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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 ***
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO KEEP BEES
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                         _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_
+
+PLATE I. BASSWOOD BLOSSOM]
+
+
+
+
+                            How to Keep Bees
+
+                         A Handbook for the Use
+                              of Beginners
+
+                                   By
+                      Anna Botsford Comstock, B. S.
+
+                          _With Illustrations_
+
+                        [Illustration: Colophon]
+                        GARDEN CITY      NEW YORK
+                        DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+                                  MCMXI
+
+
+
+
+                           Copyright, 1905, by
+                        Doubleday, Page & Company
+                          Published April, 1905
+
+
+                    _All rights reserved, including that of
+                    translation—also right of translation
+                    into the Scandinavian languages_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book has been prepared especially to meet the needs of the
+beginner in bee-keeping. It is not intended to be a complete treatise
+for the professional apiarist, but rather a handbook for those who
+would keep bees for happiness and honey, and incidentally for money.
+It is hoped, too, that it will serve as an introduction to the more
+extended manuals already in the field.
+
+When we began bee-keeping we found the wide range of information and
+varying methods given in the manuals confusing; but a little experience
+taught us that bee-keeping is a simple and delightful business which
+can be carried on in a modest way without a great amount of special
+training. After a beginning has been made, skill in managing the bees
+is gained naturally and inevitably, and interest is then stimulated by
+the wider outlook which bewilders the novice.
+
+For the sake of simplicity this volume is restricted to knowledge
+gained in practical experience in a small apiary; and the writer has
+sought to exclude from it those discussions which, however enlightening
+to the experienced, are after all but devious digressions from the
+simple and straight path which the feet of the inexperienced must tread
+to success in the apiary.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+  I. Why Keep Bees                                                     3
+
+  II. How to Begin Bee-Keeping                                         8
+
+  III. The Location and the Arrangement of the Apiary                 20
+
+  IV. The Inhabitants of the Hive                                     27
+
+  V. The Industries of the Hive                                       50
+
+  VI. The Swarming of Bees                                            64
+
+  VII. How to Keep from Keeping Too Many Bees                         73
+
+  VIII. The Hive and How to Handle It                                 83
+
+  IX. Details Concerning Honey                                       106
+
+  X. Extracted Honey                                                 117
+
+  XI. Points About Beeswax                                           126
+
+  XII. Feeding Bees                                                  136
+
+  XIII. How to Winter Bees                                           145
+
+  XIV. Rearing and Introducing Queens                                156
+
+  XV. Robbing in the Apiary                                          164
+
+  XVI. The Enemies and Diseases of Bees                              172
+
+  XVII. The Anatomy of the Honey-Bee                                 181
+
+  XVIII. Interrelation of Bees and Plants                            194
+
+  XIX. Bee-Keepers and Bee-Keeping                                   206
+
+  XX. Bee-Hunting                                                    211
+
+  Bibliography                                                       215
+
+  Index                                                              219
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  PLATE I.—Basswood blossom                               _Frontispiece_
+
+  Observation hives                                               Page 2
+
+                                                             FACING PAGE
+
+  PLATE II.—(_a_) Two flat section-boxes (_b_) Corneil smoker         14
+
+  PLATE III.—(_a_) Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder and Van
+  Deusen wax-tube fastener. (_b_) A super with fences. (_c_) The
+  Porterbee-escape in a honey-board                                   15
+
+  PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree                               26
+
+  PLATE V. (_a_) Queen; drone; worker. (_b_) Queen cell. (_c_)
+  Miller’s queen introducing cage                                     27
+
+  PLATE VI. Head of drone; head of queen; head of worker; ventral
+  surface of worker showing plates of wax                             30
+
+  PLATE VII. Legs and antennæ of the honey-bee                        31
+
+  PLATE VIII. Drone cells in a comb of honey                          50
+
+  PLATE IX. Side of hive removed showing the bees at work             51
+
+  PLATE X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax                    62
+
+  PLATE XI. Hiving bees; cutting down a swarm                         63
+
+  PLATE XII. (_a_) Two self-spacing frames. (_b_) An empty super.
+  (_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder                           90
+
+  PLATE XIII. Examining the brood-frames                              91
+
+  PLATE XIV. (_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap. (_b_) A well
+  filled section. (_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled
+  with section-boxes                                                 106
+
+  PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey                 107
+
+  PLATE XVI. Drone and Queen trap; queen mailing and introducing
+  cage; queen-protector and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, and
+  bee-escape                                                         110
+
+  PLATE XVII. “In apple-blossom time”                                111
+
+  PLATE XVIII. (_a_) Taking off upper story of hive containing combs
+  for extracting. (_b_) Extracting-room showing apparatus for
+  extracting honey                                                   122
+
+  PLATE XIX. (_a_) Uncapping comb before extracting the honey.
+  (_b_) Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the
+  extractor                                                          123
+
+  PLATE XX. (_a_) Drawing honey from extractor.
+  (_b_) Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk        126
+
+  PLATE XXI. (_a_) Extracted honey in pails, candied.
+  (_b_) Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market               127
+
+  PLATE XXII. Winter quarters in chaff hives                         154
+
+  PLATE XXIII. Plum blossoms                                         155
+
+  PLATE XXIV. Sumac in blossom. Blossom of mountain maple            184
+
+  PLATE XXV. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal section of the body
+  of a larva of an insect. Fig. 2. Section of the body-wall of
+  insect. Fig. 3. Head of a bee and its appendages. Fig. 4.
+  Glands of a honey-bee. Fig. 5. The wax plates                      185
+
+  PLATE XXVI. (_a_) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee.
+  (_b_) Fig. 1. The internal anatomy of the honey-bee. Fig. 2.
+  The respiratory system of the honey-bee                            192
+
+  PLATE XXVII. An old-fashioned apiary                               193
+
+  PLATE XXVIII. (_a_) Thorn-apple blossoms.
+  (_b_) Wild crab-apple blossoms                                     198
+
+  PLATE XXIX. Buckwheat in blossom                                   199
+
+  PLATE XXX. Box-elder, staminate and pistillate flowers             210
+
+  PLATE XXXI. Blossoms of black locust                               211
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO KEEP BEES
+
+[Illustration: An ordinary beehive made into an observation-hive by
+inserting glass panes in sides and putting a glass sheet under the
+wooden cover. (From V. L. Kellogg.)]
+
+[Illustration: An observation-hive holding only two frames, with the
+two sides wholly of glass, so that any single bee can be continuously
+watched. (From V. L. Kellogg.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHY KEEP BEES
+
+
+The reasons for keeping bees are many and various; for it is an
+industry as many-sided as the cells of a honey-comb, one of its chief
+charms being that it appeals equally to “many men of many minds.” To
+know all the reasons why one should keep bees one must be conversant
+with the history of man; he must be familiar with the Vedas of India
+and master of the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt; he must study the
+life of the common people in the Hebrew Scriptures and the classic
+literatures of Greece and Italy, and must be able to translate into
+terms of common human experiences the myths and legends of diverse
+peoples. For bees have been a part of the conscious life of man from
+the beginning. Not only have they sweetened his daily bread with
+beneficent honey, but they have had their place in his religious rites,
+and also in his family observances, as millions of happy lovers may
+attest who have experienced the “honeymoon.” However, lacking the
+erudition necessary to enumerate all, the author of this book is quite
+content to mention a few of the more cogent reasons why anyone should,
+in this day and generation, undertake the keeping of bees.
+
+One may keep bees for the sake of the honey, which is a most legitimate
+and fit reason. Honey is a wholesome and delicious addition to the
+family table. Though it is a luxury, yet it may be afforded by one
+living in moderate circumstances, if he be willing to give a modicum
+of time and care to the happy little creatures that gladly make it for
+him, free of all expense. But for the one possessed of great wealth,
+and able to corner the honey-market any day, there is sure delight, as
+well as education, in raising his own honey. Any person of experience
+well knows that the honey made by one’s own bees has quality and
+flavour superior to that made by other people’s bees. In fact, the only
+way to become a connoisseur of honey is to keep bees, for thus only may
+one learn to discriminate between honey made from basswood and that
+gathered from clover; or to distinguish, at first taste, the product of
+orchard in bloom from that drawn from vagrant blossoms, which, changing
+day by day, mark the season’s processional. He who has once kept bees
+and become an artist in honey-flavours, would never again, willingly,
+become a part of the world at large, which, in its dense ignorance,
+dubs all white honey “basswood” or “clover” indiscriminately, and
+believes all dark honey is gathered from buckwheat.
+
+Some, perhaps, might keep bees for the sake of making money. For him
+who would get rich keeping bees, this book manifestly is not written;
+its title explains that it is meant to show how to keep bees, and not
+how to make bees keep him. The person who would, from the first, make
+bee-keeping his chief work should receive his training in a large
+apiary. As a vocation it demands the entire time and energy of a shrewd
+and able person to insure success; of such, America already has a great
+number, with yearly incomes varying from $1,000 to $10,000. However,
+the desire to make the bees keep themselves and add more or less to
+the family income is a practical and sensible reason for keeping bees.
+Fifteen or twenty colonies may be managed with comparatively little
+time and attention and the work may be done largely by women or the
+younger members of the household. If proper care be given to such an
+apiary, it will prove of material benefit to the family purse; for,
+if the season be favourable, the product of one colony should net the
+owner from four to ten dollars. We know of boys who have thus earned
+their college expenses; and many women have bought immunity from the
+drudgery of the kitchen with money paid them for their crops of honey.
+It should be borne in mind that honey-money is not obtained without
+thought, energy, and some hard work. The bees would have been less
+beneficent to mankind had they bestowed honey without demanding a
+return in care and labour.
+
+Many have kept bees as a recreation, and there is none better. It gives
+delightful and absorbing occupation in the open air and is not merely a
+rest from mental and sedentary labours, but is a stimulus to health and
+strength as well. In the various bee journals are recorded testimonials
+from thousands who, when tired, ill, and nervously worn out, began
+bee-keeping, and through it regained vigour and found a new interest
+in life. Notwithstanding the fact that bees have honest stings, they
+can work the miracle of changing a dyspeptic pessimist into a cheerful
+optimist with a rapidity and completeness that merits our highest
+admiration.
+
+A love for natural science is a very good reason for keeping bees.
+Nowhere are there more fascinating problems for the investigator than
+those still unsolved in the hive. Of all the lower animals, bees are,
+perhaps, the most highly developed in certain ways; and it is more
+probable that the mysteries of the eternal heavens and the distant
+stars be made plain than that we ever learn the truths that underlie
+the development of the “Spirit of the Hive.”
+
+Another reason for keeping bees is the insight to be gained therefrom
+into the conditions of perfect communism. The bees and their relatives
+are the most intelligent and consistent socialists that have yet been
+developed in this world; and, through studying their ways, one may
+discern with startling clearness how the perfect socialism grinds off
+all the projecting corners of the individual until it fits perfectly in
+its communal niche. In the hive individual traits, as exemplified in
+kindness, selfishness, love and hate, are moved up a notch in the scale
+and characterise the whole community, even though they are eliminated
+from its members. If one is a social philosopher, he may become very
+wise, indeed, by studying the results of the laws of socialism which
+have been executed inexorably through countless centuries in the bee
+commune.
+
+Last, but by no means least, one may keep bees because they belong to
+home life and should have place in every well-kept garden or orchard.
+There is no more beautiful domestic picture to be found in the world
+than a fine garden with a row of hollyhocks hiding the boundary fence
+and affording a fitting background for a neat row of white hives. It
+is not alone the æsthetic beauty the bees bring to the garden which
+touches the deeper currents of feeling and is productive of profound
+satisfaction; it is something more fundamental; for since the thyme
+of Hymettus yielded nectar, the happy hum of the bee has yielded
+comfort to the human senses. The garden without bees seems ever to lack
+something; mayhap, the silent longing of the flowers for their friendly
+visitors, intangible but real, so permeates the place that we are dimly
+conscious of it. Be that as it may, the perfect garden can only be
+attained through the presence of happy and populous bee-hives.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO BEGIN BEE-KEEPING
+
+
+THE VARIOUS WAYS OF BEGINNING
+
+There are so many ways of beginning this interesting work that no
+classic way obtains. Many people have received the stimulus from a
+swarm of bees, escaped from some apiary, which has alighted on a tree
+or bush on the premises, and which seemed too much like a gift of
+the gods to be ignored. In fact, no one with blood in him would do
+otherwise under such circumstances than to hunt up a soap-box or a
+nailkeg and, with an intrepidity amounting almost to heroism, place it
+under the cluster and shake the bees into it. Then, if the swarm feels
+content, the fact is accomplished; and the involuntary owner finds a
+new interest in life, and enthusiastically becomes a bee-keeper. This
+is an excellent and inexpensive way to begin, and for all who are thus
+favoured it is by far the best way. But one may wait many years before
+this happens, and after all there are other and more direct methods.
+The best way is to begin by wishing sincerely to keep bees, and then to
+adopt one of the following plans:
+
+The cheapest way is to visit the nearest neighbour who keeps bees, and
+buy of him a swarm, which will cost, perhaps, two or three dollars.
+If the neighbour be a good apiarist, this may be an excellent method,
+for he will give practical advice and be a most helpful friend in time
+of future difficulties and doubts; he will also explain appliances
+and make the labours and perplexities of the beginner much smoother.
+Besides these advantages, it is a help to neighbourliness, for keeping
+bees is almost as close a bond between two neighbours as an interest
+in golf or automobiles, and has a much broader and more philosophical
+basis.
+
+Of course, the bees may be bought at any time of the year convenient,
+but the early spring is the best season for beginning, for then one has
+the advantage of increase by swarms. If one is ingenious and inventive,
+one may easily construct other hives like the one bought; but there are
+other things needed which may be obtained cheaper and better from firms
+that sell apiarists’ supplies. However, we are acquainted with several
+apiarists who furnish all of their own supplies except the sections
+for comb-honey, the wax foundations, the smoker, the cartons and the
+honey-extractor.
+
+The usual way of beginning is to send to some of the dealers in
+bee-keepers’ supplies for a catalogue and to invest in a library of bee
+books. There is something most fascinating about these books written by
+bee-keepers, for no one makes a success of bee-keeping unless he loves
+the bees; and if he loves bees he writes of them so persuadingly, and
+his lines are so full of insidious allusions to the enchantments of
+the occupation, that whoever reads one of these volumes finds life arid
+without bees.
+
+Then the catalogue of bee-keepers’ supplies has its own attractions.
+Never were such breathlessly interesting pamphlets written; and I would
+add that, on the whole, they are the most honest and reliable of all
+advertising catalogues. They almost invariably give good and sensible
+advice to beginners, suggesting proper outfits at moderate prices. To
+the would-be bee-keeper these catalogues are so delightful that, if
+the purse is long enough, he feels inclined to order a specimen of
+everything listed. However, this is not the best way to do. A moderate
+number of things can be ordered at first, and other things may be
+ordered later as the growing sense of their need develops.
+
+If one is minded to go into bee-keeping as a regular business, the
+best way to begin is to spend a year with a successful bee-keeper,
+working for him and with him and paying for the tuition, whatever may
+be charged. Thus one may gain his knowledge of the business and get his
+practical training under the guidance of experience. The very worst way
+to begin, and one that is sure to result in disaster, is to buy a large
+number of colonies at first. This is a too expensive way of learning
+the extent of one’s own ignorance and limitations as a bee-keeper.
+
+As we have begun keeping bees three times in the course of our lives,
+we feel more or less competent to give advice about this special
+phase of bee-keeping. We first began when we were children and
+two swarms were bestowed upon us by an uncle who moved away from
+the neighbourhood. This was long before the idea of supers and box
+comb-honey had been thought of. We were among the first to adopt the
+old glass-sided super when it was introduced. The second and third
+times we purchased our outfit of a dealer in apiarists’ supplies, and
+both of these beginnings were good and successful; so perhaps the
+best way to tell others how to begin is to describe how we began. The
+following is the order which we sent to a dealer.
+
+
+A BEGINNER’S ORDER
+
+One colony of bees, in an eight-frame, dovetailed, chaff hive with a
+deep telescope cover, and with a tested Italian queen.
+
+Two complete supers ready for use, with 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ plain sections.
+
+One super cover.
+
+Three extra 1½-story chaff hives uniform with the above, and with super
+covers.
+
+One standard Corneil smoker.
+
+One bee-veil.
+
+One pair bee-gloves.
+
+Two hundred and fifty sections, plain, no bee-way, 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½.
+
+One pound medium brood foundation.
+
+Two pounds thin super foundation.
+
+One Daisy foundation-fastener.
+
+One Van Deusen wax-tube fastener.
+
+One ¼-pound spool No. 30, tinned wire.
+
+One Porter bee-escape, with board.
+
+One Manum’s swarm-catcher.
+
+One Dixie bee-brush.
+
+One Doolittle division board feeder.
+
+One Alley’s queen and drone trap.
+
+
+NOTES ON A BEGINNER’S ORDER
+
+
+THE BEES
+
+The selection of the bees is the first and most important
+consideration, since race and heredity determine to so great an extent
+the bee’s efficiency and disposition.
+
+The consensus of opinion to-day is in favour of the Italian bees; this
+is so much so that the other races, except the German, are hardly on
+the general market in America. Taking all points into consideration,
+the Italian has a higher average of satisfactory qualities than has any
+of the other races.
+
+Our earliest experiences were with the ordinary black German bees, and
+it was through them that we first learned to love bees, although their
+nervousness and their unhappy habit of considering us intruders when we
+neared their domain were always somewhat embarrassing, and made us feel
+like James Whitcomb Riley’s visiting base-ball team, that “we weren’t
+so welcome as we aimed to be.” Therefore, when we decided to buy bees,
+we unhesitatingly ordered Italians. These are much more gentle and
+friendly than the others, and it is one of our greatest pleasures to be
+on good terms with our bee-folk. Under all ordinary circumstances the
+Italian bees are not only tolerant of human interference, but are sweet
+tempered and optimistic, believing that we mean well by them; and one
+cannot work with them without learning to love them.
+
+If one begins bee-keeping in the spring, some money can be saved by
+buying a nucleus and tested queen, instead of a full colony of bees.
+A nucleus in bee-keeping parlance is a small colony with only one,
+two, or three frames. The colony should be large enough to build combs
+with sufficient rapidity to keep the queen fairly busy, so as not to
+encourage in her the habit of loafing, and so that too much time shall
+not be required to build up a full colony. Two frames with about a
+quart of bees will accomplish this well.
+
+Such a nucleus as this in a hive, with a division board on either side
+of the two adjacent frames, can be soon built up into a full colony if
+there is plenty of nectar and pollen to be had. A division board is a
+solid board of the shape of the frame, but a little larger so that it
+is close-fitting in the hive. The frame should be watched closely, and
+as soon as the comb is filled with brood, and there are enough bees to
+cover the brood well, another frame filled with brood foundation should
+be added; this should be continued until the hive is filled with frames.
+
+
+A TESTED QUEEN
+
+As the queen is the mother of the whole colony, her powers for
+transmitting a kind disposition and superior honey-making qualities are
+of the greatest importance. It is essential, therefore, to know that
+the queen, which is to serve as a foundation for the apiary, has mated
+with a drone of the desired race. A tested queen is one that has been
+kept until some of her offspring have been reared. The colour of these
+will indicate whether the queen has mated with a drone of her own race.
+
+
+THE HIVE
+
+Next to choosing the bees comes the selection of the hive, for there
+are several kinds of hives in general use, and all of them are
+apparently good. We chose the Langstroth hive because its merits are
+attested by the fact that it is more largely used than all others taken
+together. We chose the eight-frame in preference to the ten-frame
+form because we wished to produce comb-honey, and it is easier to
+induce bees to store surplus in the sections when the brood-chamber is
+small. If one wishes to produce extracted honey, the ten-frame hive
+is the better one. We ordered the more expensive chaff hives, as we
+wished to save the trouble of moving the bees into winter quarters;
+and we think this would be the case with anyone with whom bee-keeping
+is an avocation instead of a vocation. In fact many people who
+make bee-keeping their principal business prefer chaff hives, for
+they not only keep out the cold in winter, but also protect the bees
+from the heat in summer. The objections to them are that they are
+heavy to handle and are expensive, though the expense can be reduced
+considerably if one has the ability to make them. Another thing we
+like about the chaff hives is that they are fine and dignified in
+appearance, and we find that their majestic proportions, white and
+beautiful, set against the background of our larches, add much to our
+conscious pleasure every time we look upon our apiary. We ordered a
+deep telescope cover, as we wished room for two supers on the hive at
+once.
+
+The hive stand we ourselves made from lumber taken from dry-goods
+boxes. It is simply a smooth platform, six inches wider than the hive
+on three sides and extending about a foot out in front of the hive,
+thus serving as an alighting-board.
+
+
+TWO COMPLETE SUPERS
+
+We knew that we would need these very soon, for the basswood harvest
+was imminent; we ordered them ready for use, as we wished to see all
+the “new wrinkles” in supers, and exactly how the parts are arranged.
+We used the supers as models later in putting together and fitting
+other supers. This proved a wise precaution, as it saved us much time
+in reading directions and studying out independently the arrangement
+of parts. We ordered 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ sections, as this is the size most
+generally used, and we chose the no-beeway, or “plain” style, because
+we think it presents a better appearance when filled with honey. We
+will return to this question in Chapter VIII.
+
+
+THREE EXTRA HIVES
+
+We wished to have these on hand for any swarms which might possibly
+issue.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE II.
+
+  (_a_) Two flat section-boxes; and one being bent together.
+
+  (_b_) A Corneil smoker.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE III.
+
+  (_a_) The Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder, and Van Deusen
+  wax-tube fastener.
+
+  (_b_) A super with fences and two rows of section-boxes in place;
+  a separate fence.
+
+  (_c_) The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board.]
+
+
+ONE STANDARD CORNEIL SMOKER
+
+I do not know just why we chose this of the many excellent smokers, but
+perchance the name called to mind happy experiences with sundry Corneil
+smokers of quite a different feather, and we were thus favourably
+disposed toward this one. It has not disappointed us in the least,
+for it is both handy and practical. It may seem an unfriendly act to
+smoke one’s own bee-people, but a little smoke wisely applied is as
+efficacious in preserving pleasant relations with the bees, as was the
+smoke from the pipe of peace in preserving similar relations between
+our forefathers and the savages. (Plate II.)
+
+
+ONE BEE-VEIL
+
+The senior partner of our apiary rarely uses a veil, but when he does
+use one he needs it very much, and it is an article necessary to have
+at hand. To the beginner it gives a calmness of nerve and a surplus of
+courage which are highly desirable when dealing with such high-strung
+creatures as bees. Also there always occur times during the year when
+the bee-tempers are on edge for some reason or other; and at such
+times, if one be intrenched behind a bee-veil, it facilitates work and
+encourages a serene spirit.
+
+
+ONE PAIR OF BEE-GLOVES
+
+While we do not use these ordinarily, yet when we have some special
+work to do which involves changing many bees from one location to
+another, we find these gloves most convenient to keep the disturbed
+little citizens from crawling up our sleeves, thus saving both them and
+ourselves from a most embarrassing situation.
+
+
+250 SECTIONS
+
+Only a small supply of sections was ordered, as but few would be needed
+the first year in addition to those in the two complete supers. (Plate
+II.)
+
+
+ONE POUND BROOD-FOUNDATION
+
+This was for use in the frames in the extra hives.
+
+
+TWO POUNDS THIN SUPER-FOUNDATION
+
+This was for use in the sections.
+
+
+ONE DAISY FOUNDATION-FASTENER
+
+In the early days of our bee-keeping we fastened the foundation into
+the sections and frames with a common kitchen-knife which we heated
+over a lamp and then applied to the edge of the wax foundation held
+against the section, thus melting it and pressing it fast to the wood.
+Afterward we used a Parker fastener, and found it a great improvement
+over the primitive method. But this Daisy foundation-fastener as
+described in the catalogue appealed to the modern spirit in us. When
+we tried to use the machine, we were bitterly disappointed at the end
+of five minutes, but that was because the iron was not hot enough to
+properly melt the wax. After a little we learned to hold the foundation
+on the plate just long enough to melt it to a proper consistency so
+that it adhered to the section as soon as it was dropped upon it.
+Then it was that filling sections was placed on the list of sports.
+The rapidity with which we filled four dozen sections almost took our
+breath away.
+
+
+ONE VAN DEUSEN WAX-TUBE FASTENER
+
+This was ordered under the impression that it would be needed for
+fastening the foundation in the brood-frames, but when the hives came
+we found that a much better method of fastening the foundations had
+been devised. This is described in Chapter VIII. (Plate III.)
+
+
+TINNED WIRE
+
+This is used for strengthening the foundation in the brood-frames, as
+described later.
+
+
+ONE PORTER BEE-ESCAPE
+
+The Porter bee-escape is a simple and most useful device. It is set in
+a thin board just the size of the top of the hive; in the middle is a
+bit of tin which forms a round pit on the upper side. The bees descend
+into this pit, and, trying to get out, push apart two strips of tin
+set at angles to each other, fastened at the ends, which act like a
+valve, letting the bee out but not permitting her to push back. This is
+put between the super and the hive in order to free the super of bees
+before removing the honey. This escape is also used on the doors and
+windows of workshops or extracting-rooms or other places where bees get
+in and it is desirable to get them out. (Plates III., XVIII.)
+
+
+THE MANUM SWARM-CATCHER
+
+We bought this because we liked the idea of it, but as yet we have
+never had occasion to use it; however, we never look at its long handle
+without being filled with a mad desire to try it on a provoking swarm
+of bees clustered in the top of a cherry tree.
+
+
+ONE DIXIE BEE-BRUSH
+
+This is an exceedingly useful instrument for brushing bees from frames
+and from sections. (Plate III.)
+
+
+ONE DOOLITTLE FEEDER
+
+Bee-keepers of extended experience consider this the best and most
+satisfactory kind of feeder in use for small apiaries. (Plate XII.)
+
+
+QUEEN AND DRONE TRAP
+
+This is not a necessity; we bought it in order to try experiments in
+preventing swarming by its use, and also to have on hand in case an
+excess of drones should be developed in any of our colonies. (Plate
+XIV.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE LOCATION AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY
+
+
+Where to put the hives is the first question, and this must be
+determined by two or three conditions necessary for the health and
+comfort of the bees. Hives should be placed where the sunshine may
+reach them in the morning up to eight or nine o’clock, and in the
+afternoon from three to four o’clock. An old orchard such as is kept
+because of picturesque beauty rather than for its crop of apples is an
+ideal place. The clean-culture orchards of the modern horticulturists
+are undoubtedly more efficient as producers of apples and money; but
+we are always grateful that there are still remaining many fine old
+orchards, on sod ground where the trees, more or less gnarled and
+twisted, are a joy to the artistic eye. Little wonder that such a place
+is the ideal spot for the apiary; if the hives are grouped four or five
+together beneath one tree, the requirements of shade will be met.
+
+If there is no old orchard, what then? A young orchard will do, unless
+clean culture is practised; in the latter case horses and cultivator
+will not be permitted on the domain of the bee-people. If no orchard
+offers, then a trellis of vines extending east and west, eight feet
+high, may shade a few hives, and may be a thing of beauty in the garden
+as well. Grape vines, hops, Virginia creeper, or any other rapidly
+growing vines will do. To the one who loves his garden, there will be
+many ways suggested whereby the hives may be placed to compass both
+comfort for the bees and joy to the beholder. We started an apiary at
+the north of the lilac trees, and made it a part of the lawn.
+
+If no such happy position for natural shade is to be found for the
+hives, then one must have recourse to artificial shade or double-walled
+hives. A very good method of shading, much in vogue among the farmers
+of our country, consists of a few boards placed awning-fashion above
+the row of hives. This is not an attractive solution to the problem,
+although perhaps it might be made so if this method were ever resorted
+to by anyone with a sense of beauty; but usually it is limited to
+a simple cover consisting of two or three boards nailed together,
+slanting a little toward the back of the hives to shed rain, supported
+by four posts, which hold it a foot or more above the row of hives.
+
+In California instead of boards a thatched roof is made for this sort
+of protection, and is ample enough to allow an aisle for the apiarist
+between the rows of hives set back to back.
+
+Many people use a single shade board, which consists of slats fastened
+together by cleats made large enough to project a foot beyond the hive
+on either side. This is placed directly on top of the hive, and has
+to be weighted down with stones, and is therefore awkward to handle
+when working with the bees. If the climate is hot, or in any case, a
+double-walled cover to the hive is most excellent, since it affords a
+chance for free circulation of air between the two boards which form
+it. However, these double covers do not obviate the need of shade, and
+natural shade is the most desirable sort.
+
+In case the region is exposed to high winds, there should be a
+windbreak around the apiary. Mr. Root, who is one of the greatest of
+American bee-keepers, uses for this a row of hardy evergreens which
+grow together into a solid hedge. In case a windbreak, either natural
+or made, is impracticable, a board fence about eight or ten feet high,
+built on two sides of the apiary, usually the north and west sides,
+will be found to serve the purpose. This fence may be made the trellis
+for vines.
+
+In the rear of the village garden is an excellent place for bees. A
+high board fence as a boundary, and perhaps a barn at the side will act
+as a windbreak, while the fruit trees yield a grateful shade. We know
+several such modest apiaries which are most attractive in appearance.
+There are those who live in cities or towns who are filled with the
+bee-keeper’s ambitions; and even they need not despair. There are on
+record accounts of several small apiaries kept on the housetops of the
+owners, who believe that roofs are for more than mere protection. Where
+bees kept thus get their honey is a bee secret, but undoubtedly every
+flower in the region yields them tribute. If bees be kept in town, they
+must be placed on a roof or else a high fence must intervene between
+the hives and the highway, so that the plane of bee flight shall be
+set above the heads of horses and drivers; for these brave little
+honeymakers have never been taught to turn to the right, and so they
+often dispute the way with teams and usually come off victorious; and
+this might make the bee-keeper unpopular in his community.
+
+Another necessity in the apiary is that the grass in front of the
+entrance to the hives be kept mown; otherwise many a heavily laden
+bee will experience loss or injury among interfering grass blades. It
+is not practicable, even if one were heroic enough to try it, to run
+a lawn mower nearer than four or five inches from the hives, so many
+bee-keepers place salt or coal ashes on the grass within this area. Mr.
+Root goes so far as to advise the use of sheep as automatic lawn mowers
+in the apiary, as nothing else can cut grass so short as does the
+sheep. People say “as silly as a sheep,” but that is a silly saying,
+for many people may learn something of value about the management of
+bees from the sheep, which, when attacked by them, thrusts its head
+philosophically into a bush where the bees cannot reach the tender
+parts, and trusts to its wool to protect it elsewhere. As a matter of
+experience, sheep kept in apiaries are rarely stung at all.
+
+In our own apiary, where it was not practical to mow close to the
+hives, we followed two methods: When we had many bees we placed a
+rough board over the ground in the immediate front of the hive; when
+we had only a few swarms, it was one of our joys to get on our knees
+on cold days, when only a few adventurous workers were going into the
+field, and with shears cut the grass close to the ground; and this
+period spent on our knees was not penance, but joy. However, it might
+well get to be penance in a large apiary.
+
+Having found the place for the apiary, the next thought is of hive
+stands. Many bee-keepers use a hive that has a combination bottom board
+and hive stand; this has an inclined plane up which the loaded bees
+may climb if they strike the ground. This is a device which also saves
+the lives of many bees in cool weather, when they would scarcely be
+able, through numbness, to reach the entrance of the hive otherwise.
+However, there are other bee stands which hold two or three hives,
+which are very comfortable in height for the work of the bee-keeper.
+But it is always well to remember that the opening of a hive should be
+low down, as it is easier for the weary wings to let the honey-weighted
+bee down than to lift her up to the doorway. We use a simple platform,
+with blocks under the corners, so that there may be circulation of air
+beneath, and extending about a foot out in front of the hive, thus
+serving as an alighting-board.
+
+The arrangement of the hives in the apiary is a subject which will
+pay for thought. When beginning, this is easy enough, as they may be
+arranged almost any way, so long as shade and short grass are assured.
+After the apiary grows they may be arranged in several convenient ways;
+one is to have the lines of hives facing each other, thus making an
+alley for the bees; while there is a safe passageway for the man in the
+rear of the two rows.
+
+When there are only a few hives, it is best to have the entrances
+face the south. In fact, the entrance should never face northward in
+a climate as cold as that of New York State. There is one thing to
+bear in mind in arranging an apiary; make the groups under the trees
+individual, so that the bees will have no tendency to become confused
+as to the location of their own homes. If two face west, then let two
+others face east, or perhaps a group of three face to the south, etc.
+
+When it becomes necessary, for any reason, to change the location of
+a colony, a board should be set against the hive, in front of its
+entrance. The bees, meeting this obstruction as they emerge from the
+hive, will fly about the hive for some time, and thus mark the new
+location, to which they will return. If this precaution is not taken,
+many bees will fly from the hive, directly into the field, without
+noticing the change, and will then return to the old location and thus
+be lost.
+
+A honey-house near the apiary is a great convenience. If this is not
+practicable, the next best arrangement is a honey-room in house,
+cellar, or shed. Such a room is a necessity even in a small apiary.
+This room should be well ventilated and screens should cover the
+windows, and a swinging automatic screen protect the door; bee-escapes
+should be placed in door and windows.
+
+The room should contain workbench and tools; a table, chairs of varying
+height, an oil-stove, and boxes or cupboards in which all of the apiary
+supplies, implements, and machinery may be stored and kept ready for
+use.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                          _Photograph by Brown Brothers_
+
+PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree, but the grass ought to have been
+cut long ago.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Fig. 1_
+  _Fig. 2_
+  _Fig. 3_
+  _Fig. 4_
+  _Fig. 5_
+
+  PLATE V. _1._ Queen Bee, enlarged. _2._ Drone. _3._ Worker. _4._
+  Queen Cells. _5._ Miller’s Cage for Introducing Queens.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE
+
+
+One of the remarkable peculiarities of bees, which is also shared by
+other social insects, as ants, wasps and termites, is that there are
+three distinct kinds of individuals in the community. For, in addition
+to the males and females, which are the reproducing members of the
+colony, there is a third class which performs the labours of the
+community. The females, of which there is usually only one in a colony,
+are known as queens; the males as drones; and the labourers as workers.
+(Plate V.)
+
+
+THE QUEEN (Plates V, VI, VII)
+
+The bee-queen is the acme of a long line of communistic development.
+It is little wonder that those men of ancient times who observed her,
+and the attitude of the other bees toward her, regarded her as regal
+and called her queen. But she is a much more important element in the
+perfect commune than a mere sovereign, since she is the actual mother
+of her subjects.
+
+Too much care cannot be shown in the selection of the queen, or mother
+of the bee-colony. Her blood is their blood; her faults are their
+faults; her weaknesses are their weaknesses. Any apiarist is likely
+to have had two colonies side by side, perhaps each equalling the
+other in amount of brood and number of bees, and one may have produced
+five dollars’ worth of honey in a season, while the other did not
+produce half of that; and the queens alone caused this discrepancy. One
+produced energetic, capable offspring, while the progeny of the other
+were unenterprising. The offspring of one were perhaps sweet-tempered
+and obliging, and those of the other, cross and cranky. Thus it is
+all-important to give the colony a good mother. A queen, to be perfect,
+should be well-bred, handsome and strong, and capable of laying from
+two to three thousand eggs per day during the height of the season, and
+especially should she have offspring possessing a kindly disposition.
+
+The laying queen is a very graceful insect; her body is long and
+pointed, and extends far behind the tips of her closed wings. _Svelte_
+is a graphic word applied to her figure by the _Spectator_; just a
+glance at her reveals her splendid physical development and proves
+her a queenlier bee than those that gather around her. It is a sight
+that makes men feel how very limited is their knowledge of any other
+world than their own to see the queen bee, surrounded by her ring of
+attendants, each with head toward her, as if she were the centre of a
+many-rayed star.
+
+The development of the queen from the egg has ever been a most
+interesting and, at the same time, a most puzzling subject for
+investigation on the part of the scientists; even now after a century
+of study her growth is as miraculous as ever; and the problems in
+physiology that lie as yet unsolved in her development will keep many
+an investigator busy in the future.
+
+When a colony is queenless, and has young brood or unhatched eggs, it
+makes haste to develop new queens; not one alone, but several, since it
+cannot afford to put its “eggs all in one basket.” At the height of the
+honey season, every day that a colony is queenless means two or three
+thousand less bees than should be present to make it successful in
+securing the harvest. (Plate V.)
+
+In developing a queen the bees usually proceed as follows: They select
+the important egg, which differs in no wise from any other worker egg,
+and destroying the partitions between its cell and two adjoining cells,
+give it more room. In order to make the royal apartment of good size a
+projection is built out over this large cell. This is made of thick wax
+and ornamented on the outside with hexagonal fretwork, as if it were
+to be the basis of comb with small cells. It seems as if the hexagonal
+pattern were in the bee brain and must be expressed, whether it be of
+any use or not. As soon as the little white larva hatches from the egg,
+it is fed on the regular larval food. Royal jelly is a food developed
+in the head glands of the workers; and when it is the fate of a bee
+larva to develop into a worker, it is fed with this food for three
+days, and then it is weaned by having other food substituted; but the
+queen larva is fed with it during her entire development, and thereby
+her reproductive organs are stimulated and fully developed, which is
+not the case with the workers. Think how much farther advanced are
+the bees than we, since, by giving the proper food, they are able to
+develop and fit each class of citizens to do the work required of it in
+the social organisation!
+
+The queen larva is fed for five days on this most nourishing food, and
+then her cell is sealed. Within this cell the royal princess is for the
+first time self-dependent, and weaves about herself a silken cocoon
+and changes into a pupa. When she issues from this state she waits a
+little until she “finds herself,” and then starts to cut an opening in
+the cell. She is a good mathematician, and with her jaws, cuts a circle
+very accurately, usually leaving it hinged like the lid to a pot.
+Professor Kellogg tells us that sometimes when she cuts this door, the
+workers do not wish her to come out. They accomplish their purpose by
+carrying wax and pasting it over the opening as fast as she cuts it, at
+the same time quite devotedly feeding her through a small crevice. But
+if they wish her to come out, they rush to assist her, and perhaps for
+two or three days before she issues, make the wax thin where she is to
+cut. It usually requires sixteen days to develop a queen from the egg
+to the adult.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE VI. (Original, drawn by A. G. Hammar.) _d_, head of drone;
+  _q_, head of queen; _w_, head of worker; _x_, ventral surface of
+  worker showing plates of wax.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE VII. Legs and antenna of the honey-bee (original drawn
+  by A. G. Hammar). _A_, outer surface of hind leg showing the
+  nine segments and claws; _pb_, the pollen basket of tibia; _B_,
+  inner surface of part of hind leg; _wp_, wax-pincers; _pc_,
+  pollen-combs; _C_, inner surface of part of hind leg of queen;
+  _D_, inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; _E_, part of
+  middle leg of worker; _s_, spur; _F_, part of fore leg showing
+  the antenna cleaner _a_; _G_, part of antenna showing sense-hairs
+  and sense-pits.]
+
+When a queen issues from her cell, she is light-coloured and, as her
+body is not yet distended with eggs, it is scarcely larger than that
+of one of the workers. Sometimes she chooses to stay in her cell for
+a day or two after it is opened. When she comes out, she runs about
+over the comb, taking exercise on her own royal legs, and perhaps
+taking a little honey out of the cells on her own account; especially
+does she hunt for other queen cells, for she has no wish to share her
+duties or honours with another. If she finds such a cell, she usually
+makes a hole in its side, and in some way, she stings to death the
+hapless princess within. Some observers claim that she merely takes
+the initiative, tearing down the wall of the cell, and the bees finish
+by tearing it down as they would any broken comb, and destroy the
+inmate in the process. If, in her promenade, she discovers another
+full-grown queen, a contest ensues; it is a duel to the death and the
+weapons are stings, which are kept sacred for this special occasion.
+It is interesting that the queen reserves her weapon for her peers,
+and never attempts to sting workers, and may be handled fearlessly by
+the bee-keeper. As the plate armour of the bee is so arranged that the
+sting may enter in only at certain spots, this duel resolves itself
+into a fencing match, until one thrusts her weapon into some vulnerable
+portion of the other. One morning we found fifteen dead queens outside
+of one of our hives; a grim tribute to the prowess of the queen within,
+and quite as much a tribute to our carelessness in letting so many
+queens be developed uselessly.
+
+The belligerent attitude of the queens toward each other seems to have
+been so strong an emotion that a voice has been developed to express
+it, and is eloquent with rage and fear. This note must be heard to
+be understood; as nearly as I am able to spell it, it is “tse-ep,
+tse-e-e-ep, tse-e-ep, tsep, tsp, tsp, ts,” in a sort of diminuendo.
+She makes the noise when she discovers another queen cell; if there is
+within this cell a full-fledged queen, she pipes back, but it sounds
+quite differently and the note is more like “quock, quock.” This piping
+of queens is especially evident before an after-swarm is to issue. The
+queen will also pipe when the bees gather about her and try to ball
+her, which is often the fate of a new queen introduced into a colony
+not ready to receive her. In this case the note is one of righteous
+anger at the indignity to her royal person. She makes this piping
+with some vocal instrument, not well understood. Her wings vibrate
+tremulously while she is piping, but she can pipe quite as vociferously
+after her wings have been entirely cut off.
+
+After she has made good her title to empire, the queen thinks about
+marriage; some warm day she will run out of the hive to see how the
+world looks, and especially to determine beyond doubt upon just what
+point of the universe her own hive is situated. The first flight of
+the queen bee is very pretty to see. She makes many graceful circles
+about, and plays in the sunshine as if she were thoroughly enjoying
+herself. When she finally leaves the hive to find a prince, she makes
+several little _détours_, always coming back so that she can commit to
+memory, beyond peradventure, the home place, and then off she goes in
+the sunshine to find her lover. Unfortunately she is not discriminating
+in the matter of love, and any sort of a prince, however lowly,
+is acceptable. Thus does many a fine, highly bred queen return to
+her hive, to bestow upon her progeny the undesirable traits of some
+low-bred drone. This is one reason why it is so difficult to keep an
+apiary of pure blood; and these _mésalliances_ of queens are a source
+of much tribulation to the bee-keeper. She returns from her wedding
+journey with a part of the reproductive organs of her mate in her
+possession, often still visible, but soon after withdrawn into her
+body. With the sperm cells now under her control, she will fertilise
+the eggs of perhaps a million workers, more or less, which she may
+mother during her life of three or four years.
+
+Biologists have of late achieved the miraculous in being able to
+stimulate the unfertilised eggs of sea-urchins and starfish, so that
+they will develop. The queen bee is able to do this with her own eggs.
+When the time comes for drones to be developed, she lays unfertilised
+eggs, which, unfailingly, produce the drones. If our poor human queens
+possessed this power of producing male heirs at will, much trouble
+would have been saved to many of them and, to some of them, their
+heads. However, the perfect socialists do most things better than we.
+
+As soon as the queen returns from her honeymoon, which is usually taken
+from eight to ten days from the time she issues, she acts decidedly
+like a business person. She runs about on the comb, pokes her head into
+a cell to see if it is all ready, and then, turning about, thrusts her
+abdomen in and neatly glues an egg fast to the bottom. When the honey
+season is at its height, she works with great rapidity; sometimes she
+lays at the rate of six eggs per minute, often laying three thousand
+or twice her own weight of eggs per day. She is a wise queen, however,
+and has in mind the dangers of overpopulation. When there is much
+honey brought in, and the swarming season is at hand, she enlarges her
+empire rapidly; but when there is little honey, she keeps the amount of
+brood down to what can be cared for. Whether this question of limiting
+the population is decided by the queen, or whether she simply acts in
+response to the food given her by the workers, is a question not yet
+settled. However this may be, it is certain that Malthusian doctrines
+are rigorously and successfully practised by the perfect socialists of
+the hive.
+
+Sometimes when the honey flow is very great an intoxication of work
+seems to possess the colony. The bees, coming in from the field, will
+drop the honey anywhere, and the queen, agitated by the general spirit
+of the hive, will drop her eggs everywhere; and the poor, overworked,
+bee housekeepers have to pick up the honey and store it in the cells,
+and pick up the eggs and glue them fast to the cell-bottoms.
+
+
+THE DRONE (Plates V, VI, VII)
+
+Of all the denizens of the hive the lot of the drones is the least
+enviable. That one may surely fulfil the destiny as king father, many
+are born, only to be slain when the honey harvest runs low, and
+meanwhile they are denied all interests in the business of the colony
+except that of pensioners upon its bounty. And he, the fortunate one,
+who lives his life to its fullest measure and becomes queen consort
+must in the end lose his life for love and die, heartlessly abandoned
+by her whom he sought and won.
+
+In appearance the drone differs much from the queen and the worker;
+he is broad, and the rear end of his body is so blunt that it looks
+almost as if it had been cut off with shears. He is made for a life
+of idleness; his hind legs bear no pollen baskets, so he could not
+fetch and carry if he would; his tongue is so short that he must needs
+eat from honey stored in a cell or be fed by his sisters, since he
+could not possibly extract nectar from a deep flower; nor is there any
+occasion that he should hang suspended weary hours for the secretion
+of wax, since he has no wax glands. His special accomplishment is his
+buzz, which is of extraordinary calibre and sonorousness. So fierce and
+loud is this, the song he sings when on the wing, that the novice feels
+inclined to retreat before him. But this music is undoubtedly meant to
+attract a queen to his vicinity, and is by no means a sound of menace;
+he is a burly, good-natured fellow, who is obliged to express himself
+in this rather coarse song. The term “good natured” is applied to him,
+not because we are certain that his temper is sweet, but because he
+has no means of expressing ill temper should he experience it, since
+niggard nature has given him no sting. He is always a clumsy chap, as
+awkward as his queen is graceful; but he can scramble out of the way
+with astonishing celerity when a murderously inclined sister attacks
+him. The time when he shows his princely qualities is when he is
+flying, for his wings are large and strong and carry him easily several
+miles if he needs to travel so far to win his lady. In his physical
+makeup he is a fine example of a purely feminine product; for the drone
+is a very perfect creature, even if he is reared from an unimpregnated
+egg. His magnificent compound eyes almost completely encircle his head,
+nearly meeting at the top, and thus crowding his simple eyes down into
+his “forehead.” And such eyes as these mean something surely, for they
+are developed that he may be better able to see his heart’s desire
+from afar. He also has marvellous antennæ, the nine distal joints of
+which are completely pitted with smelling organs. The reason for this
+is that his queen has a fragrance all her own, sweeter to him than the
+attar of roses, and thus he is equipped, as Cheshire has proven, with
+thirty-seven thousand eight hundred nostrils, in order to detect the
+perfume of her royal person at a distance. (Plate VII, _G_.)
+
+The life-history of the drone after he hatches from his unfertilised
+egg is much like that of other bees, except that for him is provided
+a cell larger than that of the worker; he hatches from the egg about
+three days after it is laid, and during the week following he is
+carefully attended by the nurses who feed him on the rich chyle food at
+first; after four days they give him some undigested pollen, a food
+not granted to the larvæ of the workers. At the end of a week his cell
+is sealed over with a cap that looks more like the crown of a derby hat
+than a cap, so spherical is it. Cheshire has shown that this cap is an
+especially fine example of engineering, being girdered by six struts of
+wax, the apex of the dome being not a skylight exactly, but rather a
+ventilator for the admission of air. (Plate VIII.)
+
+It has been a question of much dispute whether the workers inspire the
+queen to drone-raising through building drone comb, or whether she
+takes the initiative in the matter. Certain it is the bees seem to love
+to build drone comb, perhaps because it is more easily constructed and
+requires less wax. It is also a fact that the queen prefers the worker
+cells, and in the spring or fall when there is little honey coming
+in, the queen will voluntarily pass drone comb, leaving it empty, and
+lay eggs in the worker cells, so she evidently knows her own mind.
+Sometimes when reduced to dire extremity the queen will lay worker eggs
+in the drone cells, but she does not do this unless the openings of
+the cells have been previously constricted by the bees. Sometimes also
+when the conditions are abnormal the queen will lay drone eggs in the
+worker cells and from these will be developed runty drones, which seem
+of little account. However, such conditions as these are very unusual.
+
+When the drone is twenty-four days from the egg he cuts a circular lid
+out of the cap of his cell, and crawls out into a hazardous world.
+After a fortnight or so of moving about the combs and eating his fill
+he goes out of the hive and tries his wings. This he does on some
+pleasant day, about noon or a little after. As soon as he is sure of
+himself, he makes his flight longer, and the length of his journeys may
+only be guessed at. When he meets the queen they unite at once in the
+air, and after this they fall to the ground and she frees herself by
+tearing off and holding within herself the generative appendages of her
+dying consort.
+
+In every hive are developed thousands of these princes royal, who are
+maintained at the expense of the colony until the dawn of that fatal
+day when the honey crop runs short; and then an unhappy experience lies
+before these useless brothers of the reigning house. Then their sisters
+chase them out of the hive apparently attempting to sting them, and,
+changed to furies, bite off their wings and harry them until they give
+up, great helpless creatures that they are, and fulfil their final
+destiny, which is to die for the sake of the colony.
+
+Even the drone eggs, larvæ, and pupæ are not exempt on this appointed
+day of execution, but are ruthlessly killed, and their remains thrust
+forth from the hive. If conditions should change and more honey be
+made, a reprieve to the unhappy drone may be granted, for the length
+of his life is measured by the food supply. Any time during the summer
+when the bee-keeper finds the workers attacking the drones he may be
+very sure it means that the honey crop is exhausted.
+
+Our pity is usually much more excited for the fate of the drone than
+for that of the busy worker, which dies from overwork at the end of
+a few weeks; and this is undoubtedly because the death of the worker
+seems voluntary, while the drones are manifestly murdered. Once we
+witnessed the slaughter of the drones in an observation hive, the
+entrance of which was too contracted to allow the bodies of the drones
+to pass. For several days the bloody-minded workers spent their
+energies in tearing their wretched victims limb from limb, and carrying
+them out in sections. Below a small crevice at the bottom of the hive
+we found a row of disjointed legs, wings and antennæ from the mutilated
+drones, while the heads and broken bodies were thrown out of the front
+of the hive.
+
+
+THE WORKERS. (Plate V, VI, VII.)
+
+It is interesting to note that in the socialistic bee-community the
+work is carried on by unsexed females. It evidently has not been a
+part of the true economy of the perfect socialism to unite motherhood
+and business life in one individual; therefore, a division of labour
+takes place. The queen mother is developed into a highly efficient
+egg-laying machine, while all her worker sisters remain undeveloped
+sexually, and thus have time and energy to devote themselves to
+bringing up the young, keeping the house, getting the food, and
+administering the affairs of the body politic. Little wonder is it
+that the brain of the worker bee is much larger than that of the queen
+or drone, for she needs must exercise her mental powers far more than
+either. She is obliged also to pass through certain industrial stages
+in her development as a worker before she attains the full height of
+citizenship.
+
+The life-history of a worker is usually as follows: The cell in which
+she is developed is the smallest of the comb, such as is ordinarily
+used for storing honey. She is not merely a fatherless creation, like
+the big drone, but hatches from an impregnated egg during the fourth
+day after it is laid by the queen mother. She is supplied with royal
+jelly, presumably the same as that which nourishes the queen larva,
+for about three days; afterward she is fed honey and digested pollen.
