to her lot to become executioner of her +brother drones, or to devote herself to the queen and help lead out the +swarm; or, by some mysterious election of the hive, she may be sent +as a scout to find a proper home for her queen and her colony after +they have swarmed. She is at the height of her powers and usefulness +when about a month old, and at that time she will do any of the duties +of the hive which she deems necessary, even to helping the young bees +in the housework. She still has all her fur and her wings are as yet +whole; but if there is much to do she is untiring and unremitting in +her labours and, with never a thought of self, wears herself out. Her +old age is evident by the loss of the fuzz, which was the pride of +her youth, and the segments of her body become bald and shiny. Then +her hard-worked wings begin to fray at the edges until there comes a +day when, out on her quest for food for the colony, the broken wings +and tired muscles refuse to support her, and she falls into the grass +and dies; even then her last thought is not for self, but for the +precious load which she struggles to carry home. Better thus for her to +die in the field than to faint in the hive, for then do her vigorous +sisters seize her and thrust her forth, and she falls into the refuse +heap in front of the home, which she has so eagerly wasted her life +to sustain. There is no gratitude and no pensioning in the bee-world; +death and oblivion are meted mercilessly to the most ardent workers +when they fail, for thus, and thus only, can the colony be kept strong. +The individual is nothing in the perfect socialism, and the colony +is everything; the treatment is Spartan, with none of the weakness +which makes us keep alive the hopelessly insane, the idiotic, and the +criminal. + + +THE LAYING WORKER + +When the colony is queenless, worker bees may develop the ability to +lay eggs. As they have never mated, they lay unfertilised eggs, which +develop into drones, and thus stock the hive with these royal cumberers +of the commune. It is interesting to note the difference in prejudices +that obtain in the hive and in human society. In the latter we regard +it as scandalous when the female, avoiding the duties of motherhood, +goes abroad gathering honey and pollen at her own sweet will; but +in bee society it is not merely a scandal, but a misfortune, when +the worker bee has ambitions to be a mother. The laying worker is a +bee gone wrong and a menace to the colony. At the same time she is a +nuisance to the bee-keeper and great may be his tribulation before he +is rid of her. As might be expected, she does not do her work well; she +usually does not lay her eggs in regular order, as does the queen, but +scatters them here and there and everywhere, and is quite likely to +fasten them to the sides of the cells, instead of to the bottom. She +lays her eggs sometimes several together in worker as well as in drone +cells. + +As a laying worker looks like any other worker, it is useless to try +to find her. However, her presence may be detected by the irregular +appearance of the brood, and especially by the high drone caps on the +worker cells and, finally, by a superabundance of drones. To meet this +difficulty, an ounce of prevention is worth several pounds of cure, +and great care should be taken to prevent colonies from becoming +queenless. In case, through carelessness, a colony is thus victimised +it will usually refuse to accept a queen, though sometimes it may be +induced to accept a capped queen cell. If this is not successful, the +combs, with the bees adhering, should be removed to an empty hive +nearby, placing a frame of brood containing a queen cell, if possible, +and a frame or two of foundation in the old hive. The workers, coming +back from the field, will enter their hive and the moved comb will +soon be deserted by all except the laying worker; she, with her +characteristic fatuity, will remain on the deserted combs, laying eggs +until she dies of exhaustion. A surer remedy than this, but a more +troublesome one, is to unite this colony with another, or to scatter +the combs from the victimised hive, bees and all, among other colonies +of the apiary; meanwhile giving the depleted hive a frame or two of +good brood, with a queen cell, if possible, so that the bees that +return to it will find normal conditions. What happens to the laying +worker when she finds herself in a colony with a queen, we do not know. +Probably, if she persists in laying eggs, she is killed; possibly she +forsakes her evil ways, and returns to the straight and narrow path of +respectable citizenship. + +We do not understand why laying workers are developed. Some have +claimed that too much royal jelly was given them when larvæ; and some, +that after a colony is queenless, the jelly is fed to workers and thus +develops them so they are able to lay eggs. They appear among the +Cyprian and Syrian bees more frequently than among the Italians. + + +RACES OF DOMESTIC BEES + +Several races of the honey-bee have been developed in different +countries. Some of these have been imported into the United States, and +many experiments have been made to determine their relative values. + +There were no native honey bees in North America north of Mexico, and +the black or German bees were the first to be brought to this country +by the pioneers. The wild bees which stock the woods of our country +to-day are chiefly black bees, the descendants of swarms which have +escaped from apiaries. For many years the black or German race was the +only kind in general use here. Within recent years the eastern races +of bees, Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or Syrians, and also the Egyptians and +Carniolans and Italians have been introduced. Of all these, only the +Italians have come into universal favour. + +The Italians are the classic bees which were discussed by Aristotle, +and sung about by Virgil, who describes their bodies as “shining like +drops of sparkling gold.” The Italian worker has five yellow bands that +mark the front portions of the five segments of the abdomen which lie +next to the thorax; the two posterior bands are made by yellow hairs +and are therefore likely to disappear as the bee gets old and bald. But +the three front ones are made not only by yellow hairs, but also by the +yellowish transparency of the front part of each of the three anterior +segments, or body-rings. As the segments of the abdomen telescope, more +or less, these three yellow rings may not always be visible. Mr. Root’s +test is to feed the bee with honey until the abdomen is distended and +place her on a window pane. If three distinct translucent bands can be +seen, the insect is a pure Italian. If only two bands are evident, she +is a hybrid. + +In comparison with the Italians the black bees are inferior in many +particulars. Their only superiority is that their honey in the comb is +a trifle whiter, and they are more easily shaken from the frames than +are the Italians, and thus are sometimes preferred by the man who works +for extracted honey. Their points of inferiority are their nervousness +and irritability, their tendency to rob, their inability to cope with +the bee-moth, and the difficulty with which the queen may be found. + +The Italians are far more “civilised” than are the black bees, and seem +willing to credit the operator with good intentions; they can defend +themselves better from pests, their queens are more prolific and, on +the whole, they are more industrious than the blacks, and having longer +tongues than the blacks, they can get nectar from a wider range of +flowers. + +The hybrids are the result of crossing the Italians and the blacks. +They are likely to be excellent honey-gatherers, but unfortunately they +usually inherit the irritability of the blacks, which they express with +the strength and energy inherited from the Italians. Therefore, they +are not looked upon with favour. These unwelcome hybrids are likely +to appear in any apiary, for, however pure the Italian queen, she is +likely to mate with a black drone in almost any locality. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE + + +THE SECRETION OF WAX + +Very little do we know of the mysterious process of wax-making. The +interior of the bee is a chemical laboratory where no visitors are +allowed; at best we have been obliged to stand outside and guess +at the formulas used within. We know that honey enters largely +into the composition of wax, and that the bees when secreting wax +usually have pollen in their stomachs, although Huber and Cook have +both demonstrated that bees make successful comb when deprived of +pollen, and when fed on sugar syrup instead of honey. But to make +this experiment of much value the bees must needs have been deprived +of pollen all of their lives instead of a few days. It seems to be +generally conceded that nitrogenous food is needed for the best product +of wax-manufacture, though nitrogen does not enter into the composition +of the wax itself. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE VIII. DRONE CELLS IN A COMB OF HONEY + +Honey capped over; drone cells bulged out; upper cells partly filled +with honey but not capped over.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_ + +PLATE IX. Side of hive removed, showing bees at work; comb being made +without artificial foundation.] + +It is variously estimated that it requires from ten to twenty pounds +of honey to produce one of wax; so it is apparent to even the novice +in bee-keeping that wax is a very expensive product. One of the +results of the process of wax-making is the elimination of oxygen +from the honey. There is of weight eight times as much oxygen in honey +as of hydrogen and carbon combined; while in wax there is at least +sixteen times as much carbon and hydrogen as of oxygen. Though wax is a +fatty substance, yet it is not the animal fat of bees, as is so often +asserted; it is a product especially developed for a far different +purpose than is the fat of animals. The bees are much superior to us in +this respect, since they manufacture from their own bodies the building +materials for their homes. + +The special apparatus for the secretion of wax is very interesting +to the student skilled in microscopic investigation. The outward or +visible portion of this apparatus consists of four pairs of little +membranous plates on the under side of the abdomen; these are not +visible unless the body is torn apart and dissected, because they are +on the front portions of the second, third, fourth and fifth abdominal +segments, and each is covered by the rear portion of the segment just +in front of it. Immediately within each of these wax plates is a gland +which secretes the wax in liquid form, and it passes through the +membrane by a kind of osmosis, considerably more mysterious than is +that most mysterious process ordinarily. As the wax passes through the +membrane it hardens and is pushed backward behind the segment which +covers it and protects the wax plate, and appears as a pearly scale on +the abdomen of the bee. (Plate VI.) + +The wax glands, when studied by the histologists, are found to consist +each of a specialised area of the layer of cells that form the active +living part of the body-wall of the insect. When active these cells +are much thicker than the corresponding cells in other parts of the +body-wall; but if examined during the winter, they do not differ +greatly in appearance from other cells of the hypodermis. (Plate XXV, +Fig. 5.) + +When wax is needed, a certain number of self-elected citizens gorge +with honey and hang up in chains or curtains, each bee clinging by +her front feet to the hind feet of the one above her, like Japanese +acrobats; and there they remain, sometimes for two days, until the +wax scales appear pushed out from every pocket. It is not hard to +understand that, since much honey is needed for the manufacture of wax, +a bee after filling with the raw material would produce much more wax +by keeping quiet than by using any of the gorged honey for energy in +moving about and working. But the necessity of “holding hands” while +this work goes on must ever remain to us another occult evidence of the +close relations of the citizens in the bee commune. (Plate X.) + +While most of the wax is produced from these quiescent suspended +individuals, yet any bee-keeper who is observant has discovered that +at the height of the honey season many of the workers coming in laden +from the fields will have wax scales protruding from some or all of the +pockets. We once captured one of our bees, working on a white clover +blossom, which had six of these wax scales ornamenting her abdomen, +and which proved her a bee of resource, since she was able to work +and make wax at the same time. However, there is a choice about the +wax-making. It is no willy-nilly production caused by gorging with +honey, for it is never made except when the colony needs more comb. + + +THE COMB-MAKING (Plate IX.) + +It is often stated that after the wax is secreted and pushed through +the wax pockets the scales are removed by the wax shears on the hind +legs of the producers, and are passed forward to the front claws, and +then thrust into the mouth; here the wax is warmed and perhaps chewed +with saliva and made malleable, thus somewhat changing the chemical +composition and fitting it to be moulded into comb. But there is a +hiatus in our knowledge just at this point as to whether the bees which +secrete the wax take it off and make comb, or whether other workers +harvest wax scales from the suspended individuals and mould them into +shape; or whether perhaps the scales fall from the suspended “curtain” +to the bottom of the hive and there are gathered by the ever-busy young +workers. Professor Kellogg, who studied bees in an observation hive, is +inclined to think that all of these methods are used, while Mr. A. I. +Root describes the process graphically thus: + + If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales but a short + distance she takes it in her mandibles, and looks as businesslike + with it thus as a carpenter with a board on his shoulder. If she + has to carry it from the bottom of the honey-box she takes it in + a way I cannot explain better than to say she slips it under her + chin; when thus equipped you would never know she was encumbered + with anything, unless it chanced to slip out, when she will + dexterously tuck it back with one of her forefeet. + +Honey-comb has been the delight of mathematicians from the earliest +ages. The plan on which it is built, if perfectly carried out, would +be the incarnate perfection of strength and space for holding fluid +contents. This fact so delighted the earlier mathematicians that +they set to measuring the angles of the cells and their pyramidal +bases, with truly wonderful results. But with the later methods of +exact measurement it has been demonstrated that the cells are rarely +perfect in construction; and that the angles, as well as the faces of +the rhombs on which they are built, vary. Because of this there have +been developed doubters and pessimists who declare that honey-comb +is the result of chance; and that cells, crowded together, must, +from the nature of things, become six-sided; and that bees are not +mathematically wise. With this conclusion we do not agree in the +least, although we admit that the fortuitously six-sided cell may have +been a step in the education of the bee-artisans. But we would ask +the pessimists to explain why, if all is chance, the bees build so +perfectly the central part of the comb which forms the bases of the +cells. This central part is built first and is fashioned of rhombs, +which are made into alternating three-sided pyramids. Who dare assert +that reasonably perfect, alternating rhombic pyramids are fortuitous! +The fact that the combs are rarely perfect in construction proves +naught against the mathematical prowess of the bees; it simply proves +that the bees are a practical race, and not bigoted, and are therefore +unwilling to sacrifice everything for the sake of precision. The +construction of their waxen cells is for economic purposes rather than +for proving mathematical formulæ. Honey-comb shows how economy of +room, building materials and mathematical theories may coincide, and +shows also that the bees have taken advantage of the fact. Some of the +savants have asserted that the rectangle or the equilateral triangle +would have been quite as efficient as working plans for constructing +cells for storing honey. But probably the bees, originally, made their +cells to fit their brood and would not thus build a cell which would +surround a larva with unfilled corners. The hexagonal cell was better +fitted for their needs, so they developed it. + +After a piece of the central portion of comb has been constructed the +bees begin, usually, at the centre and pull out the sides of the cells +from the foundation. Experiments in coloured foundation shows that +this may, if thick, be pulled almost to the margin of the cell. This +is why bees so readily utilise machine-made foundation; they pull out +the edges of these pressed combs and thus save themselves much labour +in wax-making. The worker cells are a little more than one-fifth of an +inch in diameter, and a little less than one-half an inch deep; the +drone cells are a little more than one-fourth an inch in diameter +and a little more than a half-inch in depth. It is interesting to +see the comb which has in it both worker- and drone cells, and note +how the transition is made; the two sizes are harmonised by a row or +two of cells that are irregular. Honey is stored in both drone- and +worker-cells, usually in the latter; although our bees seem to have a +fondness for making drone cells for storage. When the bees begin to +cap a cell, they commence at the outside and work toward the centre. +There is not a prettier piece of engineering anywhere than the cap of +a honey-cell, with six little girders extending from the angles of the +cell and holding the flat cap at the centre. Honey is capped with wax, +but brood is capped with a mixture of wax and pollen, which admits air. +Though the cell-walls may be thinner than .0018 of an inch, comb is +wonderfully strong, and may weigh one-twentieth or less than the weight +of the honey stored within it. + +An interesting fact about the manufacture of comb is that no one bee +constructs a cell and no one bosses the job. A bee will come along +with a little wax and put it in place at the side of a cell, and then +will run off and do something else; another bee passing sees this bit +of unfinished work, gives it a few pinches and polishes it a little, +and then does something else. Several bees may thus lend a mandible +before the cell is perfected. Any bit of comb-building seems to be the +result of a consensus of public opinion and not of individual skill +and enterprise. There is a oneness in bee enterprises which harmonises +capital and labour, and which precludes strikes and lockouts. + + +THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY + +In trying to fathom the mysteries of honey-production, scientists +have dissected the bee with greatest care; but they have usually +been obliged to guess at the uses of such organs as they could +not understand by analogy. To-day, after all the excellent work +of investigators, the process and formulæ of honey-making remain +unrevealed. + +The nectar, when taken from the flowers by the bees, is received in +a special reservoir, called the honey-stomach. It is supposed that +the secretion from the glands in the head and thorax is added to the +nectar as it is swallowed, and induces the chemical action which, +in the honey-stomach, changes the cane-sugar to the more digestible +grape-sugar, and brings about the other changes that finally result +in the production of honey. The chemical composition of honey +varies, perhaps for two reasons: It may be more perfectly digested +sometimes than at others; and the nectar of different flowers may vary +chemically. However, all honey contains water, glucose, a small amount +each of albumenoids, mineral matter, essential oils and formic acid. +While most of the chemical changes take place in the honey-stomach of +the bee, yet the honey is made perfect by ripening in the cells; these +are left uncapped for a period of time and the current of air, always +in action in the hive, evaporates the water and thus thickens the +honey. + +Ignorant people believe that honey is regurgitated from the true +stomach of the bee, which is far from true. The honey-stomach is +simply a reservoir in which the honey is made and then stored until +the bee can empty it into a cell. Her true stomach lies behind the +honey-stomach and connects with it by a mouth that can be opened +or closed at will; when she wishes to eat some honey, she opens +the stomach mouth and takes in what she needs. The chyle which +she manufactures in her true stomach to feed the young bees, when +regurgitated, does not pass through the honey-stomach; instead, the +mouth of the real stomach is pushed up through the centre of the +honey-reservoir until it connects directly with the æsophagus. (Plate +XXVI, Fig. 7 _p_.) + +When an ancient Roman was asked on his hundredth birthday how he had +preserved his vigour, physically and mentally, he answered laconically, +_Inerius melle, exterius olea_—“Inside with honey, outside with oil.” +He spoke wisely, for honey is undoubtedly the most healthful of sweets, +because it is so largely composed of the predigested grape-sugar. + +It is hard for us to realise that, until comparatively recently, honey +was the only sweet in general use. Cane-sugar was not commonly eaten +in Europe until the seventeenth century, and previous to that time +honey held sway as the sweetening medium of all foods. The amount +of honey produced in the United States now is estimated to be more +than 125,000,000 pounds per year, which shows that it has retained +its value as a food, though it must compete with cheaper cane- and +beet-sugars. It still remains the most wholesome and digestible of all +the forms of sugar, and should be used even more generally than it is +at present. + + +THE MAKING OF BEE-BREAD + +Flower wisdom is scarcely appreciated by those who deem all wisdom the +product of consciousness; but if wisdom may be attained through the +experiences of living and overcoming difficulties, then there must be +such a thing as flower wisdom. Otherwise there would not have been such +a prodigal production of pollen that a tithe could be spared for the +bees, to induce them to become common carriers of the flower world. +Many blossoms which do not secrete nectar pay their taxes in pollen, +the bread-stuff of the bees, while others pay in both commodities. + +A bee when gathering pollen for food collects it with her tongue and +forelegs, mixing it, perhaps, with nectar or saliva so it will hold +together. It is cleaned off the tongue and front legs by the middle and +hind legs, and by them packed in the pollen baskets on the tarsi of the +hind legs, and moulded there into great golden balls. Little wonder +that the ancient Greeks, noticing bees thus laden, and consequently +flying low, declared that the bees of Hymettus tied pebbles on their +legs to weigh them down. (Plate VII, _A_, _B_.) + +When the bee arrives at the hive she selects, usually, a worker-cell +and, backing up to it, thrusts in her legs and scrapes off the pollen +by a dexterous movement like that made by a cook scraping dough off +her hands. The bee bringing the pollen considers her duty done in +furnishing the flour, and leaves the bread-making to one of her younger +sisters, who is devoting the day to domestic duties. Needless to say, +bee-bread is unleavened; it is made by the very simple process of +packing the pollen firmly into the cell, the utensil employed being the +head of the bread-maker, which she uses cheerfully as a mallet for this +purpose. + +Bee-bread is necessary as a food for young bees and admirably +supplements honey in its composition, being rich in albumenoids and +nitrogen. To our taste it is rather bitter and disagreeable, as those +of us can attest who ate comb-honey from the hives of old, before +movable frames and supers were generally used. However, under the new +régime, it is rarely placed in the sections of the supers, but sensibly +stored in the brood-combs, near where it is used, and thus seldom +appears upon the table. + + +THE PROPOLIS, OR BEE-GLUE + +Though bees are most successful manufacturing chemists, yet they are +not above using ready-made substances if they find such to their +liking. Thus, propolis is not produced by bees, but is gathered by them +from various sources, and is used as a cement and a varnish. Certain +trees and smaller plants protect their buds in winter by resinous +coats; and it was quite like the adaptable bee to find use for this +resin in her own domicile. + +The elder Huber, whose observations of a century ago have been +verified, discovered the source of propolis; he planted poplars in pots +and placed them near the hives, and the bees were seen in the act of +collecting the resin from the buds. They have been observed by others, +working on the buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, willow, alder, and +even the balsam fir. However, the bees have no prejudices in favour +of any kind of resin, anything will do so long as it answers the +purpose; hence they visit shops where furniture is being finished and +appropriate the varnish without saying “please.” And Darwin mentions +the fact that bees collected a cement of wax and turpentine, used to +cover trees from which the bark has been removed. If any old hives or +fixtures with propolis on them be left around the apiary, the bees make +all haste to save every particle of the precious stuff. + +One of the oldest superstitions about bees is that they will gather +on the coffin of their dead master; and authenticated instances of +the kind are on record. But this beautiful tradition is made empty +of sentiment by the assertion that the bees assemble there not to +mourn their dead master, but to gather the varnish from the coffin. +Some iconoclasts ascribe to this the origin of “telling the bees” +when some member of the family dies; but we believe this beautiful +custom originated before varnished coffins were in use, and was the +natural outgrowth of the close relations of bees and the home for many +centuries. + +The bee collects the propolis by cutting it off with her mandibles and +packing it in her pollen baskets; and when she arrives at the hive, +she never attempts to unload it herself, evidently deeming it safer to +let the sister, whose business it is at the moment to stop cracks and +crevices, take it from her legs and apply it at once. + +There are various uses in the hive for the bee-glue: It is used as a +filler to make smooth the rough places of the hive; it holds the combs +in place; it calks every crack; it may serve as a sarcophagus for any +intruder too large to be pitched out: snails and slugs have been found +thus encased; it is applied as a varnish to the cells of the honey-comb +if they remain unused for a time; and it is especially useful as a +window shade. A nature-study teacher of our acquaintance established +an observation hive in her school-room, which had an uncovered pane of +glass set in one side so that the pupils might observe the interesting +life of the hive. To her dismay the bees straightway hung a curtain of +propolis over the window and so shut out intrusive eyes. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_ + +Plate X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax; comb being built in +the centre above.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XI. HIVING BEES + +Cutting down the swarm.] + +One of the chief uses of propolis is to try the temper of the +bee-keeper. If there is the least crack between hive and super, or +cover, the two are glued together so that nothing but a knife and +much muscular force can loosen them. Cover blankets are stuck fast; +the frames are welded to their places by it, and it plasters into +immobility all the modern appliances of the hive which man invented to +be movable; and section-boxes are so stained with it that they have +to be scraped before being sent to market. Above all, it gets on the +hands of the operator, so that the digits of each act as one, or not +at all, and everything touched sticks to them as if they were magnets; +it also daubs the clothing, and if profane men were ever bee-keepers, +it would incite them to wicked remarks. However, alcohol, applied to +hands and clothing, solves the difficulty by dissolving the propolis; +and a bottle of it is a most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the +apiary. Benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are as efficacious as +alcohol, but not so pleasant to use. Boiling lye will clean clothes and +apparatus that have become clogged with bee-glue. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE SWARMING OF BEES + + +WHY BEES SWARM + +In case of most of the higher animals, including man, the species +are spread over the face of the earth through the simple plan of +“marrying off” the younger individuals, and allowing them “to set up +for themselves.” As there is no individualism, no indulging in love +or hatred for each other among the perfect socialists, this plan is +manifestly not at all adapted to provide for the increase of social +insects where the colony acts as an individual. The bee plan is as +follows: When a colony gets large enough and strong enough it divides +into two. As the Amœba, the simplest of animal organisms, divides the +individual in order to multiply its numbers, so the bee-colony as an +organism divides and multiplies. It is interesting that the method +of increase characteristic of the lowest order of animals should +repeat itself among beings so highly organised physically, when the +individuals merge into a social unit. This analogy might well give the +social philosophers an opportunity for some real thinking. + +Much discussion has found place in human annals as to whether the +queen or the workers take the initiative in this hegira of the bees, +and much evidence is advanced on both sides of the question. But it is +a profitless discussion for us to indulge in; the more we study bees, +the more firmly we are convinced that we know little of the forces +which govern the bee body politic. We only know that at certain seasons +of the year when the successful colony has plenty of brood and honey, +the old queen and many of the old and experienced citizens, go away +from the hive and form a new colony elsewhere, leaving the young queen +and the younger bees in possession of the homestead, thus reversing +the human custom. While in the air, or when clustered, the swarm looks +sufficiently large to be composed of the whole colony, yet the swarms +are smaller than they look, for rarely more than 20,000 bees go away +with the old queen. + + +WHEN BEES SWARM + +The swarms usually come off in June in a climate like that of New York +State. Some strong colonies may swarm in May if the season is early, +thus making us glad; for the old verse, “A swarm of bees in May is +worth a load of hay,” is based upon practical experience. + +The when and the immediate why of the swarming of bees are closely +connected. There are several conditions which conduce to swarming: the +presence of young queens ready to issue from the cells; the crowding of +the hive with brood, bees, and honey; the presence of too many drones; +the extreme heat of an overcrowded hive on a hot day; this latter is +a most cogent reason, and it is well for the bee-keeper to shade his +hives to prevent this. The swarms are likely to issue between 9 A. M. +and 2 P. M., although enough swarms come off at unseemly hours to make +any rule valueless except as a prophecy. (Plate XI.) + + +HOW TO HIVE A SWARM + +“The bees are swarming!” These are magical words, which arouse every +member of that family whose pride is a few hives in the garden. It is a +cry that starts the sluggish blood, and sends a quiver of excitement up +and down the spinal column while one rushes to the scene of action. How +gracefully that moving mass of black particles undulates in the air, as +if it were a drifting cloud instead of a self-willed, one-minded colony +of socialists! How the heart rises and sinks inversely to this rise and +fall, and how hopeless it seems when the swarm lifts itself superbly +over all surrounding obstacles, and disappears above the tree tops! No +one who has had this experience will wonder at the ancient custom which +obtains even now in the country districts on such occasions of beating +tin pans, ringing bells, and shouting “whoa” at the top of the lungs. +All of this racket had its inception in the needs of the bee-keeper +to adequately express his feelings at this crisis. If the bees ever +stopped and settled because of this din, it was probably from sheer +amazement at witnessing such folly on the part of human beings; this +explanation would hold, perhaps, if bees ever evinced any interest +in human beings, except when they obstruct the bee-path. However, +most of our ancient customs were founded in utility, and it is not +likely that this traditional pandemonium would have been practised for +centuries without some reason. Mr. Root, who thinks before he speaks, +suggests that the swarm follows the queen and the scouts through +listening to their song, that of the queen being easily distinguished +from the hum of the workers when on the wing; and that it is quite +possible, therefore, that the noise, if loud enough to drown the voice +of the queen, would cause confusion on the part of the flying bees +and a consequent settling. But from what we remember of our own early +experience, we are convinced that the bees were less confused by the +noise than were the people engaged in making it. + +The next most widely practised of the ancient methods is that of +throwing dirt on the swarm to stop it; this certainly is efficacious +if there happens to be enough loose earth at hand. However, throwing +dirt is a reactionary performance in the physical as well as the moral +sense; and usually the bee-keeper who throws dirt at a soaring swarm +must needs stop soon to get the motes out of his own eyes before he is +able to see where the swarm has alighted. + +In these enlightened days everyone who has a cherry tree or an apple +tree, a currant bush or a potato patch, is sure to have a fountain pump +of some sort; and never is this instrument a greater boon than when it +throws a fine spray upon an absconding swarm of bees. It brings them +to a stop very soon; it may injure the feelings of the bees, but it +certainly does not injure them physically, as it simply impairs their +power of flight by wetting the wings. Even after a swarm has settled, a +little sprinkle of water will keep it clustered safely until the hive +is made ready to receive it. + +It is highly desirable that the swarm should cluster on the tip of +a branch not far from the ground; for then the process of hiving is +comparatively simple. My personal plan has been to place a sheet, kept +for the purpose, on the ground near the clustering swarm; place on +this a covered hive filled with frames containing brood foundations. +Lift the front edge of the hive about an inch by putting blocks under +the two corners; then cut the branch above the cluster, and taking it +in hand shake the bees off in front of the hive and placidly watch +them hive themselves with true bee celerity. This use of the sheet is +a habit formed in childhood, and I persist in it, though my partner +derides the practice. He shakes the bees down on the board on which +the hive is standing; or he takes the top off the hive, and shakes the +bees down among the frames in the most summary fashion. But I think the +sheet makes a softer mattress for the little citizens to fall upon, and +certainly they find their way from it more easily into the hive. I am a +conservative person, and like to do things as I always have done them +before—a conservatism that is by no means dangerous in our apiary where +the senior partner is given to new ways and many inventions. + +If the bees alight high in a tree, then our methods have been to get +at them by climbing the tree, or attaining the branch by the use of +a ladder. However, I doubt if there was ever a fruit found on any +tree that needs quite so much care in the picking as does this; and +it is decidedly a ticklish performance to clamber down a tree holding +gingerly a branch laden with a swarm of bees in one hand and clutching +at supporting branches with the other. Sometimes the bees are not +accommodating enough to alight on the end of a branch that may be cut +off. They may even go so far as to cluster on the large branch itself; +then there is nothing to do but to brush them off in a box with a +bee-brush, a performance which they object to; or to dip them off with +a tin dipper, or to jar them into a basket, and then to dump them out +in front of the hive. The most embarrassing situation of all is when +the swarm clusters on a tree trunk. Squaring the circle is not a much +more difficult feat mathematically than to brush all the bees into a +square box from this cylindrical position. It is usually necessary to +bring the smoker to help in elucidating this problem; for, paradoxical +as it may seem, smoke properly applied clears up many a situation in +the bee business. + +If only one were able to find the queen in the clustering swarm and +secure her by placing her in the hive, the work would be easy, for +the other bees would soon follow. But to hunt for the queen in the +clustering swarm is, for most of us, quite like hunting for the +traditional needle in the haystack; and while we are hunting we are +wasting precious time, as the swarm may make up its collective mind to +remove from our vicinity its component atoms. In shaking, or dipping, +or brushing the bees into the hive, we should remember to deal with +them as gently as the situation and mental perturbation will permit. + +Sometimes the bees seem to feel defrauded at having a house chosen +for them, and insist upon swarming out of their new quarters within +a day or two after they are placed in possession. Thus it is a wise +precaution to give the hives of the newly swarmed attention for two +or three days, lest they indulge in this sort of perversity. If the +bees seem unsettled and unhappy, and hang around home instead of going +into the fields to work, it is advisable to place in the middle of +the hive a frame of unsealed brood taken from some other colony. A +bee’s motherly instinct may always be depended upon, since caring for +the young is a shining civic virtue as well as a domestic duty among +the bee-people. When there are helpless larvæ to care for, the bees +willingly forego every personal inclination to pack up and move, and +cheerfully proceed to give the youngsters every attention. + + +DECOY HIVES + +When the self-appointed scouts of a bee-colony start out house-hunting +for the swarm which is about to issue, they evidently examine the +premises carefully; if they find a house for rent in the immediate +neighbourhood, they are likely to go no farther in their quest. Thus +it is the practice of many bee-keepers to place about the apiary hives +empty, except for brood-frames filled with foundation, hoping thus to +entice the swarms to take possession, and save all trouble. Mr. Root +goes so far as to advise that such hives be fastened in the lower forks +of trees in the neighbourhood of the apiary, and thus provide a most +expedient bee-tree. A decoy hive should not contain more than three +brood-frames, as other frames may be added when the bees move in. The +reason for this is that the sheets of wax foundation, when sufficiently +close together for the convenience of the bees, prove also entirely +convenient for the occupancy of the bee-moth; and one ought to be +particular about one’s tenants when renting houses in the apiary. + +Mr. West’s device for saving swarms is the most alluring of any about +which we have read. Since the clipped queen cannot fly, she expresses +the aspiration within her breast by climbing anything at hand, like +a blade of grass or a shrub. Mr. West observing this, drives a bare, +forked branch into the ground a few inches in front of the hive, +having cleaned the ground between it and the hive of all obstacles. +This branch having a few twigs upon it, is leaned away from the hive +entrance. The queen promptly climbs this tree, like Zaccheus, and the +swarm clusters around her and remains there conveniently at hand for +hiving. + + +MAXIMS FOR HIVING BEES + +Clip the old queen’s wings. + +Go through the hives every ten days to destroy queen cells. + +As the swarming season approaches, have hives ready with foundation in +brood-frames, and hive stands ready to receive them. + +Keep a serene spirit while hiving bees. + +The hive in which the colony is placed should be kept cool and not +heated from standing in the sun; it should be shaded, as the swarm will +not enter a hot hive. + +If the bees refuse to accept a hive, give them a frame of unsealed +brood to reconcile them. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +HOW TO KEEP FROM KEEPING TOO MANY BEES + + +THE PROBLEM + +“Aye, there’s the rub!” For the beginner who wishes to keep a few bees, +this is the most difficult problem to solve on the bee-keeper’s slate, +and it must finally be solved by each according to his own capacity and +method. + +We confess frankly that we were once driven out of the bee business +because we were too successful. Caring for fifteen or twenty hives was +a delightful avocation. We kept our colonies strong, for we wished +to make comb-honey; consequently, splendid swarms came off, and we +had the fatal gift of seeing them when they came and of hiving them +successfully. Thus our avocation began to intrench upon our vocation in +a most alarming manner. While we enjoyed taking care of our bees, we +were nevertheless following the vocation which we had chosen, and which +we liked best; and the time came when we were obliged to decide whether +we would leave our regular business and become bee-keepers, or abjure +bee-keeping and attend to our regular business. + +We gave away what swarms we could and we sold some; but selling bees +is a business quite as much as caring for them, so that was not +practicable. Philosophically, we argued that since we had enough bees +we would let the swarms that came off abscond and bid them God-speed; +but here we reckoned without properly considering the amount of human +nature which had fallen to our share. Although we knew that every swarm +in our apiary above twenty would be an embarrassment and a tribulation, +we could never rest content not to hive a swarm when it issued; and the +more unattainable the place where it clustered and the less we wanted +the bees, the more determined we were to secure that special swarm. + +Such inconsistency brought its own punishment, and our only resource +was to sell out; and for many years the spot in our garden which our +apiary once occupied was never viewed without a sense of loneliness +and longing for its busy little tenants. During these years we thought +it over and finally came around to the right frame of mind, and firmly +concluded to keep bees for our own honey and our own happiness. +We limited our ambitions to ten hives; and last summer when our +best-tested Italian queen took us unawares and departed with a large +and enthusiastic following, we did not mourn; all we did was to venture +to hope that the young queen left in the hive had mated with one of our +own handsome drones, and not with a mad black prince from one of Mr. +Coggshall’s take-care-of-itself apiaries in our neighbourhood. As soon +as our new brood made us sure that our queen had made no _mésalliance_ +we were entirely content. + +Our lack of success in preventing swarming when trying to produce +comb-honey was a source of great chagrin to us until we read that so +eminent a bee-keeper as Mr. Hutchinson declared that “there is no way +of preventing first swarms profitable to the comb-honey producer,” and +then our feelings were salved. The following are in brief a few of the +more successful ways practised to prevent increase: + +_By clipping the queen’s wings._—Almost all bee-keepers practise this +now, whatever their method of preventing increase or securing it. A +queen with clipped wings is necessarily a “stay-at-home body,” and +the swarm will not leave without her. However, when depending upon +this method it is very important to guard against the hatching of +new queens, and this can only be done by closely scrutinising the +brood-comb to discover and destroy the queen cells. The brood-frames +should be examined in each hive about once a week during the months of +June and July, if this method is to succeed. Many a time have we sat +smilingly by and watched a swarm come out of the hive with great pomp +and circumstance, only to sneak back when it was discovered that her +majesty was unfit for travel. + +_By the use of a queen trap._—This is a device used by some instead of +clipping the wings of the queen. It is a box of perforated zinc placed +over the entrance of the hive, the slots in it large enough to allow +the workers to pass in and out, and small enough to hold back the +queen and drones. Although this method saves time, yet comparatively +few recommend it. The cost of the trap is one objection; but the +greater objection seems to be that it inconveniences the workers when +returning from the fields; and is, therefore, likely to affect the +amount of honey stored, since much time is lost and some annoyance +occasioned to the bees by being obliged to squeeze through; it also +scrapes the pollen off their legs. (Plate XVI.) + +_By giving-room._—Supposing that our queen is clipped or confined, +which is the first step, the next is to give plenty of room in the +brood-chamber. Lack of room for brood and honey is one of the most +potent reasons for inducing swarming. So the first thing to do after +the disappointed swarm comes back to the hive is to tier up the supers. +It is also well to remove from the hive a frame or two of brood which +may be put in the hive of some weaker colony; in place of the removed +frame is substituted another containing a starter of foundation; and +the would-be swarm, finding that there is plenty to do, is content to +remain at home for a time. + +_By extracting honey._—It will often pacify a colony to take the +frames from the brood-chamber and extract the honey from them. This +may be done when the brood is present, if care is taken not to run the +separator so rapidly as to throw out the larvæ, a performance quite as +distasteful to the young bees as to the consumer. However, this should +not be practised unless much honey is coming in, as otherwise the brood +may be starved. + +_By using large hives._—Many bee-keepers of high standing have +practically solved the swarming problem by using large hives. The +Dadants, well known on two continents as successful apiarists, use the +large Quinby hives in their own apiaries, and have introduced them into +France and Switzerland. The Dadant-Quinby hive has about the capacity +of a twelve-frame Langstroth. The frames are both deep and large, +measuring 18½ by 11½ inches, and so give the queen plenty of room. The +Dadants have no trouble with swarming, as only enough swarms come off +to make good the winter losses in their apiaries. + +There are three reasons why we have not used these large hives: first, +they are too heavy to handle well, being altogether too productive +of backaches. Second, they are necessarily much more expensive, as +wider pieces of perfect lumber are used in the making. Third, and most +important to us of all, we find it difficult to produce comb-honey in +a large hive; when the bees have so much room in the brood-chamber, +they discover no reason for carrying honey up into the supers. If we +made extracted honey, as do the Dadants and the European apiarists, +we would certainly use the larger hives, simply to be rid of this +nuisance of constant swarming. The colonies grow to be so much stronger +in the larger hives that they are much better able to withstand the +vicissitudes of winter than are smaller colonies, which is a great +advantage. + +_By the brushing or shaking-out method._—When the bees at the +beginning of the honey-flow seem to be getting ready to swarm, +the hive is moved to one side of the stand and on the exact site +is placed another just like it, which contains frames set with +foundation-starters. As gently as possible the bees are shaken or +brushed from the frames of the old hive upon the threshold of the new, +great care being taken to include the queen. The supers from the old +hive are then placed upon the new hive with a queen-excluder between. +The old hive may stand beside the new one until the brood has emerged, +when all of the inhabitants of the old tenement are shaken in front +of the new habitation. This shaking of a colony into a new hive so +surprises and confounds the bees that they get the impression that they +have already swarmed, and go to work with all diligence in their new +quarters. The partly filled supers from the old hive encourage them +mightily in the ways of well-doing. + +_By dividing swarms._—This method we have practised with quite +satisfactory results. The troublous question is just when to divide. +If we divide too soon we weaken the colonies, and decrease the +honey harvest. If we wait until too late, the bees do the dividing +themselves. The process is as follows: The queen’s wings are clipped +before the new queen is to emerge, and she is placed in a new hive +furnished with brood-frames containing foundation-starters; enough of +the bees are taken to the hive with her to start a good colony, and the +deed is done. However, the fact remains that in this way the number of +colonies is increased as much as if the swarm had come off naturally. + +_By removing the queen._—Some apiarists remove the queen during the +honey-harvest and cut out all the queen cells. They give the queen a +nucleus if they wish more brood; meanwhile the colony will not swarm +without her. Whether queenless bees are as easy in their minds and, +therefore, as ready and enthusiastic in the task of gathering honey, +is a mooted question. Bees, like people, work to the best advantage +when they have fewest worries. One difficulty with this method is that +before we are aware of it a queen may be reared despite our careful and +onerous labours in hunting for queen cells. Another difficulty with +this practice is the encouragement of the egg-laying workers, which is +a most demoralising influence to introduce into a hive. + + +AFTER-SWARMS + +An after-swarm is one that is led by a virgin queen and may come off +within sixteen days after the first natural swarm departs; usually it +occurs within a week. Most bee-keepers consider the after-swarm as a +manifestation of “pure cussedness” on the part of a colony; but it is +only a poorly adjusted method practised by the bees for getting rid of +superfluous princesses. After the old queen decamps with her followers, +there are usually several queens ready to emerge from their cells; the +ordinary story, as told in books, is that the first queen that emerges +hastens to slay her yet helpless sisters, or battles with them singly +until but one queen is left in the hive; and this actually does occur +often. However, there are differences between bee-colonies, as there +are between individual people, and every young queen does not seem +blood-thirsty; or perhaps in some instances the citizens restrain her +from carrying out her murderous intent, and try to get rid of her by +sending her forth with as many followers as can well be spared from the +parent colony. Other queens may issue, and if this charitable instinct +still persists, another and still another swarm may be sent out. This +misguided kindness to young queens is as demoralising to the colony as +unwise giving of alms is in the human world, and finally a swarm may be +sent off so small that a teacup would hold it. Of course, this means +certain death to all of its members. Finally the limit of endurance is +reached, and with the last possible swarm are sent out all the young +queens left in the hive save the one retained as queen mother. Whether +the workers send out these burdensome members of royalty as a measure +of good riddance, or whether in their excitement they fail to guard +the queen cells and so let them out and they voluntarily join the +procession, is not as yet surely ascertained. One of the formalities +of the after-swarm is that before it occurs the queen sounds her +pibroch, a tune which probably excites her listening subjects to rash +departure. The bee-keeper gets to know this sound very well, and when +he hears it, he knows that an after-swarm will issue very soon unless +he does something immediately to prevent it. One thing particularly +exasperating about the after-swarm is that the virgin queen, being +lighter bodied and lighter minded than the old queen, may take the +occasion of swarming to get married, and go on her wedding journey; +and thus is likely to lead her followers a mad chase and leave her +proprietor so far in the rear that he loses the swarm entirely. + +For the real reason of after-swarming we must look upon the colony +as an individual; and as nature is wasteful in the production of +individuals, these weak after-swarms are analogous to the weaklings +among animals or plants, which must be sacrificed for some inscrutable +reason on the altar of the preservation of the species. + + +PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMS + +Mr. Hutchinson practises the following method: When the first swarm +comes off he places it in a new hive like the old one, and puts the new +hive on the exact site of the old one, while the latter is moved away +just a little and faces in a different direction than before. The new +hive has four or five frames with foundation-starters, and on it is +placed the super with partially filled sections from the old hive, with +a queen-excluding board between the two; thus the new swarm, having no +brood ready, will store in the supers until the brood-comb is built. +Most of the bees from the old hive, returning from the field, will +enter the new hive because the entrance to the old hive is turned away. +The old hive is then turned a little each day, until its entrance, +which should be contracted, is parallel to the entrance of the new +hive, and very close to it. If, on the seventh day after the first +swarm issued, the old hive be removed to some new location, its numbers +will have been so depleted that there will be no attempt to send off +after-swarms. + + +HOW TO UNITE COLONIES + +If two colonies are weak late in the season, it is often best to unite +them. This may be done by moving the hives nearer to each other, a +little each day, until they are side by side. The queen of one colony +is killed, the best frames from each hive are alternated with each +other in one hive, and the bees shaken into this; the other hive +removed, and the one remaining placed midway between where the two +stood. Sweetened water flavoured with peppermint may be sprayed over +both colonies just before uniting, so that they will all be scented +alike. The above is the method advised by Professor Cook. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE HIVE, AND HOW TO HANDLE IT + + +THE BROOD-CHAMBER + +The essential parts of a hive are the following: A bottom board, the +first story, or brood-chamber, containing frames for the support of the +combs, and a cover. When extracted honey is to be produced, a second +story like the first may be placed between it and the cover; when it +is desired to have the surplus honey stored in section-boxes, one or +more shallow stories containing the section-boxes are placed above the +brood-chamber; these shallow stories are known as the supers. + +Formerly the brood-chamber was a mere cubiform box with two horizontal +cross-pieces passing through the centre at right angles to each other +for the support of the combs. Sometimes the bee-keeper furnished the +bees with a hive made from a section of a hollow log, with a board +nailed over one end for a cover, or the hollow log was placed in a +horizontal position. Such a hive was known as a “bee-gum,” probably +because it was often made from the trunk of a gum tree; but the +bee-gums with which we were familiar in our childhood were made from +hollow basswood logs. + +To-day in every well-regulated apiary the brood-chamber is furnished +with the movable hanging frames for the support of the combs, which +were invented by Langstroth a half-century ago, or by some modification +of these frames. It was the invention of these frames that made +the science of modern bee-keeping possible. A large part of the +manipulations of the hive is dependent upon the ability to remove the +combs from the hive separately. Two of these frames, one empty and one +containing a sheet of foundation, are shown in Plate XII. These are of +one of the newer styles, known as the Hoffman self-spacing frames. In +these frames the upper part of the end-bars are wide, so that, when the +frames are in contact, there is room for a bee-way between the combs; +the lower part of the end-bars are narrower, so that the bees can pass +freely around the ends of the frames. + +In the old days, and at present in some apiaries where home-made frames +are used, the spacing between the frames has to be done by eye or +rather by finger; the thickness of the tip of the finger between two +frames being necessary to afford a bee-way. But with the new frames +in the market to-day this is done away with, as they are arranged to +space themselves, thus relieving the novice of much anxiety and some +embarrassment in deciding whether his finger is as thick as that of the +average apiarist. Also in these newer frames a little staple at each +end of the top sets each frame exactly right in relation to the ends of +the hive. + +Before the frame is placed in the brood-chamber it is to be supplied +with a sheet of comb-foundation; this insures the building of the comb +in the desired position, so the frames can be removed from the hive. +Bees do not naturally make their combs straight, but curve them so that +they are less likely to be broken. It is necessary, therefore, in order +to get straight combs to confine the operations of the bees within set +bounds; this is done by putting a sheet of foundation in each frame. + +One of the attractions of bee-keeping is that much of the material we +work with is pleasing, and some artistically beautiful. A sheet of +foundation-comb made of the most delicate wax, frescoed on either side +with rhomb insets in hexagonal pattern, is a joy to the artistic eye. +It is absolutely necessary that the foundation should be put into the +frame in such a manner that it will not sag or bulge when it is built +out into the comb and filled with the heavy honey or brood. To keep +these large sheets from bulging and breaking they are held in place +by fine wire which is strung back and forth across the frame, passing +through holes made with a small awl in the end-bars. These holes should +be about two inches apart, the upper one one inch from the top bar, and +the lower one something less than an inch from the bottom bar, making +four wires in the Langstroth frame. After these holes are made, put a +small tack at one end near the lower hole, twist the wire around it, +then thread the wire back and forth, making four wires parallel with +the top and bottom bars, and fasten the wire with a tack; care should +be taken not to draw the wire too tightly; simply draw up the slack. + +The sheets of foundation as sold by the dealers are a little smaller +than the space in the frame, so that when they are fastened to the top +bar a bee-space is left between the sheet and the bottom and end-bars. +See Plate XII. + +The sheet of foundation is fastened to the top bar of an ordinary frame +by means of a Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, which is simply a hollow +tube that may be dipped in and filled with the hot wax which issues +through a small hole at the sharp, bent end of the tube; as the point +is drawn along where the foundation and frame meet it leaves a stream +of hot wax that seals the two together. However, the most satisfactory +way is to get brood-frames, like the Hoffman, which have two grooves +in the top bar. Set the foundation in the groove at the centre, and +introduce a strip of wood which is wedge-shaped in cross-section, +thin edge first, into the adjoining groove, driving it or pressing +it in hard so that it pushes the thin partition over, and wedges the +foundation firmly in place. These strips for wedging come with the +frames. + +After the foundation is fastened to the top bar the frame and +foundation are laid, wire side up, on a board just the size of the +piece of foundation so that it will slip inside the frame. This +board is kept wet to prevent the wax from sticking to it. Then we +use the spur wire-embedder, which is like the tracing-wheel used by +dressmakers, except that the teeth are spread apart alternately so +that they pass astride the wire and press it down into the foundation; +to do this successfully, the foundation should be warm; working near +a lamp or in a warm room will suffice. Embedding the wires by heating +them with electricity instead of using the spur-embedder is a common +practice in large apiaries where electricity is available, or where it +pays to buy a battery with proper attachments. This outfit with the dry +cells costs about five dollars, and is a paying investment when the +apiary is large. (Plate III.) + + +THE SUPER + +The super is that part of the hive that is placed above the +brood-chamber and is designed to receive the surplus honey, either comb +or extracted. + +When extracted honey is produced the super may resemble the +brood-chamber described above, or it may not be so high, fitted +to receive a frame little more than half as deep as the standard +Langstroth frame used in the brood-chamber. + +When comb-honey is produced, the super is only about half as high as +the brood-chamber. For this reason a hive consisting of a brood-chamber +and one super for comb-honey is termed a one-and-a-half-story hive. +(Plate XV.) + +A complete super fitted for comb-honey consists of the following +parts: (1) The outer wall, which is of the same length and width +as the brood-chamber and of the right height to hold the style of +section-boxes used; on the lower side of each end a tin strip is +fastened to support the fixtures that it is to contain; (2) the +section-boxes; these are the wooden frames containing the comb-honey +when it is placed on the market; each holds about one pound of honey; +four of these are shown in the Plate XIV; (3) the section-holder; this +is a rack fitted to hold and support one row of section-boxes, as shown +in Plate XIV; when in place in the super, it rests on the strips of +tin mentioned above; (4) the fence; this is a device placed between +the rows of section-boxes to keep the bees from building the comb +beyond the edges of the section-boxes; the style used with the plain or +no-beeway section is shown in Plate III; the vertical cleats on this +fence provide for a bee-space between it and the section-boxes, so that +the bees can build out the comb even with the edge of the section-box; +(5) the super springs; these are three flat springs, fastened to the +inner face of one side-wall in such a way that they press the fences +and the section-boxes closely together. (Plate XII.) + +There are several types of supers in use that differ, in certain +details, from the one described above. In some, the rows of +section-boxes and fences are pressed together by thumb-screws which +pass through one side-wall of the super. Many bee-keepers still use +section-boxes with beeways, that is, boxes having the top and bottom +narrower than the two sides. When such boxes are used, the fences lack +the vertical slats, or posts; in fact, a simple strip of tin may serve +as a fence. + +Most of the section-boxes in use now are made of a single piece, which +is dovetailed at the ends and has three transverse V-shaped grooves cut +in one side so that it can be bent into shape, as shown in Plate II. +These flat basswood sections afford very pretty material with which +to work. The novice, in putting them together, almost always bends +them with grooves outside at the corners, instead of inside, and then +wonders why they are askew, and break. We wet the sections where they +are grooved before we begin working with them. This may be done by +brushing each individual flat with warm water, which is a very tedious +process; but it is better to take a handful of them as they lie, the +grooves all in a line, set them on edge and pour a little water from a +pitcher on the grooves. This wets many at a time with little trouble. +To set up a section, it should be taken in the hands, grooves up, +bend the ends upward evenly, fastening the dovetailed edges together +gently. Haste and jerkiness are as disastrous in handling sections as +in handling bees. + +The foundation for the comb-sections is much lighter in weight than +that intended for the brood-frames. Some apiarists fill the entire +section with this foundation, except for the bee-spaces at the bottom +and at the sides. But we never do this, unless we are obliged to do +it to coax the bees to use the supers; for it is not so satisfactory +as to use a narrow strip for a guide at the top of the section, as a +starter to show the bees where to build the comb. We cut these strips +about an inch deep and almost as wide as the section, and, with the +Daisy fastener, fix each strip at just the middle line of the upper +bar of the section. The objection to filling a section with a complete +sheet is, first, the expense of the foundation; and, secondly, that +it is likely to give a tough central portion or “fish-bone” to the +comb-honey. (Plate XIV.) + + +HOW TO PREPARE THE SUPER + +If they are not ordered set up ready for use, the supers come in flat +pieces with dovetailed ends, and putting them together is a pleasing +occupation, after one has learned how. The best way to learn how is +to carefully observe a super already properly set up; for, though the +directions for putting these together are as plain as may be, yet a +person may err therein and yet not be a fool. Unless one has learned, +or can learn, to drive a nail, one had best not undertake bee-keeping, +for the bee-keeper must become a carpenter to be successful; it adds +much to the interest of the occupation to make all sorts of things +for one’s own bees. The principle on which the super is built is that +it may hold the sections tightly in place, and not allow them to drop +through. Therefore, at the bottom of the super, along each narrower +end, is a tin strip to support the ends of the section-holders; to keep +the ends of the section-holders even a wedge-shaped strip of wood is +nailed across the end of the super, thick edge down and flush with the +bottom edge, resting against the tin strips. We use the Hetherington +super springs, one at each end and one at the middle of one side of the +super; the trick of putting these in is to set them opposite the +posts of the fence, one at either endpost, and one at the middle post, +else the spring will be of no use. Driving in the sharp end of this +spring successfully requires a little practice. The super is now ready +to be filled. (Plate XII.) + +[Illustration: PLATE XII + +(_a_) Two self-spacing frames; one of them fitted with a sheet of +foundation. + +(_b_) An empty super, showing the springs and the wedge-shaped piece at +the end. + +(_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE XIII. EXAMINING THE BROOD-FRAMES] + +First place a fence in the super on the side opposite the spring; then +a section-holder filled with four starters, always remembering that +these foundation-starters should be at the top of the section. Then +place another fence and another section-holder. The eight-frame super +will hold six of these rows, with fences between and one on each side. +Putting in the last fence is the final test of whether the springs are +in the right place, for, if they are right and press against the posts +of the fence, it will be very hard to push in this last fence; when it +is in, the sections