+This food is placed in the bottom of the cell, and the young larva
+floats in it and absorbs it through the body walls as well as through
+the mouth, which a little later she opens up pleadingly that it may be
+filled by the nurse bees. She grows like other infantile insects by
+shedding her skeleton skin as fast as she outgrows it; she does this
+with thoroughness, for she sheds the lining of the mouth, the gullet,
+the larger intestines and the tracheal tubes as well as the outside,
+this being a very thorough change of clothes, indeed; she does this
+about six times. Soon after she hatches she querls up in the cell,
+floating in her food, and at the end of four days’ feeding she is a
+very fat, contented youngster. Six days from the hatching the nurse
+bees place over the cell, a cap which is made of wax and pollen, and
+admits the air freely. Then the young bee in the solitude of her own
+cell eats all the food that has been provided, spins about herself a
+cocoon of finest silk, which she weaves from a gland which opens in her
+lip; this is a very, very delicate cocoon, which remains in the cell as
+a lining, but so delicate is it that not until years have elapsed do
+the brood cells become contracted by these many silk wrappings of bees
+which have been developed in them. When the worker sheds for the last
+time her skeleton, she sheds the lining of the stomach and alimentary
+canal and all its contents, and changes to a pupa, which is a state
+of utter quiescence and during which wonderful changes take place in
+her anatomy. These changes which occur in the pupa are almost like new
+creation, for the legs, wings, antennæ, and all of the other organs
+of the adult bee are developed from what was within the body of the
+footless, white grub.
+
+Twenty-one days from the date of the laying of the egg, twelve days
+after the cell is capped, the worker bee sheds her pupa skin, pushes
+it behind her to the bottom of the cell, cuts a lid in the cap of her
+cell and pushes her way out, very likely after some friendly nurse has
+given her a little food to “stay her stomach.” As she crawls out, she
+is a silvery-gray bee, as damp as if she had been out in a fog; no
+one hastens to greet her, or pays her the slightest attention, which
+is quite different from the case with the young ant, which is always
+fussed over and patted and petted by the nurses for some time after
+it emerges from the pupa skin. But the worker bee has to pat herself,
+and so she gives her face a rubbing, stretches and tries to straighten
+out her draggled clothing, and walks around trying to get acquainted
+as best she can with her sisters, who are too intent upon work to
+notice her. The first twenty-four hours of her life as a bee are spent
+orienting herself; but on the second day she learns to put her head
+down into the cells of unsealed honey and drink her fill. This is not a
+selfish and thoughtless act, for almost immediately she enters on her
+first duty, that of bee-nurse; and she must eat pollen and honey and
+digest them in order to make chyle for the bee brood, which she soon
+learns to care for most solicitously. It may be her lot to supply royal
+jelly to a queen cell and thus become a lady-in-waiting. In any event
+she very soon learns to be useful in many ways; she helps to build
+comb, and works very hard at capping the cells of the young bees when
+they are ready to pupate. She also helps to clean house if necessary,
+carefully removing all of the dirt and refuse at the bottom of the hive
+and dumping it out of the front door. During the extreme heat of the
+summer she must exert herself tremendously by fanning with her wings so
+that a draft may be set up in the hive for the sake of the bees as well
+as to ripen the honey in the uncapped cells. During very hot weather,
+when the bees hang out, some of these young workers may be seen fanning
+“for dear life” on the outside of the hive. Having more zeal than wit,
+they dance a little glide back and forth, and fan as if they thought
+they were really accomplishing something.
+
+The young worker usually takes her first flight when she has had her
+wings for about a week; she runs out on the threshold of the hive
+on some pleasant afternoon, and may be easily recognised, as she is
+callowness incarnate. She runs around a little, giving the impression
+of holding on with all her six feet as if scared, and then she lifts
+herself gingerly to see whether she truly can use her wings; then she
+circles around in great joy and learns to know well the place where
+her hive stands. About a week later she goes out into the wide world
+to seek her fortune and is likely to come back with a little load of
+pollen on her legs. When she comes back thus laden she buzzes around
+before alighting, and then rushes into the hive excited and delighted
+with her achievement, and as Mr. Root says so graphically, “tries her
+best to show off.” Soon after, she becomes a staid worker and plays
+her part in the economy of the hive by bringing in honey, pollen, and
+propolis, secreting wax if need be, ready to defend her colony at the
+cost of her life, and so courageous that she as readily attacks a man
+as a mouse. Later it may fall to her lot to become executioner of her
+brother drones, or to devote herself to the queen and help lead out the
+swarm; or, by some mysterious election of the hive, she may be sent
+as a scout to find a proper home for her queen and her colony after
+they have swarmed. She is at the height of her powers and usefulness
+when about a month old, and at that time she will do any of the duties
+of the hive which she deems necessary, even to helping the young bees
+in the housework. She still has all her fur and her wings are as yet
+whole; but if there is much to do she is untiring and unremitting in
+her labours and, with never a thought of self, wears herself out. Her
+old age is evident by the loss of the fuzz, which was the pride of
+her youth, and the segments of her body become bald and shiny. Then
+her hard-worked wings begin to fray at the edges until there comes a
+day when, out on her quest for food for the colony, the broken wings
+and tired muscles refuse to support her, and she falls into the grass
+and dies; even then her last thought is not for self, but for the
+precious load which she struggles to carry home. Better thus for her to
+die in the field than to faint in the hive, for then do her vigorous
+sisters seize her and thrust her forth, and she falls into the refuse
+heap in front of the home, which she has so eagerly wasted her life
+to sustain. There is no gratitude and no pensioning in the bee-world;
+death and oblivion are meted mercilessly to the most ardent workers
+when they fail, for thus, and thus only, can the colony be kept strong.
+The individual is nothing in the perfect socialism, and the colony
+is everything; the treatment is Spartan, with none of the weakness
+which makes us keep alive the hopelessly insane, the idiotic, and the
+criminal.
+
+
+THE LAYING WORKER
+
+When the colony is queenless, worker bees may develop the ability to
+lay eggs. As they have never mated, they lay unfertilised eggs, which
+develop into drones, and thus stock the hive with these royal cumberers
+of the commune. It is interesting to note the difference in prejudices
+that obtain in the hive and in human society. In the latter we regard
+it as scandalous when the female, avoiding the duties of motherhood,
+goes abroad gathering honey and pollen at her own sweet will; but
+in bee society it is not merely a scandal, but a misfortune, when
+the worker bee has ambitions to be a mother. The laying worker is a
+bee gone wrong and a menace to the colony. At the same time she is a
+nuisance to the bee-keeper and great may be his tribulation before he
+is rid of her. As might be expected, she does not do her work well; she
+usually does not lay her eggs in regular order, as does the queen, but
+scatters them here and there and everywhere, and is quite likely to
+fasten them to the sides of the cells, instead of to the bottom. She
+lays her eggs sometimes several together in worker as well as in drone
+cells.
+
+As a laying worker looks like any other worker, it is useless to try
+to find her. However, her presence may be detected by the irregular
+appearance of the brood, and especially by the high drone caps on the
+worker cells and, finally, by a superabundance of drones. To meet this
+difficulty, an ounce of prevention is worth several pounds of cure,
+and great care should be taken to prevent colonies from becoming
+queenless. In case, through carelessness, a colony is thus victimised
+it will usually refuse to accept a queen, though sometimes it may be
+induced to accept a capped queen cell. If this is not successful, the
+combs, with the bees adhering, should be removed to an empty hive
+nearby, placing a frame of brood containing a queen cell, if possible,
+and a frame or two of foundation in the old hive. The workers, coming
+back from the field, will enter their hive and the moved comb will
+soon be deserted by all except the laying worker; she, with her
+characteristic fatuity, will remain on the deserted combs, laying eggs
+until she dies of exhaustion. A surer remedy than this, but a more
+troublesome one, is to unite this colony with another, or to scatter
+the combs from the victimised hive, bees and all, among other colonies
+of the apiary; meanwhile giving the depleted hive a frame or two of
+good brood, with a queen cell, if possible, so that the bees that
+return to it will find normal conditions. What happens to the laying
+worker when she finds herself in a colony with a queen, we do not know.
+Probably, if she persists in laying eggs, she is killed; possibly she
+forsakes her evil ways, and returns to the straight and narrow path of
+respectable citizenship.
+
+We do not understand why laying workers are developed. Some have
+claimed that too much royal jelly was given them when larvæ; and some,
+that after a colony is queenless, the jelly is fed to workers and thus
+develops them so they are able to lay eggs. They appear among the
+Cyprian and Syrian bees more frequently than among the Italians.
+
+
+RACES OF DOMESTIC BEES
+
+Several races of the honey-bee have been developed in different
+countries. Some of these have been imported into the United States, and
+many experiments have been made to determine their relative values.
+
+There were no native honey bees in North America north of Mexico, and
+the black or German bees were the first to be brought to this country
+by the pioneers. The wild bees which stock the woods of our country
+to-day are chiefly black bees, the descendants of swarms which have
+escaped from apiaries. For many years the black or German race was the
+only kind in general use here. Within recent years the eastern races
+of bees, Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or Syrians, and also the Egyptians and
+Carniolans and Italians have been introduced. Of all these, only the
+Italians have come into universal favour.
+
+The Italians are the classic bees which were discussed by Aristotle,
+and sung about by Virgil, who describes their bodies as “shining like
+drops of sparkling gold.” The Italian worker has five yellow bands that
+mark the front portions of the five segments of the abdomen which lie
+next to the thorax; the two posterior bands are made by yellow hairs
+and are therefore likely to disappear as the bee gets old and bald. But
+the three front ones are made not only by yellow hairs, but also by the
+yellowish transparency of the front part of each of the three anterior
+segments, or body-rings. As the segments of the abdomen telescope, more
+or less, these three yellow rings may not always be visible. Mr. Root’s
+test is to feed the bee with honey until the abdomen is distended and
+place her on a window pane. If three distinct translucent bands can be
+seen, the insect is a pure Italian. If only two bands are evident, she
+is a hybrid.
+
+In comparison with the Italians the black bees are inferior in many
+particulars. Their only superiority is that their honey in the comb is
+a trifle whiter, and they are more easily shaken from the frames than
+are the Italians, and thus are sometimes preferred by the man who works
+for extracted honey. Their points of inferiority are their nervousness
+and irritability, their tendency to rob, their inability to cope with
+the bee-moth, and the difficulty with which the queen may be found.
+
+The Italians are far more “civilised” than are the black bees, and seem
+willing to credit the operator with good intentions; they can defend
+themselves better from pests, their queens are more prolific and, on
+the whole, they are more industrious than the blacks, and having longer
+tongues than the blacks, they can get nectar from a wider range of
+flowers.
+
+The hybrids are the result of crossing the Italians and the blacks.
+They are likely to be excellent honey-gatherers, but unfortunately they
+usually inherit the irritability of the blacks, which they express with
+the strength and energy inherited from the Italians. Therefore, they
+are not looked upon with favour. These unwelcome hybrids are likely
+to appear in any apiary, for, however pure the Italian queen, she is
+likely to mate with a black drone in almost any locality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE
+
+
+THE SECRETION OF WAX
+
+Very little do we know of the mysterious process of wax-making. The
+interior of the bee is a chemical laboratory where no visitors are
+allowed; at best we have been obliged to stand outside and guess
+at the formulas used within. We know that honey enters largely
+into the composition of wax, and that the bees when secreting wax
+usually have pollen in their stomachs, although Huber and Cook have
+both demonstrated that bees make successful comb when deprived of
+pollen, and when fed on sugar syrup instead of honey. But to make
+this experiment of much value the bees must needs have been deprived
+of pollen all of their lives instead of a few days. It seems to be
+generally conceded that nitrogenous food is needed for the best product
+of wax-manufacture, though nitrogen does not enter into the composition
+of the wax itself.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                          _Photograph by Brown Brothers_
+
+PLATE VIII. DRONE CELLS IN A COMB OF HONEY
+
+Honey capped over; drone cells bulged out; upper cells partly filled
+with honey but not capped over.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                        _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_
+
+PLATE IX. Side of hive removed, showing bees at work; comb being made
+without artificial foundation.]
+
+It is variously estimated that it requires from ten to twenty pounds
+of honey to produce one of wax; so it is apparent to even the novice
+in bee-keeping that wax is a very expensive product. One of the
+results of the process of wax-making is the elimination of oxygen
+from the honey. There is of weight eight times as much oxygen in honey
+as of hydrogen and carbon combined; while in wax there is at least
+sixteen times as much carbon and hydrogen as of oxygen. Though wax is a
+fatty substance, yet it is not the animal fat of bees, as is so often
+asserted; it is a product especially developed for a far different
+purpose than is the fat of animals. The bees are much superior to us in
+this respect, since they manufacture from their own bodies the building
+materials for their homes.
+
+The special apparatus for the secretion of wax is very interesting
+to the student skilled in microscopic investigation. The outward or
+visible portion of this apparatus consists of four pairs of little
+membranous plates on the under side of the abdomen; these are not
+visible unless the body is torn apart and dissected, because they are
+on the front portions of the second, third, fourth and fifth abdominal
+segments, and each is covered by the rear portion of the segment just
+in front of it. Immediately within each of these wax plates is a gland
+which secretes the wax in liquid form, and it passes through the
+membrane by a kind of osmosis, considerably more mysterious than is
+that most mysterious process ordinarily. As the wax passes through the
+membrane it hardens and is pushed backward behind the segment which
+covers it and protects the wax plate, and appears as a pearly scale on
+the abdomen of the bee. (Plate VI.)
+
+The wax glands, when studied by the histologists, are found to consist
+each of a specialised area of the layer of cells that form the active
+living part of the body-wall of the insect. When active these cells
+are much thicker than the corresponding cells in other parts of the
+body-wall; but if examined during the winter, they do not differ
+greatly in appearance from other cells of the hypodermis. (Plate XXV,
+Fig. 5.)
+
+When wax is needed, a certain number of self-elected citizens gorge
+with honey and hang up in chains or curtains, each bee clinging by
+her front feet to the hind feet of the one above her, like Japanese
+acrobats; and there they remain, sometimes for two days, until the
+wax scales appear pushed out from every pocket. It is not hard to
+understand that, since much honey is needed for the manufacture of wax,
+a bee after filling with the raw material would produce much more wax
+by keeping quiet than by using any of the gorged honey for energy in
+moving about and working. But the necessity of “holding hands” while
+this work goes on must ever remain to us another occult evidence of the
+close relations of the citizens in the bee commune. (Plate X.)
+
+While most of the wax is produced from these quiescent suspended
+individuals, yet any bee-keeper who is observant has discovered that
+at the height of the honey season many of the workers coming in laden
+from the fields will have wax scales protruding from some or all of the
+pockets. We once captured one of our bees, working on a white clover
+blossom, which had six of these wax scales ornamenting her abdomen,
+and which proved her a bee of resource, since she was able to work
+and make wax at the same time. However, there is a choice about the
+wax-making. It is no willy-nilly production caused by gorging with
+honey, for it is never made except when the colony needs more comb.
+
+
+THE COMB-MAKING (Plate IX.)
+
+It is often stated that after the wax is secreted and pushed through
+the wax pockets the scales are removed by the wax shears on the hind
+legs of the producers, and are passed forward to the front claws, and
+then thrust into the mouth; here the wax is warmed and perhaps chewed
+with saliva and made malleable, thus somewhat changing the chemical
+composition and fitting it to be moulded into comb. But there is a
+hiatus in our knowledge just at this point as to whether the bees which
+secrete the wax take it off and make comb, or whether other workers
+harvest wax scales from the suspended individuals and mould them into
+shape; or whether perhaps the scales fall from the suspended “curtain”
+to the bottom of the hive and there are gathered by the ever-busy young
+workers. Professor Kellogg, who studied bees in an observation hive, is
+inclined to think that all of these methods are used, while Mr. A. I.
+Root describes the process graphically thus:
+
+  If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales but a short
+  distance she takes it in her mandibles, and looks as businesslike
+  with it thus as a carpenter with a board on his shoulder. If she
+  has to carry it from the bottom of the honey-box she takes it in
+  a way I cannot explain better than to say she slips it under her
+  chin; when thus equipped you would never know she was encumbered
+  with anything, unless it chanced to slip out, when she will
+  dexterously tuck it back with one of her forefeet.
+
+Honey-comb has been the delight of mathematicians from the earliest
+ages. The plan on which it is built, if perfectly carried out, would
+be the incarnate perfection of strength and space for holding fluid
+contents. This fact so delighted the earlier mathematicians that
+they set to measuring the angles of the cells and their pyramidal
+bases, with truly wonderful results. But with the later methods of
+exact measurement it has been demonstrated that the cells are rarely
+perfect in construction; and that the angles, as well as the faces of
+the rhombs on which they are built, vary. Because of this there have
+been developed doubters and pessimists who declare that honey-comb
+is the result of chance; and that cells, crowded together, must,
+from the nature of things, become six-sided; and that bees are not
+mathematically wise. With this conclusion we do not agree in the
+least, although we admit that the fortuitously six-sided cell may have
+been a step in the education of the bee-artisans. But we would ask
+the pessimists to explain why, if all is chance, the bees build so
+perfectly the central part of the comb which forms the bases of the
+cells. This central part is built first and is fashioned of rhombs,
+which are made into alternating three-sided pyramids. Who dare assert
+that reasonably perfect, alternating rhombic pyramids are fortuitous!
+The fact that the combs are rarely perfect in construction proves
+naught against the mathematical prowess of the bees; it simply proves
+that the bees are a practical race, and not bigoted, and are therefore
+unwilling to sacrifice everything for the sake of precision. The
+construction of their waxen cells is for economic purposes rather than
+for proving mathematical formulæ. Honey-comb shows how economy of
+room, building materials and mathematical theories may coincide, and
+shows also that the bees have taken advantage of the fact. Some of the
+savants have asserted that the rectangle or the equilateral triangle
+would have been quite as efficient as working plans for constructing
+cells for storing honey. But probably the bees, originally, made their
+cells to fit their brood and would not thus build a cell which would
+surround a larva with unfilled corners. The hexagonal cell was better
+fitted for their needs, so they developed it.
+
+After a piece of the central portion of comb has been constructed the
+bees begin, usually, at the centre and pull out the sides of the cells
+from the foundation. Experiments in coloured foundation shows that
+this may, if thick, be pulled almost to the margin of the cell. This
+is why bees so readily utilise machine-made foundation; they pull out
+the edges of these pressed combs and thus save themselves much labour
+in wax-making. The worker cells are a little more than one-fifth of an
+inch in diameter, and a little less than one-half an inch deep; the
+drone cells are a little more than one-fourth an inch in diameter
+and a little more than a half-inch in depth. It is interesting to
+see the comb which has in it both worker- and drone cells, and note
+how the transition is made; the two sizes are harmonised by a row or
+two of cells that are irregular. Honey is stored in both drone- and
+worker-cells, usually in the latter; although our bees seem to have a
+fondness for making drone cells for storage. When the bees begin to
+cap a cell, they commence at the outside and work toward the centre.
+There is not a prettier piece of engineering anywhere than the cap of
+a honey-cell, with six little girders extending from the angles of the
+cell and holding the flat cap at the centre. Honey is capped with wax,
+but brood is capped with a mixture of wax and pollen, which admits air.
+Though the cell-walls may be thinner than .0018 of an inch, comb is
+wonderfully strong, and may weigh one-twentieth or less than the weight
+of the honey stored within it.
+
+An interesting fact about the manufacture of comb is that no one bee
+constructs a cell and no one bosses the job. A bee will come along
+with a little wax and put it in place at the side of a cell, and then
+will run off and do something else; another bee passing sees this bit
+of unfinished work, gives it a few pinches and polishes it a little,
+and then does something else. Several bees may thus lend a mandible
+before the cell is perfected. Any bit of comb-building seems to be the
+result of a consensus of public opinion and not of individual skill
+and enterprise. There is a oneness in bee enterprises which harmonises
+capital and labour, and which precludes strikes and lockouts.
+
+
+THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY
+
+In trying to fathom the mysteries of honey-production, scientists
+have dissected the bee with greatest care; but they have usually
+been obliged to guess at the uses of such organs as they could
+not understand by analogy. To-day, after all the excellent work
+of investigators, the process and formulæ of honey-making remain
+unrevealed.
+
+The nectar, when taken from the flowers by the bees, is received in
+a special reservoir, called the honey-stomach. It is supposed that
+the secretion from the glands in the head and thorax is added to the
+nectar as it is swallowed, and induces the chemical action which,
+in the honey-stomach, changes the cane-sugar to the more digestible
+grape-sugar, and brings about the other changes that finally result
+in the production of honey. The chemical composition of honey
+varies, perhaps for two reasons: It may be more perfectly digested
+sometimes than at others; and the nectar of different flowers may vary
+chemically. However, all honey contains water, glucose, a small amount
+each of albumenoids, mineral matter, essential oils and formic acid.
+While most of the chemical changes take place in the honey-stomach of
+the bee, yet the honey is made perfect by ripening in the cells; these
+are left uncapped for a period of time and the current of air, always
+in action in the hive, evaporates the water and thus thickens the
+honey.
+
+Ignorant people believe that honey is regurgitated from the true
+stomach of the bee, which is far from true. The honey-stomach is
+simply a reservoir in which the honey is made and then stored until
+the bee can empty it into a cell. Her true stomach lies behind the
+honey-stomach and connects with it by a mouth that can be opened
+or closed at will; when she wishes to eat some honey, she opens
+the stomach mouth and takes in what she needs. The chyle which
+she manufactures in her true stomach to feed the young bees, when
+regurgitated, does not pass through the honey-stomach; instead, the
+mouth of the real stomach is pushed up through the centre of the
+honey-reservoir until it connects directly with the æsophagus. (Plate
+XXVI, Fig. 7 _p_.)
+
+When an ancient Roman was asked on his hundredth birthday how he had
+preserved his vigour, physically and mentally, he answered laconically,
+_Inerius melle, exterius olea_—“Inside with honey, outside with oil.”
+He spoke wisely, for honey is undoubtedly the most healthful of sweets,
+because it is so largely composed of the predigested grape-sugar.
+
+It is hard for us to realise that, until comparatively recently, honey
+was the only sweet in general use. Cane-sugar was not commonly eaten
+in Europe until the seventeenth century, and previous to that time
+honey held sway as the sweetening medium of all foods. The amount
+of honey produced in the United States now is estimated to be more
+than 125,000,000 pounds per year, which shows that it has retained
+its value as a food, though it must compete with cheaper cane- and
+beet-sugars. It still remains the most wholesome and digestible of all
+the forms of sugar, and should be used even more generally than it is
+at present.
+
+
+THE MAKING OF BEE-BREAD
+
+Flower wisdom is scarcely appreciated by those who deem all wisdom the
+product of consciousness; but if wisdom may be attained through the
+experiences of living and overcoming difficulties, then there must be
+such a thing as flower wisdom. Otherwise there would not have been such
+a prodigal production of pollen that a tithe could be spared for the
+bees, to induce them to become common carriers of the flower world.
+Many blossoms which do not secrete nectar pay their taxes in pollen,
+the bread-stuff of the bees, while others pay in both commodities.
+
+A bee when gathering pollen for food collects it with her tongue and
+forelegs, mixing it, perhaps, with nectar or saliva so it will hold
+together. It is cleaned off the tongue and front legs by the middle and
+hind legs, and by them packed in the pollen baskets on the tarsi of the
+hind legs, and moulded there into great golden balls. Little wonder
+that the ancient Greeks, noticing bees thus laden, and consequently
+flying low, declared that the bees of Hymettus tied pebbles on their
+legs to weigh them down. (Plate VII, _A_, _B_.)
+
+When the bee arrives at the hive she selects, usually, a worker-cell
+and, backing up to it, thrusts in her legs and scrapes off the pollen
+by a dexterous movement like that made by a cook scraping dough off
+her hands. The bee bringing the pollen considers her duty done in
+furnishing the flour, and leaves the bread-making to one of her younger
+sisters, who is devoting the day to domestic duties. Needless to say,
+bee-bread is unleavened; it is made by the very simple process of
+packing the pollen firmly into the cell, the utensil employed being the
+head of the bread-maker, which she uses cheerfully as a mallet for this
+purpose.
+
+Bee-bread is necessary as a food for young bees and admirably
+supplements honey in its composition, being rich in albumenoids and
+nitrogen. To our taste it is rather bitter and disagreeable, as those
+of us can attest who ate comb-honey from the hives of old, before
+movable frames and supers were generally used. However, under the new
+régime, it is rarely placed in the sections of the supers, but sensibly
+stored in the brood-combs, near where it is used, and thus seldom
+appears upon the table.
+
+
+THE PROPOLIS, OR BEE-GLUE
+
+Though bees are most successful manufacturing chemists, yet they are
+not above using ready-made substances if they find such to their
+liking. Thus, propolis is not produced by bees, but is gathered by them
+from various sources, and is used as a cement and a varnish. Certain
+trees and smaller plants protect their buds in winter by resinous
+coats; and it was quite like the adaptable bee to find use for this
+resin in her own domicile.
+
+The elder Huber, whose observations of a century ago have been
+verified, discovered the source of propolis; he planted poplars in pots
+and placed them near the hives, and the bees were seen in the act of
+collecting the resin from the buds. They have been observed by others,
+working on the buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, willow, alder, and
+even the balsam fir. However, the bees have no prejudices in favour
+of any kind of resin, anything will do so long as it answers the
+purpose; hence they visit shops where furniture is being finished and
+appropriate the varnish without saying “please.” And Darwin mentions
+the fact that bees collected a cement of wax and turpentine, used to
+cover trees from which the bark has been removed. If any old hives or
+fixtures with propolis on them be left around the apiary, the bees make
+all haste to save every particle of the precious stuff.
+
+One of the oldest superstitions about bees is that they will gather
+on the coffin of their dead master; and authenticated instances of
+the kind are on record. But this beautiful tradition is made empty
+of sentiment by the assertion that the bees assemble there not to
+mourn their dead master, but to gather the varnish from the coffin.
+Some iconoclasts ascribe to this the origin of “telling the bees”
+when some member of the family dies; but we believe this beautiful
+custom originated before varnished coffins were in use, and was the
+natural outgrowth of the close relations of bees and the home for many
+centuries.
+
+The bee collects the propolis by cutting it off with her mandibles and
+packing it in her pollen baskets; and when she arrives at the hive,
+she never attempts to unload it herself, evidently deeming it safer to
+let the sister, whose business it is at the moment to stop cracks and
+crevices, take it from her legs and apply it at once.
+
+There are various uses in the hive for the bee-glue: It is used as a
+filler to make smooth the rough places of the hive; it holds the combs
+in place; it calks every crack; it may serve as a sarcophagus for any
+intruder too large to be pitched out: snails and slugs have been found
+thus encased; it is applied as a varnish to the cells of the honey-comb
+if they remain unused for a time; and it is especially useful as a
+window shade. A nature-study teacher of our acquaintance established
+an observation hive in her school-room, which had an uncovered pane of
+glass set in one side so that the pupils might observe the interesting
+life of the hive. To her dismay the bees straightway hung a curtain of
+propolis over the window and so shut out intrusive eyes.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                        _Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson_
+
+Plate X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax; comb being built in
+the centre above.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                            _Photograph by Verne Morton_
+
+PLATE XI. HIVING BEES
+
+Cutting down the swarm.]
+
+One of the chief uses of propolis is to try the temper of the
+bee-keeper. If there is the least crack between hive and super, or
+cover, the two are glued together so that nothing but a knife and
+much muscular force can loosen them. Cover blankets are stuck fast;
+the frames are welded to their places by it, and it plasters into
+immobility all the modern appliances of the hive which man invented to
+be movable; and section-boxes are so stained with it that they have
+to be scraped before being sent to market. Above all, it gets on the
+hands of the operator, so that the digits of each act as one, or not
+at all, and everything touched sticks to them as if they were magnets;
+it also daubs the clothing, and if profane men were ever bee-keepers,
+it would incite them to wicked remarks. However, alcohol, applied to
+hands and clothing, solves the difficulty by dissolving the propolis;
+and a bottle of it is a most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the
+apiary. Benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are as efficacious as
+alcohol, but not so pleasant to use. Boiling lye will clean clothes and
+apparatus that have become clogged with bee-glue.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE SWARMING OF BEES
+
+
+WHY BEES SWARM
+
+In case of most of the higher animals, including man, the species
+are spread over the face of the earth through the simple plan of
+“marrying off” the younger individuals, and allowing them “to set up
+for themselves.” As there is no individualism, no indulging in love
+or hatred for each other among the perfect socialists, this plan is
+manifestly not at all adapted to provide for the increase of social
+insects where the colony acts as an individual. The bee plan is as
+follows: When a colony gets large enough and strong enough it divides
+into two. As the Amœba, the simplest of animal organisms, divides the
+individual in order to multiply its numbers, so the bee-colony as an
+organism divides and multiplies. It is interesting that the method
+of increase characteristic of the lowest order of animals should
+repeat itself among beings so highly organised physically, when the
+individuals merge into a social unit. This analogy might well give the
+social philosophers an opportunity for some real thinking.
+
+Much discussion has found place in human annals as to whether the
+queen or the workers take the initiative in this hegira of the bees,
+and much evidence is advanced on both sides of the question. But it is
+a profitless discussion for us to indulge in; the more we study bees,
+the more firmly we are convinced that we know little of the forces
+which govern the bee body politic. We only know that at certain seasons
+of the year when the successful colony has plenty of brood and honey,
+the old queen and many of the old and experienced citizens, go away
+from the hive and form a new colony elsewhere, leaving the young queen
+and the younger bees in possession of the homestead, thus reversing
+the human custom. While in the air, or when clustered, the swarm looks
+sufficiently large to be composed of the whole colony, yet the swarms
+are smaller than they look, for rarely more than 20,000 bees go away
+with the old queen.
+
+
+WHEN BEES SWARM
+
+The swarms usually come off in June in a climate like that of New York
+State. Some strong colonies may swarm in May if the season is early,
+thus making us glad; for the old verse, “A swarm of bees in May is
+worth a load of hay,” is based upon practical experience.
+
+The when and the immediate why of the swarming of bees are closely
+connected. There are several conditions which conduce to swarming: the
+presence of young queens ready to issue from the cells; the crowding of
+the hive with brood, bees, and honey; the presence of too many drones;
+the extreme heat of an overcrowded hive on a hot day; this latter is
+a most cogent reason, and it is well for the bee-keeper to shade his
+hives to prevent this. The swarms are likely to issue between 9 A. M.
+and 2 P. M., although enough swarms come off at unseemly hours to make
+any rule valueless except as a prophecy. (Plate XI.)
+
+
+HOW TO HIVE A SWARM
+
+“The bees are swarming!” These are magical words, which arouse every
+member of that family whose pride is a few hives in the garden. It is a
+cry that starts the sluggish blood, and sends a quiver of excitement up
+and down the spinal column while one rushes to the scene of action. How
+gracefully that moving mass of black particles undulates in the air, as
+if it were a drifting cloud instead of a self-willed, one-minded colony
+of socialists! How the heart rises and sinks inversely to this rise and
+fall, and how hopeless it seems when the swarm lifts itself superbly
+over all surrounding obstacles, and disappears above the tree tops! No
+one who has had this experience will wonder at the ancient custom which
+obtains even now in the country districts on such occasions of beating
+tin pans, ringing bells, and shouting “whoa” at the top of the lungs.
+All of this racket had its inception in the needs of the bee-keeper
+to adequately express his feelings at this crisis. If the bees ever
+stopped and settled because of this din, it was probably from sheer
+amazement at witnessing such folly on the part of human beings; this
+explanation would hold, perhaps, if bees ever evinced any interest
+in human beings, except when they obstruct the bee-path. However,
+most of our ancient customs were founded in utility, and it is not
+likely that this traditional pandemonium would have been practised for
+centuries without some reason. Mr. Root, who thinks before he speaks,
+suggests that the swarm follows the queen and the scouts through
+listening to their song, that of the queen being easily distinguished
+from the hum of the workers when on the wing; and that it is quite
+possible, therefore, that the noise, if loud enough to drown the voice
+of the queen, would cause confusion on the part of the flying bees
+and a consequent settling. But from what we remember of our own early
+experience, we are convinced that the bees were less confused by the
+noise than were the people engaged in making it.
+
+The next most widely practised of the ancient methods is that of
+throwing dirt on the swarm to stop it; this certainly is efficacious
+if there happens to be enough loose earth at hand. However, throwing
+dirt is a reactionary performance in the physical as well as the moral
+sense; and usually the bee-keeper who throws dirt at a soaring swarm
+must needs stop soon to get the motes out of his own eyes before he is
+able to see where the swarm has alighted.
+
+In these enlightened days everyone who has a cherry tree or an apple
+tree, a currant bush or a potato patch, is sure to have a fountain pump
+of some sort; and never is this instrument a greater boon than when it
+throws a fine spray upon an absconding swarm of bees. It brings them
+to a stop very soon; it may injure the feelings of the bees, but it
+certainly does not injure them physically, as it simply impairs their
+power of flight by wetting the wings. Even after a swarm has settled, a
+little sprinkle of water will keep it clustered safely until the hive
+is made ready to receive it.
+
+It is highly desirable that the swarm should cluster on the tip of
+a branch not far from the ground; for then the process of hiving is
+comparatively simple. My personal plan has been to place a sheet, kept
+for the purpose, on the ground near the clustering swarm; place on
+this a covered hive filled with frames containing brood foundations.
+Lift the front edge of the hive about an inch by putting blocks under
+the two corners; then cut the branch above the cluster, and taking it
+in hand shake the bees off in front of the hive and placidly watch
+them hive themselves with true bee celerity. This use of the sheet is
+a habit formed in childhood, and I persist in it, though my partner
+derides the practice. He shakes the bees down on the board on which
+the hive is standing; or he takes the top off the hive, and shakes the
+bees down among the frames in the most summary fashion. But I think the
+sheet makes a softer mattress for the little citizens to fall upon, and
+certainly they find their way from it more easily into the hive. I am a
+conservative person, and like to do things as I always have done them
+before—a conservatism that is by no means dangerous in our apiary where
+the senior partner is given to new ways and many inventions.
+
+If the bees alight high in a tree, then our methods have been to get
+at them by climbing the tree, or attaining the branch by the use of
+a ladder. However, I doubt if there was ever a fruit found on any
+tree that needs quite so much care in the picking as does this; and
+it is decidedly a ticklish performance to clamber down a tree holding
+gingerly a branch laden with a swarm of bees in one hand and clutching
+at supporting branches with the other. Sometimes the bees are not
+accommodating enough to alight on the end of a branch that may be cut
+off. They may even go so far as to cluster on the large branch itself;
+then there is nothing to do but to brush them off in a box with a
+bee-brush, a performance which they object to; or to dip them off with
+a tin dipper, or to jar them into a basket, and then to dump them out
+in front of the hive. The most embarrassing situation of all is when
+the swarm clusters on a tree trunk. Squaring the circle is not a much
+more difficult feat mathematically than to brush all the bees into a
+square box from this cylindrical position. It is usually necessary to
+bring the smoker to help in elucidating this problem; for, paradoxical
+as it may seem, smoke properly applied clears up many a situation in
+the bee business.
+
+If only one were able to find the queen in the clustering swarm and
+secure her by placing her in the hive, the work would be easy, for
+the other bees would soon follow. But to hunt for the queen in the
+clustering swarm is, for most of us, quite like hunting for the
+traditional needle in the haystack; and while we are hunting we are
+wasting precious time, as the swarm may make up its collective mind to
+remove from our vicinity its component atoms. In shaking, or dipping,
+or brushing the bees into the hive, we should remember to deal with
+them as gently as the situation and mental perturbation will permit.
+
+Sometimes the bees seem to feel defrauded at having a house chosen
+for them, and insist upon swarming out of their new quarters within
+a day or two after they are placed in possession. Thus it is a wise
+precaution to give the hives of the newly swarmed attention for two
+or three days, lest they indulge in this sort of perversity. If the
+bees seem unsettled and unhappy, and hang around home instead of going
+into the fields to work, it is advisable to place in the middle of
+the hive a frame of unsealed brood taken from some other colony. A
+bee’s motherly instinct may always be depended upon, since caring for
+the young is a shining civic virtue as well as a domestic duty among
+the bee-people. When there are helpless larvæ to care for, the bees
+willingly forego every personal inclination to pack up and move, and
+cheerfully proceed to give the youngsters every attention.
+
+
+DECOY HIVES
+
+When the self-appointed scouts of a bee-colony start out house-hunting
+for the swarm which is about to issue, they evidently examine the
+premises carefully; if they find a house for rent in the immediate
+neighbourhood, they are likely to go no farther in their quest. Thus
+it is the practice of many bee-keepers to place about the apiary hives
+empty, except for brood-frames filled with foundation, hoping thus to
+entice the swarms to take possession, and save all trouble. Mr. Root
+goes so far as to advise that such hives be fastened in the lower forks
+of trees in the neighbourhood of the apiary, and thus provide a most
+expedient bee-tree. A decoy hive should not contain more than three
+brood-frames, as other frames may be added when the bees move in. The
+reason for this is that the sheets of wax foundation, when sufficiently
+close together for the convenience of the bees, prove also entirely
+convenient for the occupancy of the bee-moth; and one ought to be
+particular about one’s tenants when renting houses in the apiary.
+
+Mr. West’s device for saving swarms is the most alluring of any about
+which we have read. Since the clipped queen cannot fly, she expresses
+the aspiration within her breast by climbing anything at hand, like
+a blade of grass or a shrub. Mr. West observing this, drives a bare,
+forked branch into the ground a few inches in front of the hive,
+having cleaned the ground between it and the hive of all obstacles.
+This branch having a few twigs upon it, is leaned away from the hive
+entrance. The queen promptly climbs this tree, like Zaccheus, and the
+swarm clusters around her and remains there conveniently at hand for
+hiving.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR HIVING BEES
+
+Clip the old queen’s wings.
+
+Go through the hives every ten days to destroy queen cells.
+
+As the swarming season approaches, have hives ready with foundation in
+brood-frames, and hive stands ready to receive them.
+
+Keep a serene spirit while hiving bees.
+
+The hive in which the colony is placed should be kept cool and not
+heated from standing in the sun; it should be shaded, as the swarm will
+not enter a hot hive.
+
+If the bees refuse to accept a hive, give them a frame of unsealed
+brood to reconcile them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW TO KEEP FROM KEEPING TOO MANY BEES
+
+
+THE PROBLEM
+
+“Aye, there’s the rub!” For the beginner who wishes to keep a few bees,
+this is the most difficult problem to solve on the bee-keeper’s slate,
+and it must finally be solved by each according to his own capacity and
+method.
+
+We confess frankly that we were once driven out of the bee business
+because we were too successful. Caring for fifteen or twenty hives was
+a delightful avocation. We kept our colonies strong, for we wished
+to make comb-honey; consequently, splendid swarms came off, and we
+had the fatal gift of seeing them when they came and of hiving them
+successfully. Thus our avocation began to intrench upon our vocation in
+a most alarming manner. While we enjoyed taking care of our bees, we
+were nevertheless following the vocation which we had chosen, and which
+we liked best; and the time came when we were obliged to decide whether
+we would leave our regular business and become bee-keepers, or abjure
+bee-keeping and attend to our regular business.
+
+We gave away what swarms we could and we sold some; but selling bees
+is a business quite as much as caring for them, so that was not
+practicable. Philosophically, we argued that since we had enough bees
+we would let the swarms that came off abscond and bid them God-speed;
+but here we reckoned without properly considering the amount of human
+nature which had fallen to our share. Although we knew that every swarm
+in our apiary above twenty would be an embarrassment and a tribulation,
+we could never rest content not to hive a swarm when it issued; and the
+more unattainable the place where it clustered and the less we wanted
+the bees, the more determined we were to secure that special swarm.
+
+Such inconsistency brought its own punishment, and our only resource
+was to sell out; and for many years the spot in our garden which our
+apiary once occupied was never viewed without a sense of loneliness
+and longing for its busy little tenants. During these years we thought
+it over and finally came around to the right frame of mind, and firmly
+concluded to keep bees for our own honey and our own happiness.
+We limited our ambitions to ten hives; and last summer when our
+best-tested Italian queen took us unawares and departed with a large
+and enthusiastic following, we did not mourn; all we did was to venture
+to hope that the young queen left in the hive had mated with one of our
+own handsome drones, and not with a mad black prince from one of Mr.
+Coggshall’s take-care-of-itself apiaries in our neighbourhood. As soon
+as our new brood made us sure that our queen had made no _mésalliance_
+we were entirely content.
+
+Our lack of success in preventing swarming when trying to produce
+comb-honey was a source of great chagrin to us until we read that so
+eminent a bee-keeper as Mr. Hutchinson declared that “there is no way
+of preventing first swarms profitable to the comb-honey producer,” and
+then our feelings were salved. The following are in brief a few of the
+more successful ways practised to prevent increase:
+
+_By clipping the queen’s wings._—Almost all bee-keepers practise this
+now, whatever their method of preventing increase or securing it. A
+queen with clipped wings is necessarily a “stay-at-home body,” and
+the swarm will not leave without her. However, when depending upon
+this method it is very important to guard against the hatching of
+new queens, and this can only be done by closely scrutinising the
+brood-comb to discover and destroy the queen cells. The brood-frames
+should be examined in each hive about once a week during the months of
+June and July, if this method is to succeed. Many a time have we sat
+smilingly by and watched a swarm come out of the hive with great pomp
+and circumstance, only to sneak back when it was discovered that her
+majesty was unfit for travel.
+
+_By the use of a queen trap._—This is a device used by some instead of
+clipping the wings of the queen. It is a box of perforated zinc placed
+over the entrance of the hive, the slots in it large enough to allow
+the workers to pass in and out, and small enough to hold back the
+queen and drones. Although this method saves time, yet comparatively
+few recommend it. The cost of the trap is one objection; but the
+greater objection seems to be that it inconveniences the workers when
+returning from the fields; and is, therefore, likely to affect the
+amount of honey stored, since much time is lost and some annoyance
+occasioned to the bees by being obliged to squeeze through; it also
+scrapes the pollen off their legs. (Plate XVI.)
+
+_By giving-room._—Supposing that our queen is clipped or confined,
+which is the first step, the next is to give plenty of room in the
+brood-chamber. Lack of room for brood and honey is one of the most
+potent reasons for inducing swarming. So the first thing to do after
+the disappointed swarm comes back to the hive is to tier up the supers.
+It is also well to remove from the hive a frame or two of brood which
+may be put in the hive of some weaker colony; in place of the removed
+frame is substituted another containing a starter of foundation; and
+the would-be swarm, finding that there is plenty to do, is content to
+remain at home for a time.
+
+_By extracting honey._—It will often pacify a colony to take the
+frames from the brood-chamber and extract the honey from them. This
+may be done when the brood is present, if care is taken not to run the
+separator so rapidly as to throw out the larvæ, a performance quite as
+distasteful to the young bees as to the consumer. However, this should
+not be practised unless much honey is coming in, as otherwise the brood
+may be starved.
+
+_By using large hives._—Many bee-keepers of high standing have
+practically solved the swarming problem by using large hives. The
+Dadants, well known on two continents as successful apiarists, use the
+large Quinby hives in their own apiaries, and have introduced them into
+France and Switzerland. The Dadant-Quinby hive has about the capacity
+of a twelve-frame Langstroth. The frames are both deep and large,
+measuring 18½ by 11½ inches, and so give the queen plenty of room. The
+Dadants have no trouble with swarming, as only enough swarms come off
+to make good the winter losses in their apiaries.
+
+There are three reasons why we have not used these large hives: first,
+they are too heavy to handle well, being altogether too productive
+of backaches. Second, they are necessarily much more expensive, as
+wider pieces of perfect lumber are used in the making. Third, and most
+important to us of all, we find it difficult to produce comb-honey in
+a large hive; when the bees have so much room in the brood-chamber,
+they discover no reason for carrying honey up into the supers. If we
+made extracted honey, as do the Dadants and the European apiarists,
+we would certainly use the larger hives, simply to be rid of this
+nuisance of constant swarming. The colonies grow to be so much stronger
+in the larger hives that they are much better able to withstand the
+vicissitudes of winter than are smaller colonies, which is a great
+advantage.
+
+_By the brushing or shaking-out method._—When the bees at the
+beginning of the honey-flow seem to be getting ready to swarm,
+the hive is moved to one side of the stand and on the exact site
+is placed another just like it, which contains frames set with
+foundation-starters. As gently as possible the bees are shaken or
+brushed from the frames of the old hive upon the threshold of the new,
+great care being taken to include the queen. The supers from the old
+hive are then placed upon the new hive with a queen-excluder between.
+The old hive may stand beside the new one until the brood has emerged,
+when all of the inhabitants of the old tenement are shaken in front
+of the new habitation. This shaking of a colony into a new hive so
+surprises and confounds the bees that they get the impression that they
+have already swarmed, and go to work with all diligence in their new
+quarters. The partly filled supers from the old hive encourage them
+mightily in the ways of well-doing.
+
+_By dividing swarms._—This method we have practised with quite
+satisfactory results. The troublous question is just when to divide.
+If we divide too soon we weaken the colonies, and decrease the
+honey harvest. If we wait until too late, the bees do the dividing
+themselves. The process is as follows: The queen’s wings are clipped
+before the new queen is to emerge, and she is placed in a new hive
+furnished with brood-frames containing foundation-starters; enough of
+the bees are taken to the hive with her to start a good colony, and the
+deed is done. However, the fact remains that in this way the number of
+colonies is increased as much as if the swarm had come off naturally.
+
+_By removing the queen._—Some apiarists remove the queen during the
+honey-harvest and cut out all the queen cells. They give the queen a
+nucleus if they wish more brood; meanwhile the colony will not swarm
+without her. Whether queenless bees are as easy in their minds and,
+therefore, as ready and enthusiastic in the task of gathering honey,
+is a mooted question. Bees, like people, work to the best advantage
+when they have fewest worries. One difficulty with this method is that
+before we are aware of it a queen may be reared despite our careful and
+onerous labours in hunting for queen cells. Another difficulty with
+this practice is the encouragement of the egg-laying workers, which is
+a most demoralising influence to introduce into a hive.
+
+
+AFTER-SWARMS
+
+An after-swarm is one that is led by a virgin queen and may come off
+within sixteen days after the first natural swarm departs; usually it
+occurs within a week. Most bee-keepers consider the after-swarm as a
+manifestation of “pure cussedness” on the part of a colony; but it is
+only a poorly adjusted method practised by the bees for getting rid of
+superfluous princesses. After the old queen decamps with her followers,
+there are usually several queens ready to emerge from their cells; the
+ordinary story, as told in books, is that the first queen that emerges
+hastens to slay her yet helpless sisters, or battles with them singly
+until but one queen is left in the hive; and this actually does occur
+often. However, there are differences between bee-colonies, as there
+are between individual people, and every young queen does not seem
+blood-thirsty; or perhaps in some instances the citizens restrain her
+from carrying out her murderous intent, and try to get rid of her by
+sending her forth with as many followers as can well be spared from the
+parent colony. Other queens may issue, and if this charitable instinct
+still persists, another and still another swarm may be sent out. This
+misguided kindness to young queens is as demoralising to the colony as
+unwise giving of alms is in the human world, and finally a swarm may be
+sent off so small that a teacup would hold it. Of course, this means
+certain death to all of its members. Finally the limit of endurance is
+reached, and with the last possible swarm are sent out all the young
+queens left in the hive save the one retained as queen mother. Whether
+the workers send out these burdensome members of royalty as a measure
+of good riddance, or whether in their excitement they fail to guard
+the queen cells and so let them out and they voluntarily join the
+procession, is not as yet surely ascertained. One of the formalities
+of the after-swarm is that before it occurs the queen sounds her
+pibroch, a tune which probably excites her listening subjects to rash
+departure. The bee-keeper gets to know this sound very well, and when
+he hears it, he knows that an after-swarm will issue very soon unless
+he does something immediately to prevent it. One thing particularly
+exasperating about the after-swarm is that the virgin queen, being
+lighter bodied and lighter minded than the old queen, may take the
+occasion of swarming to get married, and go on her wedding journey;
+and thus is likely to lead her followers a mad chase and leave her
+proprietor so far in the rear that he loses the swarm entirely.
+
+For the real reason of after-swarming we must look upon the colony
+as an individual; and as nature is wasteful in the production of
+individuals, these weak after-swarms are analogous to the weaklings
+among animals or plants, which must be sacrificed for some inscrutable
+reason on the altar of the preservation of the species.
+
+
+PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMS
+
+Mr. Hutchinson practises the following method: When the first swarm
+comes off he places it in a new hive like the old one, and puts the new
+hive on the exact site of the old one, while the latter is moved away
+just a little and faces in a different direction than before. The new
+hive has four or five frames with foundation-starters, and on it is
+placed the super with partially filled sections from the old hive, with
+a queen-excluding board between the two; thus the new swarm, having no
+brood ready, will store in the supers until the brood-comb is built.
+Most of the bees from the old hive, returning from the field, will
+enter the new hive because the entrance to the old hive is turned away.
+The old hive is then turned a little each day, until its entrance,
+which should be contracted, is parallel to the entrance of the new
+hive, and very close to it. If, on the seventh day after the first
+swarm issued, the old hive be removed to some new location, its numbers
+will have been so depleted that there will be no attempt to send off
+after-swarms.
+
+
+HOW TO UNITE COLONIES
+
+If two colonies are weak late in the season, it is often best to unite
+them. This may be done by moving the hives nearer to each other, a
+little each day, until they are side by side. The queen of one colony
+is killed, the best frames from each hive are alternated with each
+other in one hive, and the bees shaken into this; the other hive
+removed, and the one remaining placed midway between where the two
+stood. Sweetened water flavoured with peppermint may be sprayed over
+both colonies just before uniting, so that they will all be scented
+alike. The above is the method advised by Professor Cook.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE HIVE, AND HOW TO HANDLE IT
+
+
+THE BROOD-CHAMBER
+
+The essential parts of a hive are the following: A bottom board, the
+first story, or brood-chamber, containing frames for the support of the
+combs, and a cover. When extracted honey is to be produced, a second
+story like the first may be placed between it and the cover; when it
+is desired to have the surplus honey stored in section-boxes, one or
+more shallow stories containing the section-boxes are placed above the
+brood-chamber; these shallow stories are known as the supers.
+
+Formerly the brood-chamber was a mere cubiform box with two horizontal
+cross-pieces passing through the centre at right angles to each other
+for the support of the combs. Sometimes the bee-keeper furnished the
+bees with a hive made from a section of a hollow log, with a board
+nailed over one end for a cover, or the hollow log was placed in a
+horizontal position. Such a hive was known as a “bee-gum,” probably
+because it was often made from the trunk of a gum tree; but the
+bee-gums with which we were familiar in our childhood were made from
+hollow basswood logs.
+
+To-day in every well-regulated apiary the brood-chamber is furnished
+with the movable hanging frames for the support of the combs, which
+were invented by Langstroth a half-century ago, or by some modification
+of these frames. It was the invention of these frames that made
+the science of modern bee-keeping possible. A large part of the
+manipulations of the hive is dependent upon the ability to remove the
+combs from the hive separately. Two of these frames, one empty and one
+containing a sheet of foundation, are shown in Plate XII. These are of
+one of the newer styles, known as the Hoffman self-spacing frames. In
+these frames the upper part of the end-bars are wide, so that, when the
+frames are in contact, there is room for a bee-way between the combs;
+the lower part of the end-bars are narrower, so that the bees can pass
+freely around the ends of the frames.
+
+In the old days, and at present in some apiaries where home-made frames
+are used, the spacing between the frames has to be done by eye or
+rather by finger; the thickness of the tip of the finger between two
+frames being necessary to afford a bee-way. But with the new frames
+in the market to-day this is done away with, as they are arranged to
+space themselves, thus relieving the novice of much anxiety and some
+embarrassment in deciding whether his finger is as thick as that of the
+average apiarist. Also in these newer frames a little staple at each
+end of the top sets each frame exactly right in relation to the ends of
+the hive.
+
+Before the frame is placed in the brood-chamber it is to be supplied
+with a sheet of comb-foundation; this insures the building of the comb
+in the desired position, so the frames can be removed from the hive.
+Bees do not naturally make their combs straight, but curve them so that
+they are less likely to be broken. It is necessary, therefore, in order
+to get straight combs to confine the operations of the bees within set
+bounds; this is done by putting a sheet of foundation in each frame.
+
+One of the attractions of bee-keeping is that much of the material we
+work with is pleasing, and some artistically beautiful. A sheet of
+foundation-comb made of the most delicate wax, frescoed on either side
+with rhomb insets in hexagonal pattern, is a joy to the artistic eye.
+It is absolutely necessary that the foundation should be put into the
+frame in such a manner that it will not sag or bulge when it is built
+out into the comb and filled with the heavy honey or brood. To keep
+these large sheets from bulging and breaking they are held in place
+by fine wire which is strung back and forth across the frame, passing
+through holes made with a small awl in the end-bars. These holes should
+be about two inches apart, the upper one one inch from the top bar, and
+the lower one something less than an inch from the bottom bar, making
+four wires in the Langstroth frame. After these holes are made, put a
+small tack at one end near the lower hole, twist the wire around it,
+then thread the wire back and forth, making four wires parallel with
+the top and bottom bars, and fasten the wire with a tack; care should
+be taken not to draw the wire too tightly; simply draw up the slack.
+
+The sheets of foundation as sold by the dealers are a little smaller
+than the space in the frame, so that when they are fastened to the top
+bar a bee-space is left between the sheet and the bottom and end-bars.
+See Plate XII.
+
+The sheet of foundation is fastened to the top bar of an ordinary frame
+by means of a Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, which is simply a hollow
+tube that may be dipped in and filled with the hot wax which issues
+through a small hole at the sharp, bent end of the tube; as the point
+is drawn along where the foundation and frame meet it leaves a stream
+of hot wax that seals the two together. However, the most satisfactory
+way is to get brood-frames, like the Hoffman, which have two grooves
+in the top bar. Set the foundation in the groove at the centre, and
+introduce a strip of wood which is wedge-shaped in cross-section,
+thin edge first, into the adjoining groove, driving it or pressing
+it in hard so that it pushes the thin partition over, and wedges the
+foundation firmly in place. These strips for wedging come with the
+frames.
+
+After the foundation is fastened to the top bar the frame and
+foundation are laid, wire side up, on a board just the size of the
+piece of foundation so that it will slip inside the frame. This
+board is kept wet to prevent the wax from sticking to it. Then we
+use the spur wire-embedder, which is like the tracing-wheel used by
+dressmakers, except that the teeth are spread apart alternately so
+that they pass astride the wire and press it down into the foundation;
+to do this successfully, the foundation should be warm; working near
+a lamp or in a warm room will suffice. Embedding the wires by heating
+them with electricity instead of using the spur-embedder is a common
+practice in large apiaries where electricity is available, or where it
+pays to buy a battery with proper attachments. This outfit with the dry
+cells costs about five dollars, and is a paying investment when the
+apiary is large. (Plate III.)
+
+
+THE SUPER
+
+The super is that part of the hive that is placed above the
+brood-chamber and is designed to receive the surplus honey, either comb
+or extracted.
+
+When extracted honey is produced the super may resemble the
+brood-chamber described above, or it may not be so high, fitted
+to receive a frame little more than half as deep as the standard
+Langstroth frame used in the brood-chamber.
+
+When comb-honey is produced, the super is only about half as high as
+the brood-chamber. For this reason a hive consisting of a brood-chamber
+and one super for comb-honey is termed a one-and-a-half-story hive.
+(Plate XV.)
+
+A complete super fitted for comb-honey consists of the following
+parts: (1) The outer wall, which is of the same length and width
+as the brood-chamber and of the right height to hold the style of
+section-boxes used; on the lower side of each end a tin strip is
+fastened to support the fixtures that it is to contain; (2) the
+section-boxes; these are the wooden frames containing the comb-honey
+when it is placed on the market; each holds about one pound of honey;
+four of these are shown in the Plate XIV; (3) the section-holder; this
+is a rack fitted to hold and support one row of section-boxes, as shown
+in Plate XIV; when in place in the super, it rests on the strips of
+tin mentioned above; (4) the fence; this is a device placed between
+the rows of section-boxes to keep the bees from building the comb
+beyond the edges of the section-boxes; the style used with the plain or
+no-beeway section is shown in Plate III; the vertical cleats on this
+fence provide for a bee-space between it and the section-boxes, so that
+the bees can build out the comb even with the edge of the section-box;
+(5) the super springs; these are three flat springs, fastened to the
+inner face of one side-wall in such a way that they press the fences
+and the section-boxes closely together. (Plate XII.)
+
+There are several types of supers in use that differ, in certain
+details, from the one described above. In some, the rows of
+section-boxes and fences are pressed together by thumb-screws which
+pass through one side-wall of the super. Many bee-keepers still use
+section-boxes with beeways, that is, boxes having the top and bottom
+narrower than the two sides. When such boxes are used, the fences lack
+the vertical slats, or posts; in fact, a simple strip of tin may serve
+as a fence.
+
+Most of the section-boxes in use now are made of a single piece, which
+is dovetailed at the ends and has three transverse V-shaped grooves cut
+in one side so that it can be bent into shape, as shown in Plate II.
+These flat basswood sections afford very pretty material with which
+to work. The novice, in putting them together, almost always bends
+them with grooves outside at the corners, instead of inside, and then
+wonders why they are askew, and break. We wet the sections where they
+are grooved before we begin working with them. This may be done by
+brushing each individual flat with warm water, which is a very tedious
+process; but it is better to take a handful of them as they lie, the
+grooves all in a line, set them on edge and pour a little water from a
+pitcher on the grooves. This wets many at a time with little trouble.
+To set up a section, it should be taken in the hands, grooves up,
+bend the ends upward evenly, fastening the dovetailed edges together
+gently. Haste and jerkiness are as disastrous in handling sections as
+in handling bees.
+
+The foundation for the comb-sections is much lighter in weight than
+that intended for the brood-frames. Some apiarists fill the entire
+section with this foundation, except for the bee-spaces at the bottom
+and at the sides. But we never do this, unless we are obliged to do
+it to coax the bees to use the supers; for it is not so satisfactory
+as to use a narrow strip for a guide at the top of the section, as a
+starter to show the bees where to build the comb. We cut these strips
+about an inch deep and almost as wide as the section, and, with the
+Daisy fastener, fix each strip at just the middle line of the upper
+bar of the section. The objection to filling a section with a complete
+sheet is, first, the expense of the foundation; and, secondly, that
+it is likely to give a tough central portion or “fish-bone” to the
+comb-honey. (Plate XIV.)
+
+
+HOW TO PREPARE THE SUPER
+
+If they are not ordered set up ready for use, the supers come in flat
+pieces with dovetailed ends, and putting them together is a pleasing
+occupation, after one has learned how. The best way to learn how is
+to carefully observe a super already properly set up; for, though the
+directions for putting these together are as plain as may be, yet a
+person may err therein and yet not be a fool. Unless one has learned,
+or can learn, to drive a nail, one had best not undertake bee-keeping,
+for the bee-keeper must become a carpenter to be successful; it adds
+much to the interest of the occupation to make all sorts of things
+for one’s own bees. The principle on which the super is built is that
+it may hold the sections tightly in place, and not allow them to drop
+through. Therefore, at the bottom of the super, along each narrower
+end, is a tin strip to support the ends of the section-holders; to keep
+the ends of the section-holders even a wedge-shaped strip of wood is
+nailed across the end of the super, thick edge down and flush with the
+bottom edge, resting against the tin strips. We use the Hetherington
+super springs, one at each end and one at the middle of one side of the
+super; the trick of putting these in is to set them opposite the
+posts of the fence, one at either endpost, and one at the middle post,
+else the spring will be of no use. Driving in the sharp end of this
+spring successfully requires a little practice. The super is now ready
+to be filled. (Plate XII.)
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XII
+
+(_a_) Two self-spacing frames; one of them fitted with a sheet of
+foundation.
+
+(_b_) An empty super, showing the springs and the wedge-shaped piece at
+the end.
+
+(_c_) The Doolittle division board feeder.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                          _Photograph by Brown Brothers_
+
+PLATE XIII. EXAMINING THE BROOD-FRAMES]
+
+First place a fence in the super on the side opposite the spring; then
+a section-holder filled with four starters, always remembering that
+these foundation-starters should be at the top of the section. Then
+place another fence and another section-holder. The eight-frame super
+will hold six of these rows, with fences between and one on each side.
+Putting in the last fence is the final test of whether the springs are
+in the right place, for, if they are right and press against the posts
+of the fence, it will be very hard to push in this last fence; when it
+is in, the sections are all held snugly in place. (Plates III, XV.)
+
+Where the super is placed on the hive, it should closely fit the top
+of the brood-chamber, with no cracks between. If the hive has a flat
+cover, which leaves only a bee-space above the sections, the cover
+may be placed immediately above the super, with nothing between. With
+covers like the telescope cover, a super-cover is needed. This may be a
+quilt or a piece of enamelled cloth; but we prefer a super-cover made
+of a thin board, bound on the ends to prevent warping, which is now on
+the market.
+
+
+HOW TO HANDLE THE BEES
+
+It is generally believed, and for good reasons, apparently, that bees
+like some people and despise others, who are just as good, so far as
+we can detect. This apparent capriciousness has been explained in many
+ways. Some hold that the bees have a fine sense of smell, and thus
+distinguish us by odours rather than by sight; and in this case their
+ire is aroused because they do not like the perfume exhaled by the
+obnoxious person. Others claim that it depends upon the movements; if
+one moves nervously and quickly, he is much more subject to attacks.
+It is certainly true that if a bee, which is buzzing threateningly, is
+struck at, she becomes more enraged and is more certain to sting, but
+this is because she recognises an aggressive foe because of the act.
+However, the senior partner in our apiary is an exceedingly active and
+nervous man, and I have seen him move with all haste and energy while
+working with bees, and though he seldom uses bee-veil or gloves, he
+is rarely stung. Our bees seem to be acquainted with him, and accept
+his rapid movements as one of the common-places of bee existence. It
+is well for anyone who wishes to work with bees to spend some time in
+the bee-yard just watching the little citizens coming and going, and
+listening to the peculiarly soothing hum which always fills the air
+around the hives. It is sympathy with the bees more than actions that
+finally results in handling them without harm.
+
+
+HOW TO OPEN THE HIVE
+
+First of all, fire up the smoker. The way to do this properly is to
+place some easily ignited material in the bottom of the fire-chamber,
+touch a match to it, and crowd in above it material which will make
+plenty of smoke, and will not burn too rapidly; give a puff or two with
+the bellows to be sure that the fire is started. We have used excelsior
+in our smoker because it was near at hand, but it is not a perfect or
+lasting fuel. Fine chips, especially planer shavings, old rags, greasy
+cotton waste, and even pine needles are used. Anything is desirable
+that will make a smudge and will not burn out too quickly; for when
+we are working with the bees we have little time or inclination to
+stop and “putter” with the smoker; and we cannot afford to have the
+smoke give out at the critical moment when we most need its protecting
+incense. A minimum amount of fire with the maximum amount of smoke
+is the desirable quality in the smoker. If the fire gets too hot the
+blasts will burn the bees, which is an outrage, and which is never
+permitted by a civilised individual. The Corneil smoker has a hook
+attached to the bellows, so it may be hung on the edge of the open hive
+to be at hand in time of need. If it becomes too hot, we lay it flat on
+the ground so as to stop the draft. Each time after the smoker is used
+it should be emptied, otherwise it is likely to start a conflagration.
+We have an ash pail near the apiary in which we always empty the
+smoker on our way back to the bee-room. Mr. Root speaks of never using
+the smoker until it is needed; when his bees trouble him, he gently
+pats them on the back with a little grass to get them out of his way
+as he lifts up the frames. And we never can admire Mr. Root enough
+for dealing thus gently with his bee-people. But we would not advise
+the novice to try this, as a person has to be on very intimate terms
+with bees to be able to pat them on the back with grass and impunity.
+However, this is an ideal to work toward. The nervous beginner almost
+invariably uses too much smoke, and this makes his little dependents
+unhappy. The breathing of smoke is hardly a pleasant experience for
+us, and it seems to be still more distressing to the bees. We remember
+once how, in the enthusiasm of our novitiate, we inadvertantly smoked
+the bee-man instead of the bees in our misguided efforts to help, and
+the result was a blueness of the atmosphere which rendered more smoke
+superfluous. Every beginner ought to get at least one headache from the
+fumes of the smoker to teach him charity and care.
+
+There are several reasons why the hive must be opened, aside from the
+fun one derives from the experience. First, the brood needs to be
+examined occasionally to see that it is all right, and in the fall the
+brood-comb must be examined to see that there is enough honey stored
+within it to winter the bees. Second, during the swarming season to
+find and remove the queen cells. Third, to hunt for the queen to be
+sure she is present and active, or perchance to find her and clip her
+wings. Fourth, to take off supers filled with honey. A warm day should
+be selected for opening the hive for whatever reason, and the middle
+of the day is the best time for the work.
+
+Send two or three puffs of smoke in at the entrance to drive back the
+frightened sentinels who keep careful watch of the portals of the hive.
+Then lift one edge of the cover of the hive a little and send two or
+three puffs in the crack; then lift off the cover and set it down
+beside you; then lift the quilt or super-cover at one edge, and give
+two or three puffs of smoke beneath it to drive the bees down among the
+frames, always remembering that under ordinary circumstances a very
+little smoke is necessary to frighten and subdue the bees. In fact the
+same rule applies to smoking bees as to smoking tobacco; if one is
+moderate in its use, the least harm will result.
+
+
+HOW TO EXAMINE THE BROOD-CHAMBER. (Plate VIII.)
+
+Stand at one side of the hive, and not in front of it. Hang the smoker
+on the side of the hive, so as to have it within reach. Mr. Root
+advises sitting on the cover of the hive set on edge while you examine
+the brood-frame. This will do for a well-poised person, but we prefer a
+little stool, which we can carry easily from hive to hive, as we wish
+something that we can sit on calmly as the situation requires. Commence
+at one side and loosen the outside section with a knife, or what is
+better, an old screw-driver. Take the frame by the projecting ends,
+and lift it up so that you may examine it on one side, then twirl it
+half-way over to examine it on the other. It requires some experience
+to placidly lift out a frame, covered with what at first sight looks
+like a dark, boiling, viscous fluid, fit only for a witch’s cauldron,
+but which soon to the startled eye resolves itself into bee particles.
+If the brood must be examined or queen cells found, then it becomes
+necessary to get rid of this seething, enveloping bee-mass, which is
+done in a manner that seems like nothing less than tempting Providence.
+The brood-frame is seized firmly in the operator’s hands, and held
+about waist high in front of the hive, then let to drop, hands and
+all, swiftly to within about six inches of the doorstep of the hive,
+then suddenly jerked back again; the bees being heavy and receiving
+the downward impetus, keep right on as a man keeps on when his bicycle
+stops suddenly in a rut—with this difference that the bees land safely
+at the entrance of the hive, into which they scamper as soon as their
+dazed wits will allow. One would naturally think that the bees would
+attack the active agent of this indignity, but while bees are ever
+ready to fight recognised enemies, they have evolved no plan of action
+which is equal to a cataclysm, except to get under cover as soon as
+possible. Thus being shaken from their foundations is to them what an
+earthquake is to us, and the attitude of Riley’s boy is theirs.
+
+    “Where’s a boy a-goin’ an’ what’s he goin’ to do,
+    An’ how’s he goin’ to do it, when the world bu’sts through?”
+
+Thus it is that among the first accomplishments of the apiarist is the
+one that enables him skilfully and with dispatch, and without harming
+the individuals to shake the surprised little mob off the frame or out
+of the boxes, to a place where its members may recover shelter and
+equanimity as expeditiously as possible.
+
+After the comb is freed from the bees, it requires some experience with
+honey-comb topography to see at a glance just the condition of the
+brood. There may be cells that look empty until a ray of light reveals
+at the bottom a glistening egg; and there may be cells with a little
+milky substance at the bottom in which the young larva is floating; or
+in some cells the bee grubs may be distinctly seen if they are four
+or five days old. If the cells are capped, it may puzzle the novice
+to know what lies behind that closed waxen door. If the cells contain
+honey, the substance of which the cap is made is whiter than that which
+covers the brood. In case of worker-brood the cap is depressed slightly
+below the plane of the comb, which is not the case if the cells contain
+honey. The large size of the drone cells distinguishes them readily
+from the cells of the workers. Often honey is stored in drone cells,
+for the bees seem to like to make these larger cells, and for good
+reason, since they give greater storage capacity for the amount of wax
+used. However, the drone cells which contain brood are covered with
+dark, dirty, yellow caps which are quite convex, looking like kopjes
+on the comb plain. At the height of the honey season there should be
+plenty of brood, and later the cells in the brood-frames should be
+filled with honey. The cells containing bee-bread are not capped, as
+this staff of bee life is packed so hard that it does not need to be
+covered. All honey remains uncapped until it is properly evaporated and
+ripened. (Plate VIII.)
+
+After one frame has been thus examined, it should be leaned up against
+the side of the hive so as to give space to lift out the next frame
+without crushing the bees.
+
+
+HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN CELL
+
+Fortunately for us, this is quite prominent, being a veritable oriel
+in shape. However, there may be other excrescences of the comb which
+somewhat resemble a queen cell; sometimes the queen cell may be more
+or less embedded and so escape observation. The bee-keeper who is
+cocksure that he can find all the queen cells in his hives has to be
+most experienced, and even then cocksureness may come to grief. But
+this unglazed oriel window in which the queen develops is usually quite
+noticeable, and is ordinarily decorated with a small, hexagonal pattern
+in relief. We have often wondered if this was done for the sake of
+decoration, or because the bees are so in the habit of fashioning wax
+into hexagonal patterns that they do it involuntarily. For the person
+who rashly asserts that honey-comb is the result of fortuitous force
+and pressure, this queen cell with its hexagonal frescoes is a poser.
+(Plate V.)
+
+To cut out the queen cell a sharp, pointed knife is necessary, in
+order to injure the comb beneath the cell as little as possible.
+
+
+HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN
+
+If we simply need assurance that the queen is present and active, the
+discovery of eggs or young larvæ in the cells is sufficient evidence
+of her presence, and saves the tiresome search for her majesty. But
+if we wish to find her, she is usually present on the middle frame of
+the hive. It is not safe to pull out this middle frame from the narrow
+place which it occupies for fear of hurting the queen and crushing
+the other bees; so it is best always to take out an end frame, first
+looking at it carefully to make sure she is not upon it; then shake off
+the bees and set it beside the hive, and move the other frames along
+in the space thus made until we are able to remove the middle frame
+with ease. It requires some experience to ferret out the queen from
+the bee-mob which seethes over the comb. The burly, big, blunt-ended
+drones are much more readily detected. However, after a little training
+in the devious ways of royalty one becomes expert in seeing that
+long, graceful, pointed body extending far back of the wings which
+characterises the queen. If the bees are not too much disturbed, she
+is likely to be surrounded by a rosette of workers, all with their
+faces toward her, for even in the court of the hive etiquette does not
+permit that the ladies-in-waiting turn their backs to the queen. If for
+any reason the queen is to be lifted out, she should be seized by the
+wings or thorax or imprisoned in a queen trap, but never under any
+circumstances should she be seized by the abdomen. (Plate XVI, Queen
+trap.)
+
+
+CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WINGS
+
+This does not mean cutting off all four of the wings, but that the
+wings on one side should be clipped, leaving stubs not more than an
+eighth of an inch long. Various devices have been invented to aid
+clumsy hands in cutting off the royal petticoats. One, the Monette
+queen-clipping device, is a little cone-shaped cage made of wire laid
+in spirals. She goes into this cage head first and the door is shut
+behind her. Then the scissors are slipped between the spirals at the
+proper point and the deed is done. Another simple device is a bit of
+section-board whittled in the shape of a tiny bootjack with a rubber
+band stretched rather tightly across the prongs. The forks are placed
+across the queen so that the rubber presses against the thorax, thus
+pinning her fast to the comb while she is barbered. The only skill
+needed in this device is in fixing the tension of the rubber band so
+that it will be sufficient to hold her majesty fast, and yet not stiff
+enough to hurt her. Our invariable plan is as follows: After the queen
+is discovered, we hold the brood-frame in one hand, pick up her royal
+highness in the other most gently, then still more gently set the frame
+down, leaning it against the hive; then, holding her royal person
+firmly but carefully in our own unworthy thumb and fingers, clip her
+wings with presuming scissors; then, putting the scissors down as we
+pick up the frame, and put her back as nearly as possible on the spot
+where we found her. We always use the sharp-pointed embroidery scissors
+for this delicate operation.
+
+
+HOW TO TAKE OFF HONEY IN SUPERS
+
+Lift the hive cover and quilt with a slight introduction of smoke,
+then lift off completely. Smoke from above for a moment, being very
+careful not to burn the bees, always remembering that smoke is meant
+to scare and not to punish. Then loosen the super with a screw-driver
+if the bees have fastened it down with bee glue, lift it and place
+it on a bottom board near at hand. Put on an unfilled super if it is
+needed and cover the hive. Lift the honey-sections out of the super,
+brushing off the adhering bees with a bee-brush, so that they will fall
+on the doorstep of the hive, and place each section as it is cleaned
+in a basket or box in which it is to be carried to the store-room.
+This is our usual way of procedure when our apiary is small, and we
+do this work during spare moments which are not predictable the night
+before. However, there is one best way to do this work, and that is
+to put on a Porter bee-escape the night before the super is to be
+removed. Wise from experience, we advise beginners to study this device
+and become imbued with a knowledge of its workings to the extent of
+being able to tell which is the upper and which the under side, lest
+disastrous results ensue and all of the bees escape into the super
+instead of out of it. If the bee-escape is placed on the night before,
+there will be no bees in the super when it is removed next day. To
+introduce a bee-escape one does not need to lift off the super; simply
+lift it up at one side, send a little smoke into the crack, push in
+the bee-escape, and then set it straight upon the hive and the super
+straight upon it. (Plates III, XVIII.)
+
+The novice might conclude that a good plan would be simply to set off
+the super near the hive, and let the bees find their own way back to
+their brood and kindred. But bee-nature has to be reckoned with in this
+instance, and the bees, conscious that the honey is their own, are
+likely to uncap the cells and carry the honey into the hive; or worse
+still, the bees from other hives will be attracted to these open stores
+and will begin to rob. And in the bee courts of equity, when bees begin
+to rob, then the “devil is to pay.”
+
+There have been various bee-tents devised under which the supers are
+placed after being removed from the hive. These tents are arranged with
+a little hole at the top by which the bees may escape, but may not
+return. Doctor Miller invented a simple plan of piling several supers
+filled with honey on top of each other, leaving no crevices between
+them; over these was spread a cloth with a hole in the middle, over
+which was placed a wire cone with a hole in the top large enough to let
+a bee pass out. Thus the bees from all of the sections escaped, one
+by one, and robbing was avoided. However, the bee-escapes introduced
+between the super and the hives are used to-day by most enterprising
+bee-men.
+
+
+OBSERVATION-HIVES (Frontispiece)
+
+Anyone who has worked long with bees, cannot fail to become filled
+with curiosity concerning the way their work is carried on in the
+mysterious darkness of the hive; to such a person, the observation-hive
+is a source of perennial delight, as well as of interesting and useful
+knowledge.
+
+Observation-hives have been used by bee-keepers from the time of Huber
+to the present, and naturally many forms of them have been devised. The
+type in most common use now is a small hive, containing one, two or
+three frames, and furnished with glass sides, through which the bees
+can be observed. The glass sides are covered with a door or curtain,
+except when observations are being made; for, if not, the bees will
+cover the glass with a coat of propolis, rendering it opaque.
+
+It is somewhat difficult to keep a colony in good condition upon a
+single frame; and if two or more frames are used side by side the
+observer is unable to see what goes on between the frames. Professor
+Kellogg, of Stanford University, has devised a perfectly satisfactory
+two-frame observation-hive for his laboratory. It consists of a
+glass-sided box, large enough to hold two Langstroth frames, one above
+the other; as both sides of the comb are exposed, any individual bee
+may be kept constantly in sight while she is working. The passage
+which leads from the hive to the opening in the window has a glass
+top, so the actions of the bees as they enter the hive may be watched.
+A hood of thick black cloth is pulled down over the hive when the
+observations are finished. Similar observation hives may be purchased
+of dealers in apiarists’ supplies.
+
+Such an observation-hive would be of great value to the enterprising
+bee-keeper, as it would be the means of helping him to understand
+conditions which were puzzling, and thus aid him in dealing with crises
+that are sure to occur. The advantage of this hive over any other is
+that frames from any hive may be kept under closest observation. But
+if the hive were a means of interest merely, it would still be worth
+while, for the bee-keeper cannot know too much about the ways of bees,
+_supposing all he knows is true_.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR OPENING THE HIVE
+
+Have the smoker ready to give forth a good volume of smoke.
+
+Use the smoker to scare the bees rather than to punish them.
+
+Do not stand in front of the hive lest the bees passing out and in take
+umbrage.
+
+Be careful not to drop any implements with which you are working; take
+hold of all things firmly.
+
+Move steadily, and not nervously.
+
+Do not run if frightened, for the bees understand what running away
+means as well as you do.
+
+If the bees attack you, move slowly away, smoking them off as you go.
+
+If a bee annoys you by her threatening attitude for some time, kill her
+ruthlessly.
+
+If stung by a bee, rub off the sting, instead of pulling it out with
+the nails of the thumb and forefinger and thus forcing more venom into
+the wound.
+
+Ammonia applied to the wound made by a bee-sting will usually afford
+immediate relief.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DETAILS CONCERNING HONEY
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE COMB-HONEY
+
+Every bee-keeper who sends to the market honey in the comb enfolded in
+an attractive carton, or with the section neatly glazed, has produced a
+work of art; for comb-honey as now marketed is an æsthetic production,
+and the bee-keeper is an artist as much as if he had painted a
+picture or had fashioned a jewel. To most people who have an apiary
+as a pleasurable adjunct to life in the country, the production of
+comb-honey is most attractive, while the production of extracted honey
+does not appeal to them at all. Just the word “honey” calls to the mind
+of most people a vision of amber sweetness set in white-walled, waxen
+cells.
+
+The production of comb-honey is attended by more difficulties than
+is the production of extracted honey. The reason for this is largely
+because the bees work more readily in cells already made from which
+the honey has been extracted, than they do in sections where they
+must undertake all of the expense and labour of producing wax for the
+comb. More than this, honey may be extracted from the comb of the
+brood-chambers, a harvest which is lost to the producer of comb-honey.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XIV
+
+(_a_) Alley’s queen and drone trap.
+
+(_b_) A well filled section.
+
+(_c_) One empty section-holder, and one filled with section-boxes, in
+which are foundation-starters; two of these have been added to by the
+bees.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                          _Photograph by Brown Brothers_
+
+PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey; the super is filled
+with section-boxes.]
+
+For the production of comb-honey it is necessary that the colony
+winter in excellent condition and develop much well-fed brood early
+in the season, so that there shall be a great number of active young
+workers in the hive just before the chief honey-harvest of the summer
+begins. In New York State we have two large honey harvests, that of
+the basswood in July and the buckwheat in August, so our colonies are
+made strong and ready by the last of June. In order to have the bees
+ready to work, the swarming fever must be subdued or controlled before
+this period of honey-flow. The colonies are carefully watched early in
+the season, and if after the first pollen-gathering occurs there is no
+honey coming in, the bees are fed so that the brood may be developed.
+We rarely have to feed at this season of the year as the fruit bloom
+gives our bees plenty of honey for rearing their brood, and we never
+expect any surplus before the basswood season.
+
+The supers are put on when there is plenty of brood and plenty of honey
+to feed to it in the hive; and under such conditions our bees, though
+Italians, usually push up into the sections at once. We prepare the
+sections with mere strips of wax foundation for starters. (Plate XIV.)
+
+Supers thus equipped put on at this time and under such conditions seem
+to take away all desire to swarm on the part of the bees, if the queen
+cells have been previously removed.
+
+If the brood-chambers are crowded when the super is put on, the queen
+may go up into it and start brood. This rarely occurs with us, but in
+case it does a queen-excluding honey-board may be introduced between
+the super and the brood-chamber. Sometimes a colony seems unwilling
+to go into the super after it has been added, and the bees will hang
+on the outside of the hive and threaten to swarm, and through doubt
+and vacillation lose two or three of the precious days of the basswood
+harvest.
+
+The usual reason why the bees will not go into the super is that they
+are not sufficiently crowded below; if they have room they prefer to
+store their honey in the brood cells rather than carry it to the upper
+story.
+
+If a colony is strong and has plenty of brood and honey and is still
+obstinate, men of experience advise the taking of a frame of sections
+from a colony which is storing in the supers and putting bees and all
+in the midst of the unused super of the reluctant colony. We have never
+tried this because we were never obliged to. It sounds very practical
+and sensible, and it is practised by Mr. Root, and that is sufficient
+recommendation.
+
+Our way of coaxing the bees into a super which they have sedulously
+ignored is to place in it some of the imperfect sections, which are not
+worth much in the market and which contain some capped honey and many
+empty cells. One section-holder filled in this way seems to encourage
+the reluctant colony to climb and to store as rapidly as possible.
+
+In large apiaries the following plan is followed: First, put on a super
+of shallow extracting frames from which the honey has been removed; as
+these cells are all ready, the bees are likely to go to work in them
+at once; and after they are working well raise the super, and put in
+one below it filled with sections containing starters, and all will be
+well. In dealing with this phase of bee-keeping it is well to remember
+that full sheets of foundation in the sections are more attractive to
+the bees than starters; and that sections containing comb already made
+are still more pleasing, and if some of these made cells contain honey,
+their attractiveness is doubled. One condition should be observed in
+putting on a super in the summer: it should be shaded in some way; if
+it is in the direct rays of the sun, the heat is likely to keep the
+bees out of it. However, later in the season bees may be induced to
+work in the super by placing over it a cushion so that it will be warm.
+
+
+TIERING UP
+
+If the honey is coming in at a good rate, and the bees are working
+well, when the sections in the super are something more than half
+full, lift it up and place another containing sections with starters
+beneath it. The reason for this is that the bees would not naturally
+go into the empty super if it were placed on top until the other was
+completely filled. But with this plan they continue working in the
+super, even though it be on top, and meanwhile find it “handy” to fill
+the intervening sections. If the honey-flow is great, even another
+super may be placed next the hive and below the other two. However, in
+our practice we rarely put on more than two, usually taking off the
+top one when we need to interpolate another. This process is called
+“storifying” in the English books, which is a most graphic term and
+should be introduced into our nomenclature.
+
+
+TAKING OFF SECTIONS. (Plate XX.)
+
+In taking off the sections we do not need to wait for the completion
+of every one in the super. The outside rows are rarely perfect, and we
+usually put these unfinished sections back on some other hive to be
+finished.
+
+These unfinished sections, if not too empty, serve very well to sweeten
+the daily bread of the home table. If sent to the market they bring low
+prices, and the bee-keeper who is working for comb-honey should plan to
+have as few of them as possible. While the honey left long in the super
+has a much finer flavour than that which is removed early, yet care
+should be taken not to leave the sections on the hive so long that the
+comb becomes soiled. It is an interesting fact that honey ripened in
+the hive gains special richness, as if it were somehow imbued with the
+spirit of the little socialists that make it.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                          _Photograph by Brown Brothers_
+
+  PLATE XVI. Drone and queen trap, below; queen mailing and
+  introducing cage, above at the left; queen-protector and
+  queen-cage used in queen-rearing, in centre; and bee-escape, at
+  the right.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                            _Photograph by Verne Morton_
+
+PLATE XVII. “IN APPLE-BLOSSOM TIME”]
+
+Toward the end of the season it is best not to tier up, but to place an
+empty super on top. The bees will not use it unless necessary, but will
+devote their energies to the sections below. The great danger to be
+avoided in tiering up is a surplus of partly filled sections, and the
+way we avoid this is not to interpolate a super until the one on the
+hive is at least three-fourths filled.
+
+
+STAINED SECTIONS
+
+A regular part of bee exercise consists of promenading up and down
+and across the sealed honey; the bee has not as yet, unfortunately,
+attained the fastidiousness which leads her to wipe any of her six feet
+carefully before entering her domicile, consequently the sections of
+honey thus walked over may be stained and unmarketable. There is no
+remedy for this except to look after the supers carefully, and take out
+the sections before they are soiled.
+
+Some sections may look dirty because old wax is used in making the
+caps. If such is the case, and it is simply yellow, the wax may be
+bleached by standing it in the sun or by subjecting it to sulphur
+fumes. Some apiarists have special rooms and others tight boxes for
+the sulphur bleaching. Only two things are necessary to accomplish
+this successfully; first, that the room or box be tight; second, that
+the sulphur placed in an iron dish be heated so that the fumes are
+strong and all-pervading. Some say that the sulphur should be heated
+so that if a match be touched to it, it will flame. The combs need not
+be subjected to such fumes more than a half-hour to become as white as
+they can be bleached.
+
+
+SCRAPING THE SECTIONS
+
+In preparing comb-honey for the market, it is necessary to first
+scrape the propolis from the sections so as to leave the wood white
+and beautiful. To do this the section should be set square on and in
+line with the edge of a table, and below should be a pan to receive the
+scrapings. Hold the section firmly in one hand and scrape the side that
+is in line with the edge of the table with a downward stroke of the
+knife; a case-knife is best for this. To scrape the wood clean and not
+in any way injure the honey, and to do the work rapidly, measure the
+skill attained in this business. In scraping the sections it is best
+to have four of the shipping-boxes at hand, so that the honey may be
+graded and placed in its proper class as it is cleaned.
+
+
+GRADING COMB-HONEY
+
+First, as to the way the sections are filled, or in other words, as to
+the bee technique. There are three grades—Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. In
+the fancy grade almost every cell is well filled, and the comb has the
+surface evenly built and well capped. No. 1 has an even surface and is
+well filled, but may not be so perfect in the corners as is the fancy.
+No. 2 must be at least three-fourths full. Anything below No. 2 is
+called chunk honey if sold in the comb, but it is more profitable to
+extract honey from all sections that range below No. 2.
+
+Second, as to the colour of honey: It is graded as white, amber,
+buckwheat and dark, and these need no explanation. Thus honey is listed
+perhaps as “fancy white,” or “fancy buckwheat”; in each case it is the
+best of its kind.
+
+
+SHIPPING-CASES
+
+These should be ordered rather than made, as a good-looking
+shipping-case adds materially to the value of the honey. These cases
+come in different sizes, and have one side made of glass so that the
+handlers may see that the contents are fragile, and therefore may
+possibly be persuaded to deal with them gently; the cases come in flats
+and are easily put together. For anything that looks so well put up
+as honey sealed in its perfect cells, it has a most amazing capacity
+for leaking. Once, in the enthusiasm of girlhood and inexperience, I
+carried some honey carefully packed in a box in my trunk, hoping to
+give a friend a treat. Needless to say that honey was “linked sweetness
+long drawn out,” by the time I arrived at my destination; and all the
+clothes that I carried in my trunk were literally “too sweet for any
+use.”
+
+Shipping comb-honey to market is likely to be a disastrous performance
+at best, since it is almost impossible to guard against careless
+handling. Some ship in glass-covered sections which protect the comb,
+and make a very attractive appearing product.
+
+Shipping the sections in cartons is winning its way now for fancy
+grades. A carton is a pasteboard box which may be bought in flats with
+the shipper’s name printed upon it. While these cartons may be bought
+in almost any style, from perfectly plain to those highly ornamented,
+and provided with tape handles, yet we believe there is a chance for
+personal initiative in this particular field. An artistic design in
+pretty colours, individual and unique, would certainly prove a special
+attraction for selling honey in cartons. The great advantage gained
+from the use of the carton is that the honey reaches the consumer in a
+neat package without further handling, and may be carried like a box
+of bonbons. When cartons are used the shipping case should be a size
+larger than for the plain sections.
+
+
+MARKETING COMB-HONEY
+
+There are two ways of marketing honey open to most bee-keepers. First
+and best, the local market. If the honey can be placed in the hands of
+the grocer directly from the bee-keeper, certain advantages accrue. The
+comb is not broken by much careless handling, and it reaches the market
+in good shape. Though the price may be somewhat lower perhaps than the
+highest quoted prices, yet it is reliable, and there is no discount for
+breakage in shipping, and for differences of opinion in grading. It is
+certainly far more satisfactory for all concerned to place comb-honey
+on the home market; this is usually practicable for all except the
+greater apiarists. We know one man who has about forty hives, and who
+lives in a town of about three hundred inhabitants; though he produces
+a reasonable amount of honey he very inadequately supplies the demand
+for it in this little village, and he receives city prices.
+
+The second and least desirable method of marketing comb-honey is to
+ship it to a commission merchant. If this is done, it is well to select
+a middleman in whom we have absolute confidence, or we are likely soon
+to become pessimistic regarding his honesty; so frequently is the price
+of honey reduced on account of breakage and leaking and other accidents
+which this very frail delicacy is heir to, that we rarely realise the
+prices quoted in the newspapers. If a good middleman can be found,
+then our advice is to stick to him, and send him the very best product
+possible, fairly graded and in the most attractive form, hoping that he
+may be able to do for us what we should do for ourselves, and that is,
+work up a special market.
+
+
+STORING COMB-HONEY
+
+It is far better to market comb-honey the year it is made. However, if
+it is to be stored, it must be placed in a room that has a constant
+temperature above 60°F. It is best to fumigate the sections if there
+is any danger from the bee-moth, for this little rascal will destroy a
+great amount of comb-honey in a very short time. (See “Bee-Moth.”)
+
+
+CANDIED COMB-HONEY
+
+Some kinds of honey will granulate much sooner than others. The longer
+the honey is left in the hive and the more perfectly it is ripened,
+the less liable it is to granulate. Extracted honey will candy much
+sooner than honey left in the comb. We have kept comb-honey more than
+a year without crystals appearing in it. The only way to prevent
+comb-honey from candying is to keep it in a temperature that does not
+fall below 60 degrees. After honey is candied in the comb, nothing can
+be done with it except to sell it at a lower price, or keep it to feed
+back to the bees. The latter is probably the most profitable way to
+dispose of it. Some people like comb-honey after it is granulated and
+the home-table may use a certain amount of it.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR PRODUCING COMB-HONEY
+
+Keep the colonies strong.
+
+The bees should be kept warm and well fed in the spring.
+
+The bees must have wintered well.
+
+The colony must have brood and plenty of honey in the brood-chambers at
+the beginning of the honey season.
+
+Never let the honey in sections or supers be exposed in the apiary to
+incite robbery.
+
+Keep the sections in a room in which the temperature never falls below
+60°.
+
+Fumigate the sections before they are stored if you are troubled with
+bee-moth.
+
+Send the honey to market in as attractive form as possible. Make your
+product individual in appearance, and strive to create for it a special
+market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+EXTRACTED HONEY
+
+
+HOW TO PRODUCE IT
+
+It is certainly fortunate for bee-keepers that centrifugal force is
+one of the unalterable laws of the physical world. However, this force
+might never have been of any use to the apiarist had it not been
+for a certain Major Francesco de Hruschka of Venice, who is a most
+interesting figure in the history of bee-keeping. Next in importance to
+the invention of the movable frames by the venerable Langstroth was the
+invention of the honey-extractor. We have a picture of Major Hruschka
+in our minds as not only a brave man of war as indicated by his
+military rank, but also as a happy man of peace, who loved his hives
+with their little citizens, and who also possessed notable domestic
+virtues and loved the companionship of his children and was interested
+in their doings. For it was when his little son accompanied him to
+his apiary and, having a comb full of honey set up in a basket, began
+whirling it boy-like by the rope attached to the handle, that the Major
+discovered the honey was being thrown out of the comb by this action.
+Instead of spanking the boy as most fathers would have done, the
+thoughtful Major cogitated on the fact that such a simple motion should
+have emptied the comb of honey, and he straightway proceeded to invent
+the first honey-extractor. This was in 1865; up to that time the liquid
+honey was extracted by a method which we remember well. The comb was
+crushed, and with it too often, alas! the dead bees, larvæ and any dirt
+whatsoever that happened to be present; this mixture was suspended in
+a cloth bag, over a tub or vat in a warm room; and the honey, carrying
+with it much of the débris, slowly dripped out reeking with an aroma
+and a flavour quite unknown in these regenerate days, and forming a
+product that may well be spared from the world’s marts.
+
+Since 1865, many honey-extractors have been invented in America,
+and almost all of them which have survived the test of use are
+satisfactory. The perfection of the invention is an automatically
+reversible machine with ball bearings, highly geared in order to attain
+the maximum of steadiness and rapidity with the appliance of a minimum
+of power.
+
+The principle of construction underlying all of the best extractors is
+a cylindrical can containing wire pockets in which the combs are set on
+edge, and which are revolved by being geared to a crank at the top of
+the can. There is room for more or less honey below the wire pockets,
+and at the bottom of the can is a faucet or honey gate, through which
+the extracted honey may be drawn off into a pail or vat.
+
+The extractor is a very excellent adjunct to any apiary, however
+small, even if comb-honey is the chief product, for it saves much honey
+that otherwise would be wasted. When the apiary consists of less than
+forty hives of bees, one of the small non-reversible extractors may be
+used. These weigh less and cost less; but every frame of comb has to be
+taken out after the honey has been extracted on one side and reversed
+and put back in order to clear the honey from the other side. Though
+the automatic reversible machine costs more and is heavier, it is far
+more satisfactory on the whole, if there is much honey to be extracted.
+
+
+EXTRACTING-FRAMES
+
+The frames used for extracting honey are in form similar to those
+which hold the brood, except they may not be so deep. However, most
+bee-keepers use both supers containing the shallow extracting-frames,
+and also those filled with frames of the full depth. The bees will go
+into the shallow frames more readily than into the deeper ones, as they
+are better able to keep the small chambers warm. But if the colony is
+very strong and the harvest good, the deeper frames are acceptable to
+the bees and save the time of the bee-keeper. (Plate XVIII.)
+
+
+WHEN TO EXTRACT HONEY
+
+Some producers practice extracting the honey before it is capped, so
+as to save the trouble and expense of uncapping. There is one danger
+attending this method: the green, unripened honey is thus often
+extracted, and it is the most insipid of sweets. Honey needs to ripen
+slowly in a warm temperature in order to be palatable. Some, like
+Quinby, advocate the ripening of honey in vats or evaporators after
+it has been extracted. But it is the consensus of opinion that honey
+to be of perfect flavour needs to ripen in the warm, bee-odour-laden
+atmosphere of the hive. The bees ordinarily leave the honey uncapped
+for some time as it thus ripens more readily. Therefore, those who
+produce an especially fine quality of extracted honey usually begin
+to tier up as soon as the super is fairly filled and before the honey
+is capped. The bees have ample room to go on storing honey in the
+interpolated super, and do not bother to cap the honey already stored
+above. Thus these supers, three or four or as many as practicable, are
+left on the hive until the end of the honey harvest, and thus the honey
+attains its proper ripeness and flavour.
+
+There are others who claim that honey is never properly ripened until
+capped, and therefore practice tiering after the cells of comb are at
+least partly covered.
+
+
+UNCAPPING. (Plate XIX.)
+
+There are various knives invented for this process, the Bingham
+uncapping knife being the favourite. It is used thus: The frame
+containing the honey standing on one end and leaning over a receptacle
+for the caps is held with the left hand, the knife in the right hand
+begins at the bottom of the comb and running backward and forward as
+it is moved upward shears off very neatly the covering of the cells.
+The knife must be very sharp, and skill in cutting is shown in just the
+merest film of wax which is removed. A pan of hot water should be at
+hand on an oil stove perhaps; every time a sheet of capping is removed,
+the knife needs to be scraped on a stick, which will not dull it; and
+quite often it should be dipped in the hot water to clean it. If there
+is much uncapping to be done, it is best to have two knives, keeping
+one in the pan; for cleanliness and heat are quite as potent factors as
+is sharpness in making the uncapping knife effective.
+
+There are on the market uncapping-cans, the Dadant being the most
+popular. It is a double can with an arrangement on top convenient for
+holding the end of the frame on a pivot and with wooden cross-pieces on
+which the knife may be wiped. Below there is a wire screen for holding
+the cappings, with a space in the bottom of the can for the honey which
+drains off, and which is always of the most excellent and delicious
+quality. Of course, the cappings are saved to be made into beeswax.
+
+
+CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY
+
+Honey, whether in the comb or out, will crystallise when subjected
+to low temperature or when left standing for a long time. However,
+extracted honey crystallises much more readily than that which is in
+combs; and this crystallisation is one of the problems of putting up
+and marketing extracted honey. To prevent it extracted honey should
+be evaporated until it is thick, sealed while hot in air-tight cans,
+and kept in a room the temperature of which never falls below 65° F.
+It should be kept in tin or galvanised iron cans, rather than in wood.
+Some people seem to have been successful in using wooden vessels for
+holding the honey after having given them a coating of wax; but the way
+honey gets through small places is more proverbial among bee-keepers
+than is the ability of the stingy man to do the same; even when a tub
+or pan seems water-tight the honey will triumphantly work its passage
+through.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XVIII
+
+Taking off upper story of hive containing combs for extracting. The
+bees have been moved from the supers by the bee-escape seen at the
+right.
+
+                                           _Photographs by Verne Morton_
+
+  Extracting-room showing extractor, strainer, uncapping can,
+  bee-escape, smoker, uncapping knife, gloves, funnel, supers and
+  sections, extractor pocket containing extracted sections, partly
+  filled sections as yet uncapped, extracting frame with comb, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XIX
+
+                                           _Photographs by Verne Morton_
+
+Uncapping comb before extracting the honey.
+
+Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the extractor.]
+
+In order to preserve extracted honey in packages it must be canned
+or bottled, and the air entirely excluded. There are two methods of
+accomplishing this: First, the honey is heated in bulk, and run off
+into hot cans or bottles. Second, the honey is put in the bottles
+first and then heated; in both cases the honey is heated by hot water.
+Perhaps the easier method is to heat it in bulk, and if there is not at
+hand a double boiler, one can be improvised by using a wash-boiler in
+which pails containing the honey may be set. In any case the honey and
+the water surrounding it should be of the temperature of the room to
+begin with; then a slow, steady fire is needed to bring the temperature
+of the water up to 160° F. Mr. Root advises the use of a gasoline stove
+for this purpose as the heat may thus be carefully regulated, and it is
+very important that the process be a slow one. After the temperature of
+the honey reaches 160° F. it may be poured into freshly scalded cans
+or bottles and sealed, air-tight. If bottles are used, the corks should
+have paraffine poured over them so as to make sure of excluding the air.
+
+
+PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY. (Plate XXI.)
+
+Mason fruit jars are extensively used for this as they are practical,
+cheap and useful afterward. The No. 25 honey-jar, somewhat resembling
+the Mason can, is made purposely for putting up honey, and is
+attractive in appearance. The Muth bottles are made in four sizes for
+extracted honey; the largest holding two pounds, and the smallest a
+quarter of a pound. These bottles are decorated with a design of an old
+straw skep, and bear the prophetic inscription “pure honey” moulded
+into the glass. Jelly-glasses are often used and paraffined paper is
+placed over the honey, just as it is placed over jelly to exclude the
+air before the tin cover is put on. Glass packages are by all means the
+most attractive for extracted honey in small quantities. However, tin
+pails of various sizes are in use, and may be serviceable for a cheap
+and inferior grade of honey, which is thus made ready for the consumer
+who is willing to buy “aside unseen.” But a fine quality of honey
+rejoices in the light of day and in the scrutiny of eyes which may look
+at it first critically and then longingly.
+
+The most practical packages for shipping honey in quantity are the
+large, square cans in common use which hold sixty pounds each. These
+are convenient for shipping and for measuring and are safe from
+breakage.
+
+The advantages of extracted honey over that of comb-honey are: Almost
+double the honey may be produced, because the bees having no comb to
+build, devote their energies to storing honey; and also the honey from
+the brood-combs may be extracted; it is more easily and safely handled
+and shipped; it is more easily produced, since the bees work more
+readily in the emptied cells of the extracted combs than in sections
+where they are obliged to build new cells; swarming is more easily
+controlled, because the bees more readily accept the enlargement of
+their quarters when the supers contain fully made comb, also larger
+hives may be used.
+
+The disadvantages are: It is more “mussy” and requires special
+apparatus; and unless great care is given, the bees will be starved
+through this convenient way of pilfering their stores.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR THE PRODUCER OF EXTRACTED HONEY
+
+Use glass or tin, rather than wood, for honey receptacles.
+
+Be careful not to expose the honey as you take it out of the supers,
+lest the bees begin robbing.
+
+Honey should be canned while hot, and kept from the air.
+
+Heating honey to a higher temperature than 160° destroys its flavour.
+
+Cooling honey to a temperature below 60° produces granulation.
+
+Work in a warm room.
+
+Have a label of your own, with some unique and individual design,
+which, when placed on the package, will render it attractive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+POINTS ABOUT BEESWAX
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE IT
+
+Beeswax is a unique product; the little socialists of the hive have
+formed a trust for its manufacture, which for many and good reasons
+has never been infringed upon. The special value of beeswax is that it
+retains its cohesiveness and ductibility, under both higher and lower
+temperatures, than do other kinds of wax. It has a specific gravity of
+960–972, and melts at 143–145° F.
+
+Beeswax has been in demand in the world since ancient times, being put
+to many and diverse uses. Now, however, the making of foundation-comb
+is the most important of these uses and most affects the beeswax
+market of to-day. Countless thousands of sheets of wax foundation are
+manufactured yearly in America. When foundation was first used it was
+thought that it might be adulterated safely with paraffine, but it was
+soon found that beeswax thus adulterated, when subjected to the heat of
+the hive in summer, would invariably bulge, buckle and sag. We know an
+apiarist who lost money, honey, bees and temper through trying to use
+this kind of foundation, which did not stand firm.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XX
+
+                                           _Photographs by Verne Morton_
+
+Drawing honey from extractor. The honey is strained through a fine wire
+strainer set in the top of the pail.
+
+Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXI
+
+Extracted honey in pails—candied
+
+                                           _Photographs by Verne Morton_
+
+Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market.]