are all held snugly in place. (Plates III, XV.) + +Where the super is placed on the hive, it should closely fit the top +of the brood-chamber, with no cracks between. If the hive has a flat +cover, which leaves only a bee-space above the sections, the cover +may be placed immediately above the super, with nothing between. With +covers like the telescope cover, a super-cover is needed. This may be a +quilt or a piece of enamelled cloth; but we prefer a super-cover made +of a thin board, bound on the ends to prevent warping, which is now on +the market. + + +HOW TO HANDLE THE BEES + +It is generally believed, and for good reasons, apparently, that bees +like some people and despise others, who are just as good, so far as +we can detect. This apparent capriciousness has been explained in many +ways. Some hold that the bees have a fine sense of smell, and thus +distinguish us by odours rather than by sight; and in this case their +ire is aroused because they do not like the perfume exhaled by the +obnoxious person. Others claim that it depends upon the movements; if +one moves nervously and quickly, he is much more subject to attacks. +It is certainly true that if a bee, which is buzzing threateningly, is +struck at, she becomes more enraged and is more certain to sting, but +this is because she recognises an aggressive foe because of the act. +However, the senior partner in our apiary is an exceedingly active and +nervous man, and I have seen him move with all haste and energy while +working with bees, and though he seldom uses bee-veil or gloves, he +is rarely stung. Our bees seem to be acquainted with him, and accept +his rapid movements as one of the common-places of bee existence. It +is well for anyone who wishes to work with bees to spend some time in +the bee-yard just watching the little citizens coming and going, and +listening to the peculiarly soothing hum which always fills the air +around the hives. It is sympathy with the bees more than actions that +finally results in handling them without harm. + + +HOW TO OPEN THE HIVE + +First of all, fire up the smoker. The way to do this properly is to +place some easily ignited material in the bottom of the fire-chamber, +touch a match to it, and crowd in above it material which will make +plenty of smoke, and will not burn too rapidly; give a puff or two with +the bellows to be sure that the fire is started. We have used excelsior +in our smoker because it was near at hand, but it is not a perfect or +lasting fuel. Fine chips, especially planer shavings, old rags, greasy +cotton waste, and even pine needles are used. Anything is desirable +that will make a smudge and will not burn out too quickly; for when +we are working with the bees we have little time or inclination to +stop and “putter” with the smoker; and we cannot afford to have the +smoke give out at the critical moment when we most need its protecting +incense. A minimum amount of fire with the maximum amount of smoke +is the desirable quality in the smoker. If the fire gets too hot the +blasts will burn the bees, which is an outrage, and which is never +permitted by a civilised individual. The Corneil smoker has a hook +attached to the bellows, so it may be hung on the edge of the open hive +to be at hand in time of need. If it becomes too hot, we lay it flat on +the ground so as to stop the draft. Each time after the smoker is used +it should be emptied, otherwise it is likely to start a conflagration. +We have an ash pail near the apiary in which we always empty the +smoker on our way back to the bee-room. Mr. Root speaks of never using +the smoker until it is needed; when his bees trouble him, he gently +pats them on the back with a little grass to get them out of his way +as he lifts up the frames. And we never can admire Mr. Root enough +for dealing thus gently with his bee-people. But we would not advise +the novice to try this, as a person has to be on very intimate terms +with bees to be able to pat them on the back with grass and impunity. +However, this is an ideal to work toward. The nervous beginner almost +invariably uses too much smoke, and this makes his little dependents +unhappy. The breathing of smoke is hardly a pleasant experience for +us, and it seems to be still more distressing to the bees. We remember +once how, in the enthusiasm of our novitiate, we inadvertantly smoked +the bee-man instead of the bees in our misguided efforts to help, and +the result was a blueness of the atmosphere which rendered more smoke +superfluous. Every beginner ought to get at least one headache from the +fumes of the smoker to teach him charity and care. + +There are several reasons why the hive must be opened, aside from the +fun one derives from the experience. First, the brood needs to be +examined occasionally to see that it is all right, and in the fall the +brood-comb must be examined to see that there is enough honey stored +within it to winter the bees. Second, during the swarming season to +find and remove the queen cells. Third, to hunt for the queen to be +sure she is present and active, or perchance to find her and clip her +wings. Fourth, to take off supers filled with honey. A warm day should +be selected for opening the hive for whatever reason, and the middle +of the day is the best time for the work. + +Send two or three puffs of smoke in at the entrance to drive back the +frightened sentinels who keep careful watch of the portals of the hive. +Then lift one edge of the cover of the hive a little and send two or +three puffs in the crack; then lift off the cover and set it down +beside you; then lift the quilt or super-cover at one edge, and give +two or three puffs of smoke beneath it to drive the bees down among the +frames, always remembering that under ordinary circumstances a very +little smoke is necessary to frighten and subdue the bees. In fact the +same rule applies to smoking bees as to smoking tobacco; if one is +moderate in its use, the least harm will result. + + +HOW TO EXAMINE THE BROOD-CHAMBER. (Plate VIII.) + +Stand at one side of the hive, and not in front of it. Hang the smoker +on the side of the hive, so as to have it within reach. Mr. Root +advises sitting on the cover of the hive set on edge while you examine +the brood-frame. This will do for a well-poised person, but we prefer a +little stool, which we can carry easily from hive to hive, as we wish +something that we can sit on calmly as the situation requires. Commence +at one side and loosen the outside section with a knife, or what is +better, an old screw-driver. Take the frame by the projecting ends, +and lift it up so that you may examine it on one side, then twirl it +half-way over to examine it on the other. It requires some experience +to placidly lift out a frame, covered with what at first sight looks +like a dark, boiling, viscous fluid, fit only for a witch’s cauldron, +but which soon to the startled eye resolves itself into bee particles. +If the brood must be examined or queen cells found, then it becomes +necessary to get rid of this seething, enveloping bee-mass, which is +done in a manner that seems like nothing less than tempting Providence. +The brood-frame is seized firmly in the operator’s hands, and held +about waist high in front of the hive, then let to drop, hands and +all, swiftly to within about six inches of the doorstep of the hive, +then suddenly jerked back again; the bees being heavy and receiving +the downward impetus, keep right on as a man keeps on when his bicycle +stops suddenly in a rut—with this difference that the bees land safely +at the entrance of the hive, into which they scamper as soon as their +dazed wits will allow. One would naturally think that the bees would +attack the active agent of this indignity, but while bees are ever +ready to fight recognised enemies, they have evolved no plan of action +which is equal to a cataclysm, except to get under cover as soon as +possible. Thus being shaken from their foundations is to them what an +earthquake is to us, and the attitude of Riley’s boy is theirs. + + “Where’s a boy a-goin’ an’ what’s he goin’ to do, + An’ how’s he goin’ to do it, when the world bu’sts through?” + +Thus it is that among the first accomplishments of the apiarist is the +one that enables him skilfully and with dispatch, and without harming +the individuals to shake the surprised little mob off the frame or out +of the boxes, to a place where its members may recover shelter and +equanimity as expeditiously as possible. + +After the comb is freed from the bees, it requires some experience with +honey-comb topography to see at a glance just the condition of the +brood. There may be cells that look empty until a ray of light reveals +at the bottom a glistening egg; and there may be cells with a little +milky substance at the bottom in which the young larva is floating; or +in some cells the bee grubs may be distinctly seen if they are four +or five days old. If the cells are capped, it may puzzle the novice +to know what lies behind that closed waxen door. If the cells contain +honey, the substance of which the cap is made is whiter than that which +covers the brood. In case of worker-brood the cap is depressed slightly +below the plane of the comb, which is not the case if the cells contain +honey. The large size of the drone cells distinguishes them readily +from the cells of the workers. Often honey is stored in drone cells, +for the bees seem to like to make these larger cells, and for good +reason, since they give greater storage capacity for the amount of wax +used. However, the drone cells which contain brood are covered with +dark, dirty, yellow caps which are quite convex, looking like kopjes +on the comb plain. At the height of the honey season there should be +plenty of brood, and later the cells in the brood-frames should be +filled with honey. The cells containing bee-bread are not capped, as +this staff of bee life is packed so hard that it does not need to be +covered. All honey remains uncapped until it is properly evaporated and +ripened. (Plate VIII.) + +After one frame has been thus examined, it should be leaned up against +the side of the hive so as to give space to lift out the next frame +without crushing the bees. + + +HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN CELL + +Fortunately for us, this is quite prominent, being a veritable oriel +in shape. However, there may be other excrescences of the comb which +somewhat resemble a queen cell; sometimes the queen cell may be more +or less embedded and so escape observation. The bee-keeper who is +cocksure that he can find all the queen cells in his hives has to be +most experienced, and even then cocksureness may come to grief. But +this unglazed oriel window in which the queen develops is usually quite +noticeable, and is ordinarily decorated with a small, hexagonal pattern +in relief. We have often wondered if this was done for the sake of +decoration, or because the bees are so in the habit of fashioning wax +into hexagonal patterns that they do it involuntarily. For the person +who rashly asserts that honey-comb is the result of fortuitous force +and pressure, this queen cell with its hexagonal frescoes is a poser. +(Plate V.) + +To cut out the queen cell a sharp, pointed knife is necessary, in +order to injure the comb beneath the cell as little as possible. + + +HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN + +If we simply need assurance that the queen is present and active, the +discovery of eggs or young larvæ in the cells is sufficient evidence +of her presence, and saves the tiresome search for her majesty. But +if we wish to find her, she is usually present on the middle frame of +the hive. It is not safe to pull out this middle frame from the narrow +place which it occupies for fear of hurting the queen and crushing +the other bees; so it is best always to take out an end frame, first +looking at it carefully to make sure she is not upon it; then shake off +the bees and set it beside the hive, and move the other frames along +in the space thus made until we are able to remove the middle frame +with ease. It requires some experience to ferret out the queen from +the bee-mob which seethes over the comb. The burly, big, blunt-ended +drones are much more readily detected. However, after a little training +in the devious ways of royalty one becomes expert in seeing that +long, graceful, pointed body extending far back of the wings which +characterises the queen. If the bees are not too much disturbed, she +is likely to be surrounded by a rosette of workers, all with their +faces toward her, for even in the court of the hive etiquette does not +permit that the ladies-in-waiting turn their backs to the queen. If for +any reason the queen is to be lifted out, she should be seized by the +wings or thorax or imprisoned in a queen trap, but never under any +circumstances should she be seized by the abdomen. (Plate XVI, Queen +trap.) + + +CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WINGS + +This does not mean cutting off all four of the wings, but that the +wings on one side should be clipped, leaving stubs not more than an +eighth of an inch long. Various devices have been invented to aid +clumsy hands in cutting off the royal petticoats. One, the Monette +queen-clipping device, is a little cone-shaped cage made of wire laid +in spirals. She goes into this cage head first and the door is shut +behind her. Then the scissors are slipped between the spirals at the +proper point and the deed is done. Another simple device is a bit of +section-board whittled in the shape of a tiny bootjack with a rubber +band stretched rather tightly across the prongs. The forks are placed +across the queen so that the rubber presses against the thorax, thus +pinning her fast to the comb while she is barbered. The only skill +needed in this device is in fixing the tension of the rubber band so +that it will be sufficient to hold her majesty fast, and yet not stiff +enough to hurt her. Our invariable plan is as follows: After the queen +is discovered, we hold the brood-frame in one hand, pick up her royal +highness in the other most gently, then still more gently set the frame +down, leaning it against the hive; then, holding her royal person +firmly but carefully in our own unworthy thumb and fingers, clip her +wings with presuming scissors; then, putting the scissors down as we +pick up the frame, and put her back as nearly as possible on the spot +where we found her. We always use the sharp-pointed embroidery scissors +for this delicate operation. + + +HOW TO TAKE OFF HONEY IN SUPERS + +Lift the hive cover and quilt with a slight introduction of smoke, +then lift off completely. Smoke from above for a moment, being very +careful not to burn the bees, always remembering that smoke is meant +to scare and not to punish. Then loosen the super with a screw-driver +if the bees have fastened it down with bee glue, lift it and place +it on a bottom board near at hand. Put on an unfilled super if it is +needed and cover the hive. Lift the honey-sections out of the super, +brushing off the adhering bees with a bee-brush, so that they will fall +on the doorstep of the hive, and place each section as it is cleaned +in a basket or box in which it is to be carried to the store-room. +This is our usual way of procedure when our apiary is small, and we +do this work during spare moments which are not predictable the night +before. However, there is one best way to do this work, and that is +to put on a Porter bee-escape the night before the super is to be +removed. Wise from experience, we advise beginners to study this device +and become imbued with a knowledge of its workings to the extent of +being able to tell which is the upper and which the under side, lest +disastrous results ensue and all of the bees escape into the super +instead of out of it. If the bee-escape is placed on the night before, +there will be no bees in the super when it is removed next day. To +introduce a bee-escape one does not need to lift off the super; simply +lift it up at one side, send a little smoke into the crack, push in +the bee-escape, and then set it straight upon the hive and the super +straight upon it. (Plates III, XVIII.) + +The novice might conclude that a good plan would be simply to set off +the super near the hive, and let the bees find their own way back to +their brood and kindred. But bee-nature has to be reckoned with in this +instance, and the bees, conscious that the honey is their own, are +likely to uncap the cells and carry the honey into the hive; or worse +still, the bees from other hives will be attracted to these open stores +and will begin to rob. And in the bee courts of equity, when bees begin +to rob, then the “devil is to pay.” + +There have been various bee-tents devised under which the supers are +placed after being removed from the hive. These tents are arranged with +a little hole at the top by which the bees may escape, but may not +return. Doctor Miller invented a simple plan of piling several supers +filled with honey on top of each other, leaving no crevices between +them; over these was spread a cloth with a hole in the middle, over +which was placed a wire cone with a hole in the top large enough to let +a bee pass out. Thus the bees from all of the sections escaped, one +by one, and robbing was avoided. However, the bee-escapes introduced +between the super and the hives are used to-day by most enterprising +bee-men. + + +OBSERVATION-HIVES (Frontispiece) + +Anyone who has worked long with bees, cannot fail to become filled +with curiosity concerning the way their work is carried on in the +mysterious darkness of the hive; to such a person, the observation-hive +is a source of perennial delight, as well as of interesting and useful +knowledge. + +Observation-hives have been used by bee-keepers from the time of Huber +to the present, and naturally many forms of them have been devised. The +type in most common use now is a small hive, containing one, two or +three frames, and furnished with glass sides, through which the bees +can be observed. The glass sides are covered with a door or curtain, +except when observations are being made; for, if not, the bees will +cover the glass with a coat of propolis, rendering it opaque. + +It is somewhat difficult to keep a colony in good condition upon a +single frame; and if two or more frames are used side by side the +observer is unable to see what goes on between the frames. Professor +Kellogg, of Stanford University, has devised a perfectly satisfactory +two-frame observation-hive for his laboratory. It consists of a +glass-sided box, large enough to hold two Langstroth frames, one above +the other; as both sides of the comb are exposed, any individual bee +may be kept constantly in sight while she is working. The passage +which leads from the hive to the opening in the window has a glass +top, so the actions of the bees as they enter the hive may be watched. +A hood of thick black cloth is pulled down over the hive when the +observations are finished. Similar observation hives may be purchased +of dealers in apiarists’ supplies. + +Such an observation-hive would be of great value to the enterprising +bee-keeper, as it would be the means of helping him to understand +conditions which were puzzling, and thus aid him in dealing with crises +that are sure to occur. The advantage of this hive over any other is +that frames from any hive may be kept under closest observation. But +if the hive were a means of interest merely, it would still be worth +while, for the bee-keeper cannot know too much about the ways of bees, +_supposing all he knows is true_. + + +MAXIMS FOR OPENING THE HIVE + +Have the smoker ready to give forth a good volume of smoke. + +Use the smoker to scare the bees rather than to punish them. + +Do not stand in front of the hive lest the bees passing out and in take +umbrage. + +Be careful not to drop any implements with which you are working; take +hold of all things firmly. + +Move steadily, and not nervously. + +Do not run if frightened, for the bees understand what running away +means as well as you do. + +If the bees attack you, move slowly away, smoking them off as you go. + +If a bee annoys you by her threatening attitude for some time, kill her +ruthlessly. + +If stung by a bee, rub off the sting, instead of pulling it out with +the nails of the thumb and forefinger and thus forcing more venom into +the wound. + +Ammonia applied to the wound made by a bee-sting will usually afford +immediate relief. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +DETAILS CONCERNING HONEY + + +HOW TO MAKE COMB-HONEY + +Every bee-keeper who sends to the market honey in the comb enfolded in +an attractive carton, or with the section neatly glazed, has produced a +work of art; for comb-honey as now marketed is an æsthetic production, +and the bee-keeper is an artist as much as if he had painted a +picture or had fashioned a jewel. To most people who have an apiary +as a pleasurable adjunct to life in the country, the production of +comb-honey is most attractive, while the production of extracted honey +does not appeal to them at all. Just the word “honey” calls to the mind +of most people a vision of amber sweetness set in white-walled, waxen +cells. + +The production of comb-honey is attended by more difficulties than +is the production of extracted honey. The reason for this is largely +because the bees work more readily in cells already made from which +the honey has been extracted, than they do in sections where they +must undertake all of the expense and labour of producing wax for the +comb. More than this, honey may be extracted from the comb of the +brood-chambers, a harvest which is lost to the producer of comb-honey. + +[Illustration: PLATE XIV + +(_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap. + +(_b_) A well filled section. + +(_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled with section-boxes, in +which are foundation-starters; two of these have been added to by the +bees.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + +PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey; the super is filled +with section-boxes.] + +For the production of comb-honey it is necessary that the colony +winter in excellent condition and develop much well-fed brood early +in the season, so that there shall be a great number of active young +workers in the hive just before the chief honey-harvest of the summer +begins. In New York State we have two large honey harvests, that of +the basswood in July and the buckwheat in August, so our colonies are +made strong and ready by the last of June. In order to have the bees +ready to work, the swarming fever must be subdued or controlled before +this period of honey-flow. The colonies are carefully watched early in +the season, and if after the first pollen-gathering occurs there is no +honey coming in, the bees are fed so that the brood may be developed. +We rarely have to feed at this season of the year as the fruit bloom +gives our bees plenty of honey for rearing their brood, and we never +expect any surplus before the basswood season. + +The supers are put on when there is plenty of brood and plenty of honey +to feed to it in the hive; and under such conditions our bees, though +Italians, usually push up into the sections at once. We prepare the +sections with mere strips of wax foundation for starters. (Plate XIV.) + +Supers thus equipped put on at this time and under such conditions seem +to take away all desire to swarm on the part of the bees, if the queen +cells have been previously removed. + +If the brood-chambers are crowded when the super is put on, the queen +may go up into it and start brood. This rarely occurs with us, but in +case it does a queen-excluding honey-board may be introduced between +the super and the brood-chamber. Sometimes a colony seems unwilling +to go into the super after it has been added, and the bees will hang +on the outside of the hive and threaten to swarm, and through doubt +and vacillation lose two or three of the precious days of the basswood +harvest. + +The usual reason why the bees will not go into the super is that they +are not sufficiently crowded below; if they have room they prefer to +store their honey in the brood cells rather than carry it to the upper +story. + +If a colony is strong and has plenty of brood and honey and is still +obstinate, men of experience advise the taking of a frame of sections +from a colony which is storing in the supers and putting bees and all +in the midst of the unused super of the reluctant colony. We have never +tried this because we were never obliged to. It sounds very practical +and sensible, and it is practised by Mr. Root, and that is sufficient +recommendation. + +Our way of coaxing the bees into a super which they have sedulously +ignored is to place in it some of the imperfect sections, which are not +worth much in the market and which contain some capped honey and many +empty cells. One section-holder filled in this way seems to encourage +the reluctant colony to climb and to store as rapidly as possible. + +In large apiaries the following plan is followed: First, put on a super +of shallow extracting frames from which the honey has been removed; as +these cells are all ready, the bees are likely to go to work in them +at once; and after they are working well raise the super, and put in +one below it filled with sections containing starters, and all will be +well. In dealing with this phase of bee-keeping it is well to remember +that full sheets of foundation in the sections are more attractive to +the bees than starters; and that sections containing comb already made +are still more pleasing, and if some of these made cells contain honey, +their attractiveness is doubled. One condition should be observed in +putting on a super in the summer: it should be shaded in some way; if +it is in the direct rays of the sun, the heat is likely to keep the +bees out of it. However, later in the season bees may be induced to +work in the super by placing over it a cushion so that it will be warm. + + +TIERING UP + +If the honey is coming in at a good rate, and the bees are working +well, when the sections in the super are something more than half +full, lift it up and place another containing sections with starters +beneath it. The reason for this is that the bees would not naturally +go into the empty super if it were placed on top until the other was +completely filled. But with this plan they continue working in the +super, even though it be on top, and meanwhile find it “handy” to fill +the intervening sections. If the honey-flow is great, even another +super may be placed next the hive and below the other two. However, in +our practice we rarely put on more than two, usually taking off the +top one when we need to interpolate another. This process is called +“storifying” in the English books, which is a most graphic term and +should be introduced into our nomenclature. + + +TAKING OFF SECTIONS. (Plate XX.) + +In taking off the sections we do not need to wait for the completion +of every one in the super. The outside rows are rarely perfect, and we +usually put these unfinished sections back on some other hive to be +finished. + +These unfinished sections, if not too empty, serve very well to sweeten +the daily bread of the home table. If sent to the market they bring low +prices, and the bee-keeper who is working for comb-honey should plan to +have as few of them as possible. While the honey left long in the super +has a much finer flavour than that which is removed early, yet care +should be taken not to leave the sections on the hive so long that the +comb becomes soiled. It is an interesting fact that honey ripened in +the hive gains special richness, as if it were somehow imbued with the +spirit of the little socialists that make it. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Brown Brothers_ + + PLATE XVI. Drone and queen trap, below; queen mailing and + introducing cage, above at the left; queen-protector and + queen-cage used in queen-rearing, in centre; and bee-escape, at + the right.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XVII. “IN APPLE-BLOSSOM TIME”] + +Toward the end of the season it is best not to tier up, but to place an +empty super on top. The bees will not use it unless necessary, but will +devote their energies to the sections below. The great danger to be +avoided in tiering up is a surplus of partly filled sections, and the +way we avoid this is not to interpolate a super until the one on the +hive is at least three-fourths filled. + + +STAINED SECTIONS + +A regular part of bee exercise consists of promenading up and down +and across the sealed honey; the bee has not as yet, unfortunately, +attained the fastidiousness which leads her to wipe any of her six feet +carefully before entering her domicile, consequently the sections of +honey thus walked over may be stained and unmarketable. There is no +remedy for this except to look after the supers carefully, and take out +the sections before they are soiled. + +Some sections may look dirty because old wax is used in making the +caps. If such is the case, and it is simply yellow, the wax may be +bleached by standing it in the sun or by subjecting it to sulphur +fumes. Some apiarists have special rooms and others tight boxes for +the sulphur bleaching. Only two things are necessary to accomplish +this successfully; first, that the room or box be tight; second, that +the sulphur placed in an iron dish be heated so that the fumes are +strong and all-pervading. Some say that the sulphur should be heated +so that if a match be touched to it, it will flame. The combs need not +be subjected to such fumes more than a half-hour to become as white as +they can be bleached. + + +SCRAPING THE SECTIONS + +In preparing comb-honey for the market, it is necessary to first +scrape the propolis from the sections so as to leave the wood white +and beautiful. To do this the section should be set square on and in +line with the edge of a table, and below should be a pan to receive the +scrapings. Hold the section firmly in one hand and scrape the side that +is in line with the edge of the table with a downward stroke of the +knife; a case-knife is best for this. To scrape the wood clean and not +in any way injure the honey, and to do the work rapidly, measure the +skill attained in this business. In scraping the sections it is best +to have four of the shipping-boxes at hand, so that the honey may be +graded and placed in its proper class as it is cleaned. + + +GRADING COMB-HONEY + +First, as to the way the sections are filled, or in other words, as to +the bee technique. There are three grades—Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. In +the fancy grade almost every cell is well filled, and the comb has the +surface evenly built and well capped. No. 1 has an even surface and is +well filled, but may not be so perfect in the corners as is the fancy. +No. 2 must be at least three-fourths full. Anything below No. 2 is +called chunk honey if sold in the comb, but it is more profitable to +extract honey from all sections that range below No. 2. + +Second, as to the colour of honey: It is graded as white, amber, +buckwheat and dark, and these need no explanation. Thus honey is listed +perhaps as “fancy white,” or “fancy buckwheat”; in each case it is the +best of its kind. + + +SHIPPING-CASES + +These should be ordered rather than made, as a good-looking +shipping-case adds materially to the value of the honey. These cases +come in different sizes, and have one side made of glass so that the +handlers may see that the contents are fragile, and therefore may +possibly be persuaded to deal with them gently; the cases come in flats +and are easily put together. For anything that looks so well put up +as honey sealed in its perfect cells, it has a most amazing capacity +for leaking. Once, in the enthusiasm of girlhood and inexperience, I +carried some honey carefully packed in a box in my trunk, hoping to +give a friend a treat. Needless to say that honey was “linked sweetness +long drawn out,” by the time I arrived at my destination; and all the +clothes that I carried in my trunk were literally “too sweet for any +use.” + +Shipping comb-honey to market is likely to be a disastrous performance +at best, since it is almost impossible to guard against careless +handling. Some ship in glass-covered sections which protect the comb, +and make a very attractive appearing product. + +Shipping the sections in cartons is winning its way now for fancy +grades. A carton is a pasteboard box which may be bought in flats with +the shipper’s name printed upon it. While these cartons may be bought +in almost any style, from perfectly plain to those highly ornamented, +and provided with tape handles, yet we believe there is a chance for +personal initiative in this particular field. An artistic design in +pretty colours, individual and unique, would certainly prove a special +attraction for selling honey in cartons. The great advantage gained +from the use of the carton is that the honey reaches the consumer in a +neat package without further handling, and may be carried like a box +of bonbons. When cartons are used the shipping case should be a size +larger than for the plain sections. + + +MARKETING COMB-HONEY + +There are two ways of marketing honey open to most bee-keepers. First +and best, the local market. If the honey can be placed in the hands of +the grocer directly from the bee-keeper, certain advantages accrue. The +comb is not broken by much careless handling, and it reaches the market +in good shape. Though the price may be somewhat lower perhaps than the +highest quoted prices, yet it is reliable, and there is no discount for +breakage in shipping, and for differences of opinion in grading. It is +certainly far more satisfactory for all concerned to place comb-honey +on the home market; this is usually practicable for all except the +greater apiarists. We know one man who has about forty hives, and who +lives in a town of about three hundred inhabitants; though he produces +a reasonable amount of honey he very inadequately supplies the demand +for it in this little village, and he receives city prices. + +The second and least desirable method of marketing comb-honey is to +ship it to a commission merchant. If this is done, it is well to select +a middleman in whom we have absolute confidence, or we are likely soon +to become pessimistic regarding his honesty; so frequently is the price +of honey reduced on account of breakage and leaking and other accidents +which this very frail delicacy is heir to, that we rarely realise the +prices quoted in the newspapers. If a good middleman can be found, +then our advice is to stick to him, and send him the very best product +possible, fairly graded and in the most attractive form, hoping that he +may be able to do for us what we should do for ourselves, and that is, +work up a special market. + + +STORING COMB-HONEY + +It is far better to market comb-honey the year it is made. However, if +it is to be stored, it must be placed in a room that has a constant +temperature above 60°F. It is best to fumigate the sections if there +is any danger from the bee-moth, for this little rascal will destroy a +great amount of comb-honey in a very short time. (See “Bee-Moth.”) + + +CANDIED COMB-HONEY + +Some kinds of honey will granulate much sooner than others. The longer +the honey is left in the hive and the more perfectly it is ripened, +the less liable it is to granulate. Extracted honey will candy much +sooner than honey left in the comb. We have kept comb-honey more than +a year without crystals appearing in it. The only way to prevent +comb-honey from candying is to keep it in a temperature that does not +fall below 60 degrees. After honey is candied in the comb, nothing can +be done with it except to sell it at a lower price, or keep it to feed +back to the bees. The latter is probably the most profitable way to +dispose of it. Some people like comb-honey after it is granulated and +the home-table may use a certain amount of it. + + +MAXIMS FOR PRODUCING COMB-HONEY + +Keep the colonies strong. + +The bees should be kept warm and well fed in the spring. + +The bees must have wintered well. + +The colony must have brood and plenty of honey in the brood-chambers at +the beginning of the honey season. + +Never let the honey in sections or supers be exposed in the apiary to +incite robbery. + +Keep the sections in a room in which the temperature never falls below +60°. + +Fumigate the sections before they are stored if you are troubled with +bee-moth. + +Send the honey to market in as attractive form as possible. Make your +product individual in appearance, and strive to create for it a special +market. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EXTRACTED HONEY + + +HOW TO PRODUCE IT + +It is certainly fortunate for bee-keepers that centrifugal force is +one of the unalterable laws of the physical world. However, this force +might never have been of any use to the apiarist had it not been +for a certain Major Francesco de Hruschka of Venice, who is a most +interesting figure in the history of bee-keeping. Next in importance to +the invention of the movable frames by the venerable Langstroth was the +invention of the honey-extractor. We have a picture of Major Hruschka +in our minds as not only a brave man of war as indicated by his +military rank, but also as a happy man of peace, who loved his hives +with their little citizens, and who also possessed notable domestic +virtues and loved the companionship of his children and was interested +in their doings. For it was when his little son accompanied him to +his apiary and, having a comb full of honey set up in a basket, began +whirling it boy-like by the rope attached to the handle, that the Major +discovered the honey was being thrown out of the comb by this action. +Instead of spanking the boy as most fathers would have done, the +thoughtful Major cogitated on the fact that such a simple motion should +have emptied the comb of honey, and he straightway proceeded to invent +the first honey-extractor. This was in 1865; up to that time the liquid +honey was extracted by a method which we remember well. The comb was +crushed, and with it too often, alas! the dead bees, larvæ and any dirt +whatsoever that happened to be present; this mixture was suspended in +a cloth bag, over a tub or vat in a warm room; and the honey, carrying +with it much of the débris, slowly dripped out reeking with an aroma +and a flavour quite unknown in these regenerate days, and forming a +product that may well be spared from the world’s marts. + +Since 1865, many honey-extractors have been invented in America, +and almost all of them which have survived the test of use are +satisfactory. The perfection of the invention is an automatically +reversible machine with ball bearings, highly geared in order to attain +the maximum of steadiness and rapidity with the appliance of a minimum +of power. + +The principle of construction underlying all of the best extractors is +a cylindrical can containing wire pockets in which the combs are set on +edge, and which are revolved by being geared to a crank at the top of +the can. There is room for more or less honey below the wire pockets, +and at the bottom of the can is a faucet or honey gate, through which +the extracted honey may be drawn off into a pail or vat. + +The extractor is a very excellent adjunct to any apiary, however +small, even if comb-honey is the chief product, for it saves much honey +that otherwise would be wasted. When the apiary consists of less than +forty hives of bees, one of the small non-reversible extractors may be +used. These weigh less and cost less; but every frame of comb has to be +taken out after the honey has been extracted on one side and reversed +and put back in order to clear the honey from the other side. Though +the automatic reversible machine costs more and is heavier, it is far +more satisfactory on the whole, if there is much honey to be extracted. + + +EXTRACTING-FRAMES + +The frames used for extracting honey are in form similar to those +which hold the brood, except they may not be so deep. However, most +bee-keepers use both supers containing the shallow extracting-frames, +and also those filled with frames of the full depth. The bees will go +into the shallow frames more readily than into the deeper ones, as they +are better able to keep the small chambers warm. But if the colony is +very strong and the harvest good, the deeper frames are acceptable to +the bees and save the time of the bee-keeper. (Plate XVIII.) + + +WHEN TO EXTRACT HONEY + +Some producers practice extracting the honey before it is capped, so +as to save the trouble and expense of uncapping. There is one danger +attending this method: the green, unripened honey is thus often +extracted, and it is the most insipid of sweets. Honey needs to ripen +slowly in a warm temperature in order to be palatable. Some, like +Quinby, advocate the ripening of honey in vats or evaporators after +it has been extracted. But it is the consensus of opinion that honey +to be of perfect flavour needs to ripen in the warm, bee-odour-laden +atmosphere of the hive. The bees ordinarily leave the honey uncapped +for some time as it thus ripens more readily. Therefore, those who +produce an especially fine quality of extracted honey usually begin +to tier up as soon as the super is fairly filled and before the honey +is capped. The bees have ample room to go on storing honey in the +interpolated super, and do not bother to cap the honey already stored +above. Thus these supers, three or four or as many as practicable, are +left on the hive until the end of the honey harvest, and thus the honey +attains its proper ripeness and flavour. + +There are others who claim that honey is never properly ripened until +capped, and therefore practice tiering after the cells of comb are at +least partly covered. + + +UNCAPPING. (Plate XIX.) + +There are various knives invented for this process, the Bingham +uncapping knife being the favourite. It is used thus: The frame +containing the honey standing on one end and leaning over a receptacle +for the caps is held with the left hand, the knife in the right hand +begins at the bottom of the comb and running backward and forward as +it is moved upward shears off very neatly the covering of the cells. +The knife must be very sharp, and skill in cutting is shown in just the +merest film of wax which is removed. A pan of hot water should be at +hand on an oil stove perhaps; every time a sheet of capping is removed, +the knife needs to be scraped on a stick, which will not dull it; and +quite often it should be dipped in the hot water to clean it. If there +is much uncapping to be done, it is best to have two knives, keeping +one in the pan; for cleanliness and heat are quite as potent factors as +is sharpness in making the uncapping knife effective. + +There are on the market uncapping-cans, the Dadant being the most +popular. It is a double can with an arrangement on top convenient for +holding the end of the frame on a pivot and with wooden cross-pieces on +which the knife may be wiped. Below there is a wire screen for holding +the cappings, with a space in the bottom of the can for the honey which +drains off, and which is always of the most excellent and delicious +quality. Of course, the cappings are saved to be made into beeswax. + + +CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY + +Honey, whether in the comb or out, will crystallise when subjected +to low temperature or when left standing for a long time. However, +extracted honey crystallises much more readily than that which is in +combs; and this crystallisation is one of the problems of putting up +and marketing extracted honey. To prevent it extracted honey should +be evaporated until it is thick, sealed while hot in air-tight cans, +and kept in a room the temperature of which never falls below 65° F. +It should be kept in tin or galvanised iron cans, rather than in wood. +Some people seem to have been successful in using wooden vessels for +holding the honey after having given them a coating of wax; but the way +honey gets through small places is more proverbial among bee-keepers +than is the ability of the stingy man to do the same; even when a tub +or pan seems water-tight the honey will triumphantly work its passage +through. + +[Illustration: PLATE XVIII + +Taking off upper story of hive containing combs for extracting. The +bees have been moved from the supers by the bee-escape seen at the +right. + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + + Extracting-room showing extractor, strainer, uncapping can, + bee-escape, smoker, uncapping knife, gloves, funnel, supers and + sections, extractor pocket containing extracted sections, partly + filled sections as yet uncapped, extracting frame with comb, etc.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XIX + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Uncapping comb before extracting the honey. + +Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the extractor.] + +In order to preserve extracted honey in packages it must be canned +or bottled, and the air entirely excluded. There are two methods of +accomplishing this: First, the honey is heated in bulk, and run off +into hot cans or bottles. Second, the honey is put in the bottles +first and then heated; in both cases the honey is heated by hot water. +Perhaps the easier method is to heat it in bulk, and if there is not at +hand a double boiler, one can be improvised by using a wash-boiler in +which pails containing the honey may be set. In any case the honey and +the water surrounding it should be of the temperature of the room to +begin with; then a slow, steady fire is needed to bring the temperature +of the water up to 160° F. Mr. Root advises the use of a gasoline stove +for this purpose as the heat may thus be carefully regulated, and it is +very important that the process be a slow one. After the temperature of +the honey reaches 160° F. it may be poured into freshly scalded cans +or bottles and sealed, air-tight. If bottles are used, the corks should +have paraffine poured over them so as to make sure of excluding the air. + + +PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY. (Plate XXI.) + +Mason fruit jars are extensively used for this as they are practical, +cheap and useful afterward. The No. 25 honey-jar, somewhat resembling +the Mason can, is made purposely for putting up honey, and is +attractive in appearance. The Muth bottles are made in four sizes for +extracted honey; the largest holding two pounds, and the smallest a +quarter of a pound. These bottles are decorated with a design of an old +straw skep, and bear the prophetic inscription “pure honey” moulded +into the glass. Jelly-glasses are often used and paraffined paper is +placed over the honey, just as it is placed over jelly to exclude the +air before the tin cover is put on. Glass packages are by all means the +most attractive for extracted honey in small quantities. However, tin +pails of various sizes are in use, and may be serviceable for a cheap +and inferior grade of honey, which is thus made ready for the consumer +who is willing to buy “aside unseen.” But a fine quality of honey +rejoices in the light of day and in the scrutiny of eyes which may look +at it first critically and then longingly. + +The most practical packages for shipping honey in quantity are the +large, square cans in common use which hold sixty pounds each. These +are convenient for shipping and for measuring and are safe from +breakage. + +The advantages of extracted honey over that of comb-honey are: Almost +double the honey may be produced, because the bees having no comb to +build, devote their energies to storing honey; and also the honey from +the brood-combs may be extracted; it is more easily and safely handled +and shipped; it is more easily produced, since the bees work more +readily in the emptied cells of the extracted combs than in sections +where they are obliged to build new cells; swarming is more easily +controlled, because the bees more readily accept the enlargement of +their quarters when the supers contain fully made comb, also larger +hives may be used. + +The disadvantages are: It is more “mussy” and requires special +apparatus; and unless great care is given, the bees will be starved +through this convenient way of pilfering their stores. + + +MAXIMS FOR THE PRODUCER OF EXTRACTED HONEY + +Use glass or tin, rather than wood, for honey receptacles. + +Be careful not to expose the honey as you take it out of the supers, +lest the bees begin robbing. + +Honey should be canned while hot, and kept from the air. + +Heating honey to a higher temperature than 160° destroys its flavour. + +Cooling honey to a temperature below 60° produces granulation. + +Work in a warm room. + +Have a label of your own, with some unique and individual design, +which, when placed on the package, will render it attractive. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +POINTS ABOUT BEESWAX + + +HOW TO MAKE IT + +Beeswax is a unique product; the little socialists of the hive have +formed a trust for its manufacture, which for many and good reasons +has never been infringed upon. The special value of beeswax is that it +retains its cohesiveness and ductibility, under both higher and lower +temperatures, than do other kinds of wax. It has a specific gravity of +960–972, and melts at 143–145° F. + +Beeswax has been in demand in the world since ancient times, being put +to many and diverse uses. Now, however, the making of foundation-comb +is the most important of these uses and most affects the beeswax +market of to-day. Countless thousands of sheets of wax foundation are +manufactured yearly in America. When foundation was first used it was +thought that it might be adulterated safely with paraffine, but it was +soon found that beeswax thus adulterated, when subjected to the heat of +the hive in summer, would invariably bulge, buckle and sag. We know an +apiarist who lost money, honey, bees and temper through trying to use +this kind of foundation, which did not stand firm. + +[Illustration: PLATE XX + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Drawing honey from extractor. The honey is strained through a fine wire +strainer set in the top of the pail. + +Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XXI + +Extracted honey in pails—candied + + _Photographs by Verne Morton_ + +Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market.] + + +THE PRIMITIVE METHOD + +The process of making wax from honey-comb may be primitive and yet +quite successful. Well do we remember the method as practised in the +days of our early youth in the kitchen of the old farmhouse, usually a +comfortable and altogether delightful room. Its yellow-painted floor +seemed to have caught the sunshine streaming in through white-curtained +windows and held it there for us to tread upon. The chintz-covered +settee and Boston rockers, and a few widths of bright rag carpet, made +one end a cozy sitting-room. At the opposite end the cupboards, their +shelves covered with elaborately scalloped newspapers, and beset with +orderly dishes and tinware, bespoke the kitchen. Midway between stood +the heavy cherry drop-leaf table which revealed the dining-room; in +the midst of this Protean apartment stood the cook-stove, polished so +that it would put to shame the rosewood case of a piano, bearing on its +top the pink-copper tea-kettle singing gayly after its daily bath of +cleansing buttermilk, and holding within the roaring fire which ever +seemed the spirit and soul of the place. The neatness that held sway +in this kitchen was the perfect sort that conduces to comfort, and not +to misery. Only at certain periods was this delectable room given over +to discomfort and untidiness; these included “wash-days,” the days +following the yearly sacrificial rite of butchering and the days when +beeswax was made. + +We were wont to make beeswax as follows: The broken combs were packed +in a muslin bag which was weighted by a sinker and hung in the +wash-boiler by tying the bag to the poker, which was placed crosswise +the top. By this contrivance the bag was completely surrounded by +water, which filled the boiler, and yet did not touch the bottom, and +so there was no danger of burning; the cloth acted as a strainer and +the bag was pressed occasionally; this act being judiciously performed +by means of the tongs, which had previously been cleaned. After the wax +had boiled out the boiler was taken off and the whole contents cooled, +after which the wax was taken from the top in pieces and remelted in a +dish set on the back side of the stove so as not to burn, then poured +into oiled bread-tins, and thus caked for the market. Some of it was +clarified for special use thus: It was allowed to simmer on the back of +the stove for some hours in water to which vinegar had been added, and +then was dipped off into scalloped patty-tins and a neat little loop of +cord inserted at one side. These cakes when cooled had a long though +scarified existence ensconced in work-baskets with spools of thread, +for wax thus cleaned and prepared made very pretty little gifts for +lady-friends. But the experience of rendering wax was never complete +without spilling some of it on the stove, which spread with fearful +rapidity and smoked with stifling smoke; because of the certainty of +this accident we always made the beeswax in the late fall, lest our +bees regarding the pungent smoke as a direct invitation should come +visiting in embarrassing numbers. + +Sundry old pieces of rag carpet were spread on the floor around the +stove to keep the yellow paint intact from the wax, which was so hard +to clean off. We had no benzine in those days, and our only resort was +boiling hot water, which cleaned off the paint as well as the wax. + +One privilege that was always granted to us children on this day was +that of having “our fingers made.” As the wax was cooling the finger +was dipped in it, and the film was cooled while the finger was held +very still; then the film was slipped off, a crucial point in the +process, and used as a mould into which was poured the cooling wax; and +presto! there was the finger as natural as life to every crease and +wrinkle, but with a death-like pallor that rendered the row of fingers +thus made a fascinatingly gruesome collection, as if they had been +chopped off with a hatchet. + +This old process of rendering wax in the wash-boiler is still practised +where apiaries are small. Mr. Root advises the following modification: +Sticks are placed crosswise the bottom of the boiler on which the bag +is placed; the bag is packed very full of wax by pressing the comb into +balls with the hands before it is put in. Water is added and the whole +is placed upon the stove and brought slowly to a boil, then a board +that acts as a follower on the bag is placed on top with a heavy weight +upon it; this acts as a press and decreases the bulk in the bag, +leaving the wax floating on the surface. + + +THE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR + +There are many modern and up-to-date methods advised for extracting +wax. The most common is through the use of the Solar wax-extractor, +which was invented for extracting honey in California, where the sun +can be depended upon to do its work unflinchingly day after day. There +was more than myth in the story of Icarus who fastened his wings on +with wax, and then dared to face the sun. The ancients evidently knew +that no other substance of the sort is so susceptible to the sun’s +rays. I shall never forget my amazement at the efficiency of the +first Solar extractor that I ever saw; it was home-made and there was +naught in its appearance to indicate its power. The comb was hard and +blackened and full of dirt, while the wax that oozed out and hardened +below was as shining and yellow as if the sun itself had exhaled it. +A Solar extractor ought to be in every apiary where twenty colonies +or more are kept, and into this every fragment of comb should be put +instead of storing it to become infested by the bee-moth, or leaving it +around to incite the bees to robbing. The fragments thus are saved and +without any expense or trouble are made into a beautiful product for +the market. + +There are several of these Solar extractors made and sold by dealers. +The Doolittle, the Rauchfuss and the Boardman are the three commonly +used. The Doolittle is small and all right for a small apiary. +The Rauchfuss has a clever arrangement by which the wax in flowing +out overflows from one pan to another and thus cleanses itself +automatically. The Boardman is especially adapted for large apiaries, +and is on rockers so that it may be tilted to face the sun. The general +plan of the Solar wax-extractor is as follows: It consists of a shallow +box lined with sheet-iron on which is a frame for holding the comb +with a strainer below it, and a place where the wax thus extracted is +received. The box has a tight-fitting glass cover, and all the woodwork +on the box is painted black so as to absorb all the heat possible. +The box is tilted so as to get the direct rays of the sun, and it is +important that the cover be of one pane of glass, or several panes +matched without cross sash, as such sash interferes with the rays of +the sun. Here in the East this extractor works excellently during the +summer months. If the wax does not look clean as it comes from the +extractor, it may be put through again. The only difficulty with the +Solar extractor is that here in the East it works only in the summer +time, and that it does not extract all the wax from the refuse which +bears the graphic and euphonious name of “slumgum.” + + +THE SWISS WAX-EXTRACTOR + +There are many patent wax-extractors which are run by the heat of a +stove. The best of these utilise steam for heating the wax, though +some of them use hot water in a sort of a modification of the old +wash-boiler method. The best of these machines for a small apiary is +the Swiss extractor, which may be set over a kettle of hot water, like +an ordinary vegetable steamer, which it resembles. The comb is placed +in a wire basket, which has a cone-shaped bottom, over which the wax +flows down as it melts and drains off through a spout into a pan in +which it is to be caked. This machine costs only three or four dollars +and is simple and excellent; though it takes but comparatively little +comb at a time, it keeps up a continual performance and there is no +danger whatever of burning the wax. The basket may be replenished from +time to time, and a large amount of wax may be extracted in a day while +other work is being performed in the room. Mr. Root has an improved +Swiss extractor and so has Mr. D. A. Jones, and both of them are most +satisfactory. Mr. Jones’s machine is the larger and may be used as an +uncapping can as well; the cappings when taken off falling directly +into the extractor. + + +THE WAX-PRESS + +Wax is such a precious product in these days of the manufacture of +foundation-comb that every particle of it should be saved. This is +quite impossible with any of the extractors; as the slumgum always +holds much wax, to extract which a wax-press is needed. All wax-presses +are necessarily rather expensive machines when bought, and not very +easily manufactured at home. In some of them the comb is melted by +steam and in some by hot water; in others the heated wax is dipped from +a kettle of hot water and poured into the press. + +The German steam wax-press is in general use in America, Mr. Root +having an improvement on it. It is a strongly built can, at the bottom +of which is a place for water, and above it an arrangement to receive +the wax drippings. A basket of perforated metal holds the comb and +occupies the larger and upper part of the can; a follower worked by a +screw presses down upon the heated comb and forces the wax down and out +through a spigot. This machine weighs sixty pounds and costs fourteen +dollars, and if the apiary contains more than forty hives of bees, such +a wax-press will pay for itself soon with the wax which would otherwise +be lost. + +We have seen one home-made press constructed from a half barrel worked +by the machinery of a cheese-press. The follower was cleated on the +under side, and the barrel was filled with boiling water; the wax as +it was pressed out was run off by a spout at the top. Another which +was used successfully was simply a box with cleated bottom and a +cleated follower into which the hot wax was poured and pressed out +most successfully. One of the wax presses used by many is called the +Hatch-Gemmill press, which is run on the principle of dipping the hot +wax off hot water and squeezing it through the press. + + +REFINING WAX WITH SULPHURIC ACID + +On a small scale this may be done in an agate or porcelain-lined +kettle. Mr. Root even advises on occasion the use of a large iron +kettle. The kettle is filled half full of water, 100 parts to one part +acid, and is brought nearly to the boiling point over a slow fire; the +wax is then added and is kept hot for a little time after it is melted, +and then the fire is allowed to die down; as soon as it is cool enough +so that the dirt has settled, the wax is dipped off, great care being +taken not to stir up the settlings. If an iron kettle is used it should +afterward be thoroughly washed with boiling water, and rubbed with +fresh lard or some other unsalted grease to stop the action of the acid +upon it. Beeswax may be bleached by exposing it in thin sheets to the +sunlight. + + +ADULTERATED BEESWAX + +Dishonest dealers have attempted to adulterate beeswax with several +substances; tallow, paraffine and cerasin being more commonly used. +Tallow or other greasy adulterants may be detected by the smell; and +because the cakes of wax containing them feel and look greasy. But +paraffine and cerasin are not so easily detected by the eye or feel. +The specific gravity test is the one used by dealers. A piece of wax +known to be pure is placed in a jar of water, and enough alcohol is +added so that the wax will just settle to the bottom. Then a piece of +the suspected wax is placed in the jar, and if it contains either +paraffine or cerasin it will still float. Another test but not so exact +is made by chewing the wax; if it is pure it will be brittle and break +as it is chewed, but adulterated wax is cohesive like gum. + + +MAXIMS FOR BEESWAX MAKING + +The wax-market is always good, and the wise bee-keeper saves every +scrap of this precious material. + +Do not be mussy when making beeswax, or it will take longer to clean up +than to make the wax. + +Do not use galvanised iron vessels for boiling wax as the quality is +thus injured. + +Clean wax off with hot water or benzine. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +FEEDING BEES + + +WHEN TO FEED + +At least twice during the season bees are likely to need more food than +they can get in the fields, if the bee-keeper is to do a profitable +business. Once early in the spring when for some reason the nectar +supply fails, and it is desirable to stimulate the rearing of brood; +again, late in the season when the colony has not enough honey for +winter use. When the cupidity of the bee-keeper leads him to extract +too much honey, then must he forsooth open his pocketbook and buy +expensive sugar to feed back to those whom he has robbed. However, bees +should be watched closely; they may need feeding at any time, for it is +hard to predict when the honey or pollen harvest may fail in a given +locality. + +When food is given the bees in the spring, it is largely for the +sake of stimulating them to extra activity; and thus develop large, +strong colonies ready for work as soon as the harvest occurs. The +brood-chambers should be closely watched in the early spring and if +there is not sufficient food for the brood present, it should be +provided. In the fall the hive should be examined by the middle of +September or the first of October. A colony of ordinary size ought to +have at least thirty pounds of capped honey. The ordinary Langstroth +frame, when filled on both sides, contains about five pounds of honey; +therefore, there should be an equivalent of six filled frames in each +hive. If the swarm lacks this amount, an estimate should be made of how +much more it needs, and this amount should be fed. + +Bees are usually fed upon honey or syrup made from the best granulated +sugar, although some have claimed that the best grade of coffee-sugars +make a good syrup; but the consensus of opinion is in favour of the +granulated. The syrup is made in two ways: First, by heat. Melt the +granulated sugar in its own weight or measure of water; it should be +heated slowly, and never reach a temperature higher than 180° F. lest +it burn, for scorched syrup fed in winter is as fatal to bees as so +much poison. The mixture should be stirred until the sugar is entirely +dissolved, then allowed to cool slowly, and it is ready for use. If +there are many to feed, a wash-boiler is a very convenient utensil to +use, as it is easier to make a large quantity at a time. Because of the +danger of scorching a cold process has been evolved. It consists of +taking equal measures of sugar and water; the latter should be boiling +hot and the two stirred together until the sugar is dissolved. This may +be done in a churn or in the honey-extractor. In following this process +it is best to add the sugar a bowlful at a time, while stirring the +mixture industriously. The syrup should be thin when finished, as it +is better to let the bees attend to the ripening of it. + + +HOW TO FEED + +There are two general plans for feeding bees. One is to place the syrup +outside the hive, and the other to place it within the hive. The first +is much more convenient for the apiarist, but unless the work be done +very carefully or in the evening, and the syrup well guarded, the bees +may become demoralised and begin robbing. Feeding outside the hive can +be done only during warm weather. There are several simple feeders in +which the syrup is placed at night, and taken away in the morning; but +the method most generally followed is to fill a Mason fruit can with +the syrup and place on it a perforated cover, then invert it in a box +in front of the hive; the entrance to this box is so connected with the +entrance to the hive that robbing is impossible. The box and cover are +sold under the name of the Boardman feeder. As there is very little +air in the can, the syrup oozes out very slowly through the perforated +cover, and the bees take it as fast as it comes. This feeder is +satisfactory in that we can tell at a glance when it needs replenishing. + +However, most apiarists follow the custom of feeding within the +hive, and strive to accomplish this without loss of warmth in the +brood-chambers, and without disturbing or daubing the bees. Of all the +devices for feeding within the hive, the division board feeder is the +most practical. It consists simply of a division board made to hold +the syrup, which is placed in the hive instead of a frame, Plate XII. +There is a hole at the top so that it may be refilled by simply pushing +back the cover, and pouring in the syrup from a pitcher. The only +objection to this feeder is its size, as it does not hold more than two +pounds of syrup, and if used for fall feeding would need to be filled +many times. This feeder is especially useful for stimulating the bees +in the spring, and is also most practical in developing nuclei. In a +small apiary it is quite practical for all purposes. + +Of the larger inside feeders the Smith, the Heddon and the Miller are +generally used. These are alike in one respect; they are flat boxes +placed directly above the frames and beneath the quilts. The Heddon and +the Miller each take a certain specified number of pounds of syrup, so +that when we use them we can tell just how much we are feeding. The +Miller is especially convenient in this respect, and has one advantage +over the others in that the entrance for the bees is directly above +the centre of the brood-chamber, so that the bees may enter it easily +without loss of heat. This fact renders it an excellent feeder for cold +weather. Some still use the pepper-box feeder, which consists of a tin +can with perforated cover, inverted above the frame, but this lifts the +quilts and lets in the cold, and is awkward to use; and as it does not +hold very much it is quite inconvenient to manage. + +Some altruistic people take the frames of comb from which honey has +been extracted