+
+
+THE PRIMITIVE METHOD
+
+The process of making wax from honey-comb may be primitive and yet
+quite successful. Well do we remember the method as practised in the
+days of our early youth in the kitchen of the old farmhouse, usually a
+comfortable and altogether delightful room. Its yellow-painted floor
+seemed to have caught the sunshine streaming in through white-curtained
+windows and held it there for us to tread upon. The chintz-covered
+settee and Boston rockers, and a few widths of bright rag carpet, made
+one end a cozy sitting-room. At the opposite end the cupboards, their
+shelves covered with elaborately scalloped newspapers, and beset with
+orderly dishes and tinware, bespoke the kitchen. Midway between stood
+the heavy cherry drop-leaf table which revealed the dining-room; in
+the midst of this Protean apartment stood the cook-stove, polished so
+that it would put to shame the rosewood case of a piano, bearing on its
+top the pink-copper tea-kettle singing gayly after its daily bath of
+cleansing buttermilk, and holding within the roaring fire which ever
+seemed the spirit and soul of the place. The neatness that held sway
+in this kitchen was the perfect sort that conduces to comfort, and not
+to misery. Only at certain periods was this delectable room given over
+to discomfort and untidiness; these included “wash-days,” the days
+following the yearly sacrificial rite of butchering and the days when
+beeswax was made.
+
+We were wont to make beeswax as follows: The broken combs were packed
+in a muslin bag which was weighted by a sinker and hung in the
+wash-boiler by tying the bag to the poker, which was placed crosswise
+the top. By this contrivance the bag was completely surrounded by
+water, which filled the boiler, and yet did not touch the bottom, and
+so there was no danger of burning; the cloth acted as a strainer and
+the bag was pressed occasionally; this act being judiciously performed
+by means of the tongs, which had previously been cleaned. After the wax
+had boiled out the boiler was taken off and the whole contents cooled,
+after which the wax was taken from the top in pieces and remelted in a
+dish set on the back side of the stove so as not to burn, then poured
+into oiled bread-tins, and thus caked for the market. Some of it was
+clarified for special use thus: It was allowed to simmer on the back of
+the stove for some hours in water to which vinegar had been added, and
+then was dipped off into scalloped patty-tins and a neat little loop of
+cord inserted at one side. These cakes when cooled had a long though
+scarified existence ensconced in work-baskets with spools of thread,
+for wax thus cleaned and prepared made very pretty little gifts for
+lady-friends. But the experience of rendering wax was never complete
+without spilling some of it on the stove, which spread with fearful
+rapidity and smoked with stifling smoke; because of the certainty of
+this accident we always made the beeswax in the late fall, lest our
+bees regarding the pungent smoke as a direct invitation should come
+visiting in embarrassing numbers.
+
+Sundry old pieces of rag carpet were spread on the floor around the
+stove to keep the yellow paint intact from the wax, which was so hard
+to clean off. We had no benzine in those days, and our only resort was
+boiling hot water, which cleaned off the paint as well as the wax.
+
+One privilege that was always granted to us children on this day was
+that of having “our fingers made.” As the wax was cooling the finger
+was dipped in it, and the film was cooled while the finger was held
+very still; then the film was slipped off, a crucial point in the
+process, and used as a mould into which was poured the cooling wax; and
+presto! there was the finger as natural as life to every crease and
+wrinkle, but with a death-like pallor that rendered the row of fingers
+thus made a fascinatingly gruesome collection, as if they had been
+chopped off with a hatchet.
+
+This old process of rendering wax in the wash-boiler is still practised
+where apiaries are small. Mr. Root advises the following modification:
+Sticks are placed crosswise the bottom of the boiler on which the bag
+is placed; the bag is packed very full of wax by pressing the comb into
+balls with the hands before it is put in. Water is added and the whole
+is placed upon the stove and brought slowly to a boil, then a board
+that acts as a follower on the bag is placed on top with a heavy weight
+upon it; this acts as a press and decreases the bulk in the bag,
+leaving the wax floating on the surface.
+
+
+THE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR
+
+There are many modern and up-to-date methods advised for extracting
+wax. The most common is through the use of the Solar wax-extractor,
+which was invented for extracting honey in California, where the sun
+can be depended upon to do its work unflinchingly day after day. There
+was more than myth in the story of Icarus who fastened his wings on
+with wax, and then dared to face the sun. The ancients evidently knew
+that no other substance of the sort is so susceptible to the sun’s
+rays. I shall never forget my amazement at the efficiency of the
+first Solar extractor that I ever saw; it was home-made and there was
+naught in its appearance to indicate its power. The comb was hard and
+blackened and full of dirt, while the wax that oozed out and hardened
+below was as shining and yellow as if the sun itself had exhaled it.
+A Solar extractor ought to be in every apiary where twenty colonies
+or more are kept, and into this every fragment of comb should be put
+instead of storing it to become infested by the bee-moth, or leaving it
+around to incite the bees to robbing. The fragments thus are saved and
+without any expense or trouble are made into a beautiful product for
+the market.
+
+There are several of these Solar extractors made and sold by dealers.
+The Doolittle, the Rauchfuss and the Boardman are the three commonly
+used. The Doolittle is small and all right for a small apiary.
+The Rauchfuss has a clever arrangement by which the wax in flowing
+out overflows from one pan to another and thus cleanses itself
+automatically. The Boardman is especially adapted for large apiaries,
+and is on rockers so that it may be tilted to face the sun. The general
+plan of the Solar wax-extractor is as follows: It consists of a shallow
+box lined with sheet-iron on which is a frame for holding the comb
+with a strainer below it, and a place where the wax thus extracted is
+received. The box has a tight-fitting glass cover, and all the woodwork
+on the box is painted black so as to absorb all the heat possible.
+The box is tilted so as to get the direct rays of the sun, and it is
+important that the cover be of one pane of glass, or several panes
+matched without cross sash, as such sash interferes with the rays of
+the sun. Here in the East this extractor works excellently during the
+summer months. If the wax does not look clean as it comes from the
+extractor, it may be put through again. The only difficulty with the
+Solar extractor is that here in the East it works only in the summer
+time, and that it does not extract all the wax from the refuse which
+bears the graphic and euphonious name of “slumgum.”
+
+
+THE SWISS WAX-EXTRACTOR
+
+There are many patent wax-extractors which are run by the heat of a
+stove. The best of these utilise steam for heating the wax, though
+some of them use hot water in a sort of a modification of the old
+wash-boiler method. The best of these machines for a small apiary is
+the Swiss extractor, which may be set over a kettle of hot water, like
+an ordinary vegetable steamer, which it resembles. The comb is placed
+in a wire basket, which has a cone-shaped bottom, over which the wax
+flows down as it melts and drains off through a spout into a pan in
+which it is to be caked. This machine costs only three or four dollars
+and is simple and excellent; though it takes but comparatively little
+comb at a time, it keeps up a continual performance and there is no
+danger whatever of burning the wax. The basket may be replenished from
+time to time, and a large amount of wax may be extracted in a day while
+other work is being performed in the room. Mr. Root has an improved
+Swiss extractor and so has Mr. D. A. Jones, and both of them are most
+satisfactory. Mr. Jones’s machine is the larger and may be used as an
+uncapping can as well; the cappings when taken off falling directly
+into the extractor.
+
+
+THE WAX-PRESS
+
+Wax is such a precious product in these days of the manufacture of
+foundation-comb that every particle of it should be saved. This is
+quite impossible with any of the extractors; as the slumgum always
+holds much wax, to extract which a wax-press is needed. All wax-presses
+are necessarily rather expensive machines when bought, and not very
+easily manufactured at home. In some of them the comb is melted by
+steam and in some by hot water; in others the heated wax is dipped from
+a kettle of hot water and poured into the press.
+
+The German steam wax-press is in general use in America, Mr. Root
+having an improvement on it. It is a strongly built can, at the bottom
+of which is a place for water, and above it an arrangement to receive
+the wax drippings. A basket of perforated metal holds the comb and
+occupies the larger and upper part of the can; a follower worked by a
+screw presses down upon the heated comb and forces the wax down and out
+through a spigot. This machine weighs sixty pounds and costs fourteen
+dollars, and if the apiary contains more than forty hives of bees, such
+a wax-press will pay for itself soon with the wax which would otherwise
+be lost.
+
+We have seen one home-made press constructed from a half barrel worked
+by the machinery of a cheese-press. The follower was cleated on the
+under side, and the barrel was filled with boiling water; the wax as
+it was pressed out was run off by a spout at the top. Another which
+was used successfully was simply a box with cleated bottom and a
+cleated follower into which the hot wax was poured and pressed out
+most successfully. One of the wax presses used by many is called the
+Hatch-Gemmill press, which is run on the principle of dipping the hot
+wax off hot water and squeezing it through the press.
+
+
+REFINING WAX WITH SULPHURIC ACID
+
+On a small scale this may be done in an agate or porcelain-lined
+kettle. Mr. Root even advises on occasion the use of a large iron
+kettle. The kettle is filled half full of water, 100 parts to one part
+acid, and is brought nearly to the boiling point over a slow fire; the
+wax is then added and is kept hot for a little time after it is melted,
+and then the fire is allowed to die down; as soon as it is cool enough
+so that the dirt has settled, the wax is dipped off, great care being
+taken not to stir up the settlings. If an iron kettle is used it should
+afterward be thoroughly washed with boiling water, and rubbed with
+fresh lard or some other unsalted grease to stop the action of the acid
+upon it. Beeswax may be bleached by exposing it in thin sheets to the
+sunlight.
+
+
+ADULTERATED BEESWAX
+
+Dishonest dealers have attempted to adulterate beeswax with several
+substances; tallow, paraffine and cerasin being more commonly used.
+Tallow or other greasy adulterants may be detected by the smell; and
+because the cakes of wax containing them feel and look greasy. But
+paraffine and cerasin are not so easily detected by the eye or feel.
+The specific gravity test is the one used by dealers. A piece of wax
+known to be pure is placed in a jar of water, and enough alcohol is
+added so that the wax will just settle to the bottom. Then a piece of
+the suspected wax is placed in the jar, and if it contains either
+paraffine or cerasin it will still float. Another test but not so exact
+is made by chewing the wax; if it is pure it will be brittle and break
+as it is chewed, but adulterated wax is cohesive like gum.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR BEESWAX MAKING
+
+The wax-market is always good, and the wise bee-keeper saves every
+scrap of this precious material.
+
+Do not be mussy when making beeswax, or it will take longer to clean up
+than to make the wax.
+
+Do not use galvanised iron vessels for boiling wax as the quality is
+thus injured.
+
+Clean wax off with hot water or benzine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+FEEDING BEES
+
+
+WHEN TO FEED
+
+At least twice during the season bees are likely to need more food than
+they can get in the fields, if the bee-keeper is to do a profitable
+business. Once early in the spring when for some reason the nectar
+supply fails, and it is desirable to stimulate the rearing of brood;
+again, late in the season when the colony has not enough honey for
+winter use. When the cupidity of the bee-keeper leads him to extract
+too much honey, then must he forsooth open his pocketbook and buy
+expensive sugar to feed back to those whom he has robbed. However, bees
+should be watched closely; they may need feeding at any time, for it is
+hard to predict when the honey or pollen harvest may fail in a given
+locality.
+
+When food is given the bees in the spring, it is largely for the
+sake of stimulating them to extra activity; and thus develop large,
+strong colonies ready for work as soon as the harvest occurs. The
+brood-chambers should be closely watched in the early spring and if
+there is not sufficient food for the brood present, it should be
+provided. In the fall the hive should be examined by the middle of
+September or the first of October. A colony of ordinary size ought to
+have at least thirty pounds of capped honey. The ordinary Langstroth
+frame, when filled on both sides, contains about five pounds of honey;
+therefore, there should be an equivalent of six filled frames in each
+hive. If the swarm lacks this amount, an estimate should be made of how
+much more it needs, and this amount should be fed.
+
+Bees are usually fed upon honey or syrup made from the best granulated
+sugar, although some have claimed that the best grade of coffee-sugars
+make a good syrup; but the consensus of opinion is in favour of the
+granulated. The syrup is made in two ways: First, by heat. Melt the
+granulated sugar in its own weight or measure of water; it should be
+heated slowly, and never reach a temperature higher than 180° F. lest
+it burn, for scorched syrup fed in winter is as fatal to bees as so
+much poison. The mixture should be stirred until the sugar is entirely
+dissolved, then allowed to cool slowly, and it is ready for use. If
+there are many to feed, a wash-boiler is a very convenient utensil to
+use, as it is easier to make a large quantity at a time. Because of the
+danger of scorching a cold process has been evolved. It consists of
+taking equal measures of sugar and water; the latter should be boiling
+hot and the two stirred together until the sugar is dissolved. This may
+be done in a churn or in the honey-extractor. In following this process
+it is best to add the sugar a bowlful at a time, while stirring the
+mixture industriously. The syrup should be thin when finished, as it
+is better to let the bees attend to the ripening of it.
+
+
+HOW TO FEED
+
+There are two general plans for feeding bees. One is to place the syrup
+outside the hive, and the other to place it within the hive. The first
+is much more convenient for the apiarist, but unless the work be done
+very carefully or in the evening, and the syrup well guarded, the bees
+may become demoralised and begin robbing. Feeding outside the hive can
+be done only during warm weather. There are several simple feeders in
+which the syrup is placed at night, and taken away in the morning; but
+the method most generally followed is to fill a Mason fruit can with
+the syrup and place on it a perforated cover, then invert it in a box
+in front of the hive; the entrance to this box is so connected with the
+entrance to the hive that robbing is impossible. The box and cover are
+sold under the name of the Boardman feeder. As there is very little
+air in the can, the syrup oozes out very slowly through the perforated
+cover, and the bees take it as fast as it comes. This feeder is
+satisfactory in that we can tell at a glance when it needs replenishing.
+
+However, most apiarists follow the custom of feeding within the
+hive, and strive to accomplish this without loss of warmth in the
+brood-chambers, and without disturbing or daubing the bees. Of all the
+devices for feeding within the hive, the division board feeder is the
+most practical. It consists simply of a division board made to hold
+the syrup, which is placed in the hive instead of a frame, Plate XII.
+There is a hole at the top so that it may be refilled by simply pushing
+back the cover, and pouring in the syrup from a pitcher. The only
+objection to this feeder is its size, as it does not hold more than two
+pounds of syrup, and if used for fall feeding would need to be filled
+many times. This feeder is especially useful for stimulating the bees
+in the spring, and is also most practical in developing nuclei. In a
+small apiary it is quite practical for all purposes.
+
+Of the larger inside feeders the Smith, the Heddon and the Miller are
+generally used. These are alike in one respect; they are flat boxes
+placed directly above the frames and beneath the quilts. The Heddon and
+the Miller each take a certain specified number of pounds of syrup, so
+that when we use them we can tell just how much we are feeding. The
+Miller is especially convenient in this respect, and has one advantage
+over the others in that the entrance for the bees is directly above
+the centre of the brood-chamber, so that the bees may enter it easily
+without loss of heat. This fact renders it an excellent feeder for cold
+weather. Some still use the pepper-box feeder, which consists of a tin
+can with perforated cover, inverted above the frame, but this lifts the
+quilts and lets in the cold, and is awkward to use; and as it does not
+hold very much it is quite inconvenient to manage.
+
+Some altruistic people take the frames of comb from which honey has
+been extracted and fill the cells with syrup. This is done by laying
+the comb flat and letting the syrup into it through a fine sieve, or by
+using a force-pump with a spray nozzle. After the frame is filled it is
+allowed to stand on edge until the drain has ceased and then it is hung
+in the hive, and presto! the bees never know that they have been robbed.
+
+In the happy days, when we were getting our first experience, we fed
+some colonies for the winter by introducing chunk honey into the bottom
+of the hive and it worked like a charm, except that we were obliged to
+lift the hive to put in the honey, and again to remove the beautifully
+cleaned comb. One never realises how beautiful empty honey-comb may
+be unless he has had the privilege of examining a freshly made comb
+or one which the bees have cleaned. Bee-books advise putting in the
+chunk honey above the brood-frames, using Hill’s device above it so it
+will not be crushed by the quilt. We have done this, setting the comb
+in every direction, and our bees ignored it in a most provoking way;
+but when they found it at the bottom of the hive, they carried it up
+at once. We never knew why our bees were so contrary in refusing to
+take the honey from above because other people’s bees seem to like it
+administered in that way.
+
+
+HOW AND WHEN TO FEED CANDY
+
+If necessary to feed the bees in midwinter many people use candy. This
+is made by boiling granulated sugar in a double boiler until it is
+brittle when dropped in cold water. It is then taken off and stirred
+and poured into flat dishes to harden, from which it can be taken as
+a cake and placed on top of the frame at the centre of the hive. Some
+pour the candy into the wooden butter-trays and after it hardens invert
+the tray over the middle of the brood-nest. Some, instead of caking it
+thus, mould it in a brood-frame by holding the frame flat on a table
+or board covered with oil paper and pouring the candy in; it thus
+hardens fast to the frame, and may be put directly in the brood-nest.
+The famous Good candy, so called because it was invented by Mr. Good,
+although the excellence of the product would have given it that name
+anyway, is made by taking extracted honey, and heating it until it is
+quite thin, but not allowed to boil, and mixing into it confectioner’s
+sugar until the spoon can no longer stir it; then the mixture is taken
+out, and placed on a board and more sugar kneaded into it until it is
+of firm consistency. In hot weather more sugar is needed than in the
+winter. In making this candy skill is evinced in getting it as soft as
+possible, and yet stiff enough so that it will not flow. Only the best
+honey is used for this; and if the confectioner’s sugar seems impure,
+then granulated sugar should be pounded in a mortar or rolled under a
+rolling-pin until fine and used instead. The confectioner’s sugar may
+be tested by putting a little in a glass of water and noting if there
+is a sediment.
+
+
+FEEDING RYE FLOUR
+
+This is given as a substitute for pollen, and is often of great use
+in the spring when the flowers are late in blossoming, or when severe
+rains wash the pollen from the fruit bloom. Pollen or its equivalent
+is absolutely necessary for rearing the brood. The unbolted rye flour,
+or even oatmeal, or whole-wheat flour may be used by the bees as a
+substitute with perfect success. The meal may be mixed with the candy
+if it is desirable; but the usual way is to place it in a trough or box
+that is shallow, press it down hard so that it will be not more than an
+inch or two thick, to prevent the bees from getting suffocated while
+working in it. We must remember that the bee has two rows of holes
+along each side of the body through which it breathes, and thus could
+be suffocated as easily in soft flour as in water. The box containing
+the meal is usually placed a few rods distant from the apiary, and
+often some old combs with honey in them are placed on top so as to
+attract the bees to the box, and let them know that it contains food
+for them. Most bee-keepers say that the box needs to be placed in the
+sun or the bees ignore it.
+
+
+FEEDING FOR HONEY
+
+Some bee-keepers practise feeding all the colonies early in the season
+so that the brood has plenty of sugar-syrup stored near it when the
+honey season opens; and since the brood-comb is full the bees begin
+at once to store in the supers. Mr. Boardman who invented the best
+entrance-feeder practises this, with the result of getting more honey
+than other bee-keepers of his neighbourhood, who do not feed at this
+time. It is especially valuable in years when the honey is scarce, for
+then the bees store all the honey they gather in the supers. However
+there is one thing to consider carefully in this feeding, and that
+is the relative price of syrup and honey. If the market is glutted
+and honey is plentiful and cheap, this sort of feeding would better
+be practised cautiously; but when honey is scarce and dear, it is
+certainly a safe experiment.
+
+
+FEEDING BACK
+
+When the sections are not well filled in the late season, it is the
+practice of some apiarists to feed extracted honey in order to fill
+them. For this only the best honey is used; it is mixed with water,
+ten pounds of honey to one of water, and heated so that it is a fluid
+and then poured in the larger kind of feeders, and is put in at night,
+as the smell of the heated honey particularly incites bees to robbing.
+However, the flavour of honey which has been fed back is inferior to
+that which is only once made, and but a few apiarists practise feeding
+back successfully.
+
+
+WATERING BEES
+
+If there is no fresh water in the immediate vicinity of the hives,
+special provision should be made to secure it, as it is a highly
+desirable adjunct to a well-regulated apiary. While there are times
+during the season when the bees get most of the moisture they need
+from the nectar, there are other times when they drink water eagerly.
+This is especially so in the spring when they are gathering much
+pollen and little water, and the weather is warm. Running water is
+more desirable, and if the drip from a faucet flow over a board, or
+on pebbles, it affords a nearly ideal drinking place for the bees,
+since they can drink freely and are in no danger of drowning. Some
+bee-keepers invert a Mason jar filled with water, on a board that has a
+few shallow groves, perhaps one-eighth inch deep; the water flows out
+slowly owing to atmospheric pressure; if a little salt be added to the
+water the bees lap it up eagerly.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR FEEDING
+
+Keep close watch of the bees during the entire season, so as to know
+whether they need feeding or not.
+
+Feed only good honey or the best sugar.
+
+Never feed scorched sugar in the winter, as it will surely kill the
+bees.
+
+Observe the practice of feeding at nightfall to preclude robbing.
+
+Never spill the syrup or honey around the yard lest robbers be led on
+to black deeds.
+
+Feed small amounts to stimulate a swarm or nucleus. Bees are
+susceptible to small encouragements.
+
+Be careful never to cool off the brood-chamber when feeding in early
+spring or late fall.
+
+See to it that the bees have water near by, especially early in the
+season.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+HOW TO WINTER BEES
+
+
+IDEAL CONDITIONS
+
+The wintering of bees in the northern latitudes is usually attended
+with more or less loss. Although we now think we know the conditions
+necessary for perfect wintering, it is only now and then that they are
+attained. There are so many unhappy and unpredictable circumstances and
+vicissitudes, that one must needs be a true prophet as well as a good
+bee-keeper to be sure that all his swarms will successfully pass the
+period of snow and cold.
+
+The problem of wintering hinges as much on protection from dampness as
+on protection from the cold. We all know that double windows in a room
+keep the frost off the panes. The reason for this is that the dampness
+of the room is not allowed to come in contact with the cold outside
+glass. So it is with the beehive; if it is single-walled the dampness
+from the breath of the bees causes the frost to gather on the walls
+of the hive, which later melts and wets the bees so that they chill
+easily; the double-walled hive is a guard against this condition.
+
+
+GETTING READY FOR WINTERING
+
+First of all that watchward of the bee-keeper must be fully realised,
+“Keep the colonies strong.” Most men of experience do not attempt to
+winter a colony that is not large enough to cover at least four of the
+Langstroth brood-frames. If a colony is as small as this, the division
+boards should be used to contract the hive and make it as cosy and
+comfortable as possible. It is far safer to try to winter a colony that
+covers six frames than one that covers only four; the more the bees the
+warmer the hive, the less the loss, and also the less missed are those
+that die. To secure good swarms it is best to keep up the breeding
+throughout the summer, which can be done by feeding if the honey is
+scarce.
+
+Next in importance to a strong colony is good honey and plenty of it
+sealed in the combs, so that wholesome food may help to sustain the
+bees during this trying period. With a four-frame colony four frames
+of sealed stores will be enough. A Langstroth brood-frame should
+hold about five pounds of honey if it is well filled. If the colony
+is larger, then more honey must, of course, be given. We never allow
+any of our colonies to begin winter without at least thirty pounds
+of sealed honey, and when a colony is very large we have given it
+thirty-five pounds. This may seem wasteful extravagance on our part,
+but the honey not used in the winter is of use in the spring. It is
+necessary that the honey be of good quality; the bee is such a neat
+housekeeper that she will suffer death rather than let food pass
+through her alimentary canal when she is dormant, and thus render
+unsanitary the bee-city, a devotion to municipal sanitation which is
+hardly found elsewhere in the annals of living beings. If honey of poor
+quality is fed to the bees and they hold within themselves such food,
+disaster is likely to ensue. In preparing the hive for winter what is
+known as the Hill’s device, which is a series of curved pieces of wood
+held in place by a strip of tin, is placed above the frames to support
+the cushion so as to allow the bees to readily climb over them. We use
+a super cover in our chaff hives instead of the Hill’s device.
+
+There are three ways of wintering bees in common use. First in
+the chaff or double-walled hives left in the open. Second, in
+tenement-hives. Third, the hives are carried into cellars. The
+reprehensible way of leaving bees out of doors in single-walled
+hives with no protection during the winter is no longer practised by
+civilised people.
+
+
+OUTDOOR WINTERING
+
+Many apiarists protect the hive by a box, several inches larger than
+the hive in every diameter, placed over the hive, the spaces between
+being packed with chaff or dried leaves. A passage-way out is always
+preserved so that the bees may fly out during the early warm days, and
+free themselves from the accumulated waste. This is a cheap way of
+securing the advantages of a chaff hive. Such boxes are sold by the
+dealers, and many good words are said for this method of wintering.
+
+
+THE CHAFF HIVE
+
+The chaff hive is probably the most perfect of all of the devices
+for out-of-door wintering when convenience and the saving of work as
+well as success are taken into consideration. The chaff hive is a
+double-walled hive with wall spaces packed with chaff. It is a certain
+guard against extremes and sudden changes of temperature, as it remains
+cool in the hot and warm in the cold weather.
+
+The chaff for packing should be fine. That from timothy hay, oats or
+wheat is commonly used; saw dust and planer shavings and dried leaves
+closely packed are also often resorted to. The packing should be below
+as well as on the sides of the hive. A cushion made of burlap and
+filled with chaff is put above a Hill’s device or super cover, as this
+is the most convenient method of packing the hive on top. The bees
+should be thoroughly established and have their stores ready as early
+as October 1st. It is claimed by the admirers of the chaff hive that
+they prevent spring dwindling by keeping the bees warm in the early
+spring; and also that they keep the hive cool enough so that the brood
+is not developed in the combs until the proper time for it.
+
+The chaff hives are sufficiently warm to preserve bees during ordinary
+winters, but neither they nor any other out-door device were entirely
+successful during the long, protracted cold of the winter of 1903–04
+when many bee-keepers in the Northern States lost 40 per cent. of their
+bees. It might be wise when such a winter occurs to give some temporary
+protection to the hives, like covering them with boughs of evergreen or
+building a close windbreak. The entrance to a chaff hive should always
+be contracted in winter to keep out cold and mice.
+
+
+THE TENEMENT HIVE
+
+This is a box made for holding from two to ten hives, and which we have
+used with perfect success. Our favourite tenement-hive was arranged for
+six hives in two stories. The bottom was packed well with dry leaves
+or chaff, and three hives were set somewhat near each other. Entrances
+were boxed back, affording a front hall for each hive-entrance. After
+three hives were thus set in and packed with chaff on every side and
+between, a shelf was put across and on this were set three more hives
+which were likewise packed. The entrances to the upper row were on the
+same side as those to the lower row, and the cover of the box sloped
+back from the front of the hives and was hinged along its highest
+edge; thus when we wished to examine the hives we lifted the cover and
+examined the bees from the back side instead of standing directly in
+front of the entrance. Our losses were rare and small while using these
+tenements. The advantage of the tenement over the chaff hive is that it
+is cheaper, and that several colonies packed together help to keep each
+other warm.
+
+
+WINTERING IN CELLARS
+
+The way we always wintered bees in the old days was by placing them
+in a cellar which was used for vegetables and was ill-ventilated and
+damp. We well remember that in the spring the cellar windows were
+covered with arrested prisoners; we do not recollect that we lost many
+colonies, but if we did not, it was owing to the ways of inscrutable
+Providence rather than our own understanding of the needs of the bees.
+Probably most of the bees in the Northern climates are wintered in
+cellars; and because they are wintered in all sorts of cellars with
+varying degrees of dampness the mortality among them is likely to
+be great. A cellar fit for wintering bees should be cemented on the
+floor and sides, made mouse and rat tight, and should be well drained,
+well ventilated and so arranged that the temperature may be kept in
+the neighbourhood of 45° F. In such a cellar the hives lifted off
+the bottom boards should be placed four or five inches apart on two
+scantlings laid on the floor. In the next tier the middle of a hive
+should bridge the opening between the lower hives on which it rests.
+This arrangement gives plenty of ventilation to the hive from below,
+and it is very important that the air be introduced below rather than
+above. The cellar should be kept dark, and if the weather is warm
+and the bees seem uneasy it should be ventilated at night by opening
+the windows, which, by the way, should have wire screens to keep out
+intruders. Some leave the bottom boards out on the summer stands, each
+board bearing the same number as the hive which rests upon it, and
+thus in the spring it is easy to find the home of each colony; but if
+the bees are brought into the cellar without the bottom boards on the
+hive they are quite likely to fly out more or less. Usually, therefore,
+they are brought in on the bottom boards, and these are piled in
+some convenient place until needed in the spring. In this case it is
+advisable to have a map made of the apiary, and the hives and their
+places numbered on the map, and thus each hive may be returned to its
+old stand in the spring.
+
+If bees are wintered in the ordinary house-cellar it is far better to
+partition off the part used for the bees from that used for vegetables,
+and much pains should be taken to keep the air good and the cellar well
+ventilated.
+
+Special bee-cellars are in vogue in some large apiaries. The cellar is
+sometimes made beneath the bee-house, and sometimes it is a structure
+by itself. Of all such cellars, the Bingham seems to us the cheapest,
+and surely quite as practical as the others. It is built like a square
+cistern, twelve feet square at the bottom, sixteen feet at the top
+and six feet deep; it is cemented at the bottom and on the sides, and
+the ceiling is flush with the level of the ground. Over this is built
+a gable roof, the eaves extending down to a drain on either side so
+that all the water is carried off. The ventilation is secured through
+a pipe extending from the cellar ceiling to the top of the roof. The
+floor over the cellar is tight and covered with sawdust; access to
+the cellar stairs is gained through a trap door. Such a cellar as this
+should be built on a dry knoll. Mr. Bingham has wintered successfully
+ninety colonies in this house; and it will hold nearly twice as many.
+
+The bees may come out of the hives and die in great numbers when they
+are wintered in a cellar. If any such seem distended and swollen they
+have probably died of dysentery, and the matter should be looked into
+immediately. However, many of the bees that die in winter are likely
+to be the old ones which are not vigorous enough to stand the strain
+of the cold. The cellar floor should be swept several times during
+the winter and all the dead bees removed so they shall not pollute
+the atmosphere. The cellar should always be dark, but the bees can be
+easily examined with a lamp, or what is better, a bull’s-eye lantern.
+
+The carrying of hives into the cellar is an onerous task when the
+apiary is large. The entrance to the hive should be closed the night
+before so as to be sure the whole family is moved. The hives should be
+carried with as little perturbance to the occupants as may be; several
+methods of carrying the hives easily and quietly have been invented.
+Mr. Root uses a wire bent like a V with the wooden piece of a common
+pail bale at the angle. The prongs of the V are bent at right angles
+into hooks which hook under the bottom board; two men carry the hive,
+one on each side, each with a carrier just described. Mr. Miller has a
+simple rope carrier that slips under the cleated ends of the hive. Mr.
+Boardman has a delightful device, which is a carrier in the shape of a
+push-cart with two wheels. A board just large enough to set the hive
+upon with rope handles at either side serves admirably.
+
+
+WHEN TO PUT BEES IN THE CELLAR
+
+This should be done as soon as steady cold weather comes on. In this
+northern climate the colonies should be ready in October, for the
+appointed time for putting them in the cellar is likely to occur
+between the first and fifteenth of November. If put in too soon and the
+weather is warm they become uneasy; they should be put in during a dry
+day so that the hives will not be dampened by rain or fog.
+
+
+WHEN TO TAKE BEES OUT OF THE CELLAR
+
+This is decided somewhat by the bees themselves; if they awaken and
+push out and try to escape in great numbers, it is a sign that they had
+best be put out as soon as it can be safely done. Mr. Root makes the
+practice of putting his bees out of the cellar in the middle of a warm
+day in midwinter, so that they may have a cleansing flight, and then
+puts them back in the cellar that night; which shows that a merciful
+man is good to his bees. However, some other bee-keepers think that
+this taking them out in midwinter is fraught with danger.
+
+In a climate like that of New York it is hardly safe to take the hives
+from the cellar before the last of April or the first of May. The
+general rule is to wait until there is a prevalent temperature of
+70°, and the willow, the alder, and the soft maples are in blossom,
+so that the bees may gather pollen as soon as they are put out. The
+glowing banners of the red maple blossoms give signal to most of the
+bee-keepers in the northern climate that it is time that the bees were
+on the wing.
+
+
+SPRING DWINDLING
+
+The cause of this is attributed to various conditions by various
+bee-keepers. The evidence of it is shown by the listlessness of the
+swarm, and by the dying of the bees. Whatever the reason, all apiarists
+agree it is more common during cold, backward springs, and that it is
+less prevalent when the bees are put out in warm, sunny locations. The
+only remedies suggested are that the brood-chambers be contracted so
+that the bees can easily keep the comb warm, and that plenty of good
+syrup and rye flour and water be given to the bees if they are unable
+to get food from the flowers. Many apiarists have tried the joining of
+two colonies when this dwindling appears, hoping thus to get enough
+bees in a hive to keep it warm, but they all agree that this does not
+help the matter.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR WINTERING
+
+Keep the colonies strong. Be sure that a good-sized swarm has at least
+thirty pounds of sealed stores.
+
+Pollen should not be left in the comb for winter use.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                       _Photograph by M. V. Slingerland_
+
+PLATE XXII. WINTER QUARTERS IN CHAFF HIVES]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                            _Photograph by Verne Morton_
+
+PLATE XXIII. PLUM BLOSSOMS
+
+The fruit-bloom is a great aid to the bees while rearing their brood.]
+
+Be sure that the honey is of good quality, and not made from decayed
+fruit or honey-dew.
+
+Give the hive ventilation from below.
+
+If wintered out of doors, give the bees a chance to fly.
+
+If wintered in cellars, do not put too many bees in a cellar. If you
+have space for fifty colonies, do not try to winter more than thirty in
+it.
+
+In cellars take off the bottom boards and arrange the hives so that the
+bees will get plenty of ventilation from below.
+
+Have a thermometer in the cellar and keep watch of it. This should not
+show more than ten degrees of variation. If the temperature rises to
+55°, open the windows at night.
+
+Keep the cellar dark and the air sweet.
+
+Sweep the dead bees off the cellar floor several times during the
+winter.
+
+Contract the brood-chamber in the fall, and again, if necessary, when
+the hives are set out in the spring, until there is only comb enough so
+that the bees can cover it well.
+
+See that the bees have plenty of food and good water near by when set
+out in the spring.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS
+
+
+QUEEN-REARING
+
+In a small apiary there is little need for the special rearing of
+queens; the natural increase may safely be depended upon to supply
+all the colonies which lose their queens or which have unprofitable
+ones. It is always well for even the most casual bee-keeper to take
+the trouble to re-queen from his strongest and best colonies. However,
+the time when queen cells are naturally built may not be the most
+convenient or the most desirable time for giving certain colonies a
+new mother. This being the case, queens may be developed through the
+power of suggestion, as follows: Select a frame of brood from the best
+colony; with a toothpick tear down the partitions between three worker
+cells which contain eggs or larvæ less than two days old and destroy
+two of the eggs or larvæ; repeat the operation in several places. Place
+the frame back in the hive, being very sure that there is sufficient
+space between it and its neighbouring frame, so that good queen cells
+may be built. If there is a scarcity of honey, feed the bees. The
+cleverness of bees is clearly proven by the readiness with which they
+take a hint, and they almost invariably build queen cells upon the
+comb thus treated.
+
+This method we have found perfectly satisfactory, but for those who
+rear queens for sale, other very interesting practices have been
+invented. The greatest of these was devised by Mr. Doolittle, one of
+the foremost queen-breeders in America. He makes artificial queen cells
+by dipping a small, smoothly rounded stick in warm wax repeatedly,
+thus making a little cup, thin at the edge and thick at the bottom.
+Rows of these little cups are placed on a bar the thickness of a
+brood-frame and fastened there with hot wax. In each cup is introduced
+a bit of royal jelly and a very young larva. The bar is then inserted
+horizontally into a frame of brood-comb, part of the latter being cut
+away to give room for the future cells, which project down from the
+bar. In such a royal nursery, he develops his queens for the market.
+
+
+INTRODUCING QUEENS
+
+Though royalty in the hive is of quite another feather than in human
+society, yet there is quite as much ado when it comes to installations
+in one as in the other. While a bee-colony is absolutely devoted to its
+own queen, it may seriously object to a queen thrust upon it by some
+outside power. And thus it happens that the introduction of a new queen
+into a hive is fraught with danger to her majesty as well as to the
+pocket-book of the bee-keeper.
+
+
+BALLING THE QUEEN
+
+“Balling” in the hive is an indignity that may well have suggested to
+other societies the method of black-balling unwelcome seekers after
+honours. The bees ball an unwelcome queen by gathering around her
+in a compact mass, remaining there until the unfortunate usurper is
+smothered or starved, or both. As if to live up to their mathematical
+reputation, this ball is quite spherical because each bee is an
+animated atom of centripetal force scrambling and pushing toward the
+centre. This method of smothering royalty is regarded as an evidence
+of the worker’s reluctance to sting a fertile queen. But observations
+are recorded which state that the bees on the outside of the ball seem
+fiercely trying to sting, and that the individuals nearest the queen
+ofttimes share her fate because of this venomous attitude of their
+sisters. Whether this use of the sting by the outsiders is for the
+purpose of fighting their way toward the centre, or whether they are
+mad with a desire to kill the queen, is by no means a settled question.
+However, if they were bent upon stinging her to death, she would
+scarcely be alive after having been balled for some time; while it is
+a matter of common experience that by breaking up the ball and driving
+off the murderers, the queen may be saved. Sometimes the bees will ball
+a queen for a time, then voluntarily release her and accept her.
+
+There are two ways generally followed for dissolving this lump of
+excited regicides and saving the queen. One is to drop the ball in a
+shallow bowl of water. This baptism seems to cool the hot blood and
+the bees swim off, trying to preserve their own lives. The other is to
+smoke the ball until it dissolves into individual bees, so anxious to
+get breath for themselves that they forget to shut off the breath of
+the obnoxious queen. There is a danger attending the latter method, for
+unless the smoking be done carefully and without blowing hot air on
+the bees, they will become infuriated by the heat and surely sting the
+queen; as they evidently regard her, and rightly, as the cause of their
+suffering.
+
+
+WHEN TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN
+
+The colony should have been queenless long enough to realise the danger
+of the situation, but not long enough to have done much toward building
+queen cells and developing larval queens; in the latter case they
+prefer a queen of their own dynasty and object to any other. Thus, if
+a queen is to be superseded she should be removed and, about two days
+later, the new one should be introduced.
+
+It requires experience to know certainly that a colony has become
+queenless, for often, when there is no brood or eggs in the cells there
+is a virgin queen, which eludes the eye, as she does not appear very
+differently from the workers; a colony with virgin queens of its own
+cannot be induced to accept an introduced queen.
+
+Mr. Root tests a colony which he suspects is queenless in the following
+clever way: He takes a cage containing a laying queen and holds it
+over the frames so that it touches them and the bees may thus get the
+scent. If the bees have no queen they express their pleasure at this
+godsend in a very pretty manner by a joyful fluttering of the wings,
+which conveys the idea of happiness to even our dull senses. To such a
+colony, the queen may be given with no formalities.
+
+
+HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN
+
+The colony should be made good-natured by having plenty of food. If
+there is scarcity of honey, the bees should be fed for a day or so,
+great care being taken not to start other colonies to robbing by
+exposing the syrup. The queen is then introduced in a queen-cage,
+which should be placed between the brood-combs. This should be done
+as carefully as possible without disturbing the bees. At the end of
+forty-eight hours an examination should be made, and if the bees are
+balling the cage, she should be left twenty-four hours longer. When the
+bees gather around the cage in normal numbers she may be entrusted to
+them without fear.
+
+
+QUEEN-CAGES
+
+First of these are the shipping-cages, and it is a thrilling moment
+when one takes a package from the mail, labelled “Queen Bee, Deliver
+Quick.” And it is still more exciting when the cover slides around,
+revealing her gracious majesty with a few attendants, safe beneath the
+wire screen; for no bee-dealer would be so heartless or foolish as to
+send a queen on a journey without a few ladies-in-waiting to give her
+companionship and care.
+
+The cage in which a queen is shipped is always tagged or labelled with
+directions for introducing the queen, which, if followed implicitly,
+almost always insures success.
+
+The plan of a queen-cage is a cell made of wire screen with twelve to
+fifteen meshes to the square inch, large enough to allow the bees to
+thrust in their antennæ and thus get acquainted with their proposed
+sovereign, but not large enough to permit a sting to be effectively
+thrust through. The cell, itself, is large enough so that the prisoner
+will not suffocate if the cage is balled. At one end of the cage is an
+opening into which is pressed a cork of candy, over which is tacked a
+piece of pasteboard, through which is a central line of perforations.
+At first the bees are wild to get at the queen, and incidentally in
+their attack they get a taste of the candy through the holes in the
+pasteboard. This distracts their attention, and they work industriously
+at biting away the pasteboard to get at the candy. And by the time
+they have worked their way through the delectable door, their attitude
+towards the prisoner is naturally sweetened, and usually they accept
+her at once. The “Good candy” is used for this purpose, for the queen
+is also sustained on this confection during her incarceration, and
+unless a moist candy is used, she will suffer for lack of water.
+
+Home-made cages are usually employed in introducing queens from the
+home apiary. These are of various forms and devices, the Miller being
+a favourite. His materials are as follows: One block of wood 3 × 1¼ ×
+⅜ in.; two blocks of wood 1 × ⁷⁄₁₆ × ⅜ in.; two pieces of tin 1 in.
+square; two pieces of fine wire 9 in. long; one piece of wire-cloth 4½
+× 3½ in.; four wire nails ½ in. long. (Plate V.)
+
+The illustration shows how the material is used. The space between the
+two small blocks of wood, held in place by the pieces of tin forms a
+door for the candy. The large piece of wood serves as a plug at the
+other end of the cage, which may be removed, and the cage set down over
+the queen, thus capturing her without handling her. When a queen is
+placed in a cage she should always be allowed to climb up into it. It
+is not natural for her to climb down.
+
+
+THE NUCLEUS METHOD
+
+This method of introducing very valuable queens is said by experts to
+be absolutely safe. It is accomplished by making a nucleus of two or
+three frames of brood, which is sealed and some of it just breaking
+through the cell caps. Not an adult bee is permitted to remain, and
+there should be as few uncapped larvæ as possible, since such will
+starve. The queen is placed on these combs and the young bees, as
+they issue innocent of men’s scheming, accept her as their legitimate
+mother, and a colony is soon built up. A nucleus hive of this sort
+must be placed in a warm room, unless it is hot weather, as there
+are no bees to warm the brood. Care must also be taken to put a wire
+screen over the entrance of the hive for a day or two to prevent the
+queen from escaping if she becomes uneasy midst such a dreary waste of
+adolescence.
+
+
+MAXIMS FOR INTRODUCING QUEENS
+
+Be sure the colony is queenless before attempting to introduce a queen.
+
+Be sure the bees have not progressed far in rearing young queens.
+
+Be careful not to anger or disturb the bees by smoke or hot blast or
+otherwise when placing the queen in the hive.
+
+If honey is scarce, feed the colony before trying to introduce the
+queen.
+
+Place the cage containing the queen on the frames near the centre of
+the brood-chamber, wire cloth below her, so that the cage rests on the
+bars of the frames.
+
+Do not disturb the colony for forty-eight hours after introducing the
+queen-cage.
+
+Be careful not to allow the queen to escape by flight when liberating
+her.
+
+Remember, a queen crawls up instead of down.
+
+After queens are two or three years old they should be replaced by
+young queens.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ROBBING IN THE APIARY
+
+
+A CAUSE OF DEMORALISATION
+
+The moral law seems to be as potent among the bees as among men,
+and if the law be broken there is a moral penalty attached. Nothing
+demonstrates this more fully than robbing in the apiaries, for as
+soon as it begins utter demoralisation ensues. All legitimate work is
+stopped, and all the energies of the bees are devoted to ill-gotten
+gain and in fighting with each other, or attacking anything or anybody
+that comes near them. One of the signs of this demoralisation is that
+robbing makes the bees very cross. The experienced bee-keeper can
+detect robbing by the angry humming which pervades the apiary, which is
+a sound as different from the ordinary contented hum of the working bee
+as martial music is from a pastoral symphony.
+
+
+WHY BEES ROB
+
+Bees rob for the very human and natural reason that the stores gathered
+by the hard work of others are coveted and are more easily stolen
+than earned by labour. When dealing with bees we must always remember
+that the interest of the individual centres in its own colony, and
+that it has neither love nor devotion to any other colony, nor to
+bees in general; indeed, quite otherwise. Endowed with an instinct
+almost fiendish, bees seem to understand when another colony is weak
+or discouraged, and, therefore, offers a legitimate field for plunder.
+Strong colonies are seldom robbed, as they are able to drive out and
+kill the thieves; but the weak colony is a constant temptation to ill
+doing, and should be carefully watched and guarded.
+
+
+WHEN BEES ROB
+
+This occurs usually when there is little honey to be found in the
+field. Satan provides mischief for the idle six feet and four wings
+quite as efficiently as for hands. At the end of the honey-harvest
+there may be a general temptation throughout the apiary to break open
+vaults of precious stores belonging to others, and escape with the
+contents. At the close of the honey season strong colonies usually have
+plenty of sentinels to guard the entrance and look after suspicious
+strangers. Never at any time should honey-comb be left open around the
+apiary, for it always leads to robbing. It seems to suggest to the bees
+that honey gathered is a much more desirable product than that worked
+for in the fields.
+
+Sometimes when preserving or pickling is going on in the house the bees
+start to rob the kitchen; and while they may be deterred by screened
+windows, yet the smell of the sweets may so excite them to desires for
+forbidden wealth that they seem to become discontented with the grind
+of daily toil, and so begin robbing their neighbours.
+
+
+HOW THE ROBBING IS DONE
+
+The robber, unless she be hardened by success, alights on the threshold
+of the hive which contains coveted stores with an air that is decidedly
+apologetic, having the general appearance of a prospecting dog with his
+tail apprehensively between his legs. She shows her guilty conscience
+by dodging back if she meets one of the legitimate owners coming out of
+the hive; she is thus trying the skill and prowess of the sentinels,
+for if by assuming bravado she can pass the sentinels she is usually
+safe; then she has nothing to do but to fill with honey and to run the
+gauntlet of the sentinels again, for perchance some of them may stop
+her and ask her why she is going out of the hive _filled_ with honey, a
+proceeding altogether reprehensible in the bee world. If she succeeds
+in carrying back to her own hive the honey thus stolen, she creates
+great excitement there and soon she leads back a mob to pillage;
+and the air is full of bees bent on wickedness. Mr. Root describes
+graphically the successful robber thus: “A bee that has stolen a load
+is generally very plump and full, and as it comes out has a hurried and
+guilty look; besides it is almost always wiping its mouth like a man
+who has just come out of a beer shop. Most of all it finds it a little
+difficult to take wing as bees ordinarily do because of its weight.” As
+a consequence a robber bee borne down with its load of sweetness is
+likely to crawl up the hive a little way so as to have the advantage of
+a high place to “jump from” as it takes wing. The virtuous worker comes
+out of the hive slim and depleted of her load and flies off leisurely
+to the field, while the robber comes out stuffed full and furtively
+climbs up the side of the hive in order to be able to be off.
+
+We usually detect robbing in our apiary by the fighting which we
+observe about the entrance; when we see a pair of workers rolling over
+and over with each other in the grass near the hive we know that one
+of them is a robber, but as we do not know which one we are obliged
+to apply the test meted to the knights of old, and believe that the
+one who survives is in the right. However, we take measures at once to
+defend this hive. Also if we discover the bees to be particularly cross
+some day, we look about to see what has aroused their ire, and nine
+times out of ten find that robbing is the cause of their ill temper.
+
+
+HOW TO STOP ROBBING
+
+Contract the entrance to the hive being robbed. To do this we place
+blocks in front of it, leaving only enough space so that one or two
+bees can pass in at a time. The robbers having to enter in single file
+attract the attention of the suspicious sentinels and are either driven
+back or killed at once. It is unsafe to close the entrance entirely,
+unless it is done with a wire screen, for the bees within will smother
+unless the air is admitted through the entrance. It is always well
+to keep the entrance of the hive which contains a weak colony or a
+nucleus somewhat contracted as a measure of insurance. If contracting
+the entrance does not stop robbing, Mr. Root advises strewing long
+grass about the entrance which he wets thoroughly. The robbers are too
+wary to try to rob after they have wet their “feathers” in passing
+through this grass; for thus handicapped they could hardly escape from
+their enraged victims; while the robbers already within the hive after
+having thus to crawl out will hasten home to get their clothes dry. Mr.
+Doolittle uses a common sheet which he places over the hive that is
+being robbed, while Mr. Miller places over the victimised hive a bee
+tent of mosquito netting, which has a hole in the top which permits the
+robbers to escape.
+
+A bee tent is a most useful adjunct to the apiary; there are many times
+when it may be used, but it is especially useful in preventing robbing.
+It is simply a tent made of mosquito netting large enough to be set
+over the hive and the operator. When opening the hives at midday the
+tent is used to prevent the robbers from attacking the exposed stores.
+
+Mr. Root advises working at nightfall when bees are cross or given to
+robbing; but most bee-keepers declare that the bees will crawl all
+over one at night, and are no more to be gotten rid of than a porous
+plaster, at which Mr. Root promptly responds, “Do not stand near the
+lamp.”
+
+Enterprising men exchange places of the robbers and victims, which
+produces a confusion that restores quiet. The robbers come back to
+the weak colony laden with its own stores and join it and help fight
+off intruders; while a strong colony of robbers is quite capable of
+defending itself.
+
+Another clever trick practised in Europe is to place some disagreeable,
+strong-smelling substance on the bottom board of the hive that is being
+robbed; wormwood, musk, carbolised paper, are used for this. The odour
+disconcerts the robber unless she is lost to all sense of bee decency;
+and if she does steal honey from such a hive and returns home her doom
+is sealed; for although in the bee world the way of the transgressor is
+not always hard, the way of the citizen that smells differently from
+her sisters leads to her murder and sudden death.
+
+If a robber colony has almost completed its nefarious work, some people
+believe that it is best to let it make a clean job, and thus become
+satisfied there is no more plunder to be had, else the robbers will
+hunt other hives for depredation. The bee memory seems to be very
+good, and if the robbers have not cleaned up all the honey which they
+remember is there, they hunt for it elsewhere. We could never bring
+ourselves to a frame of mind to permit this calmly, though it seems
+like sensible advice. Robbing makes us so indignant that we refuse to
+allow the spoils to the victor.
+
+Bees are certainly very clever, and they are able to learn. The old and
+successful robber soon reasons it out that where the bee-keeper with a
+smoker belches forth annoying fumes, there are to be found open hives
+ready for robbing; such bees will follow the operator from hive to
+hive, taking their tithe from the helpless colonies. For such robbers
+as these a way to appease them is a device for letting them rob where
+they can do little damage. Unsalable comb partly filled is put in hives
+or supers piled up. These are ventilated by having a wire screen above,
+the cover lifted, and the entrance contracted so that only one bee can
+pass in and out at a time. This keeps the robbers busy and happy and
+out of the way, and the process is called “slow robbing.”
+
+Some apiarists remove the robbed colony to a cellar for a day or two
+until it can recover its communal courage.
+
+
+BORROWING
+
+When a colony is queenless, or for some reason has no brood, it often
+allows the robbers to come and go at will, as if it had found life
+worthless anyhow, and that there was no use in struggling. It seems
+possessed of the sort of pessimism which leads to stoic recklessness.
+This can usually be stopped by giving the plundered colony a queen and
+brood; as soon as the bees find they have something worth while to live
+for and fight for they are mightily heartened and offer a brave defence.
+
+
+WHAT BECOMES OF THE ROBBED COLONY
+
+Some of the bees are adaptable, and when they lose courage in defending
+their own stores they turn about and help carry these stores to the
+hive of the robbers, which they join, thus swearing allegiance to a
+new flag. Others, more loyal, will cling to the old empty comb, cluster
+there, hopeless and despairing until they die of starvation.
+
+
+MAXIMS TO PREVENT ROBBING
+
+Be sure that the bees are robbing, before applying remedies.
+
+Keep the colonies strong.
+
+Keep watch of the hives in early spring and late fall when there is no
+honey coming in.
+
+Leave no honey or loose comb open around the apiary under any
+circumstances.
+
+If bees are determined to rob when the hives are opened by the
+operator, it is best to work under a bee tent or after nightfall.
+
+Robbing demoralises the whole apiary. If the bees are cross, look out
+for robbers.
+
+Be very careful in uncapping not to let the bees get a taste of the
+chyle food, as that makes them very cross and wild to rob.
+
+Keep Italians.
+
+Do not let the colony become queenless, as a queenless colony is
+legitimate prey for many depredators.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES
+
+
+THE BEE-MOTH (_Galleria mellonella_)
+
+This miserable little pest is classic in its devastations as it is
+mentioned by the old writers, Aristotle paying to it bitter tribute.
+It belongs to a family of secretive moths which fold their dull wings
+closely about the body, and thus look more like bits of sticks than
+like insects. They are called the snout moths (_Pyralidæ_) because
+the palpi extend out in front of the head in a highly ornamental and
+striking manner.
+
+The bee-moth is a most insidious creature, hiding in cracks, and, when
+it flies, darting about with almost inconceivable swiftness. It is
+only by such means that it eludes the watchful bees. Professor Kellogg
+observes that the moth simply works against time when it rushes into a
+hive by laying its eggs rapidly, dodging about with the utmost rapidity
+to leave as many progeny as possible before the bees can get hold of
+her and tear her asunder, a fate which surely awaits her. So it seems
+that even a parasite may be brave and go to certain death in fulfilling
+its destiny. Mr. Cook says that the moth will lay eggs while her head
+and thorax are being dissected, which shows that even after death she
+is efficient for mischief in the hive.
+
+The eggs are small and white and are put into crevices. From such an
+egg there hatches a caterpillar which spins about itself a silken tube,
+wherein it lives and in some mysterious way is protected from the bees.
+It may be that these tubes are of such texture that the bees cannot
+sting through them; or they may simply be sufficiently thick to protect
+their inmate from bee observation. The caterpillar lives upon the wax
+and young bees, and also upon the bee-bread; it is a voracious eater,
+and tunnels through the comb, destroying everything in its path. Those
+who have had experience with it say that by holding an infested comb to
+the ear, the noise made by the industrious jaws of the caterpillar can
+be distinctly heard. Its presence can be detected by the filth and the
+débris on the bottom board of the hive and also by the silken tubes on
+the comb. When the caterpillars destroy the bee larvæ, the bees take
+out the remains and dump them in front of the hive, thus gaining among
+the ignorant, a reputation for infanticide which they little deserve.
+
+In favourable locations the growth of these moths from egg to adult may
+require six weeks; the caterpillar when about an inch in length changes
+to a pupa, in a very thick, protecting cocoon of tough silk. The silk
+made by these caterpillars is of a most excellent quality; there is in
+the Cornell University Museum a filmy but strong silken handkerchief
+made by bee-moths passing and repassing over a flat board; it was made
+quite involuntarily as the caterpillars spin wherever they go. The
+bee-moth is especially destructive to stored comb if it is piled close
+together.
+
+
+REMEDY
+
+To prevent the injuries of this pest the colonies should be kept
+strong. The bee-moth follows the rule of other parasites and attacks
+only the weak and the irresolute, and never injures a comb that is
+covered with bees. A queenless colony, dejected and discouraged,
+is usually victimised by it. The Italian bees have learned to cope
+with the bee-moth and exterminate it whenever attacked by it. Some
+bee-keepers, when a comb becomes infested, introduce it into the centre
+of an Italian colony, being sure that the little wretches will find
+there the fate they deserve. But to us this seems rather an imposition
+upon a self-respecting colony of bees.
+
+The use of plain, simple, well-made hives is a protection from the
+bee-moth, as such hives do not afford hiding-places for moths and eggs.
+
+Before comb is stored it should be put in a closed box out of doors,
+and a saucer of carbon bisulphide placed on top of the comb and left
+for a day. The deadly gas of this poison is heavier than the air and so
+falls instead of rising. Care should be taken not to breathe the fumes
+more than is necessary and hence the work should be done in the open
+air. Another reason for this is that the gas is inflammable, and hence
+no fire should be allowed near it. There is another reason why the
+work should be done in the open and that is because of the sickening
+stench of the gas. Comb thus treated should be stored in a perfectly
+tight receptacle, or else be set an inch or so apart on shelves. The
+bee-moth caterpillar does not seem to like to work in combs that are
+not set as closely together, as they are in the hives.
+
+If combs infested with the bee-moth are subjected to a temperature of
+10° F. the moth is usually exterminated. However, the pest normally
+passes the winter in the pupa state, and seems to be able to survive
+in hives left out of doors, wherever the bees can survive. It should
+be remembered that the bee-moth works only during the summer from May
+until October, and remains quiescent during the winter. As a matter
+of fact the modern up-to-date bee-keeper has almost no trouble with
+the bee-moth. It is a special enemy of the heedless and careless man
+who neglects his hives, and thus may well deserve to have his bees
+exterminated.
+
+If a colony is attacked by the bee-moth, the hive should be thoroughly
+cleaned; new good comb should be introduced and only enough so that the
+bees can cover it. The infested comb should be fumigated with carbon
+bisulphide, and after the moths are killed it may be given to a strong
+colony to clean out and use.
+
+
+THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH (_Plodia interpunctella_)
+
+The Indian-meal moth sometimes forsakes its bins of grain and meal and
+devastates the honey-comb. It does not measure more than one-eighth of
+an inch across its wings, and its caterpillar is almost too small to be
+noticed, unless it occurs in great numbers. It sometimes attacks the
+honey-comb in the North, and in the South it is often a great nuisance.
+The only remedy for this very small pest is to change the bees to
+smaller hives, and expose the infested comb to the fumes of carbon
+bisulphide.
+
+
+BEE-MOTH MAXIMS
+
+The shiftless bee-keeper is the one who complains of the wax-worm.
+
+Keep Italian bees.
+
+Keep the colonies strong.
+
+Do not leave more comb in the hive than the bees are able to cover.
+
+Use well-made hives with no crevices.
+
+If you see a web upon the comb, hunt out the caterpillar and kill it at
+once.
+
+If bee-moths get into the honey store-room, close the room and fumigate
+it with brimstone or carbon bisulphide.
+
+
+FOUL BROOD
+
+This is an infectious bacterial disease, and its presence in the
+apiary may be attended by serious results. When it first appeared in
+America, large apiaries were completely destroyed. In 1874, Professor
+Cohn discovered the organism which causes the disease, and which bears
+the name of _Bacillus alvei_. This microbe attacks the immature larvæ
+and they die in the cells. It always attacks, to a lesser extent, the
+adult bee; but these leave the hive to die and are not such a dangerous
+source of infection as are the decaying larvæ. Infected honey is the
+medium by which the disease is ordinarily spread from hive to hive.
+Undoubtedly robbing is to a great extent responsible for its prevalence.
+
+
+HOW TO DETECT FOUL BROOD
+
+The brood appears in irregular patches and it does not all hatch; the
+caps to the brood cells may be sunken and broken at the centre, the
+holes being irregular, instead of the neat circular perforations which
+may be found above the healthy larvæ. The sure test of the presence
+of the disease is found in the dead body of the larva, which is dark
+and discoloured; and if a toothpick or pin be thrust into it and then
+drawn back, the body contents will adhere to it in a stringy mass, to
+the extent of a half or even an entire inch, as if it were mucous or
+glue; later the bodies of the larvæ dry and appear as black scales in
+the cell bottoms. Another evidence of the presence of the disease is a
+peculiarly disagreeable odour which permeates the hive, which Mr. Root
+likens to that of a glue pot.
+
+_Remedies._—These have been worked out by many bee-keepers, notably by
+Mr. William McEvoy, inspector of bees in Ontario, Canada. His remedy
+is as follows: When there is a good honey flow so the bees will not
+suffer, all the comb is taken from the infected colony and frames with
+foundation-starters are given instead. Having no young to feed, the
+bees use all the infected honey in their stomachs for making comb. At
+the end of the fourth day all this comb is removed and new frames with
+foundation are substituted, and the deed is done.
+
+Mr. Root’s practice is to remove the hive from its stand about dark,
+to prevent robbing, and put another just like it in its place which
+contains frames filled with foundation. The bees are shaken from the
+infected hive into the new one. Here they are shut in without food for
+three or four days, thus being compelled to use all the honey in their
+honey sacs. Then they are fed and the disease does not appear again
+in colonies thus treated. Mr. Root burns all the infected comb and
+frames and disinfects the hives with hot water before they are used
+again; other apiarists of experience support Mr. Root in this matter.
+Fumigating the hives with burning brimstone would perhaps be an easier
+or a surer way of disinfecting the hives.
+
+Many apiarists who do a large business do not destroy the infected
+comb, but render it in a steam wax press. They also thin the infected
+honey and boil it for two hours, adding to it a little salicylic acid,
+and use it to feed back to the bees. But this would hardly pay, unless
+great care were taken, as one drop of the infected honey would start
+the disease anew.
+
+Some have tried medicated syrup as a remedy. It is true that syrup made
+with salicylic acid or beta-naphthol will retard the disease, but most
+bee-keepers believe that it is not a sure remedy.
+
+
+BLACK BROOD
+
+This appeared in New York so frequently that it was called the New
+York bee-disease. It was differentiated from foul brood by Dr. Wm. R.
+Howard, of Texas, who found the bacillus and described it. The chief
+way of telling it from foul brood is that the contents of the body of
+the dead larva is jelly-like, instead of gluey. However, Dr. Veranus
+Moore and Dr. G. Franklin White, of the New York Veterinary College
+at Cornell University, worked upon this disease for some time and,
+in 1903, reported that the bacillus of this disease is _alvei_ and
+identical with that discovered and described by Cohn as the cause of
+foul brood.
+
+
+PICKLED BROOD
+
+This disease of the brood differs from the others in that the
+body-contents of the dead larva are watery and that no peculiar stench
+in the hive emanates from them. Neither is it so contagious as foul
+brood, though it may seriously cripple an apiary, if not checked. The
+remedy for foul brood is applied with success to colonies suffering
+from this disease.
+
+
+DIARRHOEA
+
+This disease is part of the difficulty of wintering. It is induced by
+the bees’ habit of retaining waste matter in the body until they can
+fly out of the hive, for thus they preserve the cleanliness of their
+home. The first symptom of the disease is the soiling of the hive
+entrance with brownish excrement; the bees are also likely to die in
+great numbers, their bodies being much swollen.
+
+The cause of the disease is attributed to cold and dampness, and poor
+food. If, in the fall, the bees store honey made from the juices of
+rotting fruit or cider refuse, or from honey-dew excreted by plant
+lice, they are very likely to perish by feeding upon it during the
+winter. But even with good honey bees wintered in cold, damp hives are
+liable to contract the disease.
+
+
+PREVENTION
+
+Give the bees plenty of good food for winter. If the honey they have
+gathered in August is extracted, feed them syrup from the best of
+sugar. In winter keep the hives in proper temperature, with sufficient
+good air and ventilation. After the disease once appears, there is no
+remedy, except warm weather, which will promptly bring relief.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE
+
+
+A detailed discussion of the anatomy of the honey-bee does not fall
+within the scope of this book; for such a discussion, special works on
+insect anatomy must be consulted. But there are certain of the more
+general features of the structure of the bee which the bee-keeper
+should know; and a discussion of these, merits a place even in an
+elementary book on bee-keeping.
+
+In treating of insect anatomy it is customary to divide the subject
+into two parts: first, external anatomy, which treats of the structure
+of the body-wall; and, second, internal anatomy, which treats of the
+parts found inside the body-wall.
+
+
+I. EXTERNAL ANATOMY
+
+_The body-wall._—Insects differ fundamentally from man and other
+backboned animals. With us, the muscles and other soft parts are
+supported by an internal skeleton; with the insects the body-wall, that
+part which corresponds to our skin, is hard and serves as a skeleton.
+In some respects this is a better arrangement than that which obtains
+with us, for the skeleton of an insect serves as an armour to protect
+the body as well as a support for the soft parts.
+
+This arrangement of parts holds with the appendages of the body of
+an insect as well as with the body itself; the legs, mouth-parts and
+antennæ are all tubular organs, having a firm outer skeleton supporting
+the inner parts.
+
+Movement of the body and its appendages is provided for by narrow,
+flexible, zone-like areas in the skeleton which encircle the body and
+the appendages, at frequent intervals. This segmented condition of
+the body is easily seen in the hind part or abdomen, which appears to
+consist of a series of rings.
+
+The microscopic structure of the body-wall is comparatively simple.
+There is an inner cellular part which consists of a single layer of
+cells: this is the hypodermis (Plate XXV, 2, _h_); and the outer or
+hard part: this is the cuticle (Plate XXV, 2, _c_).
+
+The hypodermis is the active living part; it produces the cuticle,
+which receives additions from it constantly during the life of the
+insect. On this account, when a section of the cuticle is examined with
+a microscope it presents a layered appearance.
+
+_Moulting of the cuticle._—From time to time during the growth of the
+insect the outer layers of the cuticle are shed; this is known as
+moulting. After a moult, the inner layers of the cuticle, which have
+now become the outer layers, but which are still soft, stretch to
+accommodate the increased size of the body, and then soon become hard.
+This moulting, or shedding of the skin, takes place about six times
+during the development of the bee. Several moults occur during the
+larval life: one when the larva changes to a pupa, and the last one
+when the pupa changes to the adult or winged form, just before leaving
+the cell in which it has been developed.
+
+_The head._—The segments of which the body of an insect is composed are
+grouped into three regions: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
+
+The head is the first of the three regions. It is formed of several
+segments grown together so as to form a compact box. It bears the eyes,
+the antennæ, and the mouth-parts.
+
+The eyes are of two kinds, which are distinguished as the compound eyes
+and the simple eyes.
+
+The compound eyes are two in number, one on each side of the head;
+they are the organs commonly recognised as the eyes. They are called
+compound eyes because each consists of a great number of little
+eyes closely pressed together. If a compound eye be examined with a
+microscope, it will be seen to present the appearance of a honey-comb,
+being composed of a great number of six-sided elements; each of these
+is a separate eye.
+
+In addition to the compound eyes, the bee has three simple eyes, or
+_ocelli_, as they are termed. They are situated on the upper part of
+the head between the compound eyes.
+
+The antennæ are two slender, many-jointed organs projecting from the
+front part of the head. Their use has not been fully elucidated.
+They are doubtless sense organs; and it is believed that certain
+microscopic pits, which occur in great numbers in their cuticle, are
+the organs of smell. It is possible, also, that the antennæ function as
+organs of touch, certain hairs with which they are furnished being the
+tactile organs.
+
+The mouth-parts are very complicated. They consist of an upper lip, a
+lower lip, and two pairs of jaws between the lips.
+
+The upper lip is known as the _labrum_. It is a flap-like projection
+situated above, or in front of, the other mouth-parts (Plate XXV, _u_).
+
+The first pair of jaws, those situated nearest the labrum, are the
+mandibles (Plate XXV, 3, _md_). Each mandible consists of a single hard
+piece. They are the biting organs. Certain wild bees, distantly related
+to the honey-bee, dig holes in wood with their mandibles for nests
+for their brood. The honey-bee uses its mandibles as tools for the
+manipulation of wax and propolis, and as weapons in its combats.
+
+The second pair of jaws, which are situated between the mandibles and
+the lower lip, are the maxillæ (Plate XXV, 3, _mx_). Each maxilla is a
+long blade. The maxillæ, combined with the lower lip, constitute what,
+in popular language, is known as the tongue, the organ by means of
+which the food is conveyed to the mouth, or the nectar extracted from a
+flower.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                         _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_
+
+PLATE XXIV. SUMAC IN BLOSSOM AND BLOSSOM OF MOUNTAIN MAPLE
+
+The Sumac is an excellent honey-producer.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE XXV. FIG. 1.—Vertical longitudinal section of the body of
+  a larva of an insect; _s_, body-wall or skeleton; _m_, muscles;
+  _a_, alimentary canal; _h_, heart; _n_, nervous system; _r_,
+  reproductive organs. FIG. 2.—Section of the body-wall; _c_,
+  cuticle; _h_, hypodermis; _t_, trichogen or hair-forming cell.
+  FIG. 3.—Head of a bee and its appendages; _a_, antenna; _c_,
+  clypens; _u_, upper lip or labrum; _m_, mandible; _mx_, maxilla;
+  _l_, lower lip or labium; _p_, labial palpus. FIG. 4.—Glands
+  of a honey-bee (after Girard); _1_, supracerebral glands; _2_,
+  postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic glands. FIG. 5.—The wax plates
+  (after Cheshire).]
+
+The lower lip, or labium (Plate XXV, 3, _l_), is the long central part
+of the so-called tongue; it bears on each side a long appendage;
+these are the labial _palpi_ (Plate XXV, 3, _p_).
+
+_The thorax._—The thorax is the central region of the body. It consists
+of three body-segments, which are grown together so compactly in the
+adult insect that it is difficult to distinguish them. The thorax bears
+the organs of locomotion, the wings and the legs.
+
+There are two pairs of wings; but the two wings of each side are so
+closely united that they appear as one. The union is accomplished by
+a row of hooks on the front edge of the hind wing, which fasten into
+a fold in the hind edge of the fore wing. The wings are strengthened
+by a framework of heavy lines, which extend in various but definite
+directions. Between these lines the wing is a thin membrane.
+
+There are three pairs of legs, a pair borne by each of the three
+body-segments of which the thorax is composed.
+
+Each leg consists of nine segments and a pair of claws at the tip
+of the last segment. The first two segments, the _coxa_ and the
+_trochanter_, are short; then follow the two principal segments, the
+_femur_, or thigh, and the _tibia_, or shank; the five remaining
+segments constitute the _tarsus_ or foot. A striking peculiarity in
+the _tarsi_ of bees is that the first segment differs greatly in form
+from the other segments and is much larger, approaching the _tibia_ in
+size. This enlarged tarsal segment has received the special name of
+_metatarsus_.
+
+The legs serve several functions besides that of locomotion. Thus, on
+each fore leg there is an organ for cleaning the antennæ. The antenna
+cleaner consists of a circular notch near the base of the _metatarsus_,
+which is furnished with teeth like a comb (Plate VII, F, _a_), and a
+spur projecting back from the _tibia_ in such a way as to close this
+notch when the leg is bent. The antenna to be cleaned is drawn through
+this notch and thus the dirt is combed from it.
+
+On the middle legs there is a strong spur at the distal end of the
+_tibia_ which is used in loosing the pellets of pollen brought to the
+hive on the hind legs.
+
+The third pair of legs are furnished with three organs which deserve
+mention here. _First_: the wax pincers. Both the _tibia_ and the
+_metatarsus_ are wide; the joint uniting them is at one edge, hence by
+alternately bending and straightening the leg at this joint, the space
+between the two segments (Plate VII, B, _wp_) is opened and shut like
+pincers. This organ is used to loosen from the abdomen the scales of
+wax. _Second_: the pollen-combs. These are several comb-like series of
+spines, borne on the inner surface of the _metatarsus_ (Plate VII, B,
+_pc_). When a bee visits a flower the pollen is gathered by the tongue
+and fore legs and some of it becomes entangled among the hairs on the
+thorax. It is then combed from these parts by means of the pollen-combs
+and transferred to the pollen baskets. _Third_: the pollen basket.
+There is a pollen basket on the outer surface of the _tibia_ of each
+hind leg. It consists of a fringe of hairs, surrounding a smooth,
+concave area which occupies the greater part of the outer face of this
+segment of the leg. In it the pollen is packed when combed from the
+hairs, and transported to the hive.
+
+_The abdomen._—The abdomen is the last of the three regions of the
+body. It consists of a series of comparatively simple, overlapping
+segments, without conspicuous appendages.
+
+
+II. INTERNAL ANATOMY
+
+_Relative position of the internal organs._—As has been shown in the
+preceding pages, the body-wall serves as a skeleton, being hard and
+giving support to the other organs of the body, which are contained
+within it.
+
+The accompanying diagram (Plate XXV, 1), which represents a vertical
+longitudinal section of the body of the larva of an insect, will
+enable the reader to gain an idea of the relative positions of some
+of the more important organs. The parts shown in the diagram are the
+following: The body-wall or skeleton (_s_); this is made up of a series
+of overlapping segments; that part of it which is between the segments
+is thinner, and is not hardened, this remaining flexible and allowing
+for the movements of the body. Just within the body-wall, and attached
+to it, are represented a few of the muscles (_m_); it will be seen
+that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction of those on
+the lower side of the body would bend it down, while the contraction
+of those on the opposite side would act in the opposite direction. The
+alimentary canal (_a_) occupies the centre of the body and extends
+from one end to the other. The heart (_h_) is a tube open at both ends,
+and lying between the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back.
+
+The central part of the nervous system (_n_) is a series of small
+masses of nervous matter, connected by two longitudinal chords; one of
+these masses, the brain, lies above the alimentary canal; the others
+are situated, one in each segment, between the alimentary canal and
+the ventral wall of the body; the two chords connecting these masses,
+or ganglia, pass one on each side of the œsophagus to the brain. The
+reproductive organs (_r_) lie in the cavity of the abdomen and open
+near the hind end of the body. The respiratory organs are omitted from
+this diagram for the sake of simplicity.
+
+_The respiratory system._—The most striking peculiarity in the
+structure of insects is the form of their organs for breathing, for
+they do not breathe through the mouth as we do. If an insect be
+carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body, a
+series of openings; these are the openings through which the air passes
+into the respiratory system, and are termed spiracles. The spiracles of
+the honey-bee are small, and are not easily found by one not trained
+to look for such things; but if the reader will examine the sides of
+one of our larger caterpillars, he will have no trouble in seeing them.
+Typically, there is a pair of spiracles, one on each side of the body,
+in each of the body-segments, but they are lacking in the head and in
+some of the other segments. The spiracles lead into a system of air
+tubes, termed tracheæ, which carry the air to all parts of the body.
+When the body of an insect is opened, the tracheæ appear as silvery
+threads, on account of the contained air. In the adult honey-bee
+certain of the tracheæ are greatly expanded so as to form large air
+sacs. (Plate XXVI _b_, 2).
+
+_The glands._—Those glands found in the body of the honey-bee that are
+of most interest to the practical bee-keeper are the following:
+
+In the larva there is a pair of long, tubular glands, which secrete the
+silk of which the cocoon is made. These glands open through a common
+duct, which has its outlet near the mouth.
+
+In the adult worker bee there are four pairs of glands opening into
+the mouth, which have been much discussed by students of this subject.
+These glands are designated both by number and by name as follows:
+System I. or supracerebral glands; system II. or postcerebral glands;
+system III. or thoracic glands; and system IV. or mandibulary glands.
+
+The supracerebral glands or system I. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 1) are
+situated in the head above the brain. They open by two openings in the
+floor of the mouth cavity, one on each side.
+
+The postcerebral glands or system II. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 2) are
+situated in the head behind the brain; their outlets unite into a
+common duct which opens on the middle line of the anterior end of the
+œsophagus at the base of the tongue.
+
+The thoracic glands or system III. (Plate XXV, Fig. 4, 3) are situated
+in the thorax; their outlets unite into a common duct, which joins the
+ducts from the postcerebral glands, the two systems of glands opening
+through a common opening.
+
+The mandibulary glands or system IV. are two small glands one on each
+side opening at the base of the mandible.
+
+There has been much discussion regarding the function of these
+different glands; and even now any statement of conclusions must be
+regarded as provisional.
+
+The supracerebral glands are large in nurse bees and shrunken in the
+old bees that no longer nurse the brood; they are normally found only
+in the workers. It is therefore believed that they secrete the milky
+food, commonly called royal jelly, which is fed to all larvæ during
+the first days of their development, to the queen larvæ throughout
+their development, and to the adult queen during the egg-laying period.
+The food fed worker and drone larvæ during the latter part of their
+development is produced in the chyle-stomach of the nurse bees, and is
+semi-digested food.
+
+The other systems of glands enumerated above produce the saliva, which
+is supposed to perform a great variety of functions. “It helps the
+digestion; it changes the chemical condition of the nectar harvested
+from the flowers; it helps to knead the scales of wax of which the
+combs are built, and perhaps the propolis with which the hives are
+varnished. It is used also to dilute the honey when too thick, to
+moisten the pollen grains, to wash the hairs when daubed with honey,
+etc.”
+
+The wax glands are found only in the worker. There are four pairs of
+them. They are situated on the ventral wall of the second, third,
+fourth and fifth abdominal segments, and on that part of the segment
+which is overlapped by the preceding segment. Each gland is simply a
+disc-like area of the hypodermis, the cells of which take nourishment
+from the blood and transform it into wax. The cuticle covering each
+gland is smooth and delicate, and is known as a wax plate. The wax
+exudes through these plates and accumulates, forming little scales.
+(Plate VI, X, also Plate XXV, Fig. 5.)
+
+_The alimentary canal._—The form of the alimentary canal of the adult
+honey-bee is shown in Plate XXVI. The following parts can easily be
+recognised: the œsophagus, a slender tube, beginning at the mouth and
+extending through the head and thorax to the base of the abdomen.
+Here there is a sac-like enlargement of the canal, which is termed
+the honey-stomach; it is in this that the nectar accumulates as it
+is collected by the bee, and is carried to the hive. Behind the
+honey-stomach lies the true stomach, the chief digestive organ. Closely
+applied to the true stomach are several small tubes, which open into
+it; which are known as the Malpighian tubes; they were named after
+one of the early anatomists who described them; they are the urinary
+organs. Next to the true stomach is the small intestine; and behind
+this, the large intestine.
+
+_The reproductive organs._—The internal reproductive organs are
+situated in the abdomen; there is a set on each side, but the two sets
+open by a common duct, whose outlet is at the hind end of the body.
+
+The reproductive organs of the female are shown on Plate XXVI (_a_),
+Fig. 1. There are two ovaries (_o_), one on each side of the body.
+Each ovary consists of a large number of parallel egg-tubes, within
+which the eggs are developed. The egg-tubes of each ovary open into an
+oviduct (_od_). The two oviducts unite and form a single tube on the
+middle line of the body; this is the _vagina_; the _vagina_ leads to
+the external opening of the system. Communicating with the _vagina_,
+there is a sac-like pouch, the _spermatheca_, which is the reservoir
+for the seminal fluid; this is filled at the time of pairing, and the
+_spermatozoa_ may remain alive in it for several years.
+
+Each egg-tube produces many eggs. As the eggs increase in size, they
+pass towards the oviduct. When the egg is fully developed a shell is
+formed about it. This shell has a minute opening through it at one end;
+this is the micropyle. At the time the egg is laid a _spermatozoon_ may
+pass from the _spermatheca_, where thousands of them are stored, into
+the egg through the micropyle, and thus the egg is fertilised.
+
+With most animals, the egg must be fertilised in order that it may
+develop. But with bees, both fertilised and unfertilised eggs develop,
+the former into females, that is, workers or queens, the latter into
+males, that is, drones.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE XXVI. (_a._) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee.
+  (From Leuckart, slightly modified.) FIG. 1.—Reproductive organs
+  of a queen; _o_, _o_, ovaries; _od_, oviduct; _s_, spermatheca;
+  _g_, gland; _p_, poison sac connected with the sting. FIG.
+  2.—Reproductive organs of a drone; _t_, _t_, testes; _v_, vas
+  deferens; _s_, _s_, seminal sacs; _m_, _m_, mucous glands; _ed_,
+  ejaculatory duct; _b_, pouch or bulb. The bulb and the following
+  parts are everted through the outer opening at the time of
+  pairing.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  PLATE XXVI. (_b._) FIG. 1.—The internal anatomy of the
+  honey-bee (after Cheshire). _o_, œsophagus; _hs_, honey sac;
+  _p_, stomach-mouth; _cs_, true stomach or chyle-stomach; _m_,
+  malpighian tubes; _si_, small intestine; _li_, large intestine;
+  _h_, heart or dorsal vessel; _n_, central nervous system; _1_,
+  supracerebral glands; _2_, postcerebral glands; _3_, thoracic
+  glands. The respiratory system and the reproductive organs
+  are not shown in this figure (after Cheshire). FIG. 2.—The
+  respiratory system of the honey-bee. _s_, _s_, _s_, spiracles;
+  _a_, enlarged trachea or air sac (adapted from Leuckart).]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                            _Courtesy of Ginn & Company_
+
+PLATE XXVII. AN OLD-FASHIONED APIARY]
+
+Closely associated with the reproductive organs of the female is the
+sting; this is a barbed dart connected with a poison gland, whose use
+is well known.
+
+In the abdomen of the male there is a pair of organs, the testes, in
+which the _spermatozoa_ are developed. These correspond in position
+to the ovaries of the female, but are much smaller. From each testis
+there extends a tube corresponding to the oviduct, this is the _vas
+deferens_. The two _vasa deferentia_ unite and form the single
+ejaculator duct. Each _vas deferens_ is enlarged just before it joins
+the ejaculatory duct, forming a reservoir for the accumulation of
+_spermatozoa_; these reservoirs are termed the seminal sacs. Appended
+to each seminal sac there is a large glandular sac, which adds mucus to
+the seminal fluid. Near the outer end of the ejaculatory duct there is
+a pouchlike enlargement into which the _spermatozoa_ pass. Here they
+are massed into a compact body, known as the spermatophore, which is
+transferred to the female at the time of pairing. The terminal part
+of the reproductive organs of the male, the intermittent organ, has
+several appendages, which are firmly grasped in the opening of the
+reproductive organs of the female and are torn from the male when the
+two pairing individuals separate. This causes the death of the male.
+The male has no sting. (Plate XXVI, Fig. 2.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+INTERRELATION OF BEES AND PLANTS
+
+
+HONEY-FLOWERS
+
+The facts revealed by science are not always beautiful, however
+interesting they may be. But the discovery of the interrelation of
+flowers and insects, that partnership which has existed so long that
+it has modified both partners, seems to belong to the realm of art or
+poetry rather than to that of science. Since plants must needs spend
+their lives where they are developed from seeds, they may not roam
+abroad like animals to seek their mates. But this is a difficulty which
+they readily overcome, through sending their messages by the uneasy,
+flying insects; and of all these messengers, the bee is surely the
+flowers’ favourite. Its fuzzy body, admirably adapted to be a pollen
+brush, its swift wings and its sedulous attention to business, all tend
+to make it the most important of the flower-partners. Thus, especially
+for the bee, have thousands of flower species developed nectar, in
+pockets placed cunningly to entice her to take upon herself a pollen
+load. And for countless ages the flowers have painted their petals
+various hues and shed on the atmosphere their perfume, to advertise to
+the bee-world that they had pollen and nectar to spare.
+
+This partnership has naturally modified the insects less than the
+flowers, as the latter were obliged to develop innumerable devices for
+winning attention from their messengers; naturally also the insects
+have been more largely modified in their mouth-parts and appliances
+for carrying pollen, than in other directions. Their habits have also
+been modified in a measure, and the bee has in some mysterious way been
+persuaded to work on one kind of blossom at a time. The poetic reproach
+that the bee is a heartless rover, rifling the lily of sweets only to
+desert her for the rose, is as unjust as it is untrue. Repeatedly have
+we watched a bee at work in a bed of pinks. Though clover and other
+blossoms were near by, she passed methodically from pink to pink, and
+naught tempted her to fickleness. That the bees use pollen for bread,
+is a part of the bargain; for the flowers grow it in plenty for both
+themselves and their partners.
+
+Each species of “honey-plant” has developed its own special device for
+securing the services of bees to carry its pollen; and no study is more
+interesting than the unravelling of these flower secrets. Even the
+novice may do this by asking the flower these three questions: “Where
+is your nectar?” “Where is your pollen?” “What is the path the bees
+must follow to get to the nectar?” For ready and accurate answers to
+such questions, the flowers are not to be surpassed; and if there is
+any doubtful point, the bees are ready to help elucidate it. There are
+so many flowers that have become the special partners of the bees that
+it is not within the scope of this book to make an adequate list. Some
+of the more important are the flowers of trees, and some of farm crops;
+some bloom in gardens and some are mere weeds.
+
+
+TREES
+
+Fruit trees, when in blossom, give much pollen and honey at a time when
+these are greatly needed by the bees for rearing brood.
+
+Peach, pear, apricot, plum and especially apple trees, when in bloom
+are encompassed about with the happy chorus of busy and grateful
+bees; and no other creatures can so successfully vocalise blissful
+contentment as they. Many careful experiments have proved beyond
+doubt that the help of bees is necessary for securing the pollination
+requisite to produce good crops of fruit. The wise and successful
+fruit-grower recognises this fact and, mindful of his true interests,
+does not spray his fruit trees with poisons while they are in
+blossom, lest he thereby kill his friends, the bees. Moreover, to use
+arsenical sprays, at such a time, is injurious to the petals and the
+fruit-producing organs of the flowers; and it is also too early to
+spray successfully against the codlin moth. In many states, legislation
+forbids the spraying of poisons during fruit-tree bloom, because it is
+a useless and wanton destruction of the bees.
+
+Some time since great injustice was done the bees through the
+accusation that they punctured the ripe fruit for the sake of the
+juices. This was the special complaint of grape-growers. Investigations
+have proved that bees never puncture the rind of ripe fruit, although
+they sometimes are tempted to sip the oozing juices, after the rind is
+broken through some other agency.
+
+Even before the fruit-bloom the willows offer a feast to break the fast
+of the hungry swarms. Half the winter the pussy-willow stands waiting
+in her furs to be ready with her grist of pollen, so that the bees may
+make bread during the first warm days of spring. The willows burned
+their bridges behind them eons ago and depend almost entirely upon the
+bees for fertilisation, since they are diœcious. Some apiarists have
+claimed that their bees get no nectar from certain species of willow;
+but this could hardly be so if trees of both sexes were present in a
+locality; for the staminate flowers offer pollen and the pistillate
+flowers give nectar to induce the bees to fetch and carry for them.
+
+The maples are not much behind the willows in offering the bees food
+after their winter fast. The bloom of the red maple is regarded by most
+bee-keepers as permission from Spring to bring out the bee-hives from
+the cellar and tenements. All our common species of maple are very much
+visited by the bees.
+
+The locusts often yield large crops of honey, although they vary with
+the seasons in this respect. Honey-locust, when in bloom, is covered
+with bees.
+
+The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful of our ornamental trees
+and it gives a great amount of dark, rich honey. In New York it
+blossoms in May and June and, like the locusts, is a great help to the
+bees after the fruit-bloom is over. This is a common tree in the woods
+of the South and is not rare in Northern forests. It should be planted
+even more generally than it is at present, for the sake of the bees.
+
+The basswood, of all honey-producing trees, is the most important
+and most beloved by the bees. It blooms in July and only for a brief
+season; therefore, it is important that the colonies be strong and
+able to make the most of these few precious days of harvest. Basswood
+honey has a strong flavour when first gathered. But after it is ripened
+and sealed it has a delightful flavour. The way our forests have been
+stripped of basswood during the past twenty-five years is nothing
+less than heartrending to the bee-keeper; for to him this tree ranks
+next to the white clover in importance. Mr. Root had a single colony
+take forty-three pounds of honey in three days from basswood, and Mr.
+Doolittle had a colony take sixty pounds in the same period. The tree
+is beautiful, and might well be used for shade along roadsides and also
+in ornamental planting. It grows rapidly; young trees, transplanted
+from the woodland, blossom in five or six years thereafter. No
+bee-keeper should allow the basswood to be cut on his premises; and he
+should grow as many young trees as possible.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII
+
+Thorn-apple blossoms.
+
+                                        _Photographs by Ralph W. Curtis_
+
+Wild crab-apple blossoms.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXIX. BUCKWHEAT IN BLOSSOM]
+
+Other honey-producing trees of note are the sourwood (_Oxydendrum
+arboreum_) of the South, the guajilla of Texas, the cabbage palmetto of
+Florida, and the eucalyptus of California.
+
+The flowers of sumac often yield much nectar and are sedulously worked
+by the bees. This picturesque shrub is not properly appreciated
+because it is so common. Its foliage is beautiful in the summer and is
+brilliant in the fall. Its blossoms, as well as its fruit, conduce to
+make it an interesting and ornamental shrub for planting.
+
+
+HONEY PLANTS WHICH YIELD OTHER VALUABLE CROPS
+
+To raise plants solely for the sake of the honey they produce has not
+proved a financial success so far in America. Mr. Root estimates that
+it would require 500 acres covered with plants blooming in succession
+to keep 100 colonies of bees busy; and, at present, most land here is
+worth too much to be put to such use. It is doubtful if artificial
+pasturage will ever prove a paying investment in agricultural sections.
+
+However, many apiarists devote some land to honey-gardens, and such
+a garden may be a beautiful and interesting place, for many of the
+honey-plants are ornamental. Also, many apiarists have introduced
+certain honey-weeds on waste land in the vicinity of their apiaries
+with excellent results.
+
+Fortunately, many plants very valuable to the agriculturist and
+horticulturist are the best honey-producers; and if a farmer has only
+twenty colonies of bees, it will pay him to reap one crop from his
+land and let his bees reap another.
+
+Of all such plants the clovers are the most important. Not only do they
+make the best of forage and hay, but they also help to fertilise and
+aërate the soil, and should be a factor in every crop rotation. Clovers
+and other _legumes_ have upon their roots nodules filled with bacteria,
+which are underground partners of the plant. These bacteria fix the
+free nitrogen of the air and leave it in the soil available for plant
+food. Red clover is not so great a source of honey as are the other
+clovers, since its corolla tubes are so long that usually it is only
+worked by bumblebees. But the long-tongued Italians are able to get
+considerable honey from red clover at times.
+
+Crimson clover grew as a weed for a long time in America before it
+became an important factor in horticulture. It is an annual and its
+home is in southern Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils
+and is of great value as a cover crop for orchards. It is a good
+honey-plant.
+
+Alsike is a perennial and grows in low meadows, from Nova Scotia to
+Idaho. Its blossoms look like that of the white clover, except that
+they are larger and are tinged with pink. This is a valuable clover for
+pasturage, and also for hay, and it stands next to the white clover as
+a honey-plant.
+
+The white clover is the very best plant for producing honey in the
+United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and the flavour of its
+honey is famous the world over. While in hard soil, the white clover
+lasts only two or three years, it is perennial on rich, moist lands.
+It is a cosmopolitan plant and may be found in almost all regions of
+the temperate zones. It is an ideal plant for pastures and should be
+established everywhere on land not under the plow. It shows well its
+partnership with the bee by turning down its flowerets as soon as they
+are fertilised, and leaving those in need of pollen still erect. We
+have seen a head of white clover with a single floweret, erect and
+white, calling to the bees, while all of its sister flowerets were
+deflected and brown.
+
+Among the medics we find the veteran of all clovers, the alfalfa, which
+has been under cultivation for twenty centuries, and came to America
+with the Spanish invasion. It was established in California in 1854,
+and has worked its way eastward. But it is only recently that it has
+been practicable to grow it in the East. This has been made possible
+by the discovery that it will grow on soil inoculated with its root
+bacteria. Alfalfa is a true perennial and may be cut for hay three
+times a season, and is of highest value as fodder or forage. It is a
+superb honey-plant, furnishing great quantities of light-coloured and
+excellent honey. It will support more bees to the acre than any other
+plant known. For artificial pasturage it is the most promising of all
+honey-plants.
+
+Buckwheat is, in many localities, doubly profitable as a grain and as
+a honey-plant; especially is it so in middle and western New York,
+where the hills in autumn are made brilliant with great fields of the
+wine-red stubble. Buckwheat is usually sown late in the season, often
+on ground where oats have already been grown earlier in the year. It
+blossoms in August and even in September, and furnishes a wealth of
+nectar when there is little to be found elsewhere. The honey made from
+buckwheat is dark, reddish brown and brings a lower price in most
+markets than do the lighter-coloured varieties. Though it is strong
+in flavour, it is preferred by many, and on our table it alternates
+with basswood and clover. It has always seemed poetic justice that
+the plant which produces buckwheat cakes should produce the honey
+to eat with them. The following are the good points of buckwheat as
+a crop: It is profitable, the grain always brings a good price; it
+grows well on poor soil; it is one of the best agencies for ridding
+a field of weeds. There is a certain gameness about buckwheat which
+we have always admired and which was thus characterised by a farmer
+of our acquaintance: “Buckwheat is a gritty plant; if it can get its
+head above ground it will blossom. I have seen it, during dry seasons,
+blossom when its stalks were so short that the _bees had to get down on
+their hands and knees to gather the honey_.” While this may be putting
+the case rather strongly, yet it expresses well the habits of the plant.
+
+Black mustard, rape and turnips all furnish nectar for excellent honey.
+The seed of mustard and rape brings a good price, and the root of the
+turnip is always valuable.
+
+The blossoms of the red raspberry yield a delicious honey, and the
+grower of small fruits may well add bees to his farm as a source of
+profit.
+
+
+GARDEN FLOWERS
+
+Most of the blooms in flower gardens, as well as vegetable gardens,
+are worked by the bees. Mignonette is a valuable honey-plant, as it
+blossoms for a long time. Marjoram, thyme and sage give rich, spicy
+honey. The sunflower is also a good honey-plant.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS
+
+We shall never forget our profound amazement when we saw, for the
+first time, in a narrow valley of the Mojave Desert a great city
+of white bee-hives. Nothing in that desolate landscape could we
+discern that bore the slightest resemblance to a honey-plant. The
+gray sage-brush which grew everywhere looked to us about as promising
+for honey-production as so much slag from a furnace; and yet this
+sage-brush of the desert gives the bees the best of pasturage. The
+bloom begins down in the valley and climbs the mountain side slowly,
+thus giving bloom for a long period.
+
+There are two species of sage that yield honey, the white and the
+black, or button sage. They are allied to the mints, which are
+generally good honey-plants. We learned to care much for the spicy
+sage-honey. A professor of Greek, who was for some time in the American
+school at Athens, tells us that the sage-honey is very similar in
+flavour to the famous honey of Hymettus, which is made from thyme.
+
+The horse-mint is a very important honey-plant of the lower Mississippi
+Valley and of Texas. Its corolla tubes are so long that only the
+Italians and other long-tongued bees can get its honey. Catnip,
+motherwort and gill-over-the-ground and gall-berry all furnish an
+abundance of nectar.
+
+The blue thistle emigrated to Virginia in colonial times, and now
+covers with a heavenly blue thousands of acres of the desolate,
+uncultivated, red Virginia soil. It is a great boon to the bees of the
+region, as its blossoms creep slowly up its stalks, thus affording
+nectar for many weeks. It is related to borage, which is another good
+honey-plant.
+
+Spider flower (_Cleome pungens_), the Rocky Mountain bee-plant (_Cleome
+integrifolia_), and figwort (_Scrofularia venalis_) have all been
+planted by bee-keepers in their honey-gardens, because they give such a
+great amount of honey per plant.
+
+During September and early October the bees work busily on the various
+species of goldenrod and asters, and gather from them a considerable
+amount of honey, which is rich in colour and taste. The two common
+species of _Impatiens_ also give the bees good fall pasturage.
+
+Fireweed (_Epilobium angustifolium_) comes wherever forests have been
+cleared and burned off. It blooms late and yields a fine quality of
+honey. The unlovely Spanish needle (_Coreopsis_) also gives much honey.
+The milkweed yields good honey, yet it overdoes the matter by loading
+the feet of the bee with its pollen sacs, until the poor messenger dies
+of exhaustion under the burden of its message, or dies a prisoner in
+the blossom.
+
+The cheerful and ubiquitous dandelion has this much in its favour, that
+it is beloved by the bees and often gives them honey and pollen at a
+time in the spring when they need it for brood-rearing.
+
+Of all the weeds which will pay the apiarist to establish in waste
+places, the most profitable are the mellilots, or sweet clovers, of
+which there are two species, the white and the yellow. These are most
+beneficent weeds, for they carry nitrogen to the soil like other
+clovers, and they are easily exterminated by cultivation, so they are
+not to be feared.
+
+Sweet clover in blossom fills the atmosphere of the country road with
+perfume, for it is almost everywhere a roadside weed; and, as might be
+expected, it is most attractive to the bees. While the honey made from
+it is rather strong in flavour, yet it is of good colour, and sells
+well. When it is mixed with the honey from other flowers, it adds much
+to the excellence of the flavour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+BEE-KEEPERS AND BEE-KEEPING
+
+
+Most business occupations lead to rivalry and all the selfish
+emotions incident to competition; not so is bee-keeping; quite the
+opposite, indeed, as there is a freemasonry that holds bee-keepers
+together and renders their attitude toward each other friendly and
+helpful. Bee-keeping is everywhere a bond of brotherhood and a sign
+of congenial tastes. One night at a dinner-party the gentleman on
+my right was a stranger, known to me only by reputation as a lawyer
+of high standing and great erudition. He was reserved and silent,
+and evidently bored by the trivialities of table-talk. Some one
+incidentally spoke of our bees, when the face of my neighbour became
+illumined with interest, and he said, “I am sure that by becoming a
+lawyer I spoiled a good bee-keeper. I have never found anything else
+so interesting as bee-keeping;” and thus was swept away the curtain of
+cold conventionalism which had hung between us, and we began, from that
+moment, to be friends.
+
+Nowhere is this brotherly interest more noticeable than in the
+bee-books and the bee-journals. The former bear evidence, on every
+page, of kindness and courtesy to all; while the latter are like
+friendly correspondence published, wherein John Smith of Maine
+explains his views on the bee business to Timothy Jones of Oregon, and
+incidentally sends his kindest regards to the family.
+
+I never take into my hands that delightful book, “A B C of Bee
+Culture,” without turning to the biographies of noted bee-keepers, and
+looking again at the faces there depicted, noting the noble forehead of
+Huber; the keen, scholarly face of Dzierzon; the judicial countenance
+of Friend Quinby and the beautiful expression of the venerable
+Langstroth. And thus on, page by page, and getting, by the way, a
+friendly greeting from the kindly eyes of Professor Cook, that most
+excellent of good teachers; and finally deriving sincere satisfaction
+from a long look at the keen, humorous face of Mr. A. I. Root himself.
+These leaders in apiculture are men with whom one is proud to be
+associated. And the fact that there are, in the United States, 300,000
+persons engaged in bee-keeping, makes one hopeful that our republican
+institutions are to be guarded by intelligent citizenship.
+
+It is interesting to note that knowledge of bees has been given to
+the world by men who have attained the high peaks of scientific fame.
+Such knowledge began with Aristotle and Pliny in ancient times, and
+received no additions during the uncertain Dark Ages. It began anew
+with Swammerdam, in the seventeenth century, was augmented by Linnæus,
+De Geer, Réaumur, Bonnet, Lyonnet, Fabricius, Latreille, Lamarck, and
+finally reached a climax in the study of the habits of the bee by the
+blind Huber, who was born in Geneva in 1750. His observations made
+with his own brain, but with the eyes of his wife, niece and servant,
+form a classic in bee literature. In 1811 there were born, a continent
+apart, two great bee-keepers: Langstroth in Philadelphia, and Dzierzon
+in Silesia. Both were clergymen, but were also true scientists, and
+both invented means by which the combs could be moved and examined.
+Langstroth carried his invention farther, and in 1852 devised the
+movable frame which revolutionised bee-keeping.
+
+Up to this time the business of the bee-man was largely guess-work. He
+did not know anything about the condition of his bees in the hive, for
+he had no way of penetrating that dark chamber. The ways of reaping
+the honey-harvest were devious; at best the combs were torn from the
+hives with little regard for the rights and lives of the bees. Finally,
+there was devised the truly infernal plan of killing the bees with the
+fumes of burning brimstone, before taking their treasure; this method
+undoubtedly originating in the turgid theology of the times.
+
+However, about the time of Langstroth, someone, or perhaps many, had
+discovered that bees stored their honey in the upper part of the hive;
+and the old box-hive had a few auger-holes in the top, over which
+was inverted a box, which the bees usually filled, and thus saved
+themselves from the brimstone pit. We remember well the delight in our
+family when we used, for the first time, such boxes with glass sides;
+and as we saw they were being filled with combs, we rejoiced that we
+need not “take up” any more swarms, as the suffocation by sulphur fumes
+was termed.
+
+When, to the invention of the box super, was added the greater
+invention of Langstroth, and finally thereunto was added the invention
+of the honey-extractor, bee-keeping became a science, instead of a
+haphazard avocation.
+
+Bee-keeping in America has since then passed through many phases and
+survived many experiments. Our bee-keepers have been wide awake and
+willing to try all things and hold fast to the good. Once, having read
+of the floating apiaries of the Nile, which follow the flower bloom
+along the banks, an enthusiast tried the same scheme on the Mississippi
+River, starting at the southern part early in the season and coming
+north abreast of the spring; but too many bees were left behind to make
+this profitable. Another enterprising gentleman took his bees south
+winters, but the cost of transportation took away the profits. Now,
+however, another plan for gaining pasturage is proving most successful;
+_i. e._, the establishment of out-apiaries. As seventy-five or a
+hundred colonies will usually take all the nectar of a given locality,
+the bee-keeper places his surplus colonies in other apiaries far enough
+distant, so there is good pasturage for all. Mr. A. L. Coggshall has
+about 3,000 colonies in out-apiaries in central New York.
+
+The up-to-date bee-keeper is not merely an operator in his apiary,
+but a co-operator with his bees, and we firmly believe that the bees
+are being educated by the partnership, as well as the bee-keeper.