and fill the cells with syrup. This is done by laying +the comb flat and letting the syrup into it through a fine sieve, or by +using a force-pump with a spray nozzle. After the frame is filled it is +allowed to stand on edge until the drain has ceased and then it is hung +in the hive, and presto! the bees never know that they have been robbed. + +In the happy days, when we were getting our first experience, we fed +some colonies for the winter by introducing chunk honey into the bottom +of the hive and it worked like a charm, except that we were obliged to +lift the hive to put in the honey, and again to remove the beautifully +cleaned comb. One never realises how beautiful empty honey-comb may +be unless he has had the privilege of examining a freshly made comb +or one which the bees have cleaned. Bee-books advise putting in the +chunk honey above the brood-frames, using Hill’s device above it so it +will not be crushed by the quilt. We have done this, setting the comb +in every direction, and our bees ignored it in a most provoking way; +but when they found it at the bottom of the hive, they carried it up +at once. We never knew why our bees were so contrary in refusing to +take the honey from above because other people’s bees seem to like it +administered in that way. + + +HOW AND WHEN TO FEED CANDY + +If necessary to feed the bees in midwinter many people use candy. This +is made by boiling granulated sugar in a double boiler until it is +brittle when dropped in cold water. It is then taken off and stirred +and poured into flat dishes to harden, from which it can be taken as +a cake and placed on top of the frame at the centre of the hive. Some +pour the candy into the wooden butter-trays and after it hardens invert +the tray over the middle of the brood-nest. Some, instead of caking it +thus, mould it in a brood-frame by holding the frame flat on a table +or board covered with oil paper and pouring the candy in; it thus +hardens fast to the frame, and may be put directly in the brood-nest. +The famous Good candy, so called because it was invented by Mr. Good, +although the excellence of the product would have given it that name +anyway, is made by taking extracted honey, and heating it until it is +quite thin, but not allowed to boil, and mixing into it confectioner’s +sugar until the spoon can no longer stir it; then the mixture is taken +out, and placed on a board and more sugar kneaded into it until it is +of firm consistency. In hot weather more sugar is needed than in the +winter. In making this candy skill is evinced in getting it as soft as +possible, and yet stiff enough so that it will not flow. Only the best +honey is used for this; and if the confectioner’s sugar seems impure, +then granulated sugar should be pounded in a mortar or rolled under a +rolling-pin until fine and used instead. The confectioner’s sugar may +be tested by putting a little in a glass of water and noting if there +is a sediment. + + +FEEDING RYE FLOUR + +This is given as a substitute for pollen, and is often of great use +in the spring when the flowers are late in blossoming, or when severe +rains wash the pollen from the fruit bloom. Pollen or its equivalent +is absolutely necessary for rearing the brood. The unbolted rye flour, +or even oatmeal, or whole-wheat flour may be used by the bees as a +substitute with perfect success. The meal may be mixed with the candy +if it is desirable; but the usual way is to place it in a trough or box +that is shallow, press it down hard so that it will be not more than an +inch or two thick, to prevent the bees from getting suffocated while +working in it. We must remember that the bee has two rows of holes +along each side of the body through which it breathes, and thus could +be suffocated as easily in soft flour as in water. The box containing +the meal is usually placed a few rods distant from the apiary, and +often some old combs with honey in them are placed on top so as to +attract the bees to the box, and let them know that it contains food +for them. Most bee-keepers say that the box needs to be placed in the +sun or the bees ignore it. + + +FEEDING FOR HONEY + +Some bee-keepers practise feeding all the colonies early in the season +so that the brood has plenty of sugar-syrup stored near it when the +honey season opens; and since the brood-comb is full the bees begin +at once to store in the supers. Mr. Boardman who invented the best +entrance-feeder practises this, with the result of getting more honey +than other bee-keepers of his neighbourhood, who do not feed at this +time. It is especially valuable in years when the honey is scarce, for +then the bees store all the honey they gather in the supers. However +there is one thing to consider carefully in this feeding, and that +is the relative price of syrup and honey. If the market is glutted +and honey is plentiful and cheap, this sort of feeding would better +be practised cautiously; but when honey is scarce and dear, it is +certainly a safe experiment. + + +FEEDING BACK + +When the sections are not well filled in the late season, it is the +practice of some apiarists to feed extracted honey in order to fill +them. For this only the best honey is used; it is mixed with water, +ten pounds of honey to one of water, and heated so that it is a fluid +and then poured in the larger kind of feeders, and is put in at night, +as the smell of the heated honey particularly incites bees to robbing. +However, the flavour of honey which has been fed back is inferior to +that which is only once made, and but a few apiarists practise feeding +back successfully. + + +WATERING BEES + +If there is no fresh water in the immediate vicinity of the hives, +special provision should be made to secure it, as it is a highly +desirable adjunct to a well-regulated apiary. While there are times +during the season when the bees get most of the moisture they need +from the nectar, there are other times when they drink water eagerly. +This is especially so in the spring when they are gathering much +pollen and little water, and the weather is warm. Running water is +more desirable, and if the drip from a faucet flow over a board, or +on pebbles, it affords a nearly ideal drinking place for the bees, +since they can drink freely and are in no danger of drowning. Some +bee-keepers invert a Mason jar filled with water, on a board that has a +few shallow groves, perhaps one-eighth inch deep; the water flows out +slowly owing to atmospheric pressure; if a little salt be added to the +water the bees lap it up eagerly. + + +MAXIMS FOR FEEDING + +Keep close watch of the bees during the entire season, so as to know +whether they need feeding or not. + +Feed only good honey or the best sugar. + +Never feed scorched sugar in the winter, as it will surely kill the +bees. + +Observe the practice of feeding at nightfall to preclude robbing. + +Never spill the syrup or honey around the yard lest robbers be led on +to black deeds. + +Feed small amounts to stimulate a swarm or nucleus. Bees are +susceptible to small encouragements. + +Be careful never to cool off the brood-chamber when feeding in early +spring or late fall. + +See to it that the bees have water near by, especially early in the +season. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HOW TO WINTER BEES + + +IDEAL CONDITIONS + +The wintering of bees in the northern latitudes is usually attended +with more or less loss. Although we now think we know the conditions +necessary for perfect wintering, it is only now and then that they are +attained. There are so many unhappy and unpredictable circumstances and +vicissitudes, that one must needs be a true prophet as well as a good +bee-keeper to be sure that all his swarms will successfully pass the +period of snow and cold. + +The problem of wintering hinges as much on protection from dampness as +on protection from the cold. We all know that double windows in a room +keep the frost off the panes. The reason for this is that the dampness +of the room is not allowed to come in contact with the cold outside +glass. So it is with the beehive; if it is single-walled the dampness +from the breath of the bees causes the frost to gather on the walls +of the hive, which later melts and wets the bees so that they chill +easily; the double-walled hive is a guard against this condition. + + +GETTING READY FOR WINTERING + +First of all that watchward of the bee-keeper must be fully realised, +“Keep the colonies strong.” Most men of experience do not attempt to +winter a colony that is not large enough to cover at least four of the +Langstroth brood-frames. If a colony is as small as this, the division +boards should be used to contract the hive and make it as cosy and +comfortable as possible. It is far safer to try to winter a colony that +covers six frames than one that covers only four; the more the bees the +warmer the hive, the less the loss, and also the less missed are those +that die. To secure good swarms it is best to keep up the breeding +throughout the summer, which can be done by feeding if the honey is +scarce. + +Next in importance to a strong colony is good honey and plenty of it +sealed in the combs, so that wholesome food may help to sustain the +bees during this trying period. With a four-frame colony four frames +of sealed stores will be enough. A Langstroth brood-frame should +hold about five pounds of honey if it is well filled. If the colony +is larger, then more honey must, of course, be given. We never allow +any of our colonies to begin winter without at least thirty pounds +of sealed honey, and when a colony is very large we have given it +thirty-five pounds. This may seem wasteful extravagance on our part, +but the honey not used in the winter is of use in the spring. It is +necessary that the honey be of good quality; the bee is such a neat +housekeeper that she will suffer death rather than let food pass +through her alimentary canal when she is dormant, and thus render +unsanitary the bee-city, a devotion to municipal sanitation which is +hardly found elsewhere in the annals of living beings. If honey of poor +quality is fed to the bees and they hold within themselves such food, +disaster is likely to ensue. In preparing the hive for winter what is +known as the Hill’s device, which is a series of curved pieces of wood +held in place by a strip of tin, is placed above the frames to support +the cushion so as to allow the bees to readily climb over them. We use +a super cover in our chaff hives instead of the Hill’s device. + +There are three ways of wintering bees in common use. First in +the chaff or double-walled hives left in the open. Second, in +tenement-hives. Third, the hives are carried into cellars. The +reprehensible way of leaving bees out of doors in single-walled +hives with no protection during the winter is no longer practised by +civilised people. + + +OUTDOOR WINTERING + +Many apiarists protect the hive by a box, several inches larger than +the hive in every diameter, placed over the hive, the spaces between +being packed with chaff or dried leaves. A passage-way out is always +preserved so that the bees may fly out during the early warm days, and +free themselves from the accumulated waste. This is a cheap way of +securing the advantages of a chaff hive. Such boxes are sold by the +dealers, and many good words are said for this method of wintering. + + +THE CHAFF HIVE + +The chaff hive is probably the most perfect of all of the devices +for out-of-door wintering when convenience and the saving of work as +well as success are taken into consideration. The chaff hive is a +double-walled hive with wall spaces packed with chaff. It is a certain +guard against extremes and sudden changes of temperature, as it remains +cool in the hot and warm in the cold weather. + +The chaff for packing should be fine. That from timothy hay, oats or +wheat is commonly used; saw dust and planer shavings and dried leaves +closely packed are also often resorted to. The packing should be below +as well as on the sides of the hive. A cushion made of burlap and +filled with chaff is put above a Hill’s device or super cover, as this +is the most convenient method of packing the hive on top. The bees +should be thoroughly established and have their stores ready as early +as October 1st. It is claimed by the admirers of the chaff hive that +they prevent spring dwindling by keeping the bees warm in the early +spring; and also that they keep the hive cool enough so that the brood +is not developed in the combs until the proper time for it. + +The chaff hives are sufficiently warm to preserve bees during ordinary +winters, but neither they nor any other out-door device were entirely +successful during the long, protracted cold of the winter of 1903–04 +when many bee-keepers in the Northern States lost 40 per cent. of their +bees. It might be wise when such a winter occurs to give some temporary +protection to the hives, like covering them with boughs of evergreen or +building a close windbreak. The entrance to a chaff hive should always +be contracted in winter to keep out cold and mice. + + +THE TENEMENT HIVE + +This is a box made for holding from two to ten hives, and which we have +used with perfect success. Our favourite tenement-hive was arranged for +six hives in two stories. The bottom was packed well with dry leaves +or chaff, and three hives were set somewhat near each other. Entrances +were boxed back, affording a front hall for each hive-entrance. After +three hives were thus set in and packed with chaff on every side and +between, a shelf was put across and on this were set three more hives +which were likewise packed. The entrances to the upper row were on the +same side as those to the lower row, and the cover of the box sloped +back from the front of the hives and was hinged along its highest +edge; thus when we wished to examine the hives we lifted the cover and +examined the bees from the back side instead of standing directly in +front of the entrance. Our losses were rare and small while using these +tenements. The advantage of the tenement over the chaff hive is that it +is cheaper, and that several colonies packed together help to keep each +other warm. + + +WINTERING IN CELLARS + +The way we always wintered bees in the old days was by placing them +in a cellar which was used for vegetables and was ill-ventilated and +damp. We well remember that in the spring the cellar windows were +covered with arrested prisoners; we do not recollect that we lost many +colonies, but if we did not, it was owing to the ways of inscrutable +Providence rather than our own understanding of the needs of the bees. +Probably most of the bees in the Northern climates are wintered in +cellars; and because they are wintered in all sorts of cellars with +varying degrees of dampness the mortality among them is likely to +be great. A cellar fit for wintering bees should be cemented on the +floor and sides, made mouse and rat tight, and should be well drained, +well ventilated and so arranged that the temperature may be kept in +the neighbourhood of 45° F. In such a cellar the hives lifted off +the bottom boards should be placed four or five inches apart on two +scantlings laid on the floor. In the next tier the middle of a hive +should bridge the opening between the lower hives on which it rests. +This arrangement gives plenty of ventilation to the hive from below, +and it is very important that the air be introduced below rather than +above. The cellar should be kept dark, and if the weather is warm +and the bees seem uneasy it should be ventilated at night by opening +the windows, which, by the way, should have wire screens to keep out +intruders. Some leave the bottom boards out on the summer stands, each +board bearing the same number as the hive which rests upon it, and +thus in the spring it is easy to find the home of each colony; but if +the bees are brought into the cellar without the bottom boards on the +hive they are quite likely to fly out more or less. Usually, therefore, +they are brought in on the bottom boards, and these are piled in +some convenient place until needed in the spring. In this case it is +advisable to have a map made of the apiary, and the hives and their +places numbered on the map, and thus each hive may be returned to its +old stand in the spring. + +If bees are wintered in the ordinary house-cellar it is far better to +partition off the part used for the bees from that used for vegetables, +and much pains should be taken to keep the air good and the cellar well +ventilated. + +Special bee-cellars are in vogue in some large apiaries. The cellar is +sometimes made beneath the bee-house, and sometimes it is a structure +by itself. Of all such cellars, the Bingham seems to us the cheapest, +and surely quite as practical as the others. It is built like a square +cistern, twelve feet square at the bottom, sixteen feet at the top +and six feet deep; it is cemented at the bottom and on the sides, and +the ceiling is flush with the level of the ground. Over this is built +a gable roof, the eaves extending down to a drain on either side so +that all the water is carried off. The ventilation is secured through +a pipe extending from the cellar ceiling to the top of the roof. The +floor over the cellar is tight and covered with sawdust; access to +the cellar stairs is gained through a trap door. Such a cellar as this +should be built on a dry knoll. Mr. Bingham has wintered successfully +ninety colonies in this house; and it will hold nearly twice as many. + +The bees may come out of the hives and die in great numbers when they +are wintered in a cellar. If any such seem distended and swollen they +have probably died of dysentery, and the matter should be looked into +immediately. However, many of the bees that die in winter are likely +to be the old ones which are not vigorous enough to stand the strain +of the cold. The cellar floor should be swept several times during +the winter and all the dead bees removed so they shall not pollute +the atmosphere. The cellar should always be dark, but the bees can be +easily examined with a lamp, or what is better, a bull’s-eye lantern. + +The carrying of hives into the cellar is an onerous task when the +apiary is large. The entrance to the hive should be closed the night +before so as to be sure the whole family is moved. The hives should be +carried with as little perturbance to the occupants as may be; several +methods of carrying the hives easily and quietly have been invented. +Mr. Root uses a wire bent like a V with the wooden piece of a common +pail bale at the angle. The prongs of the V are bent at right angles +into hooks which hook under the bottom board; two men carry the hive, +one on each side, each with a carrier just described. Mr. Miller has a +simple rope carrier that slips under the cleated ends of the hive. Mr. +Boardman has a delightful device, which is a carrier in the shape of a +push-cart with two wheels. A board just large enough to set the hive +upon with rope handles at either side serves admirably. + + +WHEN TO PUT BEES IN THE CELLAR + +This should be done as soon as steady cold weather comes on. In this +northern climate the colonies should be ready in October, for the +appointed time for putting them in the cellar is likely to occur +between the first and fifteenth of November. If put in too soon and the +weather is warm they become uneasy; they should be put in during a dry +day so that the hives will not be dampened by rain or fog. + + +WHEN TO TAKE BEES OUT OF THE CELLAR + +This is decided somewhat by the bees themselves; if they awaken and +push out and try to escape in great numbers, it is a sign that they had +best be put out as soon as it can be safely done. Mr. Root makes the +practice of putting his bees out of the cellar in the middle of a warm +day in midwinter, so that they may have a cleansing flight, and then +puts them back in the cellar that night; which shows that a merciful +man is good to his bees. However, some other bee-keepers think that +this taking them out in midwinter is fraught with danger. + +In a climate like that of New York it is hardly safe to take the hives +from the cellar before the last of April or the first of May. The +general rule is to wait until there is a prevalent temperature of +70°, and the willow, the alder, and the soft maples are in blossom, +so that the bees may gather pollen as soon as they are put out. The +glowing banners of the red maple blossoms give signal to most of the +bee-keepers in the northern climate that it is time that the bees were +on the wing. + + +SPRING DWINDLING + +The cause of this is attributed to various conditions by various +bee-keepers. The evidence of it is shown by the listlessness of the +swarm, and by the dying of the bees. Whatever the reason, all apiarists +agree it is more common during cold, backward springs, and that it is +less prevalent when the bees are put out in warm, sunny locations. The +only remedies suggested are that the brood-chambers be contracted so +that the bees can easily keep the comb warm, and that plenty of good +syrup and rye flour and water be given to the bees if they are unable +to get food from the flowers. Many apiarists have tried the joining of +two colonies when this dwindling appears, hoping thus to get enough +bees in a hive to keep it warm, but they all agree that this does not +help the matter. + + +MAXIMS FOR WINTERING + +Keep the colonies strong. Be sure that a good-sized swarm has at least +thirty pounds of sealed stores. + +Pollen should not be left in the comb for winter use. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by M. V. Slingerland_ + +PLATE XXII. WINTER QUARTERS IN CHAFF HIVES] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Verne Morton_ + +PLATE XXIII. PLUM BLOSSOMS + +The fruit-bloom is a great aid to the bees while rearing their brood.] + +Be sure that the honey is of good quality, and not made from decayed +fruit or honey-dew. + +Give the hive ventilation from below. + +If wintered out of doors, give the bees a chance to fly. + +If wintered in cellars, do not put too many bees in a cellar. If you +have space for fifty colonies, do not try to winter more than thirty in +it. + +In cellars take off the bottom boards and arrange the hives so that the +bees will get plenty of ventilation from below. + +Have a thermometer in the cellar and keep watch of it. This should not +show more than ten degrees of variation. If the temperature rises to +55°, open the windows at night. + +Keep the cellar dark and the air sweet. + +Sweep the dead bees off the cellar floor several times during the +winter. + +Contract the brood-chamber in the fall, and again, if necessary, when +the hives are set out in the spring, until there is only comb enough so +that the bees can cover it well. + +See that the bees have plenty of food and good water near by when set +out in the spring. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS + + +QUEEN-REARING + +In a small apiary there is little need for the special rearing of +queens; the natural increase may safely be depended upon to supply +all the colonies which lose their queens or which have unprofitable +ones. It is always well for even the most casual bee-keeper to take +the trouble to re-queen from his strongest and best colonies. However, +the time when queen cells are naturally built may not be the most +convenient or the most desirable time for giving certain colonies a +new mother. This being the case, queens may be developed through the +power of suggestion, as follows: Select a frame of brood from the best +colony; with a toothpick tear down the partitions between three worker +cells which contain eggs or larvæ less than two days old and destroy +two of the eggs or larvæ; repeat the operation in several places. Place +the frame back in the hive, being very sure that there is sufficient +space between it and its neighbouring frame, so that good queen cells +may be built. If there is a scarcity of honey, feed the bees. The +cleverness of bees is clearly proven by the readiness with which they +take a hint, and they almost invariably build queen cells upon the +comb thus treated. + +This method we have found perfectly satisfactory, but for those who +rear queens for sale, other very interesting practices have been +invented. The greatest of these was devised by Mr. Doolittle, one of +the foremost queen-breeders in America. He makes artificial queen cells +by dipping a small, smoothly rounded stick in warm wax repeatedly, +thus making a little cup, thin at the edge and thick at the bottom. +Rows of these little cups are placed on a bar the thickness of a +brood-frame and fastened there with hot wax. In each cup is introduced +a bit of royal jelly and a very young larva. The bar is then inserted +horizontally into a frame of brood-comb, part of the latter being cut +away to give room for the future cells, which project down from the +bar. In such a royal nursery, he develops his queens for the market. + + +INTRODUCING QUEENS + +Though royalty in the hive is of quite another feather than in human +society, yet there is quite as much ado when it comes to installations +in one as in the other. While a bee-colony is absolutely devoted to its +own queen, it may seriously object to a queen thrust upon it by some +outside power. And thus it happens that the introduction of a new queen +into a hive is fraught with danger to her majesty as well as to the +pocket-book of the bee-keeper. + + +BALLING THE QUEEN + +“Balling” in the hive is an indignity that may well have suggested to +other societies the method of black-balling unwelcome seekers after +honours. The bees ball an unwelcome queen by gathering around her +in a compact mass, remaining there until the unfortunate usurper is +smothered or starved, or both. As if to live up to their mathematical +reputation, this ball is quite spherical because each bee is an +animated atom of centripetal force scrambling and pushing toward the +centre. This method of smothering royalty is regarded as an evidence +of the worker’s reluctance to sting a fertile queen. But observations +are recorded which state that the bees on the outside of the ball seem +fiercely trying to sting, and that the individuals nearest the queen +ofttimes share her fate because of this venomous attitude of their +sisters. Whether this use of the sting by the outsiders is for the +purpose of fighting their way toward the centre, or whether they are +mad with a desire to kill the queen, is by no means a settled question. +However, if they were bent upon stinging her to death, she would +scarcely be alive after having been balled for some time; while it is +a matter of common experience that by breaking up the ball and driving +off the murderers, the queen may be saved. Sometimes the bees will ball +a queen for a time, then voluntarily release her and accept her. + +There are two ways generally followed for dissolving this lump of +excited regicides and saving the queen. One is to drop the ball in a +shallow bowl of water. This baptism seems to cool the hot blood and +the bees swim off, trying to preserve their own lives. The other is to +smoke the ball until it dissolves into individual bees, so anxious to +get breath for themselves that they forget to shut off the breath of +the obnoxious queen. There is a danger attending the latter method, for +unless the smoking be done carefully and without blowing hot air on +the bees, they will become infuriated by the heat and surely sting the +queen; as they evidently regard her, and rightly, as the cause of their +suffering. + + +WHEN TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN + +The colony should have been queenless long enough to realise the danger +of the situation, but not long enough to have done much toward building +queen cells and developing larval queens; in the latter case they +prefer a queen of their own dynasty and object to any other. Thus, if +a queen is to be superseded she should be removed and, about two days +later, the new one should be introduced. + +It requires experience to know certainly that a colony has become +queenless, for often, when there is no brood or eggs in the cells there +is a virgin queen, which eludes the eye, as she does not appear very +differently from the workers; a colony with virgin queens of its own +cannot be induced to accept an introduced queen. + +Mr. Root tests a colony which he suspects is queenless in the following +clever way: He takes a cage containing a laying queen and holds it +over the frames so that it touches them and the bees may thus get the +scent. If the bees have no queen they express their pleasure at this +godsend in a very pretty manner by a joyful fluttering of the wings, +which conveys the idea of happiness to even our dull senses. To such a +colony, the queen may be given with no formalities. + + +HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN + +The colony should be made good-natured by having plenty of food. If +there is scarcity of honey, the bees should be fed for a day or so, +great care being taken not to start other colonies to robbing by +exposing the syrup. The queen is then introduced in a queen-cage, +which should be placed between the brood-combs. This should be done +as carefully as possible without disturbing the bees. At the end of +forty-eight hours an examination should be made, and if the bees are +balling the cage, she should be left twenty-four hours longer. When the +bees gather around the cage in normal numbers she may be entrusted to +them without fear. + + +QUEEN-CAGES + +First of these are the shipping-cages, and it is a thrilling moment +when one takes a package from the mail, labelled “Queen Bee, Deliver +Quick.” And it is still more exciting when the cover slides around, +revealing her gracious majesty with a few attendants, safe beneath the +wire screen; for no bee-dealer would be so heartless or foolish as to +send a queen on a journey without a few ladies-in-waiting to give her +companionship and care. + +The cage in which a queen is shipped is always tagged or labelled with +directions for introducing the queen, which, if followed implicitly, +almost always insures success. + +The plan of a queen-cage is a cell made of wire screen with twelve to +fifteen meshes to the square inch, large enough to allow the bees to +thrust in their antennæ and thus get acquainted with their proposed +sovereign, but not large enough to permit a sting to be effectively +thrust through. The cell, itself, is large enough so that the prisoner +will not suffocate if the cage is balled. At one end of the cage is an +opening into which is pressed a cork of candy, over which is tacked a +piece of pasteboard, through which is a central line of perforations. +At first the bees are wild to get at the queen, and incidentally in +their attack they get a taste of the candy through the holes in the +pasteboard. This distracts their attention, and they work industriously +at biting away the pasteboard to get at the candy. And by the time +they have worked their way through the delectable door, their attitude +towards the prisoner is naturally sweetened, and usually they accept +her at once. The “Good candy” is used for this purpose, for the queen +is also sustained on this confection during her incarceration, and +unless a moist candy is used, she will suffer for lack of water. + +Home-made cages are usually employed in introducing queens from the +home apiary. These are of various forms and devices, the Miller being +a favourite. His materials are as follows: One block of wood 3 × 1¼ × +⅜ in.; two blocks of wood 1 × ⁷⁄₁₆ × ⅜ in.; two pieces of tin 1 in. +square; two pieces of fine wire 9 in. long; one piece of wire-cloth 4½ +× 3½ in.; four wire nails ½ in. long. (Plate V.) + +The illustration shows how the material is used. The space between the +two small blocks of wood, held in place by the pieces of tin forms a +door for the candy. The large piece of wood serves as a plug at the +other end of the cage, which may be removed, and the cage set down over +the queen, thus capturing her without handling her. When a queen is +placed in a cage she should always be allowed to climb up into it. It +is not natural for her to climb down. + + +THE NUCLEUS METHOD + +This method of introducing very valuable queens is said by experts to +be absolutely safe. It is accomplished by making a nucleus of two or +three frames of brood, which is sealed and some of it just breaking +through the cell caps. Not an adult bee is permitted to remain, and +there should be as few uncapped larvæ as possible, since such will +starve. The queen is placed on these combs and the young bees, as +they issue innocent of men’s scheming, accept her as their legitimate +mother, and a colony is soon built up. A nucleus hive of this sort +must be placed in a warm room, unless it is hot weather, as there +are no bees to warm the brood. Care must also be taken to put a wire +screen over the entrance of the hive for a day or two to prevent the +queen from escaping if she becomes uneasy midst such a dreary waste of +adolescence. + + +MAXIMS FOR INTRODUCING QUEENS + +Be sure the colony is queenless before attempting to introduce a queen. + +Be sure the bees have not progressed far in rearing young queens. + +Be careful not to anger or disturb the bees by smoke or hot blast or +otherwise when placing the queen in the hive. + +If honey is scarce, feed the colony before trying to introduce the +queen. + +Place the cage containing the queen on the frames near the centre of +the brood-chamber, wire cloth below her, so that the cage rests on the +bars of the frames. + +Do not disturb the colony for forty-eight hours after introducing the +queen-cage. + +Be careful not to allow the queen to escape by flight when liberating +her. + +Remember, a queen crawls up instead of down. + +After queens are two or three years old they should be replaced by +young queens. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +ROBBING IN THE APIARY + + +A CAUSE OF DEMORALISATION + +The moral law seems to be as potent among the bees as among men, +and if the law be broken there is a moral penalty attached. Nothing +demonstrates this more fully than robbing in the apiaries, for as +soon as it begins utter demoralisation ensues. All legitimate work is +stopped, and all the energies of the bees are devoted to ill-gotten +gain and in fighting with each other, or attacking anything or anybody +that comes near them. One of the signs of this demoralisation is that +robbing makes the bees very cross. The experienced bee-keeper can +detect robbing by the angry humming which pervades the apiary, which is +a sound as different from the ordinary contented hum of the working bee +as martial music is from a pastoral symphony. + + +WHY BEES ROB + +Bees rob for the very human and natural reason that the stores gathered +by the hard work of others are coveted and are more easily stolen +than earned by labour. When dealing with bees we must always remember +that the interest of the individual centres in its own colony, and +that it has neither love nor devotion to any other colony, nor to +bees in general; indeed, quite otherwise. Endowed with an instinct +almost fiendish, bees seem to understand when another colony is weak +or discouraged, and, therefore, offers a legitimate field for plunder. +Strong colonies are seldom robbed, as they are able to drive out and +kill the thieves; but the weak colony is a constant temptation to ill +doing, and should be carefully watched and guarded. + + +WHEN BEES ROB + +This occurs usually when there is little honey to be found in the +field. Satan provides mischief for the idle six feet and four wings +quite as efficiently as for hands. At the end of the honey-harvest +there may be a general temptation throughout the apiary to break open +vaults of precious stores belonging to others, and escape with the +contents. At the close of the honey season strong colonies usually have +plenty of sentinels to guard the entrance and look after suspicious +strangers. Never at any time should honey-comb be left open around the +apiary, for it always leads to robbing. It seems to suggest to the bees +that honey gathered is a much more desirable product than that worked +for in the fields. + +Sometimes when preserving or pickling is going on in the house the bees +start to rob the kitchen; and while they may be deterred by screened +windows, yet the smell of the sweets may so excite them to desires for +forbidden wealth that they seem to become discontented with the grind +of daily toil, and so begin robbing their neighbours. + + +HOW THE ROBBING IS DONE + +The robber, unless she be hardened by success, alights on the threshold +of the hive which contains coveted stores with an air that is decidedly +apologetic, having the general appearance of a prospecting dog with his +tail apprehensively between his legs. She shows her guilty conscience +by dodging back if she meets one of the legitimate owners coming out of +the hive; she is thus trying the skill and prowess of the sentinels, +for if by assuming bravado she can pass the sentinels she is usually +safe; then she has nothing to do but to fill with honey and to run the +gauntlet of the sentinels again, for perchance some of them may stop +her and ask her why she is going out of the hive _filled_ with honey, a +proceeding altogether reprehensible in the bee world. If she succeeds +in carrying back to her own hive the honey thus stolen, she creates +great excitement there and soon she leads back a mob to pillage; +and the air is full of bees bent on wickedness. Mr. Root describes +graphically the successful robber thus: “A bee that has stolen a load +is generally very plump and full, and as it comes out has a hurried and +guilty look; besides it is almost always wiping its mouth like a man +who has just come out of a beer shop. Most of all it finds it a little +difficult to take wing as bees ordinarily do because of its weight.” As +a consequence a robber bee borne down with its load of sweetness is +likely to crawl up the hive a little way so as to have the advantage of +a high place to “jump from” as it takes wing. The virtuous worker comes +out of the hive slim and depleted of her load and flies off leisurely +to the field, while the robber comes out stuffed full and furtively +climbs up the side of the hive in order to be able to be off. + +We usually detect robbing in our apiary by the fighting which we +observe about the entrance; when we see a pair of workers rolling over +and over with each other in the grass near the hive we know that one +of them is a robber, but as we do not know which one we are obliged +to apply the test meted to the knights of old, and believe that the +one who survives is in the right. However, we take measures at once to +defend this hive. Also if we discover the bees to be particularly cross +some day, we look about to see what has aroused their ire, and nine +times out of ten find that robbing is the cause of their ill temper. + + +HOW TO STOP ROBBING + +Contract the entrance to the hive being robbed. To do this we place +blocks in front of it, leaving only enough space so that one or two +bees can pass in at a time. The robbers having to enter in single file +attract the attention of the suspicious sentinels and are either driven +back or killed at once. It is unsafe to close the entrance entirely, +unless it is done with a wire screen, for the bees within will smother +unless the air is admitted through the entrance. It is always well +to keep the entrance of the hive which contains a weak colony or a +nucleus somewhat contracted as a measure of insurance. If contracting +the entrance does not stop robbing, Mr. Root advises strewing long +grass about the entrance which he wets thoroughly. The robbers are too +wary to try to rob after they have wet their “feathers” in passing +through this grass; for thus handicapped they could hardly escape from +their enraged victims; while the robbers already within the hive after +having thus to crawl out will hasten home to get their clothes dry. Mr. +Doolittle uses a common sheet which he places over the hive that is +being robbed, while Mr. Miller places over the victimised hive a bee +tent of mosquito netting, which has a hole in the top which permits the +robbers to escape. + +A bee tent is a most useful adjunct to the apiary; there are many times +when it may be used, but it is especially useful in preventing robbing. +It is simply a tent made of mosquito netting large enough to be set +over the hive and the operator. When opening the hives at midday the +tent is used to prevent the robbers from attacking the exposed stores. + +Mr. Root advises working at nightfall when bees are cross or given to +robbing; but most bee-keepers declare that the bees will crawl all +over one at night, and are no more to be gotten rid of than a porous +plaster, at which Mr. Root promptly responds, “Do not stand near the +lamp.” + +Enterprising men exchange places of the robbers and victims, which +produces a confusion that restores quiet. The robbers come back to +the weak colony laden with its own stores and join it and help fight +off intruders; while a strong colony of robbers is quite capable of +defending itself. + +Another clever trick practised in Europe is to place some disagreeable, +strong-smelling substance on the bottom board of the hive that is being +robbed; wormwood, musk, carbolised paper, are used for this. The odour +disconcerts the robber unless she is lost to all sense of bee decency; +and if she does steal honey from such a hive and returns home her doom +is sealed; for although in the bee world the way of the transgressor is +not always hard, the way of the citizen that smells differently from +her sisters leads to her murder and sudden death. + +If a robber colony has almost completed its nefarious work, some people +believe that it is best to let it make a clean job, and thus become +satisfied there is no more plunder to be had, else the robbers will +hunt other hives for depredation. The bee memory seems to be very +good, and if the robbers have not cleaned up all the honey which they +remember is there, they hunt for it elsewhere. We could never bring +ourselves to a frame of mind to permit this calmly, though it seems +like sensible advice. Robbing makes us so indignant that we refuse to +allow the spoils to the victor. + +Bees are certainly very clever, and they are able to learn. The old and +successful robber soon reasons it out that where the bee-keeper with a +smoker belches forth annoying fumes, there are to be found open hives +ready for robbing; such bees will follow the operator from hive to +hive, taking their tithe from the helpless colonies. For such robbers +as these a way to appease them is a device for letting them rob where +they can do little damage. Unsalable comb partly filled is put in hives +or supers piled up. These are ventilated by having a wire screen above, +the cover lifted, and the entrance contracted so that only one bee can +pass in and out at a time. This keeps the robbers busy and happy and +out of the way, and the process is called “slow robbing.” + +Some apiarists remove the robbed colony to a cellar for a day or two +until it can recover its communal courage. + + +BORROWING + +When a colony is queenless, or for some reason has no brood, it often +allows the robbers to come and go at will, as if it had found life +worthless anyhow, and that there was no use in struggling. It seems +possessed of the sort of pessimism which leads to stoic recklessness. +This can usually be stopped by giving the plundered colony a queen and +brood; as soon as the bees find they have something worth while to live +for and fight for they are mightily heartened and offer a brave defence. + + +WHAT BECOMES OF THE ROBBED COLONY + +Some of the bees are adaptable, and when they lose courage in defending +their own stores they turn about and help carry these stores to the +hive of the robbers, which they join, thus swearing allegiance to a +new flag. Others, more loyal, will cling to the old empty comb, cluster +there, hopeless and despairing until they die of starvation. + + +MAXIMS TO PREVENT ROBBING + +Be sure that the bees are robbing, before applying remedies. + +Keep the colonies strong. + +Keep watch of the hives in early spring and late fall when there is no +honey coming in. + +Leave no honey or loose comb open around the apiary under any +circumstances. + +If bees are determined to rob when the hives are opened by the +operator, it is best to work under a bee tent or after nightfall. + +Robbing demoralises the whole apiary. If the bees are cross, look out +for robbers. + +Be very careful in uncapping not to let the bees get a taste of the +chyle food, as that makes them very cross and wild to rob. + +Keep Italians. + +Do not let the colony become queenless, as a queenless colony is +legitimate prey for many depredators. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES + + +THE BEE-MOTH (_Galleria mellonella_) + +This miserable little pest is classic in its devastations as it is +mentioned by the old writers, Aristotle paying to it bitter tribute. +It belongs to a family of secretive moths which fold their dull wings +closely about the body, and thus look more like bits of sticks than +like insects. They are called the snout moths (_Pyralidæ_) because +the palpi extend out in front of the head in a highly ornamental and +striking manner. + +The bee-moth is a most insidious creature, hiding in cracks, and, when +it flies, darting about with almost inconceivable swiftness. It is +only by such means that it eludes the watchful bees. Professor Kellogg +observes that the moth simply works against time when it rushes into a +hive by laying its eggs rapidly, dodging about with the utmost rapidity +to leave as many progeny as possible before the bees can get hold of +her and tear her asunder, a fate which surely awaits her. So it seems +that even a parasite may be brave and go to certain death in fulfilling +its destiny. Mr. Cook says that the moth will lay eggs while her head +and thorax are being dissected, which shows that even after death she +is efficient for mischief in the hive. + +The eggs are small and white and are put into crevices. From such an +egg there hatches a caterpillar which spins about itself a silken tube, +wherein it lives and in some mysterious way is protected from the bees. +It may be that these tubes are of such texture that the bees cannot +sting through them; or they may simply be sufficiently thick to protect +their inmate from bee observation. The caterpillar lives upon the wax +and young bees, and also upon the bee-bread; it is a voracious eater, +and tunnels through the comb, destroying everything in its path. Those +who have had experience with it say that by holding an infested comb to +the ear, the noise made by the industrious jaws of the caterpillar can +be distinctly heard. Its presence can be detected by the filth and the +débris on the bottom board of the hive and also by the silken tubes on +the comb. When the caterpillars destroy the bee larvæ, the bees take +out the remains and dump them in front of the hive, thus gaining among +the ignorant, a reputation for infanticide which they little deserve. + +In favourable locations the growth of these moths from egg to adult may +require six weeks; the caterpillar when about an inch in length changes +to a pupa, in a very thick, protecting cocoon of tough silk. The silk +made by these caterpillars is of a most excellent quality; there is in +the Cornell University Museum a filmy but strong silken handkerchief +made by bee-moths passing and repassing over a flat board; it was made +quite involuntarily as the caterpillars spin wherever they go. The +bee-moth is especially destructive to stored comb if it is piled close +together. + + +REMEDY + +To prevent the injuries of this pest the colonies should be kept +strong. The bee-moth follows the rule of other parasites and attacks +only the weak and the irresolute, and never injures a comb that is +covered with bees. A queenless colony, dejected and discouraged, +is usually victimised by it. The Italian bees have learned to cope +with the bee-moth and exterminate it whenever attacked by it. Some +bee-keepers, when a comb becomes infested, introduce it into the centre +of an Italian colony, being sure that the little wretches will find +there the fate they deserve. But to us this seems rather an imposition +upon a self-respecting colony of bees. + +The use of plain, simple, well-made hives is a protection from the +bee-moth, as such hives do not afford hiding-places for moths and eggs. + +Before comb is stored it should be put in a closed box out of doors, +and a saucer of carbon bisulphide placed on top of the comb and left +for a day. The deadly gas of this poison is heavier than the air and so +falls instead of rising. Care should be taken not to breathe the fumes +more than is necessary and hence the work should be done in the open +air. Another reason for this is that the gas is inflammable, and hence +no fire should be allowed near it. There is another reason why the +work should be done in the open and that is because of the sickening +stench of the gas. Comb thus treated should be stored in a perfectly +tight receptacle, or else be set an inch or so apart on shelves. The +bee-moth caterpillar does not seem to like to work in combs that are +not set as closely together, as they are in the hives. + +If combs infested with the bee-moth are subjected to a temperature of +10° F. the moth is usually exterminated. However, the pest normally +passes the winter in the pupa state, and seems to be able to survive +in hives left out of doors, wherever the bees can survive. It should +be remembered that the bee-moth works only during the summer from May +until October, and remains quiescent during the winter. As a matter +of fact the modern up-to-date bee-keeper has almost no trouble with +the bee-moth. It is a special enemy of the heedless and careless man +who neglects his hives, and thus may well deserve to have his bees +exterminated. + +If a colony is attacked by the bee-moth, the hive should be thoroughly +cleaned; new good comb should be introduced and only enough so that the +bees can cover it. The infested comb should be fumigated with carbon +bisulphide, and after the moths are killed it may be given to a strong +colony to clean out and use. + + +THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH (_Plodia interpunctella_) + +The Indian-meal moth sometimes forsakes its bins of grain and meal and +devastates the honey-comb. It does not measure more than one-eighth of +an inch across its wings, and its caterpillar is almost too small to be +noticed, unless it occurs in great numbers. It sometimes attacks the +honey-comb in the North, and in the South it is often a great nuisance. +The only remedy for this very small pest is to change the bees to +smaller hives, and expose the infested comb to the fumes of carbon +bisulphide. + + +BEE-MOTH MAXIMS + +The shiftless bee-keeper is the one who complains of the wax-worm. + +Keep Italian bees. + +Keep the colonies strong. + +Do not leave more comb in the hive than the bees are able to cover. + +Use well-made hives with no crevices. + +If you see a web upon the comb, hunt out the caterpillar and kill it at +once. + +If bee-moths get into the honey store-room, close the room and fumigate +it with brimstone or carbon bisulphide. + + +FOUL BROOD + +This is an infectious bacterial disease, and its presence in the +apiary may be attended by serious results. When it first appeared in +America, large apiaries were completely destroyed. In 1874, Professor +Cohn discovered the organism which causes the disease, and which bears +the name of _Bacillus alvei_. This microbe attacks the immature larvæ +and they die in the cells. It always attacks, to a lesser extent, the +adult bee; but these leave the hive to die and are not such a dangerous +source of infection as are the decaying larvæ. Infected honey is the +medium by which the disease is ordinarily spread from hive to hive. +Undoubtedly robbing is to a great extent responsible for its prevalence. + + +HOW TO DETECT FOUL BROOD + +The brood appears in irregular patches and it does not all hatch; the +caps to the brood cells may be sunken and broken at the centre, the +holes being irregular, instead of the neat circular perforations which +may be found above the healthy larvæ. The sure test of the presence +of the disease is found in the dead body of the larva, which is dark +and discoloured; and if a toothpick or pin be thrust into it and then +drawn back, the body contents will adhere to it in a stringy mass, to +the extent of a half or even an entire inch, as if it were mucous or +glue; later the bodies of the larvæ dry and appear as black scales in +the cell bottoms. Another evidence of the presence of the disease is a +peculiarly disagreeable odour which permeates the hive, which Mr. Root +likens to that of a glue pot. + +_Remedies._—These have been worked out by many bee-keepers, notably by +Mr. William McEvoy, inspector of bees in Ontario, Canada. His remedy +is as follows: When there is a good honey flow so the bees will not +suffer, all the comb is taken from the infected colony and frames with +foundation-starters are given instead. Having no young to feed, the +bees use all the infected honey in their stomachs for making comb. At +the end of the fourth day all this comb is removed and new frames with +foundation are substituted, and the deed is done. + +Mr. Root’s practice is to remove the hive from its stand about dark, +to prevent robbing, and put another just like it in its place which +contains frames filled with foundation. The bees are shaken from the +infected hive into the new one. Here they are shut in without food for +three or four days, thus being compelled to use all the honey in their +honey sacs. Then they are fed and the disease does not appear again +in colonies thus treated. Mr. Root burns all the infected comb and +frames and disinfects the hives with hot water before they are used +again; other apiarists of experience support Mr. Root in this matter. +Fumigating the hives with burning brimstone would perhaps be an easier +or a surer way of disinfecting the hives. + +Many apiarists who do a large business do not destroy the infected +comb, but render it in a steam wax press. They also thin the infected +honey and boil it for two hours, adding to it a little salicylic acid, +and use it to feed back to the bees. But this would hardly pay, unless +great care were taken, as one drop of the infected honey would start +the disease anew. + +Some have tried medicated syrup as a remedy. It is true that syrup made +with salicylic acid or beta-naphthol will retard the disease, but most +bee-keepers believe that it is not a sure remedy. + + +BLACK BROOD + +This appeared in New York so frequently that it was called the New +York bee-disease. It was differentiated from foul brood by Dr. Wm. R. +Howard, of Texas, who found the bacillus and described it. The chief +way of telling it from foul brood is that the contents of the body of +the dead larva is jelly-like, instead of gluey. However, Dr. Veranus +Moore and Dr. G. Franklin White, of the New York Veterinary College +at Cornell University, worked upon this disease for some time and, +in 1903, reported that the bacillus of this disease is _alvei_ and +identical with that discovered and described by Cohn as the cause of +foul brood. + + +PICKLED BROOD + +This disease of the brood differs from the others in that the +body-contents of the dead larva are watery and that no peculiar stench +in the hive emanates from them. Neither is it so contagious as foul +brood, though it may seriously cripple an apiary, if not checked. The +remedy for foul brood is applied with success to colonies suffering +from this disease. + + +DIARRHOEA + +This disease is part of the difficulty of wintering. It is induced by +the bees’ habit of retaining waste matter in the body until they can +fly out of the hive, for thus they preserve the cleanliness of their +home. The first symptom of the disease is the soiling of the hive +entrance with brownish excrement; the bees are also likely to die in +great numbers, their bodies being much swollen. + +The cause of the disease is attributed to cold and dampness, and poor +food. If, in the fall, the bees store honey made from the juices of +rotting fruit or cider refuse, or from honey-dew excreted by plant +lice, they are very likely to perish by feeding upon it during the +winter. But even with good honey bees wintered in cold, damp hives are +liable to contract the disease. + + +PREVENTION + +Give the bees plenty of good food for winter. If the honey they have +gathered in August is extracted, feed them syrup from the best of +sugar. In winter keep the hives in proper temperature, with sufficient +good air and ventilation. After the disease once appears, there is no +remedy, except warm weather, which will promptly bring relief. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE + + +A detailed discussion of the anatomy of the honey-bee does not fall +within the scope of this book; for such a discussion, special works on +insect anatomy must be consulted. But there are certain of the more +general features of the structure of the bee which the bee-keeper +should know; and a discussion of these, merits a place even in an +elementary book on bee-keeping. + +In treating of insect anatomy it is customary to divide the subject +into two parts: first, external anatomy, which treats of the structure +of the body-wall; and, second, internal anatomy, which treats of the +parts found inside the body-wall. + + +I. EXTERNAL ANATOMY + +_The body-wall._—Insects differ fundamentally from man and other +backboned animals. With us, the muscles and other soft parts are +supported by an internal skeleton; with the insects the body-wall, that +part which corresponds to our skin, is hard and serves as a skeleton. +In some respects this is a better arrangement than that which obtains +with us, for the skeleton of an insect serves as an armour to protect +the body as well as a support for the soft parts. + +This arrangement of parts holds with the appendages of the body of +an insect as well as with the body itself; the legs, mouth-parts and +antennæ are all tubular organs, having a firm outer skeleton supporting +the inner parts. + +Movement of the body and its appendages is provided for by narrow, +flexible, zone-like areas in the skeleton which encircle the body and +the appendages, at frequent intervals. This segmented condition of +the body is easily seen in the hind part or abdomen, which appears to +consist of a series of rings. + +The microscopic structure of the body-wall is comparatively simple. +There is an inner cellular part which consists of a single layer of +cells: this is the hypodermis (Plate XXV, 2, _h_); and the outer or +hard part: this is the cuticle (Plate XXV, 2, _c_). + +The hypodermis is the active living part; it produces the cuticle, +which receives additions from it constantly during the life of the +insect. On this account, when a section of the cuticle is examined with +a microscope it presents a layered appearance. + +_Moulting of the cuticle._—From time to time during the growth of the +insect the outer layers of the cuticle are shed; this is known as +moulting. After a moult, the inner layers of the cuticle, which have +now become the outer layers, but which are still soft, stretch to +accommodate the increased size of the body, and then soon become hard. +This moulting, or shedding of the skin, takes place about six times +during the development of the bee. Several moults occur during the +larval life: one when the larva changes to a pupa, and the last one +when the pupa changes to the adult or winged form, just before leaving +the cell in which it has been developed. + +_The head._—The segments of which the body of an insect is composed are +grouped into three regions: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. + +The head is the first of the three regions. It is formed of several +segments grown together so as to form a compact box. It bears the eyes, +the antennæ, and the mouth-parts. + +The eyes are of two kinds, which are distinguished as the compound eyes +and the simple eyes. + +The compound eyes are two in number, one on each side of the head; +they are the organs commonly recognised as the eyes. They are called +compound eyes because each consists of a great number of little +eyes closely pressed together. If a compound eye be examined with a +microscope, it will be seen to present the appearance of a honey-comb, +being composed of a great number of six-sided elements; each of these +is a separate eye. + +In addition to the compound eyes, the bee has three simple eyes, or +_ocelli_, as they are termed. They are situated on the upper part of +the head between the compound eyes. + +The antennæ are two slender, many-jointed organs projecting from the +front part of the head. Their use has not been fully elucidated. +They are doubtless sense organs; and it is believed that certain +microscopic pits, which occur in great numbers in their cuticle, are +the organs of smell. It is possible, also, that the antennæ function as +organs of touch, certain hairs with which they are furnished being the +tactile organs. + +The mouth-parts are very complicated. They consist of an upper lip, a +lower lip, and two pairs of jaws between the lips. + +The upper lip is known as the _labrum_. It is a flap-like projection +situated above, or in front of, the other mouth-parts (Plate XXV, _u_). + +The first pair of jaws, those situated nearest the labrum, are the +mandibles (Plate XXV, 3, _md_). Each mandible consists of a single hard +piece. They are the biting organs. Certain wild bees, distantly related +to the honey-bee, dig holes in wood with their mandibles for nests +for their brood. The honey-bee uses its mandibles as tools for the +manipulation of wax and propolis, and as weapons in its combats. + +The second pair of jaws, which are situated between the mandibles and +the lower lip, are the maxillæ (Plate XXV, 3, _mx_). Each maxilla is a +long blade. The maxillæ, combined with the lower lip, constitute what, +in popular language, is known as the tongue, the organ by means of +which the food is conveyed to the mouth, or the nectar extracted from a +flower. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXIV. SUMAC IN BLOSSOM AND BLOSSOM OF MOUNTAIN MAPLE + +The Sumac is an excellent honey-producer.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXV. FIG. 1.—Vertical longitudinal section of the body of + a larva of an insect; _s_, body-wall or skeleton; _m_, muscles; + _a_, alimentary canal; _h_, heart; _n_, nervous system; _r_, + reproductive organs. FIG. 2.—Section of the body-wall; _c_, + cuticle; _h_, hypodermis; _t_, trichogen or hair-forming cell. + FIG. 3.—Head of a bee and its appendages; _a_, antenna; _c_, + clypens; _u_, upper lip or labrum; _m_, mandible; _mx_, maxilla; + _l_, lower lip or labium; _p_, labial palpus. FIG. 4.—Glands + of a honey-bee (after Girard); _1_, supracerebral glands; _2_, + postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic glands. FIG. 5.—The wax plates + (after Cheshire).] + +The lower lip, or labium (Plate XXV, 3, _l_), is the long central part +of the so-called tongue; it bears on each side a long appendage; +these are the labial _palpi_ (Plate XXV, 3, _p_). + +_The thorax._—The thorax is the central region of the body. It consists +of three body-segments, which are grown together so compactly in the +adult insect that it is difficult to distinguish them. The thorax bears +the organs of locomotion, the wings and the legs. + +There are two pairs of wings; but the two wings of each side are so +closely united that they appear as one. The union is accomplished by +a row of hooks on the front edge of the hind wing, which fasten into +a fold in the hind edge of the fore wing. The wings are strengthened +by a framework of heavy lines, which extend in various but definite +directions. Between these lines the wing is a thin membrane. + +There are three pairs of legs, a pair borne by each of the three +body-segments of which the thorax is composed. + +Each leg consists of nine segments and a pair of claws at the tip +of the last segment. The first two segments, the _coxa_ and the +_trochanter_, are short; then follow the two principal segments, the +_femur_, or thigh, and the _tibia_, or shank; the five remaining +segments constitute the _tarsus_ or foot. A striking peculiarity in +the _tarsi_ of bees is that the first segment differs greatly in form +from the other segments and is much larger, approaching the _tibia_ in +size. This enlarged tarsal segment has received the special name of +_metatarsus_. + +The legs serve several functions besides that of locomotion. Thus, on +each fore leg there is an organ for cleaning the antennæ. The antenna +cleaner consists of a circular notch near the base of the _metatarsus_, +which is furnished with teeth like a comb (Plate VII, F, _a_), and a +spur projecting back from the _tibia_ in such a way as to close this +notch when the leg is bent. The antenna to be cleaned is drawn through +this notch and thus the dirt is combed from it. + +On the middle legs there is a strong spur at the distal end of the +_tibia_ which is used in loosing the pellets of pollen brought to the +hive on the hind legs. + +The third pair of legs are furnished with three organs which deserve +mention here. _First_: the wax pincers. Both the _tibia_ and the +_metatarsus_ are wide; the joint uniting them is at one edge, hence by +alternately bending and straightening the leg at this joint, the space +between the two segments (Plate VII, B, _wp_) is opened and shut like +pincers. This organ is used to loosen from the abdomen the scales of +wax. _Second_: the pollen-combs. These are several comb-like series of +spines, borne on the inner surface of the _metatarsus_ (Plate VII, B, +_pc_). When a bee visits a flower the pollen is gathered by the tongue +and fore legs and some of it becomes entangled among the hairs on the +thorax. It is then combed from these parts by means of the pollen-combs +and transferred to the pollen baskets. _Third_: the pollen basket. +There is a pollen basket on the outer surface of the _tibia_ of each +hind leg. It consists of a fringe of hairs, surrounding a smooth, +concave area which occupies the greater part of the outer face of this +segment of the leg. In it the pollen is packed when combed from the +hairs, and transported to the hive. + +_The abdomen._—The abdomen is the last of the three regions of the +body. It consists of a series of comparatively simple, overlapping +segments, without conspicuous appendages. + + +II. INTERNAL ANATOMY + +_Relative position of the internal organs._—As has been shown in the +preceding pages, the body-wall serves as a skeleton, being hard and +giving support to the other organs of the body, which are contained +within it. + +The accompanying diagram (Plate XXV, 1), which represents a vertical +longitudinal section of the body of the larva of an insect, will +enable the reader to gain an idea of the relative positions of some +of the more important organs. The parts shown in the diagram are the +following: The body-wall or skeleton (_s_); this is made up of a series +of overlapping segments; that part of it which is between the segments +is thinner, and is not hardened, this remaining flexible and allowing +for the movements of the body. Just within the body-wall, and attached +to it, are represented a few of the muscles (_m_); it will be seen +that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction of those on +the lower side of the body would bend it down, while the contraction +of those on the opposite side would act in the opposite direction. The +alimentary canal (_a_) occupies the centre of the body and extends +from one end to the other. The heart (_h_) is a tube open at both ends, +and lying between the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back. + +The central part of the nervous system (_n_) is a series of small +masses of nervous matter, connected by two longitudinal chords; one of +these masses, the brain, lies above the alimentary canal; the others +are situated, one in each segment, between the alimentary canal and +the ventral wall of the body; the two chords connecting these masses, +or ganglia, pass one on each side of the œsophagus to the brain. The +reproductive organs (_r_) lie in the cavity of the abdomen and open +near the hind end of the body. The respiratory organs are omitted from +this diagram for the sake of simplicity. + +_The respiratory system._—The most striking peculiarity in the +structure of insects is the form of their organs for breathing, for +they do not breathe through the mouth as we do. If an insect be +carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body, a +series of openings; these are the openings through which the air passes +into the respiratory system, and are termed spiracles. The spiracles of +the honey-bee are small, and are not easily found by one not trained +to look for such things; but if the reader will examine the sides of +one of our larger caterpillars, he will have no trouble in seeing them. +Typically, there is a pair of spiracles, one on each side of the body, +in each of the body-segments, but they are lacking in the head and in +some of the other segments. The spiracles lead into a system of air +tubes, termed tracheæ, which carry the air to all parts of the body. +When the body of an insect is opened, the tracheæ appear as silvery +threads, on account of the contained air. In the adult honey-bee +certain of the tracheæ are greatly expanded so as to form large air +sacs. (Plate XXVI _b_, 2). + +_The glands._—Those glands found in the body of the honey-bee that are +of most interest to the practical bee-keeper are the following: + +In the larva there is a pair of long, tubular glands, which secrete the +silk of which the cocoon is made. These glands open through a common +duct, which has its outlet near the mouth. + +In the adult worker bee there are four pairs of glands opening into +the mouth, which have been much discussed by students of this subject. +These glands are designated both by number and by name as follows: +System I. or supracerebral glands; system II. or postcerebral glands; +system III. or thoracic glands; and system IV. or mandibulary glands. + +The supracerebral glands or system I. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 1) are +situated in the head above the brain. They open by two openings in the +floor of the mouth cavity, one on each side. + +The postcerebral glands or system II. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 2) are +situated in the head behind the brain; their outlets unite into a +common duct which opens on the middle line of the anterior end of the +œsophagus at the base of the tongue. + +The thoracic glands or system III. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 3) are situated +in the thorax; their outlets unite into a common duct, which joins the +ducts from the postcerebral glands, the two systems of glands opening +through a common opening. + +The mandibulary glands or system IV. are two small glands one on each +side opening at the base of the mandible. + +There has been much discussion regarding the function of these +different glands; and even now any statement of conclusions must be +regarded as provisional. + +The supracerebral glands are large in nurse bees and shrunken in the +old bees that no longer nurse the brood; they are normally found only +in the workers. It is therefore believed that they secrete the milky +food, commonly called royal jelly, which is fed to all larvæ during +the first days of their development, to the queen larvæ throughout +their development, and to the adult queen during the egg-laying period. +The food fed worker and drone larvæ during the latter part of their +development is produced in the chyle-stomach of the nurse bees, and is +semi-digested food. + +The other systems of glands enumerated above produce the saliva, which +is supposed to perform a great variety of functions. “It helps the +digestion; it changes the chemical condition of the nectar harvested +from the flowers; it helps to knead the scales of wax of which the +combs are built, and perhaps the propolis with which the hives are +varnished. It is used also to dilute the honey when too thick, to +moisten the pollen grains, to wash the hairs when daubed with honey, +etc.” + +The wax glands are found only in the worker. There are four pairs of +them. They are situated on the ventral wall of the second, third, +fourth and fifth abdominal segments, and on that part of the segment +which is overlapped by the preceding segment. Each gland is simply a +disc-like area of the hypodermis, the cells of which take nourishment +from the blood and transform it into wax. The cuticle covering each +gland is smooth and delicate, and is known as a wax plate. The wax +exudes through these plates and accumulates, forming little scales. +(Plate VI, X, also Plate XXV, Fig. 5.) + +_The alimentary canal._—The form of the alimentary canal of the adult +honey-bee is shown in Plate XXVI. The following parts can easily be +recognised: the œsophagus, a slender tube, beginning at the mouth and +extending through the head and thorax to the base of the abdomen. +Here there is a sac-like enlargement of the canal, which is termed +the honey-stomach; it is in this that the nectar accumulates as it +is collected by the bee, and is carried to the hive. Behind the +honey-stomach lies the true stomach, the chief digestive organ. Closely +applied to the true stomach are several small tubes, which open into +it; which are known as the Malpighian tubes; they were named after +one of the early anatomists who described them; they are the urinary +organs. Next to the true stomach is the small intestine; and behind +this, the large intestine. + +_The reproductive organs._—The internal reproductive organs are +situated in the abdomen; there is a set on each side, but the two sets +open by a common duct, whose outlet is at the hind end of the body. + +The reproductive organs of the female are shown on Plate XXVI (_a_), +Fig. 1. There are two ovaries (_o_), one on each side of the body. +Each ovary consists of a large number of parallel egg-tubes, within +which the eggs are developed. The egg-tubes of each ovary open into an +oviduct (_od_). The two oviducts unite and form a single tube on the +middle line of the body; this is the _vagina_; the _vagina_ leads to +the external opening of the system. Communicating with the _vagina_, +there is a sac-like pouch, the _spermatheca_, which is the reservoir +for the seminal fluid; this is filled at the time of pairing, and the +_spermatozoa_ may remain alive in it for several years. + +Each egg-tube produces many eggs. As the eggs increase in size, they +pass towards the oviduct. When the egg is fully developed a shell is +formed about it. This shell has a minute opening through it at one end; +this is the micropyle. At the time the egg is laid a _spermatozoon_ may +pass from the _spermatheca_, where thousands of them are stored, into +the egg through the micropyle, and thus the egg is fertilised. + +With most animals, the egg must be fertilised in order that it may +develop. But with bees, both fertilised and unfertilised eggs develop, +the former into females, that is, workers or queens, the latter into +males, that is, drones. + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXVI. (_a._) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. + (From Leuckart, slightly modified.) FIG. 1.—Reproductive organs + of a queen; _o_, _o_, ovaries; _od_, oviduct; _s_, spermatheca; + _g_, gland; _p_, poison sac connected with the sting. FIG. + 2.—Reproductive organs of a drone; _t_, _t_, testes; _v_, vas + deferens; _s_, _s_, seminal sacs; _m_, _m_, mucous glands; _ed_, + ejaculatory duct; _b_, pouch or bulb. The bulb and the following + parts are everted through the outer opening at the time of + pairing.] + +[Illustration: + + PLATE XXVI. (_b._) FIG. 1.—The internal anatomy of the + honey-bee (after Cheshire). _o_, œsophagus; _hs_, honey sac; + _p_, stomach-mouth; _cs_, true stomach or chyle-stomach; _m_, + malpighian tubes; _si_, small intestine; _li_, large intestine; + _h_, heart or dorsal vessel; _n_, central nervous system; _1_, + supracerebral glands; _2_, postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic + glands. The respiratory system and the reproductive organs + are not shown in this figure (after Cheshire). FIG. 2.—The + respiratory system of the honey-bee. _s_, _s_, _s_, spiracles; + _a_, enlarged trachea or air sac (adapted from Leuckart).] + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of Ginn & Company_ + +PLATE XXVII. AN OLD-FASHIONED APIARY] + +Closely associated with the reproductive organs of the female is the +sting; this is a barbed dart connected with a poison gland, whose use +is well known. + +In the abdomen of the male there is a pair of organs, the testes, in +which the _spermatozoa_ are developed. These correspond in position +to the ovaries of the female, but are much smaller. From each testis +there extends a tube corresponding to the oviduct, this is the _vas +deferens_. The two _vasa deferentia_ unite and form the single +ejaculator duct. Each _vas deferens_ is enlarged just before it joins +the ejaculatory duct, forming a reservoir for the accumulation of +_spermatozoa_; these reservoirs are termed the seminal sacs. Appended +to each seminal sac there is a large glandular sac, which adds mucus to +the seminal fluid. Near the outer end of the ejaculatory duct there is +a pouchlike enlargement into which the _spermatozoa_ pass. Here they +are massed into a compact body, known as the spermatophore, which is +transferred to the female at the time of pairing. The terminal part +of the reproductive organs of the male, the intermittent organ, has +several appendages, which are firmly grasped in the opening of the +reproductive organs of the female and are torn from the male when the +two pairing individuals separate. This causes the death of the male. +The male has no sting. (Plate XXVI, Fig. 2.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +INTERRELATION OF BEES AND PLANTS + + +HONEY-FLOWERS + +The facts revealed by science are not always beautiful, however +interesting they may be. But the discovery of the interrelation of +flowers and insects, that partnership which has existed so long that +it has modified both partners, seems to belong to the realm of art or +poetry rather than to that of science. Since plants must needs spend +their lives where they are developed from seeds, they may not roam +abroad like animals to seek their mates. But this is a difficulty which +they readily overcome, through sending their messages by the uneasy, +flying insects; and of all these messengers, the bee is surely the +flowers’ favourite. Its fuzzy body, admirably adapted to be a pollen +brush, its swift wings and its sedulous attention to business, all tend +to make it the most important of the flower-partners. Thus, especially +for the bee, have thousands of flower species developed nectar, in +pockets placed cunningly to entice her to take upon herself a pollen +load. And for countless ages the flowers have painted their petals +various hues and shed on the atmosphere their perfume, to advertise to +the bee-world that they had pollen and nectar to spare. + +This partnership has naturally modified the insects less than the +flowers, as the latter were obliged to develop innumerable devices for +winning attention from their messengers; naturally also the insects +have been more largely modified in their mouth-parts and appliances +for carrying pollen, than in other directions. Their habits have also +been modified in a measure, and the bee has in some mysterious way been +persuaded to work on one kind of blossom at a time. The poetic reproach +that the bee is a heartless rover, rifling the lily of sweets only to +desert her for the rose, is as unjust as it is untrue. Repeatedly have +we watched a bee at work in a bed of pinks. Though clover and other +blossoms were near by, she passed methodically from pink to pink, and +naught tempted her to fickleness. That the bees use pollen for bread, +is a part of the bargain; for the flowers grow it in plenty for both +themselves and their partners. + +Each species of “honey-plant” has developed its own special device for +securing the services of bees to carry its pollen; and no study is more +interesting than the unravelling of these flower secrets. Even the +novice may do this by asking the flower these three questions: “Where +is your nectar?” “Where is your pollen?” “What is the path the bees +must follow to get to the nectar?” For ready and accurate answers to +such questions, the flowers are not to be surpassed; and if there is +any doubtful point, the bees are ready to help elucidate it. There are +so many flowers that have become the special partners of the bees that +it is not within the scope of this book to make an adequate list. Some +of the more important are the flowers of trees, and some of farm crops; +some bloom in gardens and some are mere weeds. + + +TREES + +Fruit trees, when in blossom, give much pollen and honey at a time when +these are greatly needed by the bees for rearing brood. + +Peach, pear, apricot, plum and especially apple trees, when in bloom +are encompassed about with the happy chorus of busy and grateful +bees; and no other creatures can so successfully vocalise blissful +contentment as they. Many careful experiments have proved beyond +doubt that the help of bees is necessary for securing the pollination +requisite to produce good crops of fruit. The wise and successful +fruit-grower recognises this fact and, mindful of his true interests, +does not spray his fruit trees with poisons while they are in +blossom, lest he thereby kill his friends, the bees. Moreover, to use +arsenical sprays, at such a time, is injurious to the petals and the +fruit-producing organs of the flowers; and it is also too early to +spray successfully against the codlin moth. In many states, legislation +forbids the spraying of poisons during fruit-tree bloom, because it is +a useless and wanton destruction of the bees. + +Some time since great injustice was done the bees through the +accusation that they punctured the ripe fruit for the sake of the +juices. This was the special complaint of grape-growers. Investigations +have proved that bees never puncture the rind of ripe fruit, although +they sometimes are tempted to sip the oozing juices, after the rind is +broken through some other agency. + +Even before the fruit-bloom the willows offer a feast to break the fast +of the hungry swarms. Half the winter the pussy-willow stands waiting +in her furs to be ready with her grist of pollen, so that the bees may +make bread during the first warm days of spring. The willows burned +their bridges behind them eons ago and depend almost entirely upon the +bees for fertilisation, since they are diœcious. Some apiarists have +claimed that their bees get no nectar from certain species of willow; +but this could hardly be so if trees of both sexes were present in a +locality; for the staminate flowers offer pollen and the pistillate +flowers give nectar to induce the bees to fetch and carry for them. + +The maples are not much behind the willows in offering the bees food +after their winter fast. The bloom of the red maple is regarded by most +bee-keepers as permission from Spring to bring out the bee-hives from +the cellar and tenements. All our common species of maple are very much +visited by the bees. + +The locusts often yield large crops of honey, although they vary with +the seasons in this respect. Honey-locust, when in bloom, is covered +with bees. + +The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful of our ornamental trees +and it gives a great amount of dark, rich honey. In New York it +blossoms in May and June and, like the locusts, is a great help to the +bees after the fruit-bloom is over. This is a common tree in the woods +of the South and is not rare in Northern forests. It should be planted +even more generally than it is at present, for the sake of the bees. + +The basswood, of all honey-producing trees, is the most important +and most beloved by the bees. It blooms in July and only for a brief +season; therefore, it is important that the colonies be strong and +able to make the most of these few precious days of harvest. Basswood +honey has a strong flavour when first gathered. But after it is ripened +and sealed it has a delightful flavour. The way our forests have been +stripped of basswood during the past twenty-five years is nothing +less than heartrending to the bee-keeper; for to him this tree ranks +next to the white clover in importance. Mr. Root had a single colony +take forty-three pounds of honey in three days from basswood, and Mr. +Doolittle had a colony take sixty pounds in the same period. The tree +is beautiful, and might well be used for shade along roadsides and also +in ornamental planting. It grows rapidly; young trees, transplanted +from the woodland, blossom in five or six years thereafter. No +bee-keeper should allow the basswood to be cut on his premises; and he +should grow as many young trees as possible. + +[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII + +Thorn-apple blossoms. + + _Photographs by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +Wild crab-apple blossoms.] + +[Illustration: PLATE XXIX. BUCKWHEAT IN BLOSSOM] + +Other honey-producing trees of note are the sourwood (_Oxydendrum +arboreum_) of the South, the guajilla of Texas, the cabbage palmetto of +Florida, and the eucalyptus of California. + +The flowers of sumac often yield much nectar and are sedulously worked +by the bees. This picturesque shrub is not properly appreciated +because it is so common. Its foliage is beautiful in the summer and is +brilliant in the fall. Its blossoms, as well as its fruit, conduce to +make it an interesting and ornamental shrub for planting. + + +HONEY PLANTS WHICH YIELD OTHER VALUABLE CROPS + +To raise plants solely for the sake of the honey they produce has not +proved a financial success so far in America. Mr. Root estimates that +it would require 500 acres covered with plants blooming in succession +to keep 100 colonies of bees busy; and, at present, most land here is +worth too much to be put to such use. It is doubtful if artificial +pasturage will ever prove a paying investment in agricultural sections. + +However, many apiarists devote some land to honey-gardens, and such +a garden may be a beautiful and interesting place, for many of the +honey-plants are ornamental. Also, many apiarists have introduced +certain honey-weeds on waste land in the vicinity of their apiaries +with excellent results. + +Fortunately, many plants very valuable to the agriculturist and +horticulturist are the best honey-producers; and if a farmer has only +twenty colonies of bees, it will pay him to reap one crop from his +land and let his bees reap another. + +Of all such plants the clovers are the most important. Not only do they +make the best of forage and hay, but they also help to fertilise and +aërate the soil, and should be a factor in every crop rotation. Clovers +and other _legumes_ have upon their roots nodules filled with bacteria, +which are underground partners of the plant. These bacteria fix the +free nitrogen of the air and leave it in the soil available for plant +food. Red clover is not so great a source of honey as are the other +clovers, since its corolla tubes are so long that usually it is only +worked by bumblebees. But the long-tongued Italians are able to get +considerable honey from red clover at times. + +Crimson clover grew as a weed for a long time in America before it +became an important factor in horticulture. It is an annual and its +home is in southern Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils +and is of great value as a cover crop for orchards. It is a good +honey-plant. + +Alsike is a perennial and grows in low meadows, from Nova Scotia to +Idaho. Its blossoms look like that of the white clover, except that +they are larger and are tinged with pink. This is a valuable clover for +pasturage, and also for hay, and it stands next to the white clover as +a honey-plant. + +The white clover is the very best plant for producing honey in the +United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and the flavour of its +honey is famous the world over. While in hard soil, the white clover +lasts only two or three years, it is perennial on rich, moist lands. +It is a cosmopolitan plant and may be found in almost all regions of +the temperate zones. It is an ideal plant for pastures and should be +established everywhere on land not under the plow. It shows well its +partnership with the bee by turning down its flowerets as soon as they +are fertilised, and leaving those in need of pollen still erect. We +have seen a head of white clover with a single floweret, erect and +white, calling to the bees, while all of its sister flowerets were +deflected and brown. + +Among the medics we find the veteran of all clovers, the alfalfa, which +has been under cultivation for twenty centuries, and came to America +with the Spanish invasion. It was established in California in 1854, +and has worked its way eastward. But it is only recently that it has +been practicable to grow it in the East. This has been made possible +by the discovery that it will grow on soil inoculated with its root +bacteria. Alfalfa is a true perennial and may be cut for hay three +times a season, and is of highest value as fodder or forage. It is a +superb honey-plant, furnishing great quantities of light-coloured and +excellent honey. It will support more bees to the acre than any other +plant known. For artificial pasturage it is the most promising of all +honey-plants. + +Buckwheat is, in many localities, doubly profitable as a grain and as +a honey-plant; especially is it so in middle and western New York, +where the hills in autumn are made brilliant with great fields of the +wine-red stubble. Buckwheat is usually sown late in the season, often +on ground where oats have already been grown earlier in the year. It +blossoms in August and even in September, and furnishes a wealth of +nectar when there is little to be found elsewhere. The honey made from +buckwheat is dark, reddish brown and brings a lower price in most +markets than do the lighter-coloured varieties. Though it is strong +in flavour, it is preferred by many, and on our table it alternates +with basswood and clover. It has always seemed poetic justice that +the plant which produces buckwheat cakes should produce the honey +to eat with them. The following are the good points of buckwheat as +a crop: It is profitable, the grain always brings a good price; it +grows well on poor soil; it is one of the best agencies for ridding +a field of weeds. There is a certain gameness about buckwheat which +we have always admired and which was thus characterised by a farmer +of our acquaintance: “Buckwheat is a gritty plant; if it can get its +head above ground it will blossom. I have seen it, during dry seasons, +blossom when its stalks were so short that the _bees had to get down on +their hands and knees to gather the honey_.” While this may be putting +the case rather strongly, yet it expresses well the habits of the plant. + +Black mustard, rape and turnips all furnish nectar for excellent honey. +The seed of mustard and rape brings a good price, and the root of the +turnip is always valuable. + +The blossoms of the red raspberry yield a delicious honey, and the +grower of small fruits may well add bees to his farm as a source of +profit. + + +GARDEN FLOWERS + +Most of the blooms in flower gardens, as well as vegetable gardens, +are worked by the bees. Mignonette is a valuable honey-plant, as it +blossoms for a long time. Marjoram, thyme and sage give rich, spicy +honey. The sunflower is also a good honey-plant. + + +WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS + +We shall never forget our profound amazement when we saw, for the +first time, in a narrow valley of the Mojave Desert a great city +of white bee-hives. Nothing in that desolate landscape could we +discern that bore the slightest resemblance to a honey-plant. The +gray sage-brush which grew everywhere looked to us about as promising +for honey-production as so much slag from a furnace; and yet this +sage-brush of the desert gives the bees the best of pasturage. The +bloom begins down in the valley and climbs the mountain side slowly, +thus giving bloom for a long period. + +There are two species of sage that yield honey, the white and the +black, or button sage. They are allied to the mints, which are +generally good honey-plants. We learned to care much for the spicy +sage-honey. A professor of Greek, who was for some time in the American +school at Athens, tells us that the sage-honey is very similar in +flavour to the famous honey of Hymettus, which is made from thyme. + +The horse-mint is a very important honey-plant of the lower Mississippi +Valley and of Texas. Its corolla tubes are so long that only the +Italians and other long-tongued bees can get its honey. Catnip, +motherwort and gill-over-the-ground and gall-berry all furnish an +abundance of nectar. + +The blue thistle emigrated to Virginia in colonial times, and now +covers with a heavenly blue thousands of acres of the desolate, +uncultivated, red Virginia soil. It is a great boon to the bees of the +region, as its blossoms creep slowly up its stalks, thus affording +nectar for many weeks. It is related to borage, which is another good +honey-plant. + +Spider flower (_Cleome pungens_), the Rocky Mountain bee-plant (_Cleome +integrifolia_), and figwort (_Scrofularia venalis_) have all been +planted by bee-keepers in their honey-gardens, because they give such a +great amount of honey per plant. + +During September and early October the bees work busily on the various +species of goldenrod and asters, and gather from them a considerable +amount of honey, which is rich in colour and taste. The two common +species of _Impatiens_ also give the bees good fall pasturage. + +Fireweed (_Epilobium angustifolium_) comes wherever forests have been +cleared and burned off. It blooms late and yields a fine quality of +honey. The unlovely Spanish needle (_Coreopsis_) also gives much honey. +The milkweed yields good honey, yet it overdoes the matter by loading +the feet of the bee with its pollen sacs, until the poor messenger dies +of exhaustion under the burden of its message, or dies a prisoner in +the blossom. + +The cheerful and ubiquitous dandelion has this much in its favour, that +it is beloved by the bees and often gives them honey and pollen at a +time in the spring when they need it for brood-rearing. + +Of all the weeds which will pay the apiarist to establish in waste +places, the most profitable are the mellilots, or sweet clovers, of +which there are two species, the white and the yellow. These are most +beneficent weeds, for they carry nitrogen to the soil like other +clovers, and they are easily exterminated by cultivation, so they are +not to be feared. + +Sweet clover in blossom fills the atmosphere of the country road with +perfume, for it is almost everywhere a roadside weed; and, as might be +expected, it is most attractive to the bees. While the honey made from +it is rather strong in flavour, yet it is of good colour, and sells +well. When it is mixed with the honey from other flowers, it adds much +to the excellence of the flavour. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +BEE-KEEPERS AND BEE-KEEPING + + +Most business occupations lead to rivalry and all the selfish +emotions incident to competition; not so is bee-keeping; quite the +opposite, indeed, as there is a freemasonry that holds bee-keepers +together and renders their attitude toward each other friendly and +helpful. Bee-keeping is everywhere a bond of brotherhood and a sign +of congenial tastes. One night at a dinner-party the gentleman on +my right was a stranger, known to me only by reputation as a lawyer +of high standing and great erudition. He was reserved and silent, +and evidently bored by the trivialities of table-talk. Some one +incidentally spoke of our bees, when the face of my neighbour became +illumined with interest, and he said, “I am sure that by becoming a +lawyer I spoiled a good bee-keeper. I have never found anything else +so interesting as bee-keeping;” and thus was swept away the curtain of +cold conventionalism which had hung between us, and we began, from that +moment, to be friends. + +Nowhere is this brotherly interest more noticeable than in the +bee-books and the bee-journals. The former bear evidence, on every +page, of kindness and courtesy to all; while the latter are like +friendly correspondence published, wherein John Smith of Maine +explains his views on the bee business to Timothy Jones of Oregon, and +incidentally sends his kindest regards to the family. + +I never take into my hands that delightful book, “A B C of Bee +Culture,” without turning to the biographies of noted bee-keepers, and +looking again at the faces there depicted, noting the noble forehead of +Huber; the keen, scholarly face of Dzierzon; the judicial countenance +of Friend Quinby and the beautiful expression of the venerable +Langstroth. And thus on, page by page, and getting, by the way, a +friendly greeting from the kindly eyes of Professor Cook, that most +excellent of good teachers; and finally deriving sincere satisfaction +from a long look at the keen, humorous face of Mr. A. I. Root himself. +These leaders in apiculture are men with whom one is proud to be +associated. And the fact that there are, in the United States, 300,000 +persons engaged in bee-keeping, makes one hopeful that our republican +institutions are to be guarded by intelligent citizenship. + +It is interesting to note that knowledge of bees has been given to +the world by men who have attained the high peaks of scientific fame. +Such knowledge began with Aristotle and Pliny in ancient times, and +received no additions during the uncertain Dark Ages. It began anew +with Swammerdam, in the seventeenth century, was augmented by Linnæus, +De Geer, Réaumur, Bonnet, Lyonnet, Fabricius, Latreille, Lamarck, and +finally reached a climax in the study of the habits of the bee by the +blind Huber, who was born in Geneva in 1750. His observations made +with his own brain, but with the eyes of his wife, niece and servant, +form a classic in bee literature. In 1811 there were born, a continent +apart, two great bee-keepers: Langstroth in Philadelphia, and Dzierzon +in Silesia. Both were clergymen, but were also true scientists, and +both invented means by which the combs could be moved and examined. +Langstroth carried his invention farther, and in 1852 devised the +movable frame which revolutionised bee-keeping. + +Up to this time the business of the bee-man was largely guess-work. He +did not know anything about the condition of his bees in the hive, for +he had no way of penetrating that dark chamber. The ways of reaping +the honey-harvest were devious; at best the combs were torn from the +hives with little regard for the rights and lives of the bees. Finally, +there was devised the truly infernal plan of killing the bees with the +fumes of burning brimstone, before taking their treasure; this method +undoubtedly originating in the turgid theology of the times. + +However, about the time of Langstroth, someone, or perhaps many, had +discovered that bees stored their honey in the upper part of the hive; +and the old box-hive had a few auger-holes in the top, over which +was inverted a box, which the bees usually filled, and thus saved +themselves from the brimstone pit. We remember well the delight in our +family when we used, for the first time, such boxes with glass sides; +and as we saw they were being filled with combs, we rejoiced that we +need not “take up” any more swarms, as the suffocation by sulphur fumes +was termed. + +When, to the invention of the box super, was added the greater +invention of Langstroth, and finally thereunto was added the invention +of the honey-extractor, bee-keeping became a science, instead of a +haphazard avocation. + +Bee-keeping in America has since then passed through many phases and +survived many experiments. Our bee-keepers have been wide awake and +willing to try all things and hold fast to the good. Once, having read +of the floating apiaries of the Nile, which follow the flower bloom +along the banks, an enthusiast tried the same scheme on the Mississippi +River, starting at the southern part early in the season and coming +north abreast of the spring; but too many bees were left behind to make +this profitable. Another enterprising gentleman took his bees south +winters, but the cost of transportation took away the profits. Now, +however, another plan for gaining pasturage is proving most successful; +_i. e._, the establishment of out-apiaries. As seventy-five or a +hundred colonies will usually take all the nectar of a given locality, +the bee-keeper places his surplus colonies in other apiaries far enough +distant, so there is good pasturage for all. Mr. A. L. Coggshall has +about 3,000 colonies in out-apiaries in central New York. + +The up-to-date bee-keeper is not merely an operator in his apiary, +but a co-operator with his bees, and we firmly believe that the bees +are being educated by the partnership, as well as the bee-keeper. +Bees certainly do learn by experience, as is well instanced by some +Cyprians, which, in their native home, build columns of wax and +propolis at the hive-entrance to keep out the large death’s-head moth +which preys upon them. After living in this country for two years, +the bees discovered that there were none of these moths about, and so +ceased building these bars. The readiness with which our bees use the +comb-foundation and fit their combs to the frames and follow the hint +given by the starters in the sections, all point to their adaptability; +and however others may regard the matter, we never take off a section +filled with just one pound of pearly comb and amber honey that we do +not pay tribute to the bee intelligence which placed it there, and +regard the little artisans as true partners in our enterprise. And we +never doubt that in the future this co-operation and co-education of +bees and bee-keepers will result in a perfection of honey-production as +yet undreamed. + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXX. BOX-ELDER + +Staminate and pistillate flowers. This and the other maples and the +willows give the bees pasturage in early Spring.] + +[Illustration: + + _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_ + +PLATE XXXI. BLOSSOMS OF BLACK LOCUST + +The locusts often yield large crops of honey.