+Bees certainly do learn by experience, as is well instanced by some
+Cyprians, which, in their native home, build columns of wax and
+propolis at the hive-entrance to keep out the large death’s-head moth
+which preys upon them. After living in this country for two years,
+the bees discovered that there were none of these moths about, and so
+ceased building these bars. The readiness with which our bees use the
+comb-foundation and fit their combs to the frames and follow the hint
+given by the starters in the sections, all point to their adaptability;
+and however others may regard the matter, we never take off a section
+filled with just one pound of pearly comb and amber honey that we do
+not pay tribute to the bee intelligence which placed it there, and
+regard the little artisans as true partners in our enterprise. And we
+never doubt that in the future this co-operation and co-education of
+bees and bee-keepers will result in a perfection of honey-production as
+yet undreamed.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                         _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_
+
+PLATE XXX. BOX-ELDER
+
+Staminate and pistillate flowers. This and the other maples and the
+willows give the bees pasturage in early Spring.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                         _Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis_
+
+PLATE XXXI. BLOSSOMS OF BLACK LOCUST
+
+The locusts often yield large crops of honey.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+BEE-HUNTING
+
+
+The mere mention of these words always brings to us memories of high
+hills, wound about by picturesque roads, bordered by rail fences,
+from the corners of which the goldenrod still flung its banners to
+the breeze, though September and, mayhap, frosts had come. Beyond the
+fences were knolly pastures, cropped close except where the mullein,
+the thistle and the immortelle vaunted their immunity from the attacks
+of grazing herds; and still beyond were upland meadows, green with
+second-crop clover; and crowning all were forests beginning to glow
+with autumnal hues. Forth into such roads, pastures, meadows and
+woodlands were we wont to fare of a sunny morning, to hunt bees with
+our father, whose woodcraft was not the empty accomplishment of the man
+of this generation, but was attained on those same hills of western
+New York when he was a pioneer boy, and the deer and the wolves roamed
+those forests, and the beavers built their dams in the valley.
+
+Our equipment for hunting was a bottle of diluted honey; a box with
+a sliding glass cover, containing pieces of empty comb; and a sharp
+stake, four feet high, topped with a cross-piece on which to set the
+box. When we were far enough afield, some unwary bee was lifted from
+its goldenrod revel and imprisoned in the box, where one of the empty
+combs had been filled from the bottle for her special delectation.
+Like a worthy bee, she began to fill at once; meanwhile, the stake was
+pushed into the ground and the box placed upon it, the cover removed,
+and we all retired for a little distance to watch. When the bee
+finally lifted herself and our honey into the air, we gave her closest
+attention. To make sure of the exact position of her bonanza, she
+always arose in a spiral, each circle being larger than the one before,
+and finally turned the spiral in a certain direction. When she suddenly
+darted away with almost the speed of a bullet, it was always the eyes
+of our father, blue as the sky against which the bee was outlined, that
+detected her direction; for young eyes, however keen, counted little
+against trained eyes in this competition.
+
+Then there always followed a time of anxious waiting for the return
+of the bee. Meanwhile we stretched out on the dry sod in the sun and
+listened to the chirping of the crickets, or the sweet notes of the
+meadow larks and idly watched a hawk circle on even pinions above our
+heads; or we told stories of other days of successful bee-hunting.
+If the bee returned within fifteen minutes, all was well and we were
+confident that the tree was distant not much more than a mile. But if
+we had to wait a half hour we usually caught other bees and started
+over again, hoping to find some nearer colony. If our first visitor
+came back soon, and especially if she was followed by her anxious
+sisters, we were satisfied. With several bees flying in the same
+direction, it was always easy to get the “line,” which we marked by
+some peculiar tree or other noticeable object in the landscape. When
+several of our visitors were eagerly filling themselves with honey,
+the cover was shoved over them and they were carried for a distance
+along the line and then liberated, and the line from this new location
+ascertained. Thus were they followed, up hill and down dale, and even
+through woodlands; finally, we would come to a place in a forest where
+we could follow the line no farther, and then we took our first lesson
+in geometry by getting a cross-line. This was done by carrying some of
+the bees in the box for some rods to the right or left; and when they
+were established there we knew that at the apex of the angle made by
+the two intersecting lines stood the bee-tree.
+
+The triumph which filled us when we finally discovered that stream
+of black particles entering some knothole or the broken top of a
+tree, made us breathless; and all the way home we tried to temper our
+excitement so as to make the announcement of our discovery with a
+nonchalance characteristic of invariably successful hunters.
+
+However, we were by no means always successful. Sometimes it would be
+too late in the day before we established a line; and again a line
+would lead us in a disgusting fashion to some unsuspected apiary; and
+now and then in a woodland tangle we crossed and crisscrossed lines,
+nearly breaking our necks gazing into tree-tops, all to no avail. Then,
+too, even our victory might be tempered by conditions. If the bee-tree
+were small, we judged it contained little honey; if the tree were
+valuable, we doubted if the owner would allow it to be cut. As a matter
+of fact, we seldom cut a bee-tree; and when we did, we wrested from it
+a combination of rotten wood, bee-bread, crushed brood and bees that
+made a potpourri which would prove disastrous to the enfeebled stomachs
+of this generation. But, though we rarely cut a bee-tree, bee-hunting
+lost none of its fascination. For what could be more delightful than
+long days spent in the autumn sunshine, enlivened by an occupation
+vitally interesting that needs must be lazily carried on! So we never
+gave it up until the October frosts had killed all the flowers, and the
+fumes of the honey-comb that we burned failed to entice an enterprising
+bee from her winter quarters to our box.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+BEE BOOKS
+
+
+The bibliography of bee literature is extensive. Scientists of all
+nations have contributed the results of their investigations on bee
+anatomy and bee physiology, and have made bee literature, as a whole,
+most profound and technical reading. However, there are among these
+books many that were written for popular audiences, and that deal with
+the practical side of bee-keeping; of such we add a few titles of those
+best known and of special excellence.
+
+  BENTON, FRANK. “The Honey-Bee.” Mr. Benton, who is our national
+  expert of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, always
+  writes practically, and has carried on experiments with races of
+  bees, which the private bee-keeper could hardly afford to make.
+  The enterprising bee-keeper should keep in close touch with Mr.
+  Benton’s bulletins.
+
+  CHESHIRE, FRANK R. Two volumes. This is one of the finest works
+  that has ever been published upon the honey-bee and bee-keeping.
+  It is delightfully written and has many fine illustrations.
+
+  COOK, PROFESSOR ALBERT J. “The Bee-keeper’s Guide or Manual of
+  the Apiary.” This is the most extensive of all the bee-keeping
+  manuals written for American bee-keepers. It deals with all
+  phases of the subject minutely, and new editions are published
+  frequently enough to keep the book up-to-date. Professor Cook has
+  a wide reputation as a most excellent teacher, and bee-keeping is
+  one of the subjects which he taught for years in the Agricultural
+  College of Michigan.
+
+  COWEN, T. W. “The Honey-bee, Its Natural History, Anatomy and
+  Physiology.”
+
+  COWEN, T. W. “Bee-Keeper’s Guide Books.” The first of these
+  little volumes is a clear and excellent account of the anatomy of
+  the bee. The second is a concise and helpful book on the methods
+  of bee-keeping as practiced in England.
+
+  HUBER, FRANZ. “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,”
+  published in 1792. English translation in 1841. This classic in
+  bee literature is one of the most delightful of all the bee books
+  that have been written. It shows the careful methods of this
+  blind scientist who has given us more of the understanding of the
+  bee and its life than any other investigator or writer.
+
+  HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Advanced Bee Culture.”
+
+  HUTCHINSON, W. Z. “Comb Honey.” Mr. Hutchinson is one of our most
+  successful bee-keepers, and he writes clearly and understandingly
+  of his methods.
+
+  LANGSTROTH, L. L. “The Hive and Honey-Bee.” This classic in
+  American apiculture has been revised and kept up-to-date by the
+  scholarly Dadants, father and son, who are well known on two
+  continents as successful bee-keepers. This book written by the
+  father of American apiculture is comprehensive, and is good
+  literature as well as good bee-keeping.
+
+  LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN. “Ants, Bees and Wasps.” Although this is
+  a book of scientific experiments, it should be read by every
+  bee-keeper. No other book tells so well the patience and
+  ingenuity necessary to discover what the bee knows and why it
+  does certain things.
+
+  MAETERLINCK, MAURICE. “The Life of the Bee.” This exquisite piece
+  of literature and social philosophy has attracted much attention,
+  and has introduced the world at large to the wonderful life of
+  the honey-bee in such a poetic and dramatic manner, that most
+  people have regarded it as a work of fiction. Maeterlinck is
+  said to be a practical apiarist, and his book is based upon the
+  facts of bee life as he understood them at the time the book was
+  written. Though some of his facts be questioned, yet probably his
+  statements are no more doubtful than would be those of almost any
+  bee-keeper should he try to write what he thinks he knows about
+  bees. Maeterlinck is the Homer of the bees and, therefore, he has
+  a right to poetic license.
+
+  MILLER, DR. C. C. “Forty Years Among the Bees.” This is a simply
+  told history of the experiences of a successful bee-man. It is a
+  most honest and often a humorous record of bee-keepers’ successes
+  and failures.
+
+  MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Bee People.”
+
+  MORLEY, MARGARET. “The Honey-Makers.” The first of these books
+  is written charmingly and simply for children and covers in an
+  interesting manner the life of the bee. “The Honey-Makers” gives
+  a most extended account of the relation of bees to men, giving
+  extensive quotations from Hindu, Egyptian, Greek and Italian
+  literatures and also a most interesting chapter on the curious
+  superstitions and customs regarding the honey-bee.
+
+  QUINBY, MOSES. “Mysteries of Bee-Keeping,” revised by L. C.
+  Root and now called, “Quinby’s New Bee Book.” This is a simple,
+  straightforward account of a practical man’s dealings with bees.
+
+  ROOT, A. I. “A B C of Bee Culture.” The author may be pardoned
+  if she speaks with special enthusiasm of this book, as Mr. Root
+  was the special teacher that helped the Comstock apiary achieve
+  success. The interesting and truly human way that Mr. Root refers
+  to bees is not only inspiring, but is also most practically
+  helpful. The “A B C of Bee Culture” is arranged conveniently,
+  encyclopedia fashion, so that the discussion of any subject in
+  it may be readily found. Every page of it is interesting, and is
+  based upon the actual experience of a man who is at once a keen
+  observer, a sympathetic friend to the bees, and a most successful
+  apiarist.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  ABC of Bee Culture, 207.
+
+  Abdomen, 187.
+
+  Æsophagus, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  After-swarms led by virgin queen, 81.
+    prevention of 81.
+    reason of and remedy for, 79, 81.
+
+  Alder, 154.
+
+  Alfalfa, 201.
+
+  Alighting board, 15.
+
+  Alimentary canal, 187, 191, Plates XXV., XXVI.
+
+  Alley’s queen and drone trap, 12.
+
+  Alsike, 200.
+
+  Anatomy, external, 181, Plate XXV.
+    internal, 187, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Antenna cleaner, 186, Plate VII.
+
+  Antennæ, 183, Plate VII.
+
+  Ants, 27.
+
+  Apiaries, floating, 209.
+    out, 209.
+
+  Apiary, high fence for, in city, 23.
+    in village garden, 22.
+    location and arrangement of 20.
+    mowing the, 23.
+    old-fashioned, Plate XXVII.
+    old orchard good place for, 20.
+    on city house tops, 22.
+    sheep in, 23.
+    windbreak for, 22.
+
+  Apparatus for extracting, Plate XVIII.
+
+  Apple, 196.
+
+  Apple blossoms, Plate XVII.
+
+  Apricot, 196.
+
+  Aristotle, 172, 207.
+
+  Artificial pasturage, 199.
+
+
+  _Bacillus alvei_, 176.
+
+  Balling of queen, 32, 158.
+
+  Basswood, 198.
+    blossoms, frontispiece.
+
+  Bee, anatomy of, 181.
+    books, 206.
+    brush, Plate III.
+    Brush, Dixie, 19.
+    brush, use of, 101.
+    cellars, for wintering, the Bingham, 151.
+    gloves, 11, 17.
+    glue, its source, 60, 61.
+    glue made from varnish and cement, 61.
+    glue, various uses of, 62.
+    house-keepers, 34.
+    how she gathers pollen, 59.
+    how she collects propolis, 62.
+    ingratitude, 44.
+    journals, 206.
+    moth, 172.
+    moth, development of, 173.
+    moth, how to detect, 173.
+    moth, maxims, 176.
+    moth, remedy for, 174.
+    tent, 102, 168.
+    tree, 214.
+    veil, 11, 16.
+    worker, 59.
+    worker, brains of, 40.
+    worker—life and habits of, 42, 43.
+    worker, sex of, 39.
+
+  Bee-bread, 59.
+    as food, 60.
+    in cells, 98.
+
+  Bee-escape, Plate III.
+    Porter, 18.
+    Porter, use of, 101.
+
+  Bee-gum, 83.
+
+  Bee-hunting, 211.
+
+  Bee-keepers, 206.
+    books written by, 9.
+    number of, 207.
+
+  Bee-keepers’ supplies, catalogue of, 10.
+
+  Bee-keeping, 206.
+    a beginner’s order, 11.
+    as a regular business, 10.
+    attractive materials of, 85.
+    how to begin, 8.
+    too successful, 73.
+    worst way to begin, 10.
+
+  Bees, as a recreation, 5.
+    as socialists, 6.
+    a study in natural science, 6.
+    belong to the garden, 7.
+    control population, 34.
+    diseases of, 176.
+    enemies and diseases of, 172.
+    feeding of, 136.
+    German or black, 12, 47.
+    how they collect propolis, 60, 61.
+    how they secrete wax, 52.
+    how to handle them, 91.
+    how to keep from keeping too many, 73.
+    how to manage when swarming, 66.
+    how to reconcile swarm to new hive, 70.
+    how to unite colonies, 82.
+    how to winter, 145.
+    how to work with, 92.
+    hybrids, 48.
+    Italian, 12, 13.
+    Italian and black bees compared, 48.
+    Italian, Mr. Root’s test for, 48.
+    keep for sake of honey, 4.
+    keep for sake of money, 4.
+    legends and literature of, 3.
+    races of, 12.
+    races of domestic, 47.
+    reasons why one should keep, 3.
+    relations to plants, 194.
+    robbing, 164.
+    secreting wax, Plate X.
+    sense of smell, 92.
+    swarming of, 64.
+    telling the, 61.
+    watering, 143.
+    when they swarm, 65.
+    why they swarm, 64.
+    wild, 47.
+
+  Beeswax, adulterated, 126, 134.
+    clarified by vinegar, 128.
+    how to make it, 126.
+    its value, 126.
+    maxims for making, 135.
+    press, 132.
+    primitive method of rendering, 127.
+    refining of, 134.
+    rendered in wash-boiler, 129.
+
+  Beeswax-extractors, 130.
+
+  Black brood, 179.
+
+  Blue thistle, 204.
+
+  Boardman wax extractor, 130, 131.
+
+  Body wall, 181, Plate XXV.
+
+  Bonnet, 207.
+
+  Borage, 204.
+
+  Bottom board, 83.
+
+  Box elder in blossom, Plate XXX.
+
+  Box hives, 83, 208.
+
+  Brain, 188, Plate XXV.
+
+  Brimstoning bees, 208.
+
+  Brood, black, 179.
+    foul, 176.
+    foundation, 17.
+    how to examine, 97.
+    pickled, 179.
+
+  Brood chamber, 83.
+    how to examine, 95.
+    size of, 14.
+
+  Brood frame, Langstroth, how much honey it will hold, 146.
+    examining of, Plate XIII.
+    how to lift out, 96.
+
+  Brushing or shaking-out method to control swarming, 77.
+
+  Buckwheat, 201.
+
+  Buckwheat in blossom, Plate XXIX.
+
+
+  Cabbage palmetto, 199.
+
+  Cages, queen, 160, 161.
+
+  Candy for feeding bees, how to make, 141.
+    Good, 141, 161.
+
+  Cans for shipping extracted honey in bulk, 123.
+
+  Carniolan bees, 47.
+
+  Carton for comb-honey, 106, 113.
+
+  Catnip, 204.
+
+  Cell of queen, 29.
+
+  Cellars for wintering bees, 150.
+
+  Cerasin, wax adulterant, 134.
+
+  Chaff hives, 11, 14.
+
+  Chaff hives for wintering, 148, Plate XXII.
+
+  Chyle food, 36.
+    how regurgitated, 58.
+
+  City apiary, 22.
+
+  Cleome, 204.
+
+  Clipping wings of queen, 75.
+
+  Clover, 200.
+
+  Coggshall, 209.
+
+  Colonies, how to unite, 82.
+
+  Colony, queenless, 29.
+    queenless, Mr. Root’s method of testing, 159, 160.
+
+  Comb building, Plate IX.
+    built by many workers, 56.
+    drone, 37.
+    cell caps, construction of, 56.
+    foundation for brood-chamber, 85.
+    how to tell honey from brood in capped cells, 97.
+    made without pollen, 50.
+    making, described by A. I. Root, 53.
+    making, Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s observation of, 53.
+    mathematics of, 54.
+    placing in extractor, Plate XIX.
+    shape of, not fortuitous, 54.
+    strength of, 56.
+    uncapping of, Plate XIX.
+
+  Comb-honey and large hives, 77.
+    bee-moth in, 174, 175.
+    candied, 115.
+    compared with extracted honey, 106, 124.
+    conditions for production of, 107.
+    grading of, 112.
+    how to keep, 116.
+    how to make, 106.
+    in 8-frame hive, 14.
+    marketing of, 114.
+    maxims for producers of, 116.
+    shipping of, 113.
+    storing of, 115.
+
+  Combs for extracting, Plate XVIII.
+
+  Cook, Prof. A. J., method of uniting colonies, 82, 207.
+    observation on bee-moth, 172.
+
+  _Coreopsis_, 204.
+
+  Corneil smoker, 11, 16.
+    how to use, 93.
+
+  Coxa, 185.
+
+  Crabapple blossoms, Plate XXVIII.
+
+  Crimson clover, 200.
+
+  Cuticle, 182, Plate XXV.
+
+  Cyprians, 47, 210.
+
+
+  Daisy foundation fastener, 11, 17.
+
+  Dandelion, 205.
+
+  De Geer, 207.
+
+  Details concerning honey, 106.
+
+  Development of worker, 40.
+
+  Diarrhœa, prevention of, 180.
+
+  Diseases of bees, 176.
+
+  Division board, what it is, 13.
+
+  Division board feeder, Plate XII.
+
+  Dixie bee-brush, 12.
+
+  Doolittle division board feeder, 12.
+    wax-extractor, 130, 131.
+
+  Drone, the, 34, Plate V.
+    appearance of, 35.
+    cell of, 37, Plate VIII.
+    cells, how capped, 97.
+    cells, size of, 56.
+    comb, 37.
+    death of, 35.
+    eggs in worker cells, 37.
+    flight of, 36.
+    food of, 36.
+    from unfertilised egg, 36.
+    head of, Plate VI.
+    leg of, Plate VII.
+    life-history of, 36.
+    killing of, 38, 39.
+    maturity of, 37.
+    physical characteristics of, 35, 36.
+    reproductive organs of, Plate XXVI.
+    trap, 19, Plate XVI.
+    wedding flight of, 38.
+
+  Drones, great number of, 38.
+    males, 27.
+
+  Dzierzon, 207, 208.
+
+
+  Egg, 192.
+    queen, 29.
+    tubes, 192, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Eggs, unfertilised, 33.
+
+  Egyptian bees, 47.
+
+  Enemies of bees, 172.
+
+  Entrance to hive, how to contract, 167.
+
+  _Epilobium angustifolium_, 204.
+
+  Eucalyptus, 199.
+
+  Extracted honey and large hives, 77.
+    candied, 122, Plate XXI.
+    care of, 121.
+    compared with comb-honey, 106, 124.
+    drawing from extractor, Plate XX.
+    hive for, 14.
+    how to bottle or can, 122.
+    how to produce it, 117.
+    in glass jars, Plate XXI.
+    maxims for the producers of, 124.
+    packages for, 123.
+
+  Extracting room and apparatus, Plate XVIII.
+
+  Extractor, honey, invention of, 117.
+
+  Extractor, Solar wax, 130.
+
+  Extractor, wax, 130.
+
+  Eyes, compound, 183, Plate VI.
+    simple, 183, Plate VI.
+
+
+  Fabricius, 207.
+
+  Feeder, Boardman, 138.
+    Division board, 138.
+    Doolittle, 19.
+    pepper-box, 139.
+
+  Feeders, Smith, Hedden, Miller, 139.
+
+  Feeding back, 143.
+    bees, 136.
+    candy, 140.
+    chunk honey, 140.
+    for honey, 142.
+    for winter, 137.
+    how to do it, 138.
+    how to feed inside the hive, 138.
+    how to feed outside the hive, 138.
+    in fall, 136.
+    in spring, 136.
+    maxims for, 144.
+    rye flour, 142.
+    syrup in combs, 140.
+    what to feed, 137.
+
+  Females of social insects, 27.
+
+  Fence, Plate III.
+    between sections, 88.
+
+  Figwort, 204.
+
+  Fireweed, 204.
+
+  Flowers of the garden, 203.
+
+  Food of worker, 40.
+
+  Foul brood, 176, 179.
+    how to detect, 177.
+    remedy for, 177.
+
+  Foundation, brood, 17.
+    super, 11.
+
+  Foundation-comb, 126, Plate XII.
+    for brood-chamber, 85.
+    for sections, how to cut, 89.
+    how to place in frame, 85, 86.
+    size of, 86.
+
+  Foundation-fastener, Daisy, 17.
+    Parker, 18.
+    super, 17.
+    for extracted honey, 119.
+    foundation for, 84.
+
+  Frames, Hoffman brood, 86.
+    Hoffman self-spacing, 84.
+    Langstroth movable, 84.
+    self-spacing, Plate XII.
+    spacing of, 84.
+
+  Fruit, not punctured by bees, 196.
+
+  Fruit trees, 196, 197.
+
+
+  Gall-berry, 204.
+
+  _Galleria mellonella_, 172.
+
+  Garden flowers, 203.
+
+  German bees compared with Italians, 48.
+
+  German steam wax press, 133.
+
+  Gill-over-the-ground, 204.
+
+  Glands, 189.
+
+  Glands of honey-bee, Plate XXV.
+
+  Goldenrod, 204.
+
+  Grapes, not punctured by bees, 197.
+
+  Guajilla, 199.
+
+
+  Hatch-Gemmill wax press, 133.
+
+  Head, 183, Plate XXV.
+
+  Heart, 188, Plate XXV.
+
+  Hetherington super springs, 90.
+
+  Hive, arrangement in apiary, 24.
+    cover, 15, 83.
+    the description of, 14.
+    entrance, how to contract, 167.
+    essential parts of, 83.
+    history of, 83.
+    how to get the cover off, 95.
+    how to handle it, 83.
+    how to lift out the brood-frames, 96.
+    how to open, 92.
+    industries of, 50.
+    inhabitants of, 27.
+    Langstroth, 8-frame, 10-frame, 14.
+    maxims for opening, 104.
+    one and one-half story, Plate XV.
+    the reasons why it must be opened, 94.
+    telescope cover, 91.
+    tenement, for wintering, 149.
+    to change the location of, 25.
+
+  Hive-stand, 15, 24.
+
+  Hives, chaff, 14, 15.
+    chaff for wintering, 148, Plate XXII.
+    Dadant-Quinby, size of, 77.
+    decoy, 70.
+    devices for carrying into cellar, 152.
+    double-walled, 21.
+    double-walled, cover for, 22.
+    entrance toward south, 25.
+    how to group, 20, 25.
+    large, for extracted honey, 77.
+    large sizes limit swarming, 77.
+    observation, 103.
+    shade boards for, 21.
+    shaded by awning, 21.
+    shaded by thatched roof, 21.
+    shaded by trellis, 21.
+    well shaded, Plate IV.
+    where to put them, 20.
+
+  Hiving bees, Plate XI.
+    maxims for, 72.
+
+  Holy Land bees, 47.
+
+  Honey, the amount produced in the United States, 58.
+    basswood, 198.
+    buckwheat, 202.
+    composition of, 57.
+    flowers, 194.
+    gardens, 199, 204.
+    healthful food, 58.
+    how produced, 57.
+    how to take off in supers, 101.
+    house, 25.
+    not made in the true stomach of the bee, 58.
+    of Hymettus, 204.
+    the only sweet of the ancients, 58.
+    plants, 199.
+    ripened in uncapped cells, 57.
+    ripening of, 120.
+    room, 25.
+    sage, 203.
+    uncapped, 120.
+    uncapping of, 120.
+    unripened for extracting, 119.
+    weeds, 199.
+    when to extract, 119.
+    white clover, 200.
+
+  Honey-extractor, invention of, 117.
+    principles of construction of, 118.
+    use of, 119.
+
+  Honey-stomach, 57, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Horsemint, 204.
+
+  House top for apiary, 22.
+
+  How to clip the queen’s wings, 100.
+    to examine frames of brood-chamber, 95.
+    to find the queen, 99.
+    to find the queen cells, 98.
+    to handle the bees, 91.
+    to introduce a queen, 160, 161.
+    to keep from keeping too many bees, 73.
+    to make comb-honey, 106.
+    to open the hive, 92.
+    to produce extracted honey, 117.
+    to rear queens, 156.
+    to stop robbing, 167.
+    to take off honey in supers, 101.
+    to winter bees, 145.
+    to winter bees in cellars, 150.
+
+  Hruschka, Major Francesco de, inventor of honey-extractor, 117.
+
+  Huber, 61, 103, 208.
+
+  Hutchinson, W. Z., method of treating after-swarms, 81.
+
+  Hymettus, honey of, 204.
+
+  Hypodermis, 182, Plate XXV.
+
+
+  Indian meal moth, 175.
+
+  Industries of the hive, 50.
+
+  Inhabitants of the hive, 27.
+
+  Introducing the queen, 157.
+    by nucleus method, 162.
+
+  Interrelation of bees and plants, 194.
+
+  Intestine, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Italian bees, 47, 204.
+
+  Italian worker, description of, 47.
+
+
+  Jars for extracted honey, 123.
+
+
+  Kellogg, Prof. V. L., 53, 103, 172.
+
+  Kitchen, how bees rob the, 165.
+
+
+  Labium, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Labrum, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Lamarck, 207.
+
+  Langstroth, 207, 208.
+
+  Latreille, 207.
+
+  Laying worker, 45, 79.
+
+  Leg, 185.
+
+  Legs of honey-bee, Plate VII.
+
+  Legumes, 200.
+
+  Linnæus, 207.
+
+  Location of hive, to mark, 25.
+
+  Locust blossoms, Plate XXXI.
+
+  Locusts, 197.
+
+
+  Males of social insects, 27.
+
+  Malpighian tubes, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Malthusian practices of bees, 34.
+
+  Mandibles, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Manum swarm catcher, 12, 19.
+
+  Maple, mountain, Plate XXIV.
+
+  Maples, 154, 197.
+
+  Marjoram, 203.
+
+  Marketing comb-honey, 114.
+
+  Mason’s cans for extracted honey, 123.
+
+  Maxillæ, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Maxims for beeswax making, 135.
+    for feeding, 144.
+    for hiving bees, 72.
+    for introducing queens, 163.
+    for opening the hive, 104.
+    for prevention of bee-moth, 176.
+    for producers of comb-honey, 116.
+    for the producer of extracted honey, 124.
+    for wintering, 154.
+    to prevent robbing, 171.
+
+  McEvoy, William, treatment of foul brood, 177.
+
+  Medics, 201.
+
+  Mellilots, 205.
+
+  Metatarsus, 185.
+
+  Micropyle, 192.
+
+  Milkweed, 204.
+
+  Miller, Dr., 102, 162.
+
+  Mignonette, 203.
+
+  Motherwort, 204.
+
+  Mouth parts, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Muscles, 187, Plate XXV.
+
+  Muth bottles for extracted honey, 123.
+
+
+  Nervous system, 188, Plate XXV.
+
+  Nucleus, method of introducing queen, 162.
+    to begin with, 13.
+
+
+  Observation hives, 103, opposite frontispiece.
+
+  Ocelli, 183, Plate VI.
+
+  Out-apiaries, 209.
+
+  Ovaries, 192, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Oviduct, 192, Plate XXVI.
+
+  _Oxydendrum arboreum_, 199.
+
+
+  Palpi, 185, Plate XXV.
+
+  Paraffine, wax adulterant, 134.
+
+  Parker foundation fastener, 18.
+
+  Partnership of bees and plants, 195.
+
+  Peach, 196.
+
+  Pear, 196.
+
+  Pickled brood, 179.
+
+  Piping of queen, 31, 32.
+
+  Planting for honey impractical, 199.
+
+  Pliny, 207.
+
+  _Plodia interpunctella_, 175.
+
+  Plum, 196.
+
+  Plum blossoms, Plate XXIII.
+
+  Points about beeswax, 126.
+
+  Poison glands, 193, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Pollen, 59.
+    fed to drone, 37.
+    how gathered, 59.
+    in cells, 98.
+    how placed in cell, 60.
+    made into bee-bread, 60.
+
+  Pollen-baskets, 59, 186, Plate VII.
+
+  Pollen-comb, Plate VII.
+
+  Porter bee-escape, 12, 18.
+
+  Propolis, how collected, 62.
+    how to dissolve, 63.
+    its source, 60, 61.
+    made from varnish and cement, 61.
+    various uses of, 62.
+
+  Pussy willows, 197.
+
+
+  Queen, Plate V.
+    armour of, 30, 31.
+    balling of, 32, 158, 159.
+    cages, 160, 161, Plate XVI.
+    cages, the Miller, 162.
+    capacity for egg-laying, 28.
+    cell, 29, Plate V.
+    cell, how to find, 98.
+    cell, how to cut out, 98.
+    clipping wings of, 75.
+    development of, 28.
+    duels, 30, 31.
+    egg, 29.
+    excluder, 78.
+    first flight of, 32.
+    head of, Plate VI.
+    her attendants, 28.
+    how she lays eggs, 33, 34.
+    how to find, 99.
+    how to handle, 99.
+    how to introduce, 160.
+    introducing by nucleus method, 162.
+    introducing cage, Plate V.
+    introducing of, 157.
+    issues from cell, 30.
+    larva, 30.
+    leg of, Plate VII.
+    maxims for introducing, 163.
+    mother of her subjects, 27.
+    piping of, 31, 32.
+    rearing, 156, 157.
+    removed to prevent swarming, 79.
+    reproductive organs of, 30, Plate XXVI.
+    selection of, 27, 28.
+    surrounded by workers, 99.
+    tested, 14.
+    trap, 19, 75, Plate XIV.
+    virgin, leads after-swarms, 79, 80, 81.
+    weapons, 30, 31.
+    wedding flight of, 32.
+    when to introduce, 159.
+
+  Queen-clipping device, 100.
+
+  Queen-excluding honey-board, use of, 108.
+
+  Queenless colony, 29.
+
+  Queens, development of new, 29.
+    females, 27.
+
+  Queen’s wings, how to clip, 100.
+
+  Quinby, 207.
+
+
+  Rape, 202.
+
+  Rauchfuss wax-extractor, 130, 131.
+
+  Rearing queens, 156.
+
+  Réaumur, 207.
+
+  Red clover, 200.
+
+  Red maple, 197.
+
+  Red raspberry, 202.
+
+  Reproductive organs, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Respiratory system, 188, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Robbing, borrowing, 170.
+    fate of the robbed colony, 170.
+    how it is done, 166.
+    how to detect, 167.
+    how to prevent, 102.
+    how to stop, 167, 168, 169.
+    maxims to prevent, 171.
+    the result of, 164.
+    slow, 170.
+    when it is likely to happen, 165.
+    why, 164.
+
+  Rocky Mountain bee plant, 204.
+
+  Root, 207.
+    treatment of foul brood, 177.
+    views about smoking bees, 93.
+
+  Royal jelly, 29.
+
+  Rye flour for feeding, 142.
+
+
+  Sage, white, 203.
+
+  Sage, black or button, 203.
+
+  _Scrofularia venalis_, 204.
+
+  Section glazed for comb-honey, 106.
+    holder, Plate XIV.
+    holders, 88.
+    of honey, Plate XIV.
+
+  Section-boxes, 88, Plates II., III., XIV.
+    no bee-way, 88.
+    with beeways, 88.
+
+  Sections, 11, 17.
+    fence between, 88.
+    foundation-comb for, 89.
+    how to put together, 89.
+    how to take off, 110.
+    no bee-way, 16.
+    scraping of, 112.
+    stained, 111.
+    unfinished, 110.
+
+  Sense hairs, Plate VII.
+
+  Sense organs, 183.
+
+  Sense pits, Plate VII.
+
+  Shade for hives, 21.
+
+  Sheep in apiary, 23.
+
+  Shipping-cases for comb-honey, 113.
+
+  Skeleton, 181, 187, Plate XXV.
+
+  Slumgum, 131.
+
+  Smell, organs of, 184.
+
+  Smoking bees, should be done carefully, 93, 94.
+
+  Smoker, Corneil, 16, Plate II.
+    how to fill and use, 92, 93.
+
+  Social insects, 27.
+    increase of, 64.
+
+  Solar wax-extractor, 130, 131.
+
+  Sour wood, 198.
+
+  Spanish needle, 204.
+
+  Spraying fruit blossoms with arsenic, 196.
+
+  Spermatheca, 192, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Spermatozoa, 192.
+
+  Spider flower, 204.
+
+  Spiracles, 188, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Spring dwindling, 154.
+
+  Spur, Plate VII.
+
+  Spur wire-embedder, 86.
+
+  Stained sections, 111.
+
+  Sting, 193, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Stomach, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Sumach blossoms, Plate XXIV.
+
+  Storifying, 110.
+
+  Sunflower, 203.
+
+  Super, 11.
+    boxes, 209.
+    cover, 11, 91.
+    description of, 87.
+    filled with section-boxes, Plate XV.
+    for comb-honey, 87.
+    for extracted honey, 87.
+    foundation, 17.
+    how to entice bees into, 108.
+    how to prepare, 90.
+    how to prepare and place in hive, 91.
+    partly filled, Plate III.
+    parts of, 87.
+    ready to be filled, Plate XII.
+    springs, 88, 90.
+
+  Supers, 15, 83.
+    different kinds of, 88.
+    how to take off when filled with honey, 101.
+
+  Swammerdam, 207.
+
+  Swarm, how to hive, 66, 68.
+    how to manage in difficult places, 69.
+    how to reconcile to new hive, 70.
+    how to stop, 66.
+    size of, 65.
+    throwing dirt at, 67.
+    use, fountain pump with, 67.
+    Mr. West’s device for saving, 71.
+    when given off, 65.
+
+  Swarm-catcher, the Manum, 19.
+
+  Swarming, conditions that lead to, 65.
+    control by brushing out method, 77.
+    control by extracting honey, 76.
+    control by giving room, 76.
+    control by removing queen, 79.
+    lessened by use of large hives, 77.
+    necessary to produce comb-honey, 75.
+    of bees, 64.
+    owing to queen or workers, 65.
+
+  Swarms, dividing of, 78.
+
+  Sweet clover, 205.
+
+  Swiss wax extractor, 131.
+
+  Syrian, 47.
+
+  Syrup, for feeding bees how to make, 137.
+    medicated for foul brood, 177.
+
+
+  Taking up bees, 208.
+
+  Tallow, wax adulterant, 134.
+
+  Tarsus, 185.
+
+  Telescope cover, 15.
+
+  Tenement hives for wintering, 149.
+
+  Tents for bee-keepers, 102.
+
+  Termites, 27.
+
+  Thorax, 185.
+
+  Thorn-apple blossoms, Plate XXVIII.
+
+  Thyme, 203.
+
+  Tibia, 185.
+
+  Tiering up, 108.
+
+  Tin pails for extracted honey, 123.
+
+  Tinned wire, 12.
+
+  Tongue, 184, Plate XXV.
+
+  Tracheæ, 189, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Trap for queen, 75.
+
+  Trap, queen and drone, 19.
+
+  Trees, 196.
+
+  Trochanter, 185.
+
+  Turnip, 202.
+
+
+  Uncapping, 120.
+
+  Uncapping cans, the Dadant, 121.
+
+  Uncapping knife, Bingham, 120.
+
+  Urinary organs, 191.
+
+
+  Vagina, 192.
+
+  Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, 12, 18, 86.
+
+  Varnish used as bee glue, 61.
+
+  Vas deferens, 193, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Veil, need for, 16.
+
+  Village garden for apiary, 22.
+
+
+  Wasps, 27.
+
+  Watering bees, 143.
+
+  Wax, amount of honey required to make, 50.
+    bees hang in curtains to make, 52.
+    bees secreting, Plate X.
+    the constituents of, 51.
+    how to make it, 126.
+    made in the fields, 52.
+    made when need for, 52.
+    press, 132, 133.
+    the secretion of, 50.
+    scales, 52.
+
+  Wax-extractors, 130.
+
+  Wax-glands, 52, 191, Plate XXVI.
+
+  Wax-pincers, 186, Plate VII.
+
+  Wax-plates, 51, Plates VI., XXV.
+
+  Wax-tube fastener, 18, Plate III.
+
+  Weeds, 203.
+
+  When to feed, 136.
+
+  When to introduce a queen, 159.
+
+  When to put bees into cellar, 153.
+
+  White clover, 200.
+
+  Wild flowers, 203.
+
+  Willow, 154, 197.
+
+  Wings, 185.
+
+  Wintering bees in single-walled hives, 145.
+    diarrhœa, 179.
+    getting ready for, 146.
+    how much food needed for, 146.
+    in cellars, 150.
+    in chaff hives, 148, Plate XXII.
+    in hive boxes, 147.
+    in tenement hives, 149.
+    maxims for, 154.
+    out doors, 147.
+    poor honey for, 147.
+    spring dwindling, 154.
+    when to put bees in the cellar, 153.
+    when to take bees out of cellar, 153.
+    ways of, 147.
+
+  Wire embedded by heat, 87.
+
+  Wire embedder, 86, Plate III.
+
+  Wire, tinned, 18, 85.
+
+  Worker, 39, Plate V.
+    cell of, 37, 40, 55.
+    cocoon of, 41.
+    death of, 39.
+
+  Worker eggs, in drone cells, 37.
+    head of, Plate VI.
+    laying, 45, 46.
+    leg of, Plate VII.
+    life and habits of, 42, 43.
+    life-history of, 40, 41.
+    maturity of, 41.
+    moulting of, 41.
+    old age and death of, 44.
+
+  Workers, labourers, 27.
+
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+
+  Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+  and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+  hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead
+  to the corresponding illustrations. Illustrations without captions
+  have had a description added, this is denoted with parentheses. Where
+  possible illustrations have been shifted to be adjacent to their
+  first reference.
+
+  The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct
+  page references.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+  the text and consultation of external sources.
+
+  Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
+  when a predominant preference was found in the original book.
+
+  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the
+  text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
+
+    Pg 2:  ‘Form’ replaced by ‘From’ in second caption.
+    Pg 16:  ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’.
+    Pg 16:  ‘Plate I.’ replaced by ‘Plate II.’, in section on Corneil smokers.
+    Pg 70:  ‘onorous’ replaced by ‘onerous’.
+    Pg 93:  ‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’.
+    Pg 146:  ‘extravgance’ replaced by ‘extravagance’.
+    Pg 164:  ‘prevades’ replaced by ‘pervades’.
+    Pg 179:  ‘disscribed’ replaced by ‘described’.
+    Pg 183:  ‘from a compact box’ replaced by ‘form a compact box’.
+    Pg 184:  ‘known at the _labrum_’ replaced by
+             ‘known as the _labrum_’.
+    Pg 196:  ‘pollenation’ replaced by ‘pollination’.
+    Pg 221:  ‘Cogshall’ replaced by ‘Coggshall’.
+    Pg 223:  ‘Guagilla’ replaced by ‘Guajilla’.
+    Pg 224:  ‘Latrielle’ replaced by ‘Latreille’.
+    Pg 225:  ‘Œsophagus’ replaced by ‘Æsophagus’ and moved to pg 219.
+    Pg 227:  Page for ‘Thyme’ changed from 230 to 203.
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 ***</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong>
+
+<p class="noindent">The new original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#END_NOTE">end of the book</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<main>
+<h1>
+HOW TO KEEP BEES
+</h1>
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap  x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate_i" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_i.jpg" alt="A branch of a vine hangs down. Clusters of small pale flowers hang at the bottom.">
+ <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div>
+ <figcaption>
+
+    <p class="ccap">PLATE I. BASSWOOD BLOSSOM</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center wsp3 p4">
+  <span class="fs250">How to Keep Bees</span><br>
+  <br>
+  <span class="fs150">A Handbook for the Use<br>
+  of Beginners</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center p4 wsp3">
+  By<br><br>
+  Anna Botsford Comstock, B. S.</p>
+<p class="center p4 pb2 wsp3">
+  <i>With Illustrations</i><br>
+
+</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp20" id="colophon" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/colophon.jpg" alt="Colophon">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="center p2">
+  <span class="smcap">Garden City</span>      <span class="smcap pad2">New York</span><br>
+  DOUBLEDAY, PAGE &amp; COMPANY<br>
+  MCMXI
+</p>
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center fs90 wsp1 p2">
+  Copyright, 1905, by<br>
+  Doubleday, Page &amp; Company<br>
+  Published April, 1905
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<blockquote class=c>
+<p class="noindent p2 fs80 center wsp2" ><i>All rights reserved, including that
+of translation—also right of translation
+into the Scandinavian languages</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">
+    PREFACE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> book has been prepared especially to meet
+the needs of the beginner in bee-keeping. It is not
+intended to be a complete treatise for the professional
+apiarist, but rather a handbook for those
+who would keep bees for happiness and honey,
+and incidentally for money. It is hoped, too, that
+it will serve as an introduction to the more extended
+manuals already in the field.</p>
+
+<p>When we began bee-keeping we found the wide
+range of information and varying methods given in
+the manuals confusing; but a little experience taught
+us that bee-keeping is a simple and delightful business
+which can be carried on in a modest way without a
+great amount of special training. After a beginning
+has been made, skill in managing the bees is gained
+naturally and inevitably, and interest is then stimulated
+by the wider outlook which bewilders the
+novice.</p>
+
+<p>For the sake of simplicity this volume is restricted
+to knowledge gained in practical experience in a
+small apiary; and the writer has sought to exclude
+from it those discussions which, however enlightening
+to the experienced, are after all but devious digressions
+from the simple and straight path which the
+feet of the inexperienced must tread to success in
+the apiary.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<nav data-epub-type="toc">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">
+    CONTENTS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<table class="toc wd80">
+<tr class=fs60>
+<td class="tdrb">
+CHAPTER
+</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdrb">
+PAGE
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd5">I.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Why Keep Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">II.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+How to Begin Bee-Keeping
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">III.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Location and the Arrangement of the Apiary
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Inhabitants of the Hive
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">V.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Industries of the Hive
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Swarming of Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+How to Keep from Keeping Too Many Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Hive and How to Handle It
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">IX.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Details Concerning Honey
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">X.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Extracted Honey
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XI.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Points About Beeswax
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Feeding Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XIII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+How to Winter Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XIV.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Rearing and Introducing Queens
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XV.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Robbing in the Apiary
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XVI.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Enemies and Diseases of Bees
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XVII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+The Anatomy of the Honey-Bee
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XVIII.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Interrelation of Bees and Plants
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XIX.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Bee-Keepers and Bee-Keeping
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XX.</td>
+<td class="tdl hang1">
+Bee-Hunting
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1" colspan=2>
+Bibliography
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1" colspan=2>
+Index
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</nav>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p>
+
+<nav data-epub-type="loi">
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">
+    LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+  </h2>
+
+
+
+<table class="toc wd80">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> I.—Basswood blossom
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb fs90">
+<a href="#plate_i"><i>Frontispiece</i></a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="pad2p5">Observation hives</span>
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb">
+<a href="#i_003a">Page 2</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class=fs60>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+
+</td>
+<td class="tdr">
+FACING PAGE
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> II.—(a) Two flat section-boxes
+(b) Corneil smoker
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb">
+<a href="#plate_iia">14</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> III.—(a) Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder
+and Van Deusen wax-tube
+fastener. (b) A super with fences. (c)
+The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_iii_a">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> IV. Hives well shaded by a tree
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_iv">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> V. (a) Queen; drone; worker.
+(b) Queen cell. (c) Miller’s queen introducing
+cage
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_v">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VI. Head of drone; head of queen;
+head of worker; ventral surface of
+worker showing plates of wax
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_vi">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VII. Legs and antennæ of the honey-bee
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_vii">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> VIII. Drone cells in a comb of honey
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_viii">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> IX. Side of hive removed showing
+the bees at work
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_ix">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting
+wax
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_x">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XI. Hiving bees; cutting down a
+swarm
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xi">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XII. (a) Two self-spacing frames.
+(b) An empty super. (c) The Doolittle
+division board feeder
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xii_a">90</a><span class="pagenum">[viii]</span>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIII. Examining the brood-frames
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xiii">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIV. (a) Alley’s queen and drone
+trap. (b) A well filled section. (c)
+One empty section-holder, and one
+filled with section-boxes
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xiv_a">106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XV. One and a half story hive for
+comb-honey
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xv">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVI. Drone and Queen trap; queen
+mailing and introducing cage; queen-protector
+and queen-cage used in queen-rearing,
+and bee-escape
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xvi">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVII. “In apple-blossom time”
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xvii">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVIII. (a) Taking off upper story of
+hive containing combs for extracting.
+(b) Extracting-room showing apparatus
+for extracting honey
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xviii_a">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIX. (a) Uncapping comb before
+extracting the honey. (b) Placing uncapped
+comb in one of the pockets of
+the extractor
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xixa">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XX. (a) Drawing honey from extractor.
+(b) Pouring extracted honey
+into keg for shipping in bulk
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxa">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXI. (a) Extracted honey in pails,
+candied. (b) Extracted honey in glass
+jars ready for market
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxi_a">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXII. Winter quarters in chaff hives
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxii">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIII. Plum blossoms
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxiii">155</a><span class="pagenum">[ix]</span>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIV. Sumac in blossom. Blossom
+of mountain maple
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxiv">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXV. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal
+section of the body of a larva of an
+insect. Fig. 2. Section of the body-wall
+of insect. Fig. 3. Head of a bee and
+its appendages. Fig. 4. Glands of a
+honey-bee. Fig. 5. The wax plates
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxv">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVI. (a) The reproductive organs
+of the honey-bee. (b) Fig. 1. The
+internal anatomy of the honey-bee.
+Fig. 2. The respiratory system of the
+honey-bee
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxvi_a">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVII. An old-fashioned apiary
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxvii">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXVIII. (a) Thorn-apple blossoms.
+(b) Wild crab-apple blossoms
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxviii_a">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXIX. Buckwheat in blossom
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxix">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXX. Box-elder, staminate and pistillate
+flowers
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxx">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlt hang2">
+<span class="smcap">Plate</span> XXXI. Blossoms of black locust
+</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate_xxxi">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</nav>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="center fs150 p4 pb4 wsp2" id="HOW_TO_KEEP_BEES">
+    HOW TO KEEP BEES
+  </p>
+</div>
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_003a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_003a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">An ordinary beehive made into an observation-hive by inserting glass panes in
+    sides and putting a glass sheet under the wooden cover. (From V. L. Kellogg.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+    <br>
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_003b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_003b.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">An observation-hive holding only two frames, with the two sides wholly of glass,
+    so that any single bee can be continuously watched. (<ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Form" id="Form">From</ins> V. L. Kellogg.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p>
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">
+    CHAPTER I
+    <br><br>
+    WHY KEEP BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reasons for keeping bees are many and various;
+for it is an industry as many-sided as the cells of
+a honey-comb, one of its chief charms being that
+it appeals equally to “many men of many minds.”
+To know all the reasons why one should keep bees
+one must be conversant with the history of man; he
+must be familiar with the Vedas of India and master
+of the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt; he must study
+the life of the common people in the Hebrew Scriptures
+and the classic literatures of Greece and Italy,
+and must be able to translate into terms of common
+human experiences the myths and legends of diverse
+peoples. For bees have been a part of the conscious
+life of man from the beginning. Not only have they
+sweetened his daily bread with beneficent honey, but
+they have had their place in his religious rites, and
+also in his family observances, as millions of happy
+lovers may attest who have experienced the “honeymoon.”
+However, lacking the erudition necessary
+to enumerate all, the author of this book is quite
+content to mention a few of the more cogent reasons
+why anyone should, in this day and generation,
+undertake the keeping of bees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p>
+
+<p>One may keep bees for the sake of the honey,
+which is a most legitimate and fit reason. Honey is
+a wholesome and delicious addition to the family
+table. Though it is a luxury, yet it may be afforded
+by one living in moderate circumstances, if he be
+willing to give a modicum of time and care to the
+happy little creatures that gladly make it for him,
+free of all expense. But for the one possessed of
+great wealth, and able to corner the honey-market
+any day, there is sure delight, as well as education, in
+raising his own honey. Any person of experience
+well knows that the honey made by one’s own bees
+has quality and flavour superior to that made by
+other people’s bees. In fact, the only way to become
+a connoisseur of honey is to keep bees, for thus
+only may one learn to discriminate between honey
+made from basswood and that gathered from clover;
+or to distinguish, at first taste, the product of orchard
+in bloom from that drawn from vagrant blossoms,
+which, changing day by day, mark the season’s
+processional. He who has once kept bees and become
+an artist in honey-flavours, would never again,
+willingly, become a part of the world at large, which,
+in its dense ignorance, dubs all white honey “basswood”
+or “clover” indiscriminately, and believes
+all dark honey is gathered from buckwheat.</p>
+
+<p>Some, perhaps, might keep bees for the sake of
+making money. For him who would get rich keeping
+bees, this book manifestly is not written; its title
+explains that it is meant to show how to keep bees,
+and not how to make bees keep him. The person who
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>would, from the first, make bee-keeping his chief
+work should receive his training in a large apiary.
+As a vocation it demands the entire time and energy
+of a shrewd and able person to insure success; of
+such, America already has a great number, with
+yearly incomes varying from $1,000 to $10,000.
+However, the desire to make the bees keep themselves
+and add more or less to the family income is a
+practical and sensible reason for keeping bees.