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +BEE-HUNTING + + +The mere mention of these words always brings to us memories of high +hills, wound about by picturesque roads, bordered by rail fences, +from the corners of which the goldenrod still flung its banners to +the breeze, though September and, mayhap, frosts had come. Beyond the +fences were knolly pastures, cropped close except where the mullein, +the thistle and the immortelle vaunted their immunity from the attacks +of grazing herds; and still beyond were upland meadows, green with +second-crop clover; and crowning all were forests beginning to glow +with autumnal hues. Forth into such roads, pastures, meadows and +woodlands were we wont to fare of a sunny morning, to hunt bees with +our father, whose woodcraft was not the empty accomplishment of the man +of this generation, but was attained on those same hills of western +New York when he was a pioneer boy, and the deer and the wolves roamed +those forests, and the beavers built their dams in the valley. + +Our equipment for hunting was a bottle of diluted honey; a box with +a sliding glass cover, containing pieces of empty comb; and a sharp +stake, four feet high, topped with a cross-piece on which to set the +box. When we were far enough afield, some unwary bee was lifted from +its goldenrod revel and imprisoned in the box, where one of the empty +combs had been filled from the bottle for her special delectation. +Like a worthy bee, she began to fill at once; meanwhile, the stake was +pushed into the ground and the box placed upon it, the cover removed, +and we all retired for a little distance to watch. When the bee +finally lifted herself and our honey into the air, we gave her closest +attention. To make sure of the exact position of her bonanza, she +always arose in a spiral, each circle being larger than the one before, +and finally turned the spiral in a certain direction. When she suddenly +darted away with almost the speed of a bullet, it was always the eyes +of our father, blue as the sky against which the bee was outlined, that +detected her direction; for young eyes, however keen, counted little +against trained eyes in this competition. + +Then there always followed a time of anxious waiting for the return +of the bee. Meanwhile we stretched out on the dry sod in the sun and +listened to the chirping of the crickets, or the sweet notes of the +meadow larks and idly watched a hawk circle on even pinions above our +heads; or we told stories of other days of successful bee-hunting. +If the bee returned within fifteen minutes, all was well and we were +confident that the tree was distant not much more than a mile. But if +we had to wait a half hour we usually caught other bees and started +over again, hoping to find some nearer colony. If our first visitor +came back soon, and especially if she was followed by her anxious +sisters, we were satisfied. With several bees flying in the same +direction, it was always easy to get the “line,” which we marked by +some peculiar tree or other noticeable object in the landscape. When +several of our visitors were eagerly filling themselves with honey, +the cover was shoved over them and they were carried for a distance +along the line and then liberated, and the line from this new location +ascertained. Thus were they followed, up hill and down dale, and even +through woodlands; finally, we would come to a place in a forest where +we could follow the line no farther, and then we took our first lesson +in geometry by getting a cross-line. This was done by carrying some of +the bees in the box for some rods to the right or left; and when they +were established there we knew that at the apex of the angle made by +the two intersecting lines stood the bee-tree. + +The triumph which filled us when we finally discovered that stream +of black particles entering some knothole or the broken top of a +tree, made us breathless; and all the way home we tried to temper our +excitement so as to make the announcement of our discovery with a +nonchalance characteristic of invariably successful hunters. + +However, we were by no means always successful. Sometimes it would be +too late in the day before we established a line; and again a line +would lead us in a disgusting fashion to some unsuspected apiary; and +now and then in a woodland tangle we crossed and crisscrossed lines, +nearly breaking our necks gazing into tree-tops, all to no avail. Then, +too, even our victory might be tempered by conditions. If the bee-tree +were small, we judged it contained little honey; if the tree were +valuable, we doubted if the owner would allow it to be cut. As a matter +of fact, we seldom cut a bee-tree; and when we did, we wrested from it +a combination of rotten wood, bee-bread, crushed brood and bees that +made a potpourri which would prove disastrous to the enfeebled stomachs +of this generation. But, though we rarely cut a bee-tree, bee-hunting +lost none of its fascination. For what could be more delightful than +long days spent in the autumn sunshine, enlivened by an occupation +vitally interesting that needs must be lazily carried on! So we never +gave it up until the October frosts had killed all the flowers, and the +fumes of the honey-comb that we burned failed to entice an enterprising +bee from her winter quarters to our box. + + + + +APPENDIX + +BEE BOOKS + + +The bibliography of bee literature is extensive. Scientists of all +nations have contributed the results of their investigations on bee +anatomy and bee physiology, and have made bee literature, as a whole, +most profound and technical reading. However, there are among these +books many that were written for popular audiences, and that deal with +the practical side of bee-keeping; of such we add a few titles of those +best known and of special excellence. + + BENTON, FRANK. “The Honey-Bee.” Mr. Benton, who is our national + expert of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, always + writes practically, and has carried on experiments with races of + bees, which the private bee-keeper could hardly afford to make. + The enterprising bee-keeper should keep in close touch with Mr. + Benton’s bulletins. + + CHESHIRE, FRANK R. Two volumes. This is one of the finest works + that has ever been published upon the honey-bee and bee-keeping. + It is delightfully written and has many fine illustrations. + + COOK, PROFESSOR ALBERT J. “The Bee-keeper’s Guide or Manual of + the Apiary.” This is the most extensive of all the bee-keeping + manuals written for American bee-keepers. It deals with all + phases of the subject minutely, and new editions are published + frequently enough to keep the book up-to-date. Professor Cook has + a wide reputation as a most excellent teacher, and bee-keeping is + one of the subjects which he taught for years in the Agricultural + College of Michigan. + + COWEN, T. W. “The Honey-bee, Its Natural History, Anatomy and + Physiology.” + + COWEN, T. W. “Bee-Keeper’s Guide Books.” The first of these + little volumes is a clear and excellent account of the anatomy of + the bee. The second is a concise and helpful book on the methods + of bee-keeping as practiced in England. + + HUBER, FRANZ. “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,” + published in 1792. English translation in 1841. This classic in + bee literature is one of the most delightful of all the bee books + that have been written. It shows the careful methods of this + blind scientist who has given us more of the understanding of the + bee and its life than any other investigator or writer. + + HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Advanced Bee Culture.” + + HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Comb Honey.” Mr. Hutchinson is one of our most + successful bee-keepers, and he writes clearly and understandingly + of his methods. + + LANGSTROTH, L. L. “The Hive and Honey-Bee.” This classic in + American apiculture has been revised and kept up-to-date by the + scholarly Dadants, father and son, who are well known on two + continents as successful bee-keepers. This book written by the + father of American apiculture is comprehensive, and is good + literature as well as good bee-keeping. + + LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN. “Ants, Bees and Wasps.” Although this is + a book of scientific experiments, it should be read by every + bee-keeper. No other book tells so well the patience and + ingenuity necessary to discover what the bee knows and why it + does certain things. + + MAETERLINCK, MAURICE. “The Life of the Bee.” This exquisite piece + of literature and social philosophy has attracted much attention, + and has introduced the world at large to the wonderful life of + the honey-bee in such a poetic and dramatic manner, that most + people have regarded it as a work of fiction. Maeterlinck is + said to be a practical apiarist, and his book is based upon the + facts of bee life as he understood them at the time the book was + written. Though some of his facts be questioned, yet probably his + statements are no more doubtful than would be those of almost any + bee-keeper should he try to write what he thinks he knows about + bees. Maeterlinck is the Homer of the bees and, therefore, he has + a right to poetic license. + + MILLER, DR. C. C. “Forty Years Among the Bees.” This is a simply + told history of the experiences of a successful bee-man. It is a + most honest and often a humorous record of bee-keepers’ successes + and failures. + + MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Bee People.” + + MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Honey-Makers.” The first of these books + is written charmingly and simply for children and covers in an + interesting manner the life of the bee. “The Honey-Makers” gives + a most extended account of the relation of bees to men, giving + extensive quotations from Hindu, Egyptian, Greek and Italian + literatures and also a most interesting chapter on the curious + superstitions and customs regarding the honey-bee. + + QUINBY, MOSES. “Mysteries of Bee-Keeping,” revised by L. C. + Root and now called, “Quinby’s New Bee Book.” This is a simple, + straightforward account of a practical man’s dealings with bees. + + ROOT, A. I. “A B C of Bee Culture.” The author may be pardoned + if she speaks with special enthusiasm of this book, as Mr. Root + was the special teacher that helped the Comstock apiary achieve + success. The interesting and truly human way that Mr. Root refers + to bees is not only inspiring, but is also most practically + helpful. The “A B C of Bee Culture” is arranged conveniently, + encyclopedia fashion, so that the discussion of any subject in + it may be readily found. Every page of it is interesting, and is + based upon the actual experience of a man who is at once a keen + observer, a sympathetic friend to the bees, and a most successful + apiarist. + + + + +INDEX + + + ABC of Bee Culture, 207. + + Abdomen, 187. + + Æsophagus, 191, Plate XXVI. + + After-swarms led by virgin queen, 81. + prevention of 81. + reason of and remedy for, 79, 81. + + Alder, 154. + + Alfalfa, 201. + + Alighting board, 15. + + Alimentary canal, 187, 191, Plates XXV., XXVI. + + Alley’s queen and drone trap, 12. + + Alsike, 200. + + Anatomy, external, 181, Plate XXV. + internal, 187, Plate XXVI. + + Antenna cleaner, 186, Plate VII. + + Antennæ, 183, Plate VII. + + Ants, 27. + + Apiaries, floating, 209. + out, 209. + + Apiary, high fence for, in city, 23. + in village garden, 22. + location and arrangement of 20. + mowing the, 23. + old-fashioned, Plate XXVII. + old orchard good place for, 20. + on city house tops, 22. + sheep in, 23. + windbreak for, 22. + + Apparatus for extracting, Plate XVIII. + + Apple, 196. + + Apple blossoms, Plate XVII. + + Apricot, 196. + + Aristotle, 172, 207. + + Artificial pasturage, 199. + + + _Bacillus alvei_, 176. + + Balling of queen, 32, 158. + + Basswood, 198. + blossoms, frontispiece. + + Bee, anatomy of, 181. + books, 206. + brush, Plate III. + Brush, Dixie, 19. + brush, use of, 101. + cellars, for wintering, the Bingham, 151. + gloves, 11, 17. + glue, its source, 60, 61. + glue made from varnish and cement, 61. + glue, various uses of, 62. + house-keepers, 34. + how she gathers pollen, 59. + how she collects propolis, 62. + ingratitude, 44. + journals, 206. + moth, 172. + moth, development of, 173. + moth, how to detect, 173. + moth, maxims, 176. + moth, remedy for, 174. + tent, 102, 168. + tree, 214. + veil, 11, 16. + worker, 59. + worker, brains of, 40. + worker—life and habits of, 42, 43. + worker, sex of, 39. + + Bee-bread, 59. + as food, 60. + in cells, 98. + + Bee-escape, Plate III. + Porter, 18. + Porter, use of, 101. + + Bee-gum, 83. + + Bee-hunting, 211. + + Bee-keepers, 206. + books written by, 9. + number of, 207. + + Bee-keepers’ supplies, catalogue of, 10. + + Bee-keeping, 206. + a beginner’s order, 11. + as a regular business, 10. + attractive materials of, 85. + how to begin, 8. + too successful, 73. + worst way to begin, 10. + + Bees, as a recreation, 5. + as socialists, 6. + a study in natural science, 6. + belong to the garden, 7. + control population, 34. + diseases of, 176. + enemies and diseases of, 172. + feeding of, 136. + German or black, 12, 47. + how they collect propolis, 60, 61. + how they secrete wax, 52. + how to handle them, 91. + how to keep from keeping too many, 73. + how to manage when swarming, 66. + how to reconcile swarm to new hive, 70. + how to unite colonies, 82. + how to winter, 145. + how to work with, 92. + hybrids, 48. + Italian, 12, 13. + Italian and black bees compared, 48. + Italian, Mr. Root’s test for, 48. + keep for sake of honey, 4. + keep for sake of money, 4. + legends and literature of, 3. + races of, 12. + races of domestic, 47. + reasons why one should keep, 3. + relations to plants, 194. + robbing, 164. + secreting wax, Plate X. + sense of smell, 92. + swarming of, 64. + telling the, 61. + watering, 143. + when they swarm, 65. + why they swarm, 64. + wild, 47. + + Beeswax, adulterated, 126, 134. + clarified by vinegar, 128. + how to make it, 126. + its value, 126. + maxims for making, 135. + press, 132. + primitive method of rendering, 127. + refining of, 134. + rendered in wash-boiler, 129. + + Beeswax-extractors, 130. + + Black brood, 179. + + Blue thistle, 204. + + Boardman wax extractor, 130, 131. + + Body wall, 181, Plate XXV. + + Bonnet, 207. + + Borage, 204. + + Bottom board, 83. + + Box elder in blossom, Plate XXX. + + Box hives, 83, 208. + + Brain, 188, Plate XXV. + + Brimstoning bees, 208. + + Brood, black, 179. + foul, 176. + foundation, 17. + how to examine, 97. + pickled, 179. + + Brood chamber, 83. + how to examine, 95. + size of, 14. + + Brood frame, Langstroth, how much honey it will hold, 146. + examining of, Plate XIII. + how to lift out, 96. + + Brushing or shaking-out method to control swarming, 77. + + Buckwheat, 201. + + Buckwheat in blossom, Plate XXIX. + + + Cabbage palmetto, 199. + + Cages, queen, 160, 161. + + Candy for feeding bees, how to make, 141. + Good, 141, 161. + + Cans for shipping extracted honey in bulk, 123. + + Carniolan bees, 47. + + Carton for comb-honey, 106, 113. + + Catnip, 204. + + Cell of queen, 29. + + Cellars for wintering bees, 150. + + Cerasin, wax adulterant, 134. + + Chaff hives, 11, 14. + + Chaff hives for wintering, 148, Plate XXII. + + Chyle food, 36. + how regurgitated, 58. + + City apiary, 22. + + Cleome, 204. + + Clipping wings of queen, 75. + + Clover, 200. + + Coggshall, 209. + + Colonies, how to unite, 82. + + Colony, queenless, 29. + queenless, Mr. Root’s method of testing, 159, 160. + + Comb building, Plate IX. + built by many workers, 56. + drone, 37. + cell caps, construction of, 56. + foundation for brood-chamber, 85. + how to tell honey from brood in capped cells, 97. + made without pollen, 50. + making, described by A. I. Root, 53. + making, Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s observation of, 53. + mathematics of, 54. + placing in extractor, Plate XIX. + shape of, not fortuitous, 54. + strength of, 56. + uncapping of, Plate XIX. + + Comb-honey and large hives, 77. + bee-moth in, 174, 175. + candied, 115. + compared with extracted honey, 106, 124. + conditions for production of, 107. + grading of, 112. + how to keep, 116. + how to make, 106. + in 8-frame hive, 14. + marketing of, 114. + maxims for producers of, 116. + shipping of, 113. + storing of, 115. + + Combs for extracting, Plate XVIII. + + Cook, Prof. A. J., method of uniting colonies, 82, 207. + observation on bee-moth, 172. + + _Coreopsis_, 204. + + Corneil smoker, 11, 16. + how to use, 93. + + Coxa, 185. + + Crabapple blossoms, Plate XXVIII. + + Crimson clover, 200. + + Cuticle, 182, Plate XXV. + + Cyprians, 47, 210. + + + Daisy foundation fastener, 11, 17. + + Dandelion, 205. + + De Geer, 207. + + Details concerning honey, 106. + + Development of worker, 40. + + Diarrhœa, prevention of, 180. + + Diseases of bees, 176. + + Division board, what it is, 13. + + Division board feeder, Plate XII. + + Dixie bee-brush, 12. + + Doolittle division board feeder, 12. + wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Drone, the, 34, Plate V. + appearance of, 35. + cell of, 37, Plate VIII. + cells, how capped, 97. + cells, size of, 56. + comb, 37. + death of, 35. + eggs in worker cells, 37. + flight of, 36. + food of, 36. + from unfertilised egg, 36. + head of, Plate VI. + leg of, Plate VII. + life-history of, 36. + killing of, 38, 39. + maturity of, 37. + physical characteristics of, 35, 36. + reproductive organs of, Plate XXVI. + trap, 19, Plate XVI. + wedding flight of, 38. + + Drones, great number of, 38. + males, 27. + + Dzierzon, 207, 208. + + + Egg, 192. + queen, 29. + tubes, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Eggs, unfertilised, 33. + + Egyptian bees, 47. + + Enemies of bees, 172. + + Entrance to hive, how to contract, 167. + + _Epilobium angustifolium_, 204. + + Eucalyptus, 199. + + Extracted honey and large hives, 77. + candied, 122, Plate XXI. + care of, 121. + compared with comb-honey, 106, 124. + drawing from extractor, Plate XX. + hive for, 14. + how to bottle or can, 122. + how to produce it, 117. + in glass jars, Plate XXI. + maxims for the producers of, 124. + packages for, 123. + + Extracting room and apparatus, Plate XVIII. + + Extractor, honey, invention of, 117. + + Extractor, Solar wax, 130. + + Extractor, wax, 130. + + Eyes, compound, 183, Plate VI. + simple, 183, Plate VI. + + + Fabricius, 207. + + Feeder, Boardman, 138. + Division board, 138. + Doolittle, 19. + pepper-box, 139. + + Feeders, Smith, Hedden, Miller, 139. + + Feeding back, 143. + bees, 136. + candy, 140. + chunk honey, 140. + for honey, 142. + for winter, 137. + how to do it, 138. + how to feed inside the hive, 138. + how to feed outside the hive, 138. + in fall, 136. + in spring, 136. + maxims for, 144. + rye flour, 142. + syrup in combs, 140. + what to feed, 137. + + Females of social insects, 27. + + Fence, Plate III. + between sections, 88. + + Figwort, 204. + + Fireweed, 204. + + Flowers of the garden, 203. + + Food of worker, 40. + + Foul brood, 176, 179. + how to detect, 177. + remedy for, 177. + + Foundation, brood, 17. + super, 11. + + Foundation-comb, 126, Plate XII. + for brood-chamber, 85. + for sections, how to cut, 89. + how to place in frame, 85, 86. + size of, 86. + + Foundation-fastener, Daisy, 17. + Parker, 18. + super, 17. + for extracted honey, 119. + foundation for, 84. + + Frames, Hoffman brood, 86. + Hoffman self-spacing, 84. + Langstroth movable, 84. + self-spacing, Plate XII. + spacing of, 84. + + Fruit, not punctured by bees, 196. + + Fruit trees, 196, 197. + + + Gall-berry, 204. + + _Galleria mellonella_, 172. + + Garden flowers, 203. + + German bees compared with Italians, 48. + + German steam wax press, 133. + + Gill-over-the-ground, 204. + + Glands, 189. + + Glands of honey-bee, Plate XXV. + + Goldenrod, 204. + + Grapes, not punctured by bees, 197. + + Guajilla, 199. + + + Hatch-Gemmill wax press, 133. + + Head, 183, Plate XXV. + + Heart, 188, Plate XXV. + + Hetherington super springs, 90. + + Hive, arrangement in apiary, 24. + cover, 15, 83. + the description of, 14. + entrance, how to contract, 167. + essential parts of, 83. + history of, 83. + how to get the cover off, 95. + how to handle it, 83. + how to lift out the brood-frames, 96. + how to open, 92. + industries of, 50. + inhabitants of, 27. + Langstroth, 8-frame, 10-frame, 14. + maxims for opening, 104. + one and one-half story, Plate XV. + the reasons why it must be opened, 94. + telescope cover, 91. + tenement, for wintering, 149. + to change the location of, 25. + + Hive-stand, 15, 24. + + Hives, chaff, 14, 15. + chaff for wintering, 148, Plate XXII. + Dadant-Quinby, size of, 77. + decoy, 70. + devices for carrying into cellar, 152. + double-walled, 21. + double-walled, cover for, 22. + entrance toward south, 25. + how to group, 20, 25. + large, for extracted honey, 77. + large sizes limit swarming, 77. + observation, 103. + shade boards for, 21. + shaded by awning, 21. + shaded by thatched roof, 21. + shaded by trellis, 21. + well shaded, Plate IV. + where to put them, 20. + + Hiving bees, Plate XI. + maxims for, 72. + + Holy Land bees, 47. + + Honey, the amount produced in the United States, 58. + basswood, 198. + buckwheat, 202. + composition of, 57. + flowers, 194. + gardens, 199, 204. + healthful food, 58. + how produced, 57. + how to take off in supers, 101. + house, 25. + not made in the true stomach of the bee, 58. + of Hymettus, 204. + the only sweet of the ancients, 58. + plants, 199. + ripened in uncapped cells, 57. + ripening of, 120. + room, 25. + sage, 203. + uncapped, 120. + uncapping of, 120. + unripened for extracting, 119. + weeds, 199. + when to extract, 119. + white clover, 200. + + Honey-extractor, invention of, 117. + principles of construction of, 118. + use of, 119. + + Honey-stomach, 57, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Horsemint, 204. + + House top for apiary, 22. + + How to clip the queen’s wings, 100. + to examine frames of brood-chamber, 95. + to find the queen, 99. + to find the queen cells, 98. + to handle the bees, 91. + to introduce a queen, 160, 161. + to keep from keeping too many bees, 73. + to make comb-honey, 106. + to open the hive, 92. + to produce extracted honey, 117. + to rear queens, 156. + to stop robbing, 167. + to take off honey in supers, 101. + to winter bees, 145. + to winter bees in cellars, 150. + + Hruschka, Major Francesco de, inventor of honey-extractor, 117. + + Huber, 61, 103, 208. + + Hutchinson, W. Z., method of treating after-swarms, 81. + + Hymettus, honey of, 204. + + Hypodermis, 182, Plate XXV. + + + Indian meal moth, 175. + + Industries of the hive, 50. + + Inhabitants of the hive, 27. + + Introducing the queen, 157. + by nucleus method, 162. + + Interrelation of bees and plants, 194. + + Intestine, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Italian bees, 47, 204. + + Italian worker, description of, 47. + + + Jars for extracted honey, 123. + + + Kellogg, Prof. V. L., 53, 103, 172. + + Kitchen, how bees rob the, 165. + + + Labium, 184, Plate XXV. + + Labrum, 184, Plate XXV. + + Lamarck, 207. + + Langstroth, 207, 208. + + Latreille, 207. + + Laying worker, 45, 79. + + Leg, 185. + + Legs of honey-bee, Plate VII. + + Legumes, 200. + + Linnæus, 207. + + Location of hive, to mark, 25. + + Locust blossoms, Plate XXXI. + + Locusts, 197. + + + Males of social insects, 27. + + Malpighian tubes, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Malthusian practices of bees, 34. + + Mandibles, 184, Plate XXV. + + Manum swarm catcher, 12, 19. + + Maple, mountain, Plate XXIV. + + Maples, 154, 197. + + Marjoram, 203. + + Marketing comb-honey, 114. + + Mason’s cans for extracted honey, 123. + + Maxillæ, 184, Plate XXV. + + Maxims for beeswax making, 135. + for feeding, 144. + for hiving bees, 72. + for introducing queens, 163. + for opening the hive, 104. + for prevention of bee-moth, 176. + for producers of comb-honey, 116. + for the producer of extracted honey, 124. + for wintering, 154. + to prevent robbing, 171. + + McEvoy, William, treatment of foul brood, 177. + + Medics, 201. + + Mellilots, 205. + + Metatarsus, 185. + + Micropyle, 192. + + Milkweed, 204. + + Miller, Dr., 102, 162. + + Mignonette, 203. + + Motherwort, 204. + + Mouth parts, 184, Plate XXV. + + Muscles, 187, Plate XXV. + + Muth bottles for extracted honey, 123. + + + Nervous system, 188, Plate XXV. + + Nucleus, method of introducing queen, 162. + to begin with, 13. + + + Observation hives, 103, opposite frontispiece. + + Ocelli, 183, Plate VI. + + Out-apiaries, 209. + + Ovaries, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Oviduct, 192, Plate XXVI. + + _Oxydendrum arboreum_, 199. + + + Palpi, 185, Plate XXV. + + Paraffine, wax adulterant, 134. + + Parker foundation fastener, 18. + + Partnership of bees and plants, 195. + + Peach, 196. + + Pear, 196. + + Pickled brood, 179. + + Piping of queen, 31, 32. + + Planting for honey impractical, 199. + + Pliny, 207. + + _Plodia interpunctella_, 175. + + Plum, 196. + + Plum blossoms, Plate XXIII. + + Points about beeswax, 126. + + Poison glands, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Pollen, 59. + fed to drone, 37. + how gathered, 59. + in cells, 98. + how placed in cell, 60. + made into bee-bread, 60. + + Pollen-baskets, 59, 186, Plate VII. + + Pollen-comb, Plate VII. + + Porter bee-escape, 12, 18. + + Propolis, how collected, 62. + how to dissolve, 63. + its source, 60, 61. + made from varnish and cement, 61. + various uses of, 62. + + Pussy willows, 197. + + + Queen, Plate V. + armour of, 30, 31. + balling of, 32, 158, 159. + cages, 160, 161, Plate XVI. + cages, the Miller, 162. + capacity for egg-laying, 28. + cell, 29, Plate V. + cell, how to find, 98. + cell, how to cut out, 98. + clipping wings of, 75. + development of, 28. + duels, 30, 31. + egg, 29. + excluder, 78. + first flight of, 32. + head of, Plate VI. + her attendants, 28. + how she lays eggs, 33, 34. + how to find, 99. + how to handle, 99. + how to introduce, 160. + introducing by nucleus method, 162. + introducing cage, Plate V. + introducing of, 157. + issues from cell, 30. + larva, 30. + leg of, Plate VII. + maxims for introducing, 163. + mother of her subjects, 27. + piping of, 31, 32. + rearing, 156, 157. + removed to prevent swarming, 79. + reproductive organs of, 30, Plate XXVI. + selection of, 27, 28. + surrounded by workers, 99. + tested, 14. + trap, 19, 75, Plate XIV. + virgin, leads after-swarms, 79, 80, 81. + weapons, 30, 31. + wedding flight of, 32. + when to introduce, 159. + + Queen-clipping device, 100. + + Queen-excluding honey-board, use of, 108. + + Queenless colony, 29. + + Queens, development of new, 29. + females, 27. + + Queen’s wings, how to clip, 100. + + Quinby, 207. + + + Rape, 202. + + Rauchfuss wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Rearing queens, 156. + + Réaumur, 207. + + Red clover, 200. + + Red maple, 197. + + Red raspberry, 202. + + Reproductive organs, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Respiratory system, 188, Plate XXVI. + + Robbing, borrowing, 170. + fate of the robbed colony, 170. + how it is done, 166. + how to detect, 167. + how to prevent, 102. + how to stop, 167, 168, 169. + maxims to prevent, 171. + the result of, 164. + slow, 170. + when it is likely to happen, 165. + why, 164. + + Rocky Mountain bee plant, 204. + + Root, 207. + treatment of foul brood, 177. + views about smoking bees, 93. + + Royal jelly, 29. + + Rye flour for feeding, 142. + + + Sage, white, 203. + + Sage, black or button, 203. + + _Scrofularia venalis_, 204. + + Section glazed for comb-honey, 106. + holder, Plate XIV. + holders, 88. + of honey, Plate XIV. + + Section-boxes, 88, Plates II., III., XIV. + no bee-way, 88. + with beeways, 88. + + Sections, 11, 17. + fence between, 88. + foundation-comb for, 89. + how to put together, 89. + how to take off, 110. + no bee-way, 16. + scraping of, 112. + stained, 111. + unfinished, 110. + + Sense hairs, Plate VII. + + Sense organs, 183. + + Sense pits, Plate VII. + + Shade for hives, 21. + + Sheep in apiary, 23. + + Shipping-cases for comb-honey, 113. + + Skeleton, 181, 187, Plate XXV. + + Slumgum, 131. + + Smell, organs of, 184. + + Smoking bees, should be done carefully, 93, 94. + + Smoker, Corneil, 16, Plate II. + how to fill and use, 92, 93. + + Social insects, 27. + increase of, 64. + + Solar wax-extractor, 130, 131. + + Sour wood, 198. + + Spanish needle, 204. + + Spraying fruit blossoms with arsenic, 196. + + Spermatheca, 192, Plate XXVI. + + Spermatozoa, 192. + + Spider flower, 204. + + Spiracles, 188, Plate XXVI. + + Spring dwindling, 154. + + Spur, Plate VII. + + Spur wire-embedder, 86. + + Stained sections, 111. + + Sting, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Stomach, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Sumach blossoms, Plate XXIV. + + Storifying, 110. + + Sunflower, 203. + + Super, 11. + boxes, 209. + cover, 11, 91. + description of, 87. + filled with section-boxes, Plate XV. + for comb-honey, 87. + for extracted honey, 87. + foundation, 17. + how to entice bees into, 108. + how to prepare, 90. + how to prepare and place in hive, 91. + partly filled, Plate III. + parts of, 87. + ready to be filled, Plate XII. + springs, 88, 90. + + Supers, 15, 83. + different kinds of, 88. + how to take off when filled with honey, 101. + + Swammerdam, 207. + + Swarm, how to hive, 66, 68. + how to manage in difficult places, 69. + how to reconcile to new hive, 70. + how to stop, 66. + size of, 65. + throwing dirt at, 67. + use, fountain pump with, 67. + Mr. West’s device for saving, 71. + when given off, 65. + + Swarm-catcher, the Manum, 19. + + Swarming, conditions that lead to, 65. + control by brushing out method, 77. + control by extracting honey, 76. + control by giving room, 76. + control by removing queen, 79. + lessened by use of large hives, 77. + necessary to produce comb-honey, 75. + of bees, 64. + owing to queen or workers, 65. + + Swarms, dividing of, 78. + + Sweet clover, 205. + + Swiss wax extractor, 131. + + Syrian, 47. + + Syrup, for feeding bees how to make, 137. + medicated for foul brood, 177. + + + Taking up bees, 208. + + Tallow, wax adulterant, 134. + + Tarsus, 185. + + Telescope cover, 15. + + Tenement hives for wintering, 149. + + Tents for bee-keepers, 102. + + Termites, 27. + + Thorax, 185. + + Thorn-apple blossoms, Plate XXVIII. + + Thyme, 203. + + Tibia, 185. + + Tiering up, 108. + + Tin pails for extracted honey, 123. + + Tinned wire, 12. + + Tongue, 184, Plate XXV. + + Tracheæ, 189, Plate XXVI. + + Trap for queen, 75. + + Trap, queen and drone, 19. + + Trees, 196. + + Trochanter, 185. + + Turnip, 202. + + + Uncapping, 120. + + Uncapping cans, the Dadant, 121. + + Uncapping knife, Bingham, 120. + + Urinary organs, 191. + + + Vagina, 192. + + Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, 12, 18, 86. + + Varnish used as bee glue, 61. + + Vas deferens, 193, Plate XXVI. + + Veil, need for, 16. + + Village garden for apiary, 22. + + + Wasps, 27. + + Watering bees, 143. + + Wax, amount of honey required to make, 50. + bees hang in curtains to make, 52. + bees secreting, Plate X. + the constituents of, 51. + how to make it, 126. + made in the fields, 52. + made when need for, 52. + press, 132, 133. + the secretion of, 50. + scales, 52. + + Wax-extractors, 130. + + Wax-glands, 52, 191, Plate XXVI. + + Wax-pincers, 186, Plate VII. + + Wax-plates, 51, Plates VI., XXV. + + Wax-tube fastener, 18, Plate III. + + Weeds, 203. + + When to feed, 136. + + When to introduce a queen, 159. + + When to put bees into cellar, 153. + + White clover, 200. + + Wild flowers, 203. + + Willow, 154, 197. + + Wings, 185. + + Wintering bees in single-walled hives, 145. + diarrhœa, 179. + getting ready for, 146. + how much food needed for, 146. + in cellars, 150. + in chaff hives, 148, Plate XXII. + in hive boxes, 147. + in tenement hives, 149. + maxims for, 154. + out doors, 147. + poor honey for, 147. + spring dwindling, 154. + when to put bees in the cellar, 153. + when to take bees out of cellar, 153. + ways of, 147. + + Wire embedded by heat, 87. + + Wire embedder, 86, Plate III. + + Wire, tinned, 18, 85. + + Worker, 39, Plate V. + cell of, 37, 40, 55. + cocoon of, 41. + death of, 39. + + Worker eggs, in drone cells, 37. + head of, Plate VI. + laying, 45, 46. + leg of, Plate VII. + life and habits of, 42, 43. + life-history of, 40, 41. + maturity of, 41. + moulting of, 41. + old age and death of, 44. + + Workers, labourers, 27. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + + Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs + and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support + hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead + to the corresponding illustrations. Illustrations without captions + have had a description added, this is denoted with parentheses. Where + possible illustrations have been shifted to be adjacent to their + first reference. + + The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct + page references. + + Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been + corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within + the text and consultation of external sources. + + Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, + when a predominant preference was found in the original book. + + Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the + text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. + + Pg 2: ‘Form’ replaced by ‘From’ in second caption. + Pg 16: ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. + Pg 16: ‘Plate I.’ replaced by ‘Plate II.’, in section on Corneil smokers. + Pg 70: ‘onorous’ replaced by ‘onerous’. + Pg 93: ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’. + Pg 146: ‘extravgance’ replaced by ‘extravagance’. + Pg 164: ‘prevades’ replaced by ‘pervades’. + Pg 179: ‘disscribed’ replaced by ‘described’. + Pg 183: ‘from a compact box’ replaced by ‘form a compact box’. + Pg 184: ‘known at the _labrum_’ replaced by + ‘known as the _labrum_’. + Pg 196: ‘pollenation’ replaced by ‘pollination’. + Pg 221: ‘Cogshall’ replaced by ‘Coggshall’. + Pg 223: ‘Guagilla’ replaced by ‘Guajilla’. + Pg 224: ‘Latrielle’ replaced by ‘Latreille’. + Pg 225: ‘Œsophagus’ replaced by ‘Æsophagus’ and moved to pg 219. + Pg 227: Page for ‘Thyme’ changed from 230 to 203. +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 *** |