+Fifteen or twenty colonies may be managed with
+comparatively little time and attention and the work
+may be done largely by women or the younger members
+of the household. If proper care be given to
+such an apiary, it will prove of material benefit to the
+family purse; for, if the season be favourable, the
+product of one colony should net the owner from
+four to ten dollars. We know of boys who have thus
+earned their college expenses; and many women have
+bought immunity from the drudgery of the kitchen
+with money paid them for their crops of honey. It
+should be borne in mind that honey-money is not
+obtained without thought, energy, and some hard
+work. The bees would have been less beneficent
+to mankind had they bestowed honey without demanding
+a return in care and labour.</p>
+
+<p>Many have kept bees as a recreation, and there is
+none better. It gives delightful and absorbing occupation
+in the open air and is not merely a rest from
+mental and sedentary labours, but is a stimulus to
+health and strength as well. In the various bee
+journals are recorded testimonials from thousands
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>who, when tired, ill, and nervously worn out, began
+bee-keeping, and through it regained vigour and
+found a new interest in life. Notwithstanding the
+fact that bees have honest stings, they can work the
+miracle of changing a dyspeptic pessimist into a
+cheerful optimist with a rapidity and completeness
+that merits our highest admiration.</p>
+
+<p>A love for natural science is a very good reason for
+keeping bees. Nowhere are there more fascinating
+problems for the investigator than those still unsolved
+in the hive. Of all the lower animals, bees are, perhaps,
+the most highly developed in certain ways;
+and it is more probable that the mysteries of the
+eternal heavens and the distant stars be made plain
+than that we ever learn the truths that underlie the
+development of the “Spirit of the Hive.”</p>
+
+<p>Another reason for keeping bees is the insight to
+be gained therefrom into the conditions of perfect
+communism. The bees and their relatives are the
+most intelligent and consistent socialists that have
+yet been developed in this world; and, through
+studying their ways, one may discern with startling
+clearness how the perfect socialism grinds off all
+the projecting corners of the individual until it fits
+perfectly in its communal niche. In the hive individual
+traits, as exemplified in kindness, selfishness,
+love and hate, are moved up a notch in the scale and
+characterise the whole community, even though
+they are eliminated from its members. If one is
+a social philosopher, he may become very wise,
+indeed, by studying the results of the laws of socialism
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>which have been executed inexorably through countless
+centuries in the bee commune.</p>
+
+<p>Last, but by no means least, one may keep bees
+because they belong to home life and should have
+place in every well-kept garden or orchard. There
+is no more beautiful domestic picture to be found in
+the world than a fine garden with a row of hollyhocks
+hiding the boundary fence and affording a
+fitting background for a neat row of white hives. It
+is not alone the æsthetic beauty the bees bring to the
+garden which touches the deeper currents of feeling
+and is productive of profound satisfaction; it is something
+more fundamental; for since the thyme of
+Hymettus yielded nectar, the happy hum of the bee
+has yielded comfort to the human senses. The
+garden without bees seems ever to lack something;
+mayhap, the silent longing of the flowers for their
+friendly visitors, intangible but real, so permeates
+the place that we are dimly conscious of it. Be
+that as it may, the perfect garden can only be attained
+through the presence of happy and populous bee-hives.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">
+    CHAPTER II
+    <br><br>
+    HOW TO BEGIN BEE-KEEPING
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE VARIOUS WAYS OF BEGINNING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are so many ways of beginning this interesting
+work that no classic way obtains. Many
+people have received the stimulus from a swarm of
+bees, escaped from some apiary, which has alighted
+on a tree or bush on the premises, and which seemed
+too much like a gift of the gods to be ignored. In
+fact, no one with blood in him would do otherwise
+under such circumstances than to hunt up a soap-box
+or a nailkeg and, with an intrepidity amounting
+almost to heroism, place it under the cluster and
+shake the bees into it. Then, if the swarm feels
+content, the fact is accomplished; and the involuntary
+owner finds a new interest in life, and enthusiastically
+becomes a bee-keeper. This is an excellent and
+inexpensive way to begin, and for all who are thus
+favoured it is by far the best way. But one may
+wait many years before this happens, and after all
+there are other and more direct methods. The
+best way is to begin by wishing sincerely to keep
+bees, and then to adopt one of the following plans:</p>
+
+<p>The cheapest way is to visit the nearest neighbour
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>who keeps bees, and buy of him a swarm, which will
+cost, perhaps, two or three dollars. If the neighbour
+be a good apiarist, this may be an excellent method,
+for he will give practical advice and be a most helpful
+friend in time of future difficulties and doubts;
+he will also explain appliances and make the labours
+and perplexities of the beginner much smoother.
+Besides these advantages, it is a help to neighbourliness,
+for keeping bees is almost as close a bond between
+two neighbours as an interest in golf or
+automobiles, and has a much broader and more
+philosophical basis.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the bees may be bought at any time of
+the year convenient, but the early spring is the
+best season for beginning, for then one has the advantage
+of increase by swarms. If one is ingenious
+and inventive, one may easily construct other hives
+like the one bought; but there are other things
+needed which may be obtained cheaper and better
+from firms that sell apiarists’ supplies. However,
+we are acquainted with several apiarists who furnish
+all of their own supplies except the sections for comb-honey,
+the wax foundations, the smoker, the cartons
+and the honey-extractor.</p>
+
+<p>The usual way of beginning is to send to some of
+the dealers in bee-keepers’ supplies for a catalogue
+and to invest in a library of bee books. There is
+something most fascinating about these books
+written by bee-keepers, for no one makes a success of
+bee-keeping unless he loves the bees; and if he loves
+bees he writes of them so persuadingly, and his lines
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>are so full of insidious allusions to the enchantments
+of the occupation, that whoever reads one of these
+volumes finds life arid without bees.</p>
+
+<p>Then the catalogue of bee-keepers’ supplies has
+its own attractions. Never were such breathlessly
+interesting pamphlets written; and I would add
+that, on the whole, they are the most honest and
+reliable of all advertising catalogues. They almost
+invariably give good and sensible advice to beginners,
+suggesting proper outfits at moderate prices. To
+the would-be bee-keeper these catalogues are so
+delightful that, if the purse is long enough, he feels
+inclined to order a specimen of everything listed.
+However, this is not the best way to do. A moderate
+number of things can be ordered at first, and other
+things may be ordered later as the growing sense of
+their need develops.</p>
+
+<p>If one is minded to go into bee-keeping as a
+regular business, the best way to begin is to spend a
+year with a successful bee-keeper, working for him
+and with him and paying for the tuition, whatever
+may be charged. Thus one may gain his knowledge
+of the business and get his practical training under
+the guidance of experience. The very worst way
+to begin, and one that is sure to result in disaster, is
+to buy a large number of colonies at first. This is
+a too expensive way of learning the extent of one’s
+own ignorance and limitations as a bee-keeper.</p>
+
+<p>As we have begun keeping bees three times in the
+course of our lives, we feel more or less competent to
+give advice about this special phase of bee-keeping.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>We first began when we were children and two
+swarms were bestowed upon us by an uncle who
+moved away from the neighbourhood. This was
+long before the idea of supers and box comb-honey
+had been thought of. We were among the first
+to adopt the old glass-sided super when it was
+introduced. The second and third times we
+purchased our outfit of a dealer in apiarists’ supplies,
+and both of these beginnings were good and successful;
+so perhaps the best way to tell others how to
+begin is to describe how we began. The following
+is the order which we sent to a dealer.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="A_BEGINNERS_ORDER">
+  A BEGINNER’S ORDER
+</h3>
+
+<p>One colony of bees, in an eight-frame, dovetailed,
+chaff hive with a deep telescope cover, and with a
+tested Italian queen.</p>
+
+<p>Two complete supers ready for use, with 4¼ × 4¼ ×
+1½ plain sections.</p>
+
+<p>One super cover.</p>
+
+<p>Three extra 1½-story chaff hives uniform with the
+above, and with super covers.</p>
+
+<p>One standard Corneil smoker.</p>
+
+<p>One bee-veil.</p>
+
+<p>One pair bee-gloves.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred and fifty sections, plain, no bee-way,
+4¼ × 4¼ × 1½.</p>
+
+<p>One pound medium brood foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Two pounds thin super foundation.</p>
+
+<p>One Daisy foundation-fastener.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p>
+
+<p>One Van Deusen wax-tube fastener.</p>
+
+<p>One ¼-pound spool No. 30, tinned wire.</p>
+
+<p>One Porter bee-escape, with board.</p>
+
+<p>One Manum’s swarm-catcher.</p>
+
+<p>One Dixie bee-brush.</p>
+
+<p>One Doolittle division board feeder.</p>
+
+<p>One Alley’s queen and drone trap.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="NOTES_ON_A_BEGINNERS_ORDER">
+  NOTES ON A BEGINNER’S ORDER
+</h3>
+
+
+<h4 id="THE_BEES">
+  THE BEES
+</h4>
+
+<p>The selection of the bees is the first and most important
+consideration, since race and heredity
+determine to so great an extent the bee’s efficiency
+and disposition.</p>
+
+<p>The consensus of opinion to-day is in favour of the
+Italian bees; this is so much so that the other races,
+except the German, are hardly on the general
+market in America. Taking all points into consideration,
+the Italian has a higher average of satisfactory
+qualities than has any of the other races.</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest experiences were with the ordinary
+black German bees, and it was through them that
+we first learned to love bees, although their nervousness
+and their unhappy habit of considering us intruders
+when we neared their domain were always
+somewhat embarrassing, and made us feel like
+James Whitcomb Riley’s visiting base-ball team,
+that “we weren’t so welcome as we aimed to be.”
+Therefore, when we decided to buy bees, we unhesitatingly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>ordered Italians. These are much
+more gentle and friendly than the others, and it is
+one of our greatest pleasures to be on good terms
+with our bee-folk. Under all ordinary circumstances
+the Italian bees are not only tolerant of human
+interference, but are sweet tempered and optimistic,
+believing that we mean well by them; and one cannot
+work with them without learning to love them.</p>
+
+<p>If one begins bee-keeping in the spring, some
+money can be saved by buying a nucleus and tested
+queen, instead of a full colony of bees. A nucleus
+in bee-keeping parlance is a small colony with only
+one, two, or three frames. The colony should be
+large enough to build combs with sufficient rapidity
+to keep the queen fairly busy, so as not to encourage
+in her the habit of loafing, and so that too much time
+shall not be required to build up a full colony. Two
+frames with about a quart of bees will accomplish
+this well.</p>
+
+<p>Such a nucleus as this in a hive, with a division
+board on either side of the two adjacent frames,
+can be soon built up into a full colony if there is
+plenty of nectar and pollen to be had. A division
+board is a solid board of the shape of the frame,
+but a little larger so that it is close-fitting in the
+hive. The frame should be watched closely, and
+as soon as the comb is filled with brood, and there
+are enough bees to cover the brood well, another
+frame filled with brood foundation should be added;
+this should be continued until the hive is filled with
+frames.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p>
+
+
+<h4 id="A_TESTED_QUEEN">
+  A TESTED QUEEN
+</h4>
+
+<p>As the queen is the mother of the whole colony, her
+powers for transmitting a kind disposition and
+superior honey-making qualities are of the greatest
+importance. It is essential, therefore, to know that
+the queen, which is to serve as a foundation for the
+apiary, has mated with a drone of the desired race.
+A tested queen is one that has been kept until some
+of her offspring have been reared. The colour of
+these will indicate whether the queen has mated with
+a drone of her own race.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="THE_HIVE">
+  THE HIVE
+</h4>
+
+<p>Next to choosing the bees comes the selection of
+the hive, for there are several kinds of hives in general
+use, and all of them are apparently good. We
+chose the Langstroth hive because its merits are
+attested by the fact that it is more largely used than
+all others taken together. We chose the eight-frame
+in preference to the ten-frame form because we
+wished to produce comb-honey, and it is easier to
+induce bees to store surplus in the sections when the
+brood-chamber is small. If one wishes to produce
+extracted honey, the ten-frame hive is the better
+one. We ordered the more expensive chaff hives,
+as we wished to save the trouble of moving the bees
+into winter quarters; and we think this would be
+the case with anyone with whom bee-keeping is an
+avocation instead of a vocation. In fact many people
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>who make bee-keeping their principal business
+prefer chaff hives, for they not only keep out the
+cold in winter, but also protect the bees from the
+heat in summer. The objections to them are that
+they are heavy to handle and are expensive, though
+the expense can be reduced considerably if one has
+the ability to make them. Another thing we like
+about the chaff hives is that they are fine and dignified
+in appearance, and we find that their majestic
+proportions, white and beautiful, set against the
+background of our larches, add much to our conscious
+pleasure every time we look upon our apiary.
+We ordered a deep telescope cover, as we wished
+room for two supers on the hive at once.</p>
+
+
+<p>The hive stand we ourselves made from lumber
+taken from dry-goods boxes. It is simply a smooth
+platform, six inches wider than the hive on three
+sides and extending about a foot out in front of the
+hive, thus serving as an alighting-board.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="TWO_COMPLETE_SUPERS">
+  TWO COMPLETE SUPERS
+</h4>
+
+<p>We knew that we would need these very soon,
+for the basswood harvest was imminent; we
+ordered them ready for use, as we wished to see
+all the “new wrinkles” in supers, and exactly how
+the parts are arranged. We used the supers as
+models later in putting together and fitting other
+supers. This proved a wise precaution, as it saved
+us much time in reading directions and studying
+out independently the arrangement of parts. We
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>ordered 4¼ × 4¼ × 1½ sections, as this is the size most
+generally used, and we chose the no-beeway, or
+“plain” style, because we think it presents a better
+appearance when filled with honey. We will return
+to this question in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="THREE_EXTRA_HIVES">
+  THREE EXTRA HIVES
+</h4>
+
+<p>We wished to have these on hand for any swarms
+which might possibly issue.</p>
+
+<div class="col50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iia" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ii_a.jpg" alt="Hands shown bending wooden frame to form a small box.">
+  <figcaption class=ccap>
+
+(<i>a</i>) Two flat section-boxes; and one being bent together.
+
+
+
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="col50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iib" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ii_b.jpg" alt="Smoker has a billows on the left, connected to a metal cylinder. A lid for the cylinder with a spout is titled to be open.">
+  <figcaption class=ccap>
+  (<i>b</i>) A Corneil smoker.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+ <p class="center fs80">PLATE II.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_STANDARD_CORNEIL_SMOKER">
+  ONE STANDARD CORNEIL SMOKER
+</h4>
+
+<p>I do not know just why we chose this of the many
+excellent smokers, but perchance the name called
+to mind happy experiences with sundry <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Cornell" id="Cornell1">Corneil</ins>
+smokers of quite a different feather, and we were
+thus favourably disposed toward this one. It has
+not disappointed us in the least, for it is both handy
+and practical. It may seem an unfriendly act to
+smoke one’s own bee-people, but a little smoke
+wisely applied is as efficacious in preserving pleasant
+relations with the bees, as was the smoke from the
+pipe of peace in preserving similar relations between
+our forefathers and the savages. (<ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text:Plate I." id="plt_1"><a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>.</ins>)</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_BEE-VEIL">
+  ONE BEE-VEIL
+</h4>
+
+<p>The senior partner of our apiary rarely uses a
+veil, but when he does use one he needs it very much,
+and it is an article necessary to have at hand. To
+the beginner it gives a calmness of nerve and a surplus
+of courage which are highly desirable when dealing
+with such high-strung creatures as bees. Also
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>there always occur times during the year when the
+bee-tempers are on edge for some reason or other;
+and at such times, if one be intrenched behind a bee-veil,
+it facilitates work and encourages a serene
+spirit.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_PAIR_OF_BEE-GLOVES">
+  ONE PAIR OF BEE-GLOVES
+</h4>
+
+<p>While we do not use these ordinarily, yet when
+we have some special work to do which involves
+changing many bees from one location to another,
+we find these gloves most convenient to keep the
+disturbed little citizens from crawling up our sleeves,
+thus saving both them and ourselves from a most
+embarrassing situation.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="250_SECTIONS">
+  250 SECTIONS
+</h4>
+
+<p>Only a small supply of sections was ordered, as
+but few would be needed the first year in addition to
+those in the two complete supers. (<a href="#plate_iia">Plate II.</a>)</p>
+
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_POUND_BROOD-FOUNDATION">
+  ONE POUND BROOD-FOUNDATION
+</h4>
+
+<p>This was for use in the frames in the extra hives.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="TWO_POUNDS_THIN_SUPER-FOUNDATION">
+  TWO POUNDS THIN SUPER-FOUNDATION
+</h4>
+
+<p>This was for use in the sections.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_DAISY_FOUNDATION-FASTENER">
+  ONE DAISY FOUNDATION-FASTENER
+</h4>
+
+<p>In the early days of our bee-keeping we fastened
+the foundation into the sections and frames with a
+common kitchen-knife which we heated over a lamp
+and then applied to the edge of the wax foundation
+held against the section, thus melting it and pressing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>it fast to the wood. Afterward we used a Parker
+fastener, and found it a great improvement over the
+primitive method. But this Daisy foundation-fastener
+as described in the catalogue appealed to
+the modern spirit in us. When we tried to use the
+machine, we were bitterly disappointed at the end
+of five minutes, but that was because the iron was
+not hot enough to properly melt the wax. After a
+little we learned to hold the foundation on the plate
+just long enough to melt it to a proper consistency
+so that it adhered to the section as soon as it was
+dropped upon it. Then it was that filling sections
+was placed on the list of sports. The rapidity with
+which we filled four dozen sections almost took our
+breath away.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_VAN_DEUSEN_WAX-TUBE_FASTENER">
+  ONE VAN DEUSEN WAX-TUBE FASTENER
+</h4>
+
+<p>This was ordered under the impression that it
+would be needed for fastening the foundation in the
+brood-frames, but when the hives came we found
+that a much better method of fastening the foundations
+had been devised. This is described in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter
+VIII</a>. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_a.jpg" alt="A brush with bristles on both top and bottom. To the left a small rod of metal with a handle on one end and a small wheel with long gear like teeth. On the right there is a tool that looks like a basting tube with a handle on one end.">
+  <figcaption>
+
+    <p>
+    (<i>a</i>) The Dixie bee-brush, spur wire-embedder, and Van Deusen<br>
+    wax-tube fastener.</p>
+   </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_b.jpg" alt="A super box sits open, showing the frames installed inside. One frame is out showing that it looks like a short section of fence.">
+  <figcaption>
+<p>(<i>b</i>) A super with fences and two rows of section-boxes in place;<br>
+    a separate fence.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iii_c" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii_c.jpg" alt="A framed roughly square made of two planks of wood, with a hole in the center.">
+  <figcaption>    <p>(<i>c</i>) The Porter bee-escape in a honey-board.</p>
+ <p>PLATE III.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4 id="TINNED_WIRE">
+  TINNED WIRE
+</h4>
+
+<p>This is used for strengthening the foundation in
+the brood-frames, as described later.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_PORTER_BEE-ESCAPE">
+  ONE PORTER BEE-ESCAPE
+</h4>
+
+<p>The Porter bee-escape is a simple and most useful
+device. It is set in a thin board just the size of
+the top of the hive; in the middle is a bit of tin which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>forms a round pit on the upper side. The bees
+descend into this pit, and, trying to get out, push
+apart two strips of tin set at angles to each other,
+fastened at the ends, which act like a valve, letting
+the bee out but not permitting her to push back.
+This is put between the super and the hive in order
+to free the super of bees before removing the honey.
+This escape is also used on the doors and windows
+of workshops or extracting-rooms or other places
+where bees get in and it is desirable to get them out.
+(<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III.</a>, <a href="#plate_viii">XVIII.</a>)</p>
+
+
+
+<h4 id="THE_MANUM_SWARM-CATCHER">
+  THE MANUM SWARM-CATCHER
+</h4>
+
+<p>We bought this because we liked the idea of it,
+but as yet we have never had occasion to use it; however,
+we never look at its long handle without being
+filled with a mad desire to try it on a provoking
+swarm of bees clustered in the top of a cherry tree.</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_DIXIE_BEE-BRUSH">
+  ONE DIXIE BEE-BRUSH
+</h4>
+
+<p>This is an exceedingly useful instrument for brushing
+bees from frames and from sections. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="ONE_DOOLITTLE_FEEDER">
+  ONE DOOLITTLE FEEDER
+</h4>
+
+<p>Bee-keepers of extended experience consider this
+the best and most satisfactory kind of feeder in use
+for small apiaries. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h4 id="QUEEN_AND_DRONE_TRAP">
+  QUEEN AND DRONE TRAP
+</h4>
+
+<p>This is not a necessity; we bought it in order to try
+experiments in preventing swarming by its use, and
+also to have on hand in case an excess of drones should
+be developed in any of our colonies. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">
+    CHAPTER III
+    <br><br>
+    THE LOCATION AND THE ARRANGEMENT
+    OF THE APIARY
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Where</span> to put the hives is the first question, and
+this must be determined by two or three conditions
+necessary for the health and comfort of the bees.
+Hives should be placed where the sunshine may
+reach them in the morning up to eight or nine o’clock,
+and in the afternoon from three to four o’clock. An
+old orchard such as is kept because of picturesque
+beauty rather than for its crop of apples is an ideal
+place. The clean-culture orchards of the modern
+horticulturists are undoubtedly more efficient as
+producers of apples and money; but we are always
+grateful that there are still remaining many fine old
+orchards, on sod ground where the trees, more or less
+gnarled and twisted, are a joy to the artistic eye.
+Little wonder that such a place is the ideal spot for
+the apiary; if the hives are grouped four or five
+together beneath one tree, the requirements of shade
+will be met.</p>
+
+<p>If there is no old orchard, what then? A young
+orchard will do, unless clean culture is practised; in
+the latter case horses and cultivator will not be permitted
+on the domain of the bee-people. If no
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>orchard offers, then a trellis of vines extending east
+and west, eight feet high, may shade a few hives,
+and may be a thing of beauty in the garden as well.
+Grape vines, hops, Virginia creeper, or any other
+rapidly growing vines will do. To the one who
+loves his garden, there will be many ways suggested
+whereby the hives may be placed to compass both
+comfort for the bees and joy to the beholder. We
+started an apiary at the north of the lilac trees, and
+made it a part of the lawn.</p>
+
+<p>If no such happy position for natural shade is to
+be found for the hives, then one must have recourse
+to artificial shade or double-walled hives. A very
+good method of shading, much in vogue among the
+farmers of our country, consists of a few boards
+placed awning-fashion above the row of hives. This
+is not an attractive solution to the problem, although
+perhaps it might be made so if this method were ever
+resorted to by anyone with a sense of beauty; but
+usually it is limited to a simple cover consisting of
+two or three boards nailed together, slanting a little
+toward the back of the hives to shed rain, supported
+by four posts, which hold it a foot or more above
+the row of hives.</p>
+
+<p>In California instead of boards a thatched roof is
+made for this sort of protection, and is ample enough
+to allow an aisle for the apiarist between the rows of
+hives set back to back.</p>
+
+<p>Many people use a single shade board, which
+consists of slats fastened together by cleats made
+large enough to project a foot beyond the hive on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>either side. This is placed directly on top of the
+hive, and has to be weighted down with stones, and
+is therefore awkward to handle when working with
+the bees. If the climate is hot, or in any case, a
+double-walled cover to the hive is most excellent,
+since it affords a chance for free circulation of air
+between the two boards which form it. However,
+these double covers do not obviate the need of shade,
+and natural shade is the most desirable sort.</p>
+
+<p>In case the region is exposed to high winds, there
+should be a windbreak around the apiary. Mr.
+Root, who is one of the greatest of American bee-keepers,
+uses for this a row of hardy evergreens
+which grow together into a solid hedge. In case a
+windbreak, either natural or made, is impracticable,
+a board fence about eight or ten feet high, built on
+two sides of the apiary, usually the north and west
+sides, will be found to serve the purpose. This
+fence may be made the trellis for vines.</p>
+
+<p>In the rear of the village garden is an excellent
+place for bees. A high board fence as a boundary,
+and perhaps a barn at the side will act as a windbreak,
+while the fruit trees yield a grateful shade.
+We know several such modest apiaries which are
+most attractive in appearance. There are those
+who live in cities or towns who are filled with the
+bee-keeper’s ambitions; and even they need not
+despair. There are on record accounts of several
+small apiaries kept on the housetops of the owners,
+who believe that roofs are for more than mere protection.
+Where bees kept thus get their honey is a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>bee secret, but undoubtedly every flower in the region
+yields them tribute. If bees be kept in town, they
+must be placed on a roof or else a high fence must
+intervene between the hives and the highway, so
+that the plane of bee flight shall be set above the
+heads of horses and drivers; for these brave little
+honeymakers have never been taught to turn to the
+right, and so they often dispute the way with teams
+and usually come off victorious; and this might make
+the bee-keeper unpopular in his community.</p>
+
+<p>Another necessity in the apiary is that the grass in
+front of the entrance to the hives be kept mown;
+otherwise many a heavily laden bee will experience
+loss or injury among interfering grass blades. It is
+not practicable, even if one were heroic enough to
+try it, to run a lawn mower nearer than four or five
+inches from the hives, so many bee-keepers place
+salt or coal ashes on the grass within this area. Mr.
+Root goes so far as to advise the use of sheep as
+automatic lawn mowers in the apiary, as nothing
+else can cut grass so short as does the sheep. People
+say “as silly as a sheep,” but that is a silly saying,
+for many people may learn something of value about
+the management of bees from the sheep, which, when
+attacked by them, thrusts its head philosophically
+into a bush where the bees cannot reach the tender
+parts, and trusts to its wool to protect it elsewhere.
+As a matter of experience, sheep kept in apiaries
+are rarely stung at all.</p>
+
+<p>In our own apiary, where it was not practical to
+mow close to the hives, we followed two methods:
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>When we had many bees we placed a rough board
+over the ground in the immediate front of the hive;
+when we had only a few swarms, it was one of our
+joys to get on our knees on cold days, when only a
+few adventurous workers were going into the field,
+and with shears cut the grass close to the ground;
+and this period spent on our knees was not penance,
+but joy. However, it might well get to be penance
+in a large apiary.</p>
+
+<p>Having found the place for the apiary, the next
+thought is of hive stands. Many bee-keepers use a
+hive that has a combination bottom board and hive
+stand; this has an inclined plane up which the loaded
+bees may climb if they strike the ground. This is
+a device which also saves the lives of many bees in
+cool weather, when they would scarcely be able,
+through numbness, to reach the entrance of the hive
+otherwise. However, there are other bee stands
+which hold two or three hives, which are very comfortable
+in height for the work of the bee-keeper.
+But it is always well to remember that the opening
+of a hive should be low down, as it is easier for the
+weary wings to let the honey-weighted bee down
+than to lift her up to the doorway. We use a simple
+platform, with blocks under the corners, so that there
+may be circulation of air beneath, and extending
+about a foot out in front of the hive, thus serving as
+an alighting-board.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the hives in the apiary is a
+subject which will pay for thought. When beginning,
+this is easy enough, as they may be arranged
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>almost any way, so long as shade and short grass are
+assured. After the apiary grows they may be
+arranged in several convenient ways; one is to have
+the lines of hives facing each other, thus making an
+alley for the bees; while there is a safe passageway
+for the man in the rear of the two rows.</p>
+
+<p>When there are only a few hives, it is best to have
+the entrances face the south. In fact, the entrance
+should never face northward in a climate as cold as
+that of New York State. There is one thing to bear
+in mind in arranging an apiary; make the groups
+under the trees individual, so that the bees will have
+no tendency to become confused as to the location
+of their own homes. If two face west, then let two
+others face east, or perhaps a group of three face to
+the south, etc.</p>
+
+<p>When it becomes necessary, for any reason, to
+change the location of a colony, a board should be
+set against the hive, in front of its entrance. The
+bees, meeting this obstruction as they emerge from
+the hive, will fly about the hive for some time, and
+thus mark the new location, to which they will return.
+If this precaution is not taken, many bees will fly
+from the hive, directly into the field, without noticing
+the change, and will then return to the old location
+and thus be lost.</p>
+
+<p>A honey-house near the apiary is a great convenience.
+If this is not practicable, the next best arrangement
+is a honey-room in house, cellar, or shed. Such
+a room is a necessity even in a small apiary. This
+room should be well ventilated and screens should
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>cover the windows, and a swinging automatic screen
+protect the door; bee-escapes should be placed in
+door and windows.</p>
+
+<p>The room should contain workbench and tools;
+a table, chairs of varying height, an oil-stove, and
+boxes or cupboards in which all of the apiary supplies,
+implements, and machinery may be stored
+and kept ready for use.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_iv" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iv.jpg" alt="">
+<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="ccap">
+    PLATE IV. Hives well shaded by a tree, but the grass ought to have been cut long ago.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">
+    CHAPTER IV
+    <br>
+    THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the remarkable peculiarities of bees, which
+is also shared by other social insects, as ants, wasps
+and termites, is that there are three distinct kinds of
+individuals in the community. For, in addition to
+the males and females, which are the reproducing
+members of the colony, there is a third class which
+performs the labours of the community. The
+females, of which there is usually only one in a
+colony, are known as queens; the males as drones;
+and the labourers as workers. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_v" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_a.jpg" alt="Three bees: A queen, a drone, and a worker">
+  <figcaption>
+    <table class="wd100"><tr><td><i>Fig. 1</i></td><td>
+    <i>Fig. 2</i></td><td>
+    <i>Fig. 3</i></td></tr></table>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate_vb" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_b.jpg" alt="Sketch of a honeycomb, showing queen cells">
+  <figcaption>    <p class="ccap"><i>Fig. 4</i></p><br>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure><figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vc" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v_c.jpg" alt="A small box. A small enterince at one end. A section in the middle is made of fine wire mesh.">
+  <figcaption>    <p class="ccap"><i>Fig. 5</i></p>
+
+
+    <p class="pcap">PLATE V. <i>1.</i> Queen Bee, enlarged. <i>2.</i> Drone. <i>3.</i> Worker. <i>4.</i> Queen
+    Cells. <i>5.</i> Miller’s Cage for Introducing Queens.
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h3 id="THE_QUEEN_Plates_V_VI_VII">
+  THE QUEEN <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plates V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The bee-queen is the acme of a long line of communistic
+development. It is little wonder that those
+men of ancient times who observed her, and the
+attitude of the other bees toward her, regarded her
+as regal and called her queen. But she is a much
+more important element in the perfect commune
+than a mere sovereign, since she is the actual mother
+of her subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Too much care cannot be shown in the selection of
+the queen, or mother of the bee-colony. Her blood
+is their blood; her faults are their faults; her weaknesses
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>are their weaknesses. Any apiarist is likely
+to have had two colonies side by side, perhaps each
+equalling the other in amount of brood and number
+of bees, and one may have produced five dollars’
+worth of honey in a season, while the other did not
+produce half of that; and the queens alone caused
+this discrepancy. One produced energetic, capable
+offspring, while the progeny of the other were unenterprising.
+The offspring of one were perhaps
+sweet-tempered and obliging, and those of the other,
+cross and cranky. Thus it is all-important to give
+the colony a good mother. A queen, to be perfect,
+should be well-bred, handsome and strong, and
+capable of laying from two to three thousand eggs
+per day during the height of the season, and especially
+should she have offspring possessing a kindly
+disposition.</p>
+
+<p>The laying queen is a very graceful insect; her
+body is long and pointed, and extends far behind
+the tips of her closed wings. <i>Svelte</i> is a graphic
+word applied to her figure by the <cite>Spectator</cite>; just a
+glance at her reveals her splendid physical development
+and proves her a queenlier bee than those that
+gather around her. It is a sight that makes men feel
+how very limited is their knowledge of any other
+world than their own to see the queen bee, surrounded
+by her ring of attendants, each with head toward her,
+as if she were the centre of a many-rayed star.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the queen from the egg has
+ever been a most interesting and, at the same time, a
+most puzzling subject for investigation on the part of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>the scientists; even now after a century of study her
+growth is as miraculous as ever; and the problems in
+physiology that lie as yet unsolved in her development
+will keep many an investigator busy in the future.</p>
+
+<p>When a colony is queenless, and has young brood
+or unhatched eggs, it makes haste to develop new
+queens; not one alone, but several, since it cannot
+afford to put its “eggs all in one basket.” At the
+height of the honey season, every day that a colony
+is queenless means two or three thousand less bees
+than should be present to make it successful in
+securing the harvest. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>In developing a queen the bees usually proceed as
+follows: They select the important egg, which
+differs in no wise from any other worker egg, and
+destroying the partitions between its cell and two
+adjoining cells, give it more room. In order to make
+the royal apartment of good size a projection is built
+out over this large cell. This is made of thick wax
+and ornamented on the outside with hexagonal
+fretwork, as if it were to be the basis of comb with
+small cells. It seems as if the hexagonal pattern
+were in the bee brain and must be expressed, whether
+it be of any use or not. As soon as the little white
+larva hatches from the egg, it is fed on the regular
+larval food. Royal jelly is a food developed in the
+head glands of the workers; and when it is the
+fate of a bee larva to develop into a worker, it is fed
+with this food for three days, and then it is weaned by
+having other food substituted; but the queen larva
+is fed with it during her entire development, and thereby
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>her reproductive organs are stimulated and fully
+developed, which is not the case with the workers.
+Think how much farther advanced are the bees than
+we, since, by giving the proper food, they are able
+to develop and fit each class of citizens to do the
+work required of it in the social organisation!</p>
+
+<p>The queen larva is fed for five days on this most
+nourishing food, and then her cell is sealed. Within
+this cell the royal princess is for the first time self-dependent,
+and weaves about herself a silken cocoon
+and changes into a pupa. When she issues from
+this state she waits a little until she “finds herself,”
+and then starts to cut an opening in the cell. She is
+a good mathematician, and with her jaws, cuts a
+circle very accurately, usually leaving it hinged like
+the lid to a pot. Professor Kellogg tells us that sometimes
+when she cuts this door, the workers do not
+wish her to come out. They accomplish their purpose
+by carrying wax and pasting it over the
+opening as fast as she cuts it, at the same time
+quite devotedly feeding her through a small crevice.
+But if they wish her to come out, they rush to assist
+her, and perhaps for two or three days before she
+issues, make the wax thin where she is to cut. It
+usually requires sixteen days to develop a queen
+from the egg to the adult.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vi" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vi.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    PLATE VI. (Original, drawn by A. G. Hammar.) <i>d</i>, head of drone; <i>q</i>,
+    head of queen; <i>w</i>, head of worker; <i>x</i>, ventral surface of worker showing plates
+    of wax.
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_vii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vii.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    PLATE VII. Legs and antenna of the honey-bee (original drawn by A. G.
+    Hammar). <i>A</i>, outer surface of hind leg showing the nine segments and claws;
+    <i>pb</i>, the pollen basket of tibia; <i>B</i>, inner surface of part of hind leg; <i>wp</i>, wax-pincers;
+    <i>pc</i>, pollen-combs; <i>C</i>, inner surface of part of hind leg of queen; <i>D</i>,
+    inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; <i>E</i>, part of middle leg of worker; <i>s</i>,
+    spur; <i>F</i>, part of fore leg showing the antenna cleaner <i>a</i>; <i>G</i>, part of antenna
+    showing sense-hairs and sense-pits.
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When a queen issues from her cell, she is light-coloured
+and, as her body is not yet distended with
+eggs, it is scarcely larger than that of one of the
+workers. Sometimes she chooses to stay in her
+cell for a day or two after it is opened. When she
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>comes out, she runs about over the comb, taking
+exercise on her own royal legs, and perhaps taking
+a little honey out of the cells on her own account;
+especially does she hunt for other queen cells, for
+she has no wish to share her duties or honours with
+another. If she finds such a cell, she usually makes
+a hole in its side, and in some way, she stings to
+death the hapless princess within. Some observers
+claim that she merely takes the initiative, tearing
+down the wall of the cell, and the bees finish by
+tearing it down as they would any broken comb, and
+destroy the inmate in the process. If, in her promenade,
+she discovers another full-grown queen, a
+contest ensues; it is a duel to the death and the
+weapons are stings, which are kept sacred for this
+special occasion. It is interesting that the queen
+reserves her weapon for her peers, and never attempts
+to sting workers, and may be handled fearlessly by
+the bee-keeper. As the plate armour of the bee is
+so arranged that the sting may enter in only at certain
+spots, this duel resolves itself into a fencing match,
+until one thrusts her weapon into some vulnerable
+portion of the other. One morning we found fifteen
+dead queens outside of one of our hives; a grim
+tribute to the prowess of the queen within, and quite
+as much a tribute to our carelessness in letting so
+many queens be developed uselessly.</p>
+
+<p>The belligerent attitude of the queens toward each
+other seems to have been so strong an emotion that a
+voice has been developed to express it, and is eloquent
+with rage and fear. This note must be heard to be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>understood; as nearly as I am able to spell it, it is
+“tse-ep, tse-e-e-ep, tse-e-ep, tsep, tsp, tsp, ts,” in a
+sort of diminuendo. She makes the noise when she
+discovers another queen cell; if there is within this
+cell a full-fledged queen, she pipes back, but it
+sounds quite differently and the note is more like
+“quock, quock.” This piping of queens is especially
+evident before an after-swarm is to issue. The
+queen will also pipe when the bees gather about her
+and try to ball her, which is often the fate of a new
+queen introduced into a colony not ready to receive
+her. In this case the note is one of righteous anger
+at the indignity to her royal person. She makes
+this piping with some vocal instrument, not well
+understood. Her wings vibrate tremulously while
+she is piping, but she can pipe quite as vociferously
+after her wings have been entirely cut off.</p>
+
+<p>After she has made good her title to empire, the
+queen thinks about marriage; some warm day she
+will run out of the hive to see how the world looks,
+and especially to determine beyond doubt upon just
+what point of the universe her own hive is situated.
+The first flight of the queen bee is very pretty to see.
+She makes many graceful circles about, and plays in
+the sunshine as if she were thoroughly enjoying
+herself. When she finally leaves the hive to find a
+prince, she makes several little <i lang="fr">détours</i>, always
+coming back so that she can commit to memory,
+beyond peradventure, the home place, and then off
+she goes in the sunshine to find her lover. Unfortunately
+she is not discriminating in the matter of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>love, and any sort of a prince, however lowly, is
+acceptable. Thus does many a fine, highly bred
+queen return to her hive, to bestow upon her progeny
+the undesirable traits of some low-bred drone. This
+is one reason why it is so difficult to keep an apiary
+of pure blood; and these <i lang="fr">mésalliances</i> of queens are
+a source of much tribulation to the bee-keeper.
+She returns from her wedding journey with a part of
+the reproductive organs of her mate in her possession,
+often still visible, but soon after withdrawn into her
+body. With the sperm cells now under her control,
+she will fertilise the eggs of perhaps a million workers,
+more or less, which she may mother during her life
+of three or four years.</p>
+
+<p>Biologists have of late achieved the miraculous
+in being able to stimulate the unfertilised eggs of sea-urchins
+and starfish, so that they will develop. The
+queen bee is able to do this with her own eggs.
+When the time comes for drones to be developed,
+she lays unfertilised eggs, which, unfailingly, produce
+the drones. If our poor human queens possessed
+this power of producing male heirs at will, much
+trouble would have been saved to many of them and,
+to some of them, their heads. However, the perfect
+socialists do most things better than we.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the queen returns from her honeymoon,
+which is usually taken from eight to ten days from
+the time she issues, she acts decidedly like a business
+person. She runs about on the comb, pokes her head
+into a cell to see if it is all ready, and then, turning
+about, thrusts her abdomen in and neatly glues an
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>egg fast to the bottom. When the honey season is
+at its height, she works with great rapidity; sometimes
+she lays at the rate of six eggs per minute, often
+laying three thousand or twice her own weight of
+eggs per day. She is a wise queen, however, and
+has in mind the dangers of overpopulation. When
+there is much honey brought in, and the swarming
+season is at hand, she enlarges her empire rapidly;
+but when there is little honey, she keeps the amount
+of brood down to what can be cared for. Whether
+this question of limiting the population is decided
+by the queen, or whether she simply acts in response
+to the food given her by the workers, is a question
+not yet settled. However this may be, it is certain
+that Malthusian doctrines are rigorously and successfully
+practised by the perfect socialists of the
+hive.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when the honey flow is very great an
+intoxication of work seems to possess the colony.
+The bees, coming in from the field, will drop the
+honey anywhere, and the queen, agitated by the
+general spirit of the hive, will drop her eggs everywhere;
+and the poor, overworked, bee housekeepers
+have to pick up the honey and store it in the cells,
+and pick up the eggs and glue them fast to the cell-bottoms.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_DRONE_Plates_V_VI_VII">
+  THE DRONE <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plates V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Of all the denizens of the hive the lot of the drones
+is the least enviable. That one may surely fulfil the
+destiny as king father, many are born, only to be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>slain when the honey harvest runs low, and meanwhile
+they are denied all interests in the business
+of the colony except that of pensioners upon its
+bounty. And he, the fortunate one, who lives his
+life to its fullest measure and becomes queen consort
+must in the end lose his life for love and die, heartlessly
+abandoned by her whom he sought and won.</p>
+
+<p>In appearance the drone differs much from the
+queen and the worker; he is broad, and the rear end
+of his body is so blunt that it looks almost as if it had
+been cut off with shears. He is made for a life of
+idleness; his hind legs bear no pollen baskets, so he
+could not fetch and carry if he would; his tongue
+is so short that he must needs eat from honey stored
+in a cell or be fed by his sisters, since he could not
+possibly extract nectar from a deep flower; nor is
+there any occasion that he should hang suspended
+weary hours for the secretion of wax, since he has
+no wax glands. His special accomplishment is his
+buzz, which is of extraordinary calibre and sonorousness.
+So fierce and loud is this, the song he sings
+when on the wing, that the novice feels inclined to
+retreat before him. But this music is undoubtedly
+meant to attract a queen to his vicinity, and is by no
+means a sound of menace; he is a burly, good-natured
+fellow, who is obliged to express himself
+in this rather coarse song. The term “good
+natured” is applied to him, not because we are
+certain that his temper is sweet, but because he has
+no means of expressing ill temper should he experience
+it, since niggard nature has given him no sting.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>He is always a clumsy chap, as awkward as his
+queen is graceful; but he can scramble out of the
+way with astonishing celerity when a murderously
+inclined sister attacks him. The time when he shows
+his princely qualities is when he is flying, for his
+wings are large and strong and carry him easily
+several miles if he needs to travel so far to win his
+lady. In his physical makeup he is a fine example
+of a purely feminine product; for the drone is a very
+perfect creature, even if he is reared from an unimpregnated
+egg. His magnificent compound eyes
+almost completely encircle his head, nearly meeting
+at the top, and thus crowding his simple eyes down
+into his “forehead.” And such eyes as these mean
+something surely, for they are developed that he
+may be better able to see his heart’s desire from afar.
+He also has marvellous antennæ, the nine distal
+joints of which are completely pitted with smelling
+organs. The reason for this is that his queen has a
+fragrance all her own, sweeter to him than the attar
+of roses, and thus he is equipped, as Cheshire has
+proven, with thirty-seven thousand eight hundred
+nostrils, in order to detect the perfume of her royal
+person at a distance. (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, <i>G</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The life-history of the drone after he hatches from
+his unfertilised egg is much like that of other bees,
+except that for him is provided a cell larger than that
+of the worker; he hatches from the egg about three
+days after it is laid, and during the week following he
+is carefully attended by the nurses who feed him on
+the rich chyle food at first; after four days they give
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>him some undigested pollen, a food not granted to
+the larvæ of the workers. At the end of a week his
+cell is sealed over with a cap that looks more like the
+crown of a derby hat than a cap, so spherical is it.
+Cheshire has shown that this cap is an especially
+fine example of engineering, being girdered by six
+struts of wax, the apex of the dome being not a skylight
+exactly, but rather a ventilator for the admission
+of air. (<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>It has been a question of much dispute whether the
+workers inspire the queen to drone-raising through
+building drone comb, or whether she takes the
+initiative in the matter. Certain it is the bees seem
+to love to build drone comb, perhaps because it is
+more easily constructed and requires less wax. It
+is also a fact that the queen prefers the worker cells,
+and in the spring or fall when there is little honey
+coming in, the queen will voluntarily pass drone
+comb, leaving it empty, and lay eggs in the worker
+cells, so she evidently knows her own mind. Sometimes
+when reduced to dire extremity the queen will
+lay worker eggs in the drone cells, but she does not
+do this unless the openings of the cells have been
+previously constricted by the bees. Sometimes also
+when the conditions are abnormal the queen will lay
+drone eggs in the worker cells and from these will
+be developed runty drones, which seem of little
+account. However, such conditions as these are
+very unusual.</p>
+
+<p>When the drone is twenty-four days from the egg
+he cuts a circular lid out of the cap of his cell, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>crawls out into a hazardous world. After a fortnight
+or so of moving about the combs and eating his fill
+he goes out of the hive and tries his wings. This
+he does on some pleasant day, about noon or a little
+after. As soon as he is sure of himself, he makes
+his flight longer, and the length of his journeys may
+only be guessed at. When he meets the queen they
+unite at once in the air, and after this they fall to the
+ground and she frees herself by tearing off and holding
+within herself the generative appendages of her
+dying consort.</p>
+
+<p>In every hive are developed thousands of these
+princes royal, who are maintained at the expense of
+the colony until the dawn of that fatal day when the
+honey crop runs short; and then an unhappy experience
+lies before these useless brothers of the
+reigning house. Then their sisters chase them
+out of the hive apparently attempting to sting
+them, and, changed to furies, bite off their
+wings and harry them until they give up, great
+helpless creatures that they are, and fulfil their
+final destiny, which is to die for the sake of the
+colony.</p>
+
+<p>Even the drone eggs, larvæ, and pupæ are not
+exempt on this appointed day of execution, but are
+ruthlessly killed, and their remains thrust forth
+from the hive. If conditions should change and
+more honey be made, a reprieve to the unhappy
+drone may be granted, for the length of his life is
+measured by the food supply. Any time during the
+summer when the bee-keeper finds the workers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>attacking the drones he may be very sure it means
+that the honey crop is exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>Our pity is usually much more excited for the
+fate of the drone than for that of the busy worker,
+which dies from overwork at the end of a few weeks;
+and this is undoubtedly because the death of the
+worker seems voluntary, while the drones are manifestly
+murdered. Once we witnessed the slaughter
+of the drones in an observation hive, the entrance of
+which was too contracted to allow the bodies of the
+drones to pass. For several days the bloody-minded
+workers spent their energies in tearing their wretched
+victims limb from limb, and carrying them out in
+sections. Below a small crevice at the bottom of the
+hive we found a row of disjointed legs, wings and
+antennæ from the mutilated drones, while the heads
+and broken bodies were thrown out of the front of
+the hive.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_WORKERS_Plate_V_VI_VII">
+  THE WORKERS. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">VI</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">VII</a>.)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that in the socialistic bee-community
+the work is carried on by unsexed
+females. It evidently has not been a part of the
+true economy of the perfect socialism to unite motherhood
+and business life in one individual; therefore, a
+division of labour takes place. The queen mother
+is developed into a highly efficient egg-laying machine,
+while all her worker sisters remain undeveloped
+sexually, and thus have time and energy to devote
+themselves to bringing up the young, keeping the
+house, getting the food, and administering the affairs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>of the body politic. Little wonder is it that the brain
+of the worker bee is much larger than that of the
+queen or drone, for she needs must exercise her
+mental powers far more than either. She is obliged
+also to pass through certain industrial stages in her
+development as a worker before she attains the full
+height of citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>The life-history of a worker is usually as follows:
+The cell in which she is developed is the smallest of
+the comb, such as is ordinarily used for storing
+honey. She is not merely a fatherless creation, like
+the big drone, but hatches from an impregnated
+egg during the fourth day after it is laid by the queen
+mother. She is supplied with royal jelly, presumably
+the same as that which nourishes the queen
+larva, for about three days; afterward she is fed
+honey and digested pollen. This food is placed
+in the bottom of the cell, and the young larva floats
+in it and absorbs it through the body walls as well as
+through the mouth, which a little later she opens up
+pleadingly that it may be filled by the nurse bees.
+She grows like other infantile insects by shedding
+her skeleton skin as fast as she outgrows it; she does
+this with thoroughness, for she sheds the lining of
+the mouth, the gullet, the larger intestines and the
+tracheal tubes as well as the outside, this being a
+very thorough change of clothes, indeed; she does
+this about six times. Soon after she hatches she
+querls up in the cell, floating in her food, and at the
+end of four days’ feeding she is a very fat, contented
+youngster. Six days from the hatching the nurse
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>bees place over the cell, a cap which is made of wax
+and pollen, and admits the air freely. Then the
+young bee in the solitude of her own cell eats all the
+food that has been provided, spins about herself a
+cocoon of finest silk, which she weaves from a gland
+which opens in her lip; this is a very, very delicate
+cocoon, which remains in the cell as a lining, but so
+delicate is it that not until years have elapsed do the
+brood cells become contracted by these many silk
+wrappings of bees which have been developed in
+them. When the worker sheds for the last time her
+skeleton, she sheds the lining of the stomach and
+alimentary canal and all its contents, and changes
+to a pupa, which is a state of utter quiescence and
+during which wonderful changes take place in her
+anatomy. These changes which occur in the pupa
+are almost like new creation, for the legs, wings, antennæ,
+and all of the other organs of the adult bee
+are developed from what was within the body of the
+footless, white grub.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-one days from the date of the laying of
+the egg, twelve days after the cell is capped, the
+worker bee sheds her pupa skin, pushes it behind
+her to the bottom of the cell, cuts a lid in the cap of
+her cell and pushes her way out, very likely after
+some friendly nurse has given her a little food to
+“stay her stomach.” As she crawls out, she is a
+silvery-gray bee, as damp as if she had been out in
+a fog; no one hastens to greet her, or pays her the
+slightest attention, which is quite different from the
+case with the young ant, which is always fussed over
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>and patted and petted by the nurses for some time
+after it emerges from the pupa skin. But the
+worker bee has to pat herself, and so she gives her
+face a rubbing, stretches and tries to straighten out
+her draggled clothing, and walks around trying to
+get acquainted as best she can with her sisters, who
+are too intent upon work to notice her. The first
+twenty-four hours of her life as a bee are spent
+orienting herself; but on the second day she learns
+to put her head down into the cells of unsealed
+honey and drink her fill. This is not a selfish and
+thoughtless act, for almost immediately she enters
+on her first duty, that of bee-nurse; and she must eat
+pollen and honey and digest them in order to make
+chyle for the bee brood, which she soon learns to
+care for most solicitously. It may be her lot to
+supply royal jelly to a queen cell and thus become
+a lady-in-waiting. In any event she very soon learns
+to be useful in many ways; she helps to build comb,
+and works very hard at capping the cells of the young
+bees when they are ready to pupate. She also helps
+to clean house if necessary, carefully removing all
+of the dirt and refuse at the bottom of the hive and
+dumping it out of the front door. During the extreme
+heat of the summer she must exert herself tremendously
+by fanning with her wings so that a draft may
+be set up in the hive for the sake of the bees as well
+as to ripen the honey in the uncapped cells. During
+very hot weather, when the bees hang out, some of
+these young workers may be seen fanning “for dear
+life” on the outside of the hive. Having more zeal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>than wit, they dance a little glide back and forth,
+and fan as if they thought they were really accomplishing
+something.</p>
+
+<p>The young worker usually takes her first flight
+when she has had her wings for about a week; she
+runs out on the threshold of the hive on some pleasant
+afternoon, and may be easily recognised, as she is
+callowness incarnate. She runs around a little,
+giving the impression of holding on with all her six
+feet as if scared, and then she lifts herself gingerly
+to see whether she truly can use her wings; then she
+circles around in great joy and learns to know well
+the place where her hive stands. About a week later
+she goes out into the wide world to seek her fortune
+and is likely to come back with a little load of pollen
+on her legs. When she comes back thus laden
+she buzzes around before alighting, and then rushes
+into the hive excited and delighted with her achievement,
+and as Mr. Root says so graphically, “tries her
+best to show off.” Soon after, she becomes a staid
+worker and plays her part in the economy of the hive
+by bringing in honey, pollen, and propolis, secreting
+wax if need be, ready to defend her colony at the cost
+of her life, and so courageous that she as readily
+attacks a man as a mouse. Later it may fall to her
+lot to become executioner of her brother drones, or to
+devote herself to the queen and help lead out the
+swarm; or, by some mysterious election of the hive,
+she may be sent as a scout to find a proper home
+for her queen and her colony after they have
+swarmed. She is at the height of her powers and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>usefulness when about a month old, and at that time
+she will do any of the duties of the hive which she
+deems necessary, even to helping the young bees in
+the housework. She still has all her fur and her
+wings are as yet whole; but if there is much to do she
+is untiring and unremitting in her labours and, with
+never a thought of self, wears herself out. Her old
+age is evident by the loss of the fuzz, which was the
+pride of her youth, and the segments of her body
+become bald and shiny. Then her hard-worked
+wings begin to fray at the edges until there comes a
+day when, out on her quest for food for the colony,
+the broken wings and tired muscles refuse to support
+her, and she falls into the grass and dies; even
+then her last thought is not for self, but for the
+precious load which she struggles to carry home.
+Better thus for her to die in the field than to faint
+in the hive, for then do her vigorous sisters seize
+her and thrust her forth, and she falls into the refuse
+heap in front of the home, which she has so eagerly
+wasted her life to sustain. There is no gratitude
+and no pensioning in the bee-world; death and
+oblivion are meted mercilessly to the most ardent
+workers when they fail, for thus, and thus only, can
+the colony be kept strong. The individual is nothing
+in the perfect socialism, and the colony is everything;
+the treatment is Spartan, with none of the weakness
+which makes us keep alive the hopelessly insane,
+the idiotic, and the criminal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_LAYING_WORKER">
+  THE LAYING WORKER
+</h3>
+
+<p>When the colony is queenless, worker bees may
+develop the ability to lay eggs. As they have never
+mated, they lay unfertilised eggs, which develop into
+drones, and thus stock the hive with these royal
+cumberers of the commune. It is interesting to note
+the difference in prejudices that obtain in the hive
+and in human society. In the latter we regard it
+as scandalous when the female, avoiding the duties
+of motherhood, goes abroad gathering honey and
+pollen at her own sweet will; but in bee society it is
+not merely a scandal, but a misfortune, when the
+worker bee has ambitions to be a mother. The laying
+worker is a bee gone wrong and a menace to the
+colony. At the same time she is a nuisance to the
+bee-keeper and great may be his tribulation before
+he is rid of her. As might be expected, she does not
+do her work well; she usually does not lay her eggs
+in regular order, as does the queen, but scatters
+them here and there and everywhere, and is quite
+likely to fasten them to the sides of the cells, instead
+of to the bottom. She lays her eggs sometimes
+several together in worker as well as in drone cells.</p>
+
+<p>As a laying worker looks like any other worker,
+it is useless to try to find her. However, her presence
+may be detected by the irregular appearance of the
+brood, and especially by the high drone caps on the
+worker cells and, finally, by a superabundance of
+drones. To meet this difficulty, an ounce of prevention
+is worth several pounds of cure, and great care
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>should be taken to prevent colonies from becoming
+queenless. In case, through carelessness, a colony
+is thus victimised it will usually refuse to accept a
+queen, though sometimes it may be induced to accept
+a capped queen cell. If this is not successful, the
+combs, with the bees adhering, should be removed
+to an empty hive nearby, placing a frame of brood
+containing a queen cell, if possible, and a frame or
+two of foundation in the old hive. The workers,
+coming back from the field, will enter their hive and
+the moved comb will soon be deserted by all except
+the laying worker; she, with her characteristic
+fatuity, will remain on the deserted combs, laying
+eggs until she dies of exhaustion. A surer remedy
+than this, but a more troublesome one, is to unite
+this colony with another, or to scatter the combs
+from the victimised hive, bees and all, among other
+colonies of the apiary; meanwhile giving the depleted
+hive a frame or two of good brood, with a queen cell,
+if possible, so that the bees that return to it will
+find normal conditions. What happens to the laying
+worker when she finds herself in a colony with
+a queen, we do not know. Probably, if she persists
+in laying eggs, she is killed; possibly she forsakes her
+evil ways, and returns to the straight and narrow
+path of respectable citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>We do not understand why laying workers are
+developed. Some have claimed that too much royal
+jelly was given them when larvæ; and some, that after
+a colony is queenless, the jelly is fed to workers and
+thus develops them so they are able to lay eggs.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>They appear among the Cyprian and Syrian bees
+more frequently than among the Italians.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="RACES_OF_DOMESTIC_BEES">
+  RACES OF DOMESTIC BEES
+</h3>
+
+<p>Several races of the honey-bee have been developed
+in different countries. Some of these have
+been imported into the United States, and many
+experiments have been made to determine their
+relative values.</p>
+
+<p>There were no native honey bees in North America
+north of Mexico, and the black or German bees
+were the first to be brought to this country by the
+pioneers. The wild bees which stock the woods of
+our country to-day are chiefly black bees, the descendants
+of swarms which have escaped from apiaries.
+For many years the black or German race was the
+only kind in general use here. Within recent years
+the eastern races of bees, Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or
+Syrians, and also the Egyptians and Carniolans and
+Italians have been introduced. Of all these, only the
+Italians have come into universal favour.</p>
+
+<p>The Italians are the classic bees which were discussed
+by Aristotle, and sung about by Virgil, who
+describes their bodies as “shining like drops of
+sparkling gold.” The Italian worker has five yellow
+bands that mark the front portions of the five segments
+of the abdomen which lie next to the thorax;
+the two posterior bands are made by yellow hairs
+and are therefore likely to disappear as the bee gets
+old and bald. But the three front ones are made
+not only by yellow hairs, but also by the yellowish
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>transparency of the front part of each of the three
+anterior segments, or body-rings. As the segments
+of the abdomen telescope, more or less, these three
+yellow rings may not always be visible. Mr. Root’s
+test is to feed the bee with honey until the abdomen
+is distended and place her on a window pane.
+If three distinct translucent bands can be seen, the
+insect is a pure Italian. If only two bands are evident,
+she is a hybrid.</p>
+
+<p>In comparison with the Italians the black bees are
+inferior in many particulars. Their only superiority
+is that their honey in the comb is a trifle whiter, and
+they are more easily shaken from the frames than are
+the Italians, and thus are sometimes preferred by the
+man who works for extracted honey. Their points
+of inferiority are their nervousness and irritability,
+their tendency to rob, their inability to cope with
+the bee-moth, and the difficulty with which the
+queen may be found.</p>
+
+<p>The Italians are far more “civilised” than are
+the black bees, and seem willing to credit the operator
+with good intentions; they can defend themselves
+better from pests, their queens are more prolific and,
+on the whole, they are more industrious than the
+blacks, and having longer tongues than the blacks,
+they can get nectar from a wider range of flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The hybrids are the result of crossing the Italians
+and the blacks. They are likely to be excellent
+honey-gatherers, but unfortunately they usually
+inherit the irritability of the blacks, which they
+express with the strength and energy inherited from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>the Italians. Therefore, they are not looked upon
+with favour. These unwelcome hybrids are likely
+to appear in any apiary, for, however pure the
+Italian queen, she is likely to mate with a black
+drone in almost any locality.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">
+    CHAPTER V
+    <br><br>
+    THE INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE SECRETION OF WAX</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Very</span> little do we know of the mysterious process
+of wax-making. The interior of the bee is a chemical
+laboratory where no visitors are allowed; at best we
+have been obliged to stand outside and guess at the
+formulas used within. We know that honey enters
+largely into the composition of wax, and that the
+bees when secreting wax usually have pollen in their
+stomachs, although Huber and Cook have both
+demonstrated that bees make successful comb when
+deprived of pollen, and when fed on sugar syrup
+instead of honey. But to make this experiment of
+much value the bees must needs have been deprived
+of pollen all of their lives instead of a few days. It
+seems to be generally conceded that nitrogenous food
+is needed for the best product of wax-manufacture,
+though nitrogen does not enter into the composition
+of the wax itself.</p>
+
+<figure  class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_viii" >
+  <div>
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_viii.jpg" alt="">
+
+    <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div>
+    </div>
+    <figcaption>
+<p>PLATE VIII. DRONE CELLS IN A COMB OF HONEY</p>
+    <p class="ccap">Honey capped over; drone cells bulged out; upper cells partly filled with honey but
+    not capped over.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_ix" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ix.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson</i></div>
+    <figcaption><p class=ccap>
+    PLATE IX. Side of hive removed, showing bees at work; comb being made without artificial foundation.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is variously estimated that it requires from ten
+to twenty pounds of honey to produce one of wax;
+so it is apparent to even the novice in bee-keeping
+that wax is a very expensive product. One of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>results of the process of wax-making is the elimination
+of oxygen from the honey. There is of weight eight
+times as much oxygen in honey as of hydrogen and
+carbon combined; while in wax there is at least
+sixteen times as much carbon and hydrogen as of
+oxygen. Though wax is a fatty substance, yet it
+is not the animal fat of bees, as is so often asserted;
+it is a product especially developed for a far different
+purpose than is the fat of animals. The bees are
+much superior to us in this respect, since they manufacture
+from their own bodies the building materials
+for their homes.</p>
+
+<p>The special apparatus for the secretion of wax is
+very interesting to the student skilled in microscopic
+investigation. The outward or visible portion of
+this apparatus consists of four pairs of little membranous
+plates on the under side of the abdomen;
+these are not visible unless the body is torn apart and
+dissected, because they are on the front portions of
+the second, third, fourth and fifth abdominal segments,
+and each is covered by the rear portion of the
+segment just in front of it. Immediately within
+each of these wax plates is a gland which secretes
+the wax in liquid form, and it passes through the
+membrane by a kind of osmosis, considerably more
+mysterious than is that most mysterious process
+ordinarily. As the wax passes through the membrane
+it hardens and is pushed backward behind the
+segment which covers it and protects the wax plate,
+and appears as a pearly scale on the abdomen of the
+bee. (<a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wax glands, when studied by the histologists,
+are found to consist each of a specialised area of the
+layer of cells that form the active living part of the
+body-wall of the insect. When active these cells are
+much thicker than the corresponding cells in other
+parts of the body-wall; but if examined during the
+winter, they do not differ greatly in appearance
+from other cells of the hypodermis. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>,
+Fig. 5.)</p>
+
+<p>When wax is needed, a certain number of self-elected
+citizens gorge with honey and hang up in
+chains or curtains, each bee clinging by her front
+feet to the hind feet of the one above her, like Japanese
+acrobats; and there they remain, sometimes for
+two days, until the wax scales appear pushed out
+from every pocket. It is not hard to understand
+that, since much honey is needed for the manufacture
+of wax, a bee after filling with the raw material
+would produce much more wax by keeping quiet
+than by using any of the gorged honey for energy in
+moving about and working. But the necessity of
+“holding hands” while this work goes on must ever
+remain to us another occult evidence of the close relations
+of the citizens in the bee commune. (<a href="#plate_x">Plate X.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>While most of the wax is produced from these
+quiescent suspended individuals, yet any bee-keeper
+who is observant has discovered that at the height
+of the honey season many of the workers coming in
+laden from the fields will have wax scales protruding
+from some or all of the pockets. We once captured
+one of our bees, working on a white clover blossom,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>which had six of these wax scales ornamenting her
+abdomen, and which proved her a bee of resource,
+since she was able to work and make wax at the same
+time. However, there is a choice about the wax-making.
+It is no willy-nilly production caused by
+gorging with honey, for it is never made except when
+the colony needs more comb.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_COMB-MAKING_Plate_IX">
+  THE COMB-MAKING <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_ix">Plate IX.</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is often stated that after the wax is secreted
+and pushed through the wax pockets the scales are
+removed by the wax shears on the hind legs of the
+producers, and are passed forward to the front claws,
+and then thrust into the mouth; here the wax is
+warmed and perhaps chewed with saliva and made
+malleable, thus somewhat changing the chemical
+composition and fitting it to be moulded into comb.
+But there is a hiatus in our knowledge just at this
+point as to whether the bees which secrete the
+wax take it off and make comb, or whether other
+workers harvest wax scales from the suspended
+individuals and mould them into shape; or whether
+perhaps the scales fall from the suspended “curtain”
+to the bottom of the hive and there are gathered by
+the ever-busy young workers. Professor Kellogg,
+who studied bees in an observation hive, is inclined
+to think that all of these methods are used, while
+Mr. A. I. Root describes the process graphically thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales but
+a short distance she takes it in her mandibles, and looks as
+businesslike with it thus as a carpenter with a board on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>his shoulder. If she has to carry it from the bottom of the
+honey-box she takes it in a way I cannot explain better
+than to say she slips it under her chin; when thus equipped
+you would never know she was encumbered with anything,
+unless it chanced to slip out, when she will dexterously tuck
+it back with one of her forefeet.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Honey-comb has been the delight of mathematicians
+from the earliest ages. The plan on which it
+is built, if perfectly carried out, would be the incarnate
+perfection of strength and space for holding
+fluid contents. This fact so delighted the earlier
+mathematicians that they set to measuring the
+angles of the cells and their pyramidal bases, with
+truly wonderful results. But with the later methods
+of exact measurement it has been demonstrated
+that the cells are rarely perfect in construction; and
+that the angles, as well as the faces of the rhombs on
+which they are built, vary. Because of this there
+have been developed doubters and pessimists who
+declare that honey-comb is the result of chance;
+and that cells, crowded together, must, from the
+nature of things, become six-sided; and that bees
+are not mathematically wise. With this conclusion
+we do not agree in the least, although we admit that
+the fortuitously six-sided cell may have been a step
+in the education of the bee-artisans. But we would
+ask the pessimists to explain why, if all is chance, the
+bees build so perfectly the central part of the comb
+which forms the bases of the cells. This central
+part is built first and is fashioned of rhombs, which
+are made into alternating three-sided pyramids.
+Who dare assert that reasonably perfect, alternating
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>rhombic pyramids are fortuitous! The fact that the
+combs are rarely perfect in construction proves
+naught against the mathematical prowess of the
+bees; it simply proves that the bees are a practical
+race, and not bigoted, and are therefore unwilling to
+sacrifice everything for the sake of precision. The
+construction of their waxen cells is for economic
+purposes rather than for proving mathematical
+formulæ. Honey-comb shows how economy of
+room, building materials and mathematical theories
+may coincide, and shows also that the bees have
+taken advantage of the fact. Some of the savants
+have asserted that the rectangle or the equilateral
+triangle would have been quite as efficient as working
+plans for constructing cells for storing honey. But
+probably the bees, originally, made their cells to
+fit their brood and would not thus build a cell which
+would surround a larva with unfilled corners. The
+hexagonal cell was better fitted for their needs, so
+they developed it.</p>
+
+<p>After a piece of the central portion of comb has
+been constructed the bees begin, usually, at the
+centre and pull out the sides of the cells from the
+foundation. Experiments in coloured foundation
+shows that this may, if thick, be pulled almost to the
+margin of the cell. This is why bees so readily
+utilise machine-made foundation; they pull out the
+edges of these pressed combs and thus save themselves
+much labour in wax-making. The worker cells
+are a little more than one-fifth of an inch in diameter,
+and a little less than one-half an inch deep; the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>drone cells are a little more than one-fourth an inch
+in diameter and a little more than a half-inch in
+depth. It is interesting to see the comb which has
+in it both worker- and drone cells, and note how the
+transition is made; the two sizes are harmonised by
+a row or two of cells that are irregular. Honey is
+stored in both drone- and worker-cells, usually in
+the latter; although our bees seem to have a fondness
+for making drone cells for storage. When the bees
+begin to cap a cell, they commence at the outside
+and work toward the centre. There is not a prettier
+piece of engineering anywhere than the cap of a
+honey-cell, with six little girders extending from the
+angles of the cell and holding the flat cap at the
+centre. Honey is capped with wax, but brood is
+capped with a mixture of wax and pollen, which
+admits air. Though the cell-walls may be thinner
+than .0018 of an inch, comb is wonderfully strong,
+and may weigh one-twentieth or less than the weight
+of the honey stored within it.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting fact about the manufacture of comb
+is that no one bee constructs a cell and no one bosses
+the job. A bee will come along with a little wax
+and put it in place at the side of a cell, and then
+will run off and do something else; another bee
+passing sees this bit of unfinished work, gives it
+a few pinches and polishes it a little, and then
+does something else. Several bees may thus lend
+a mandible before the cell is perfected. Any bit
+of comb-building seems to be the result of a consensus
+of public opinion and not of individual skill
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>and enterprise. There is a oneness in bee enterprises
+which harmonises capital and labour, and which
+precludes strikes and lockouts.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_PRODUCTION_OF_HONEY">
+  THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>In trying to fathom the mysteries of honey-production,
+scientists have dissected the bee with greatest
+care; but they have usually been obliged to guess at
+the uses of such organs as they could not understand
+by analogy. To-day, after all the excellent work of
+investigators, the process and formulæ of honey-making
+remain unrevealed.</p>
+
+<p>The nectar, when taken from the flowers by the
+bees, is received in a special reservoir, called the
+honey-stomach. It is supposed that the secretion
+from the glands in the head and thorax is added
+to the nectar as it is swallowed, and induces the
+chemical action which, in the honey-stomach, changes
+the cane-sugar to the more digestible grape-sugar,
+and brings about the other changes that finally result
+in the production of honey. The chemical composition
+of honey varies, perhaps for two reasons: It
+may be more perfectly digested sometimes than at
+others; and the nectar of different flowers may vary
+chemically. However, all honey contains water,
+glucose, a small amount each of albumenoids, mineral
+matter, essential oils and formic acid. While most
+of the chemical changes take place in the honey-stomach
+of the bee, yet the honey is made perfect by
+ripening in the cells; these are left uncapped for a
+period of time and the current of air, always in action
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>in the hive, evaporates the water and thus thickens
+the honey.</p>
+
+<p>Ignorant people believe that honey is regurgitated
+from the true stomach of the bee, which is far from
+true. The honey-stomach is simply a reservoir in
+which the honey is made and then stored until the
+bee can empty it into a cell. Her true stomach lies
+behind the honey-stomach and connects with it by
+a mouth that can be opened or closed at will; when
+she wishes to eat some honey, she opens the stomach
+mouth and takes in what she needs. The chyle
+which she manufactures in her true stomach to feed
+the young bees, when regurgitated, does not pass
+through the honey-stomach; instead, the mouth of
+the real stomach is pushed up through the centre of
+the honey-reservoir until it connects directly with the
+æsophagus. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_b">Plate XXVI</a>, Fig. 7 <i>p</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>When an ancient Roman was asked on his hundredth
+birthday how he had preserved his vigour,
+physically and mentally, he answered laconically,
+<i lang="la">Inerius melle, exterius olea</i>—“Inside with honey, outside
+with oil.” He spoke wisely, for honey is undoubtedly
+the most healthful of sweets, because it is
+so largely composed of the predigested grape-sugar.</p>
+
+<p>It is hard for us to realise that, until comparatively
+recently, honey was the only sweet in general use.
+Cane-sugar was not commonly eaten in Europe
+until the seventeenth century, and previous to that
+time honey held sway as the sweetening medium of
+all foods. The amount of honey produced in the
+United States now is estimated to be more than
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>125,000,000 pounds per year, which shows that it has
+retained its value as a food, though it must compete
+with cheaper cane- and beet-sugars. It still remains
+the most wholesome and digestible of all the forms
+of sugar, and should be used even more generally
+than it is at present.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_MAKING_OF_BEE-BREAD">
+  THE MAKING OF BEE-BREAD
+</h3>
+
+<p>Flower wisdom is scarcely appreciated by those
+who deem all wisdom the product of consciousness;
+but if wisdom may be attained through the experiences
+of living and overcoming difficulties, then
+there must be such a thing as flower wisdom. Otherwise
+there would not have been such a prodigal
+production of pollen that a tithe could be spared for
+the bees, to induce them to become common carriers
+of the flower world. Many blossoms which do not
+secrete nectar pay their taxes in pollen, the bread-stuff
+of the bees, while others pay in both commodities.</p>
+
+<p>A bee when gathering pollen for food collects it
+with her tongue and forelegs, mixing it, perhaps,
+with nectar or saliva so it will hold together. It is
+cleaned off the tongue and front legs by the middle
+and hind legs, and by them packed in the pollen
+baskets on the tarsi of the hind legs, and moulded
+there into great golden balls. Little wonder that
+the ancient Greeks, noticing bees thus laden, and
+consequently flying low, declared that the bees of
+Hymettus tied pebbles on their legs to weigh them
+down. (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p>
+
+<p>When the bee arrives at the hive she selects, usually,
+a worker-cell and, backing up to it, thrusts in
+her legs and scrapes off the pollen by a dexterous
+movement like that made by a cook scraping dough
+off her hands. The bee bringing the pollen considers
+her duty done in furnishing the flour, and
+leaves the bread-making to one of her younger sisters,
+who is devoting the day to domestic duties.
+Needless to say, bee-bread is unleavened; it is made
+by the very simple process of packing the pollen
+firmly into the cell, the utensil employed being the
+head of the bread-maker, which she uses cheerfully
+as a mallet for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Bee-bread is necessary as a food for young bees
+and admirably supplements honey in its composition,
+being rich in albumenoids and nitrogen. To our
+taste it is rather bitter and disagreeable, as those of
+us can attest who ate comb-honey from the hives of
+old, before movable frames and supers were generally
+used. However, under the new régime, it is rarely
+placed in the sections of the supers, but sensibly
+stored in the brood-combs, near where it is used,
+and thus seldom appears upon the table.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_PROPOLIS_OR_BEE-GLUE">
+  THE PROPOLIS, OR BEE-GLUE
+</h3>
+
+<p>Though bees are most successful manufacturing
+chemists, yet they are not above using ready-made
+substances if they find such to their liking. Thus,
+propolis is not produced by bees, but is gathered by
+them from various sources, and is used as a cement
+and a varnish. Certain trees and smaller plants
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>protect their buds in winter by resinous coats; and
+it was quite like the adaptable bee to find use for this
+resin in her own domicile.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Huber, whose observations of a century
+ago have been verified, discovered the source of
+propolis; he planted poplars in pots and placed
+them near the hives, and the bees were seen in the
+act of collecting the resin from the buds. They
+have been observed by others, working on the buds
+of the horse-chestnut, birch, willow, alder, and even
+the balsam fir. However, the bees have no prejudices
+in favour of any kind of resin, anything will
+do so long as it answers the purpose; hence they visit
+shops where furniture is being finished and appropriate
+the varnish without saying “please.” And
+Darwin mentions the fact that bees collected a cement
+of wax and turpentine, used to cover trees from which
+the bark has been removed. If any old hives or
+fixtures with propolis on them be left around the
+apiary, the bees make all haste to save every particle
+of the precious stuff.</p>
+
+<p>One of the oldest superstitions about bees is that
+they will gather on the coffin of their dead master;
+and authenticated instances of the kind are on record.
+But this beautiful tradition is made empty of sentiment
+by the assertion that the bees assemble there
+not to mourn their dead master, but to gather the
+varnish from the coffin. Some iconoclasts ascribe
+to this the origin of “telling the bees” when some
+member of the family dies; but we believe this
+beautiful custom originated before varnished coffins
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>were in use, and was the natural outgrowth of the
+close relations of bees and the home for many centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The bee collects the propolis by cutting it off with
+her mandibles and packing it in her pollen baskets;
+and when she arrives at the hive, she never attempts
+to unload it herself, evidently deeming it safer to let
+the sister, whose business it is at the moment to stop
+cracks and crevices, take it from her legs and apply
+it at once.</p>
+
+<p>There are various uses in the hive for the bee-glue:
+It is used as a filler to make smooth the rough places
+of the hive; it holds the combs in place; it calks
+every crack; it may serve as a sarcophagus for any
+intruder too large to be pitched out: snails and slugs
+have been found thus encased; it is applied as a
+varnish to the cells of the honey-comb if they remain
+unused for a time; and it is especially useful as a
+window shade. A nature-study teacher of our
+acquaintance established an observation hive in her
+school-room, which had an uncovered pane of glass
+set in one side so that the pupils might observe the
+interesting life of the hive. To her dismay the bees
+straightway hung a curtain of propolis over the window
+and so shut out intrusive eyes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_x" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_x.jpg" alt="">
+<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by W. Z. Hutchinson</i></div>
+<figcaption>
+    <p class=ccap>
+    PLATE X. Bees hanging in a curtain secreting wax; comb being built in the centre above.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xi" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xi.jpg" alt="A person stands under a tree branch. They are in a full suit with hat and veil. They are reaching up to cut a branch on which bees are swarming. An open bee hive is on the ground nearby.">
+    <div class="attr">
+    <i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div>
+<figcaption>
+      PLATE XI. HIVING BEES<br>Cutting down the swarm.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
+
+<p>One of the chief uses of propolis is to try the temper
+of the bee-keeper. If there is the least crack
+between hive and super, or cover, the two are glued
+together so that nothing but a knife and much muscular
+force can loosen them. Cover blankets are stuck
+fast; the frames are welded to their places by it,
+and it plasters into immobility all the modern appliances
+of the hive which man invented to be movable;
+and section-boxes are so stained with it that they
+have to be scraped before being sent to market.
+Above all, it gets on the hands of the operator, so
+that the digits of each act as one, or not at all, and
+everything touched sticks to them as if they were
+magnets; it also daubs the clothing, and if profane
+men were ever bee-keepers, it would incite them
+to wicked remarks. However, alcohol, applied to
+hands and clothing, solves the difficulty by dissolving
+the propolis; and a bottle of it is a most necessary
+adjunct to the equipment of the apiary. Benzine,
+gasoline, ether, and chloroform are as efficacious
+as alcohol, but not so pleasant to use. Boiling lye
+will clean clothes and apparatus that have become
+clogged with bee-glue.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">
+    CHAPTER VI
+    <br><br>
+    THE SWARMING OF BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>WHY BEES SWARM</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> case of most of the higher animals, including
+man, the species are spread over the face of the earth
+through the simple plan of “marrying off” the
+younger individuals, and allowing them “to set up
+for themselves.” As there is no individualism, no
+indulging in love or hatred for each other among the
+perfect socialists, this plan is manifestly not at all
+adapted to provide for the increase of social insects
+where the colony acts as an individual. The bee
+plan is as follows: When a colony gets large enough
+and strong enough it divides into two. As the
+Amœba, the simplest of animal organisms, divides
+the individual in order to multiply its numbers, so
+the bee-colony as an organism divides and multiplies.
+It is interesting that the method of increase
+characteristic of the lowest order of animals should
+repeat itself among beings so highly organised
+physically, when the individuals merge into a social
+unit. This analogy might well give the social
+philosophers an opportunity for some real thinking.</p>
+
+<p>Much discussion has found place in human annals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>as to whether the queen or the workers take the
+initiative in this hegira of the bees, and much evidence
+is advanced on both sides of the question. But it is
+a profitless discussion for us to indulge in; the more
+we study bees, the more firmly we are convinced that
+we know little of the forces which govern the bee
+body politic. We only know that at certain seasons
+of the year when the successful colony has plenty of
+brood and honey, the old queen and many of the old
+and experienced citizens, go away from the hive and
+form a new colony elsewhere, leaving the young
+queen and the younger bees in possession of the
+homestead, thus reversing the human custom. While
+in the air, or when clustered, the swarm looks
+sufficiently large to be composed of the whole colony,
+yet the swarms are smaller than they look, for rarely
+more than 20,000 bees go away with the old queen.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_BEES_SWARM">
+  WHEN BEES SWARM
+</h3>
+
+<p>The swarms usually come off in June in a climate
+like that of New York State. Some strong colonies
+may swarm in May if the season is early, thus making
+us glad; for the old verse, “A swarm of bees in May
+is worth a load of hay,” is based upon practical
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>The when and the immediate why of the swarming
+of bees are closely connected. There are several
+conditions which conduce to swarming: the presence
+of young queens ready to issue from the cells; the
+crowding of the hive with brood, bees, and honey;
+the presence of too many drones; the extreme heat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>of an overcrowded hive on a hot day; this latter is a
+most cogent reason, and it is well for the bee-keeper
+to shade his hives to prevent this. The swarms are
+likely to issue between 9 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> and 2 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span>, although
+enough swarms come off at unseemly hours to make
+any rule valueless except as a prophecy. (<a href="#plate_xi">Plate XI.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_HIVE_A_SWARM">
+  HOW TO HIVE A SWARM
+</h3>
+
+<p>“The bees are swarming!” These are magical
+words, which arouse every member of that family
+whose pride is a few hives in the garden. It is a
+cry that starts the sluggish blood, and sends a quiver
+of excitement up and down the spinal column while
+one rushes to the scene of action. How gracefully
+that moving mass of black particles undulates in the
+air, as if it were a drifting cloud instead of a self-willed,
+one-minded colony of socialists! How the
+heart rises and sinks inversely to this rise and fall,
+and how hopeless it seems when the swarm lifts
+itself superbly over all surrounding obstacles, and
+disappears above the tree tops! No one who has
+had this experience will wonder at the ancient custom
+which obtains even now in the country districts
+on such occasions of beating tin pans, ringing bells,
+and shouting “whoa” at the top of the lungs. All
+of this racket had its inception in the needs of the
+bee-keeper to adequately express his feelings at this
+crisis. If the bees ever stopped and settled because
+of this din, it was probably from sheer amazement
+at witnessing such folly on the part of human beings;
+this explanation would hold, perhaps, if bees ever
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>evinced any interest in human beings, except when
+they obstruct the bee-path. However, most of our
+ancient customs were founded in utility, and it is not
+likely that this traditional pandemonium would have
+been practised for centuries without some reason.
+Mr. Root, who thinks before he speaks, suggests that
+the swarm follows the queen and the scouts through
+listening to their song, that of the queen being easily
+distinguished from the hum of the workers when on
+the wing; and that it is quite possible, therefore,
+that the noise, if loud enough to drown the voice of
+the queen, would cause confusion on the part of the
+flying bees and a consequent settling. But from
+what we remember of our own early experience, we
+are convinced that the bees were less confused by
+the noise than were the people engaged in making it.</p>
+
+<p>The next most widely practised of the ancient
+methods is that of throwing dirt on the swarm to
+stop it; this certainly is efficacious if there happens
+to be enough loose earth at hand. However, throwing
+dirt is a reactionary performance in the physical
+as well as the moral sense; and usually the bee-keeper
+who throws dirt at a soaring swarm must
+needs stop soon to get the motes out of his own eyes
+before he is able to see where the swarm has alighted.</p>
+
+<p>In these enlightened days everyone who has a
+cherry tree or an apple tree, a currant bush or a
+potato patch, is sure to have a fountain pump of
+some sort; and never is this instrument a greater
+boon than when it throws a fine spray upon an
+absconding swarm of bees. It brings them to a stop
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>very soon; it may injure the feelings of the bees, but
+it certainly does not injure them physically, as it
+simply impairs their power of flight by wetting the
+wings. Even after a swarm has settled, a little
+sprinkle of water will keep it clustered safely until
+the hive is made ready to receive it.</p>
+
+<p>It is highly desirable that the swarm should cluster
+on the tip of a branch not far from the ground;
+for then the process of hiving is comparatively simple.
+My personal plan has been to place a sheet,
+kept for the purpose, on the ground near the clustering
+swarm; place on this a covered hive filled with
+frames containing brood foundations. Lift the
+front edge of the hive about an inch by putting
+blocks under the two corners; then cut the branch
+above the cluster, and taking it in hand shake the
+bees off in front of the hive and placidly watch them
+hive themselves with true bee celerity. This use of
+the sheet is a habit formed in childhood, and I persist
+in it, though my partner derides the practice. He
+shakes the bees down on the board on which the hive
+is standing; or he takes the top off the hive, and
+shakes the bees down among the frames in the most
+summary fashion. But I think the sheet makes a
+softer mattress for the little citizens to fall upon, and
+certainly they find their way from it more easily into
+the hive. I am a conservative person, and like to do
+things as I always have done them before—a conservatism
+that is by no means dangerous in our apiary
+where the senior partner is given to new ways and
+many inventions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span></p>
+
+<p>If the bees alight high in a tree, then our methods
+have been to get at them by climbing the tree, or
+attaining the branch by the use of a ladder. However,
+I doubt if there was ever a fruit found on any
+tree that needs quite so much care in the picking as
+does this; and it is decidedly a ticklish performance
+to clamber down a tree holding gingerly a branch
+laden with a swarm of bees in one hand and clutching
+at supporting branches with the other. Sometimes
+the bees are not accommodating enough to
+alight on the end of a branch that may be cut off.
+They may even go so far as to cluster on the large
+branch itself; then there is nothing to do but to
+brush them off in a box with a bee-brush, a performance
+which they object to; or to dip them off
+with a tin dipper, or to jar them into a basket, and
+then to dump them out in front of the hive. The
+most embarrassing situation of all is when the swarm
+clusters on a tree trunk. Squaring the circle is not
+a much more difficult feat mathematically than to
+brush all the bees into a square box from this cylindrical
+position. It is usually necessary to bring the
+smoker to help in elucidating this problem; for,
+paradoxical as it may seem, smoke properly applied
+clears up many a situation in the bee business.</p>
+
+<p>If only one were able to find the queen in the clustering
+swarm and secure her by placing her in the
+hive, the work would be easy, for the other bees
+would soon follow. But to hunt for the queen in
+the clustering swarm is, for most of us, quite like
+hunting for the traditional needle in the haystack;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>and while we are hunting we are wasting precious
+time, as the swarm may make up its collective mind
+to remove from our vicinity its component atoms.
+In shaking, or dipping, or brushing the bees into the
+hive, we should remember to deal with them as
+gently as the situation and mental perturbation will
+permit.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the bees seem to feel defrauded at having
+a house chosen for them, and insist upon swarming
+out of their new quarters within a day or two
+after they are placed in possession. Thus it is a
+wise precaution to give the hives of the newly
+swarmed attention for two or three days, lest they
+indulge in this sort of perversity. If the bees seem
+unsettled and unhappy, and hang around home
+instead of going into the fields to work, it is advisable
+to place in the middle of the hive a frame of unsealed
+brood taken from some other colony. A bee’s
+motherly instinct may always be depended upon,
+since caring for the young is a shining civic virtue
+as well as a domestic duty among the bee-people.
+When there are helpless larvæ to care for, the bees
+willingly forego every personal inclination to pack
+up and move, and cheerfully proceed to give the
+youngsters every attention.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="DECOY_HIVES">
+  DECOY HIVES
+</h3>
+
+<p>When the self-appointed scouts of a bee-colony
+start out house-hunting for the swarm which is about
+to issue, they evidently examine the premises carefully;
+if they find a house for rent in the immediate
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>neighbourhood, they are likely to go no farther in
+their quest. Thus it is the practice of many bee-keepers
+to place about the apiary hives empty, except
+for brood-frames filled with foundation, hoping
+thus to entice the swarms to take possession, and save
+all trouble. Mr. Root goes so far as to advise that
+such hives be fastened in the lower forks of trees in
+the neighbourhood of the apiary, and thus provide
+a most expedient bee-tree. A decoy hive should not
+contain more than three brood-frames, as other
+frames may be added when the bees move in. The
+reason for this is that the sheets of wax foundation,
+when sufficiently close together for the convenience
+of the bees, prove also entirely convenient for the
+occupancy of the bee-moth; and one ought to be
+particular about one’s tenants when renting houses
+in the apiary.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. West’s device for saving swarms is the most
+alluring of any about which we have read. Since
+the clipped queen cannot fly, she expresses the aspiration
+within her breast by climbing anything at
+hand, like a blade of grass or a shrub. Mr. West
+observing this, drives a bare, forked branch into the
+ground a few inches in front of the hive, having
+cleaned the ground between it and the hive of all
+obstacles. This branch having a few twigs upon it,
+is leaned away from the hive entrance. The queen
+promptly climbs this tree, like Zaccheus, and the
+swarm clusters around her and remains there conveniently
+at hand for hiving.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_HIVING_BEES">
+  MAXIMS FOR HIVING BEES
+</h3>
+
+<p>Clip the old queen’s wings.</p>
+
+<p>Go through the hives every ten days to destroy
+queen cells.</p>
+
+<p>As the swarming season approaches, have hives
+ready with foundation in brood-frames, and hive stands
+ready to receive them.</p>
+
+<p>Keep a serene spirit while hiving bees.</p>
+
+<p>The hive in which the colony is placed should be
+kept cool and not heated from standing in the sun;
+it should be shaded, as the swarm will not enter a hot
+hive.</p>
+
+<p>If the bees refuse to accept a hive, give them a
+frame of unsealed brood to reconcile them.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">
+    CHAPTER VII
+    <br><br>
+    HOW TO KEEP FROM KEEPING TOO MANY
+    BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Aye</span>, there’s the rub!” For the beginner who
+wishes to keep a few bees, this is the most difficult
+problem to solve on the bee-keeper’s slate, and it
+must finally be solved by each according to his own
+capacity and method.</p>
+
+<p>We confess frankly that we were once driven out
+of the bee business because we were too successful.
+Caring for fifteen or twenty hives was a delightful
+avocation. We kept our colonies strong, for we
+wished to make comb-honey; consequently, splendid
+swarms came off, and we had the fatal gift of seeing
+them when they came and of hiving them successfully.
+Thus our avocation began to intrench upon our
+vocation in a most alarming manner. While we
+enjoyed taking care of our bees, we were nevertheless
+following the vocation which we had chosen, and
+which we liked best; and the time came when we
+were obliged to decide whether we would leave our
+regular business and become bee-keepers, or abjure
+bee-keeping and attend to our regular business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<p>We gave away what swarms we could and we sold
+some; but selling bees is a business quite as much as
+caring for them, so that was not practicable. Philosophically,
+we argued that since we had enough bees
+we would let the swarms that came off abscond and
+bid them God-speed; but here we reckoned without
+properly considering the amount of human nature
+which had fallen to our share. Although we knew
+that every swarm in our apiary above twenty would
+be an embarrassment and a tribulation, we could
+never rest content not to hive a swarm when it
+issued; and the more unattainable the place where it
+clustered and the less we wanted the bees, the more
+determined we were to secure that special swarm.</p>
+
+<p>Such inconsistency brought its own punishment,
+and our only resource was to sell out; and for many
+years the spot in our garden which our apiary once
+occupied was never viewed without a sense of loneliness
+and longing for its busy little tenants. During
+these years we thought it over and finally came
+around to the right frame of mind, and firmly concluded
+to keep bees for our own honey and our own
+happiness. We limited our ambitions to ten
+hives; and last summer when our best-tested Italian
+queen took us unawares and departed with a large
+and enthusiastic following, we did not mourn; all we
+did was to venture to hope that the young queen left
+in the hive had mated with one of our own handsome
+drones, and not with a mad black prince from one
+of Mr. Coggshall’s take-care-of-itself apiaries in our
+neighbourhood. As soon as our new brood made us
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>sure that our queen had made no <i lang="fr">mésalliance</i> we
+were entirely content.</p>
+
+<p>Our lack of success in preventing swarming when
+trying to produce comb-honey was a source of great
+chagrin to us until we read that so eminent a bee-keeper
+as Mr. Hutchinson declared that “there is
+no way of preventing first swarms profitable to the
+comb-honey producer,” and then our feelings were
+salved. The following are in brief a few of the
+more successful ways practised to prevent increase:</p>
+
+<p><i>By clipping the queen’s wings.</i>—Almost all bee-keepers
+practise this now, whatever their method of
+preventing increase or securing it. A queen with
+clipped wings is necessarily a “stay-at-home body,”
+and the swarm will not leave without her. However,
+when depending upon this method it is very important
+to guard against the hatching of new queens, and
+this can only be done by closely scrutinising the brood-comb
+to discover and destroy the queen cells. The
+brood-frames should be examined in each hive about
+once a week during the months of June and July, if
+this method is to succeed. Many a time have we sat
+smilingly by and watched a swarm come out of the
+hive with great pomp and circumstance, only to sneak
+back when it was discovered that her majesty was
+unfit for travel.</p>
+
+<p><i>By the use of a queen trap.</i>—This is a device used
+by some instead of clipping the wings of the queen.
+It is a box of perforated zinc placed over the entrance
+of the hive, the slots in it large enough to allow the
+workers to pass in and out, and small enough to hold
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>back the queen and drones. Although this method
+saves time, yet comparatively few recommend it.
+The cost of the trap is one objection; but the greater
+objection seems to be that it inconveniences the
+workers when returning from the fields; and is,
+therefore, likely to affect the amount of honey stored,
+since much time is lost and some annoyance occasioned
+to the bees by being obliged to squeeze through;
+it also scrapes the pollen off their legs. (<a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI.</a>)</p>
+
+<p><i>By giving-room.</i>—Supposing that our queen is
+clipped or confined, which is the first step, the next
+is to give plenty of room in the brood-chamber.
+Lack of room for brood and honey is one of the
+most potent reasons for inducing swarming. So
+the first thing to do after the disappointed swarm
+comes back to the hive is to tier up the supers. It is
+also well to remove from the hive a frame or two of
+brood which may be put in the hive of some weaker
+colony; in place of the removed frame is substituted
+another containing a starter of foundation; and the
+would-be swarm, finding that there is plenty to do, is
+content to remain at home for a time.</p>
+
+<p><i>By extracting honey.</i>—It will often pacify a colony
+to take the frames from the brood-chamber and
+extract the honey from them. This may be done
+when the brood is present, if care is taken not to
+run the separator so rapidly as to throw out the
+larvæ, a performance quite as distasteful to the young
+bees as to the consumer. However, this should not
+be practised unless much honey is coming in, as
+otherwise the brood may be starved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>By using large hives.</i>—Many bee-keepers of high
+standing have practically solved the swarming
+problem by using large hives. The Dadants,
+well known on two continents as successful apiarists,
+use the large Quinby hives in their own apiaries, and
+have introduced them into France and Switzerland.
+The Dadant-Quinby hive has about the capacity
+of a twelve-frame Langstroth. The frames are both
+deep and large, measuring 18½ by 11½ inches, and so
+give the queen plenty of room. The Dadants have
+no trouble with swarming, as only enough swarms
+come off to make good the winter losses in their
+apiaries.</p>
+
+<p>There are three reasons why we have not used
+these large hives: first, they are too heavy to handle
+well, being altogether too productive of backaches.
+Second, they are necessarily much more expensive,
+as wider pieces of perfect lumber are used in the
+making. Third, and most important to us of all, we
+find it difficult to produce comb-honey in a large
+hive; when the bees have so much room in the brood-chamber,
+they discover no reason for carrying honey
+up into the supers. If we made extracted honey, as
+do the Dadants and the European apiarists, we would
+certainly use the larger hives, simply to be rid of this
+nuisance of constant swarming. The colonies grow
+to be so much stronger in the larger hives that they
+are much better able to withstand the vicissitudes of
+winter than are smaller colonies, which is a great
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p><i>By the brushing or shaking-out method.</i>—When the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>bees at the beginning of the honey-flow seem to be
+getting ready to swarm, the hive is moved to one
+side of the stand and on the exact site is placed
+another just like it, which contains frames set with
+foundation-starters. As gently as possible the bees
+are shaken or brushed from the frames of the old
+hive upon the threshold of the new, great care being
+taken to include the queen. The supers from the
+old hive are then placed upon the new hive with a
+queen-excluder between. The old hive may stand
+beside the new one until the brood has emerged,
+when all of the inhabitants of the old tenement are
+shaken in front of the new habitation. This shaking
+of a colony into a new hive so surprises and confounds
+the bees that they get the impression that they have
+already swarmed, and go to work with all diligence
+in their new quarters. The partly filled supers
+from the old hive encourage them mightily in the
+ways of well-doing.</p>
+
+<p><i>By dividing swarms.</i>—This method we have
+practised with quite satisfactory results. The
+troublous question is just when to divide. If we
+divide too soon we weaken the colonies, and decrease
+the honey harvest. If we wait until too late, the bees
+do the dividing themselves. The process is as follows:
+The queen’s wings are clipped before the new
+queen is to emerge, and she is placed in a new hive
+furnished with brood-frames containing foundation-starters;
+enough of the bees are taken to the hive
+with her to start a good colony, and the deed is done.
+However, the fact remains that in this way the number
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>of colonies is increased as much as if the swarm had
+come off naturally.</p>
+
+<p><i>By removing the queen.</i>—Some apiarists remove
+the queen during the honey-harvest and cut out all
+the queen cells. They give the queen a nucleus if
+they wish more brood; meanwhile the colony will
+not swarm without her. Whether queenless bees
+are as easy in their minds and, therefore, as ready
+and enthusiastic in the task of gathering honey, is a
+mooted question. Bees, like people, work to the
+best advantage when they have fewest worries.
+One difficulty with this method is that before we are
+aware of it a queen may be reared despite our careful
+and <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: onorous" id="onorous">onerous</ins> labours in hunting for queen cells.
+Another difficulty with this practice is the encouragement
+of the egg-laying workers, which is a most
+demoralising influence to introduce into a hive.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="AFTER-SWARMS">
+  AFTER-SWARMS
+</h3>
+
+<p>An after-swarm is one that is led by a virgin queen
+and may come off within sixteen days after the first
+natural swarm departs; usually it occurs within a
+week. Most bee-keepers consider the after-swarm
+as a manifestation of “pure cussedness” on the part
+of a colony; but it is only a poorly adjusted method
+practised by the bees for getting rid of superfluous
+princesses. After the old queen decamps with her
+followers, there are usually several queens ready
+to emerge from their cells; the ordinary story, as
+told in books, is that the first queen that emerges
+hastens to slay her yet helpless sisters, or battles with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>them singly until but one queen is left in the hive;
+and this actually does occur often. However, there
+are differences between bee-colonies, as there are
+between individual people, and every young queen
+does not seem blood-thirsty; or perhaps in some
+instances the citizens restrain her from carrying out
+her murderous intent, and try to get rid of her by
+sending her forth with as many followers as can well
+be spared from the parent colony. Other queens
+may issue, and if this charitable instinct still persists,
+another and still another swarm may be sent out.
+This misguided kindness to young queens is as
+demoralising to the colony as unwise giving of alms
+is in the human world, and finally a swarm may be
+sent off so small that a teacup would hold it. Of
+course, this means certain death to all of its members.
+Finally the limit of endurance is reached, and with
+the last possible swarm are sent out all the young
+queens left in the hive save the one retained as queen
+mother. Whether the workers send out these burdensome
+members of royalty as a measure of good
+riddance, or whether in their excitement they fail
+to guard the queen cells and so let them out and
+they voluntarily join the procession, is not as yet
+surely ascertained. One of the formalities of the
+after-swarm is that before it occurs the queen sounds
+her pibroch, a tune which probably excites her
+listening subjects to rash departure. The bee-keeper
+gets to know this sound very well, and when
+he hears it, he knows that an after-swarm will issue
+very soon unless he does something immediately to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>prevent it. One thing particularly exasperating
+about the after-swarm is that the virgin queen, being
+lighter bodied and lighter minded than the old
+queen, may take the occasion of swarming to get
+married, and go on her wedding journey; and thus
+is likely to lead her followers a mad chase and leave
+her proprietor so far in the rear that he loses the
+swarm entirely.</p>
+
+<p>For the real reason of after-swarming we must
+look upon the colony as an individual; and as nature
+is wasteful in the production of individuals, these
+weak after-swarms are analogous to the weaklings
+among animals or plants, which must be sacrificed
+for some inscrutable reason on the altar of the
+preservation of the species.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="PREVENTION_OF_AFTER-SWARMS">
+  PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Hutchinson practises the following method:
+When the first swarm comes off he places it in a new
+hive like the old one, and puts the new hive on the
+exact site of the old one, while the latter is moved
+away just a little and faces in a different direction
+than before. The new hive has four or five frames
+with foundation-starters, and on it is placed the super
+with partially filled sections from the old hive, with
+a queen-excluding board between the two; thus the
+new swarm, having no brood ready, will store in
+the supers until the brood-comb is built. Most of
+the bees from the old hive, returning from the field,
+will enter the new hive because the entrance to the
+old hive is turned away. The old hive is then turned
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>a little each day, until its entrance, which should be
+contracted, is parallel to the entrance of the new
+hive, and very close to it. If, on the seventh day
+after the first swarm issued, the old hive be removed
+to some new location, its numbers will have been so
+depleted that there will be no attempt to send off
+after-swarms.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_UNITE_COLONIES">
+  HOW TO UNITE COLONIES
+</h3>
+
+<p>If two colonies are weak late in the season, it is
+often best to unite them. This may be done by
+moving the hives nearer to each other, a little each
+day, until they are side by side. The queen of one
+colony is killed, the best frames from each hive are
+alternated with each other in one hive, and the
+bees shaken into this; the other hive removed, and
+the one remaining placed midway between where
+the two stood. Sweetened water flavoured with
+peppermint may be sprayed over both colonies just
+before uniting, so that they will all be scented alike.
+The above is the method advised by Professor Cook.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">
+    CHAPTER VIII
+    <br><br>
+    THE HIVE, AND HOW TO HANDLE IT
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE BROOD-CHAMBER</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> essential parts of a hive are the following:
+A bottom board, the first story, or brood-chamber,
+containing frames for the support of the combs, and
+a cover. When extracted honey is to be produced,
+a second story like the first may be placed between it
+and the cover; when it is desired to have the surplus
+honey stored in section-boxes, one or more shallow
+stories containing the section-boxes are placed above
+the brood-chamber; these shallow stories are known
+as the supers.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly the brood-chamber was a mere cubiform
+box with two horizontal cross-pieces passing through
+the centre at right angles to each other for the support
+of the combs. Sometimes the bee-keeper
+furnished the bees with a hive made from a section of
+a hollow log, with a board nailed over one end for
+a cover, or the hollow log was placed in a horizontal
+position. Such a hive was known as a “bee-gum,”
+probably because it was often made from the trunk
+of a gum tree; but the bee-gums with which we were
+familiar in our childhood were made from hollow
+basswood logs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p>
+
+<p>To-day in every well-regulated apiary the brood-chamber
+is furnished with the movable hanging
+frames for the support of the combs, which were
+invented by Langstroth a half-century ago, or by
+some modification of these frames. It was the
+invention of these frames that made the science of
+modern bee-keeping possible. A large part of the
+manipulations of the hive is dependent upon the
+ability to remove the combs from the hive separately.
+Two of these frames, one empty and one
+containing a sheet of foundation, are shown in
+<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>. These are of one of the newer styles,
+known as the Hoffman self-spacing frames. In these
+frames the upper part of the end-bars are wide, so
+that, when the frames are in contact, there is room
+for a bee-way between the combs; the lower part of
+the end-bars are narrower, so that the bees can pass
+freely around the ends of the frames.</p>
+
+<p>In the old days, and at present in some apiaries
+where home-made frames are used, the spacing
+between the frames has to be done by eye or rather by
+finger; the thickness of the tip of the finger between
+two frames being necessary to afford a bee-way.
+But with the new frames in the market to-day this is
+done away with, as they are arranged to space themselves,
+thus relieving the novice of much anxiety and
+some embarrassment in deciding whether his finger
+is as thick as that of the average apiarist. Also
+in these newer frames a little staple at each end of the
+top sets each frame exactly right in relation to the
+ends of the hive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+<p>Before the frame is placed in the brood-chamber
+it is to be supplied with a sheet of comb-foundation;
+this insures the building of the comb in the desired
+position, so the frames can be removed from the hive.
+Bees do not naturally make their combs straight,
+but curve them so that they are less likely to be
+broken. It is necessary, therefore, in order to
+get straight combs to confine the operations of the
+bees within set bounds; this is done by putting a
+sheet of foundation in each frame.</p>
+
+<p>One of the attractions of bee-keeping is that much
+of the material we work with is pleasing, and some
+artistically beautiful. A sheet of foundation-comb
+made of the most delicate wax, frescoed on either
+side with rhomb insets in hexagonal pattern, is a joy
+to the artistic eye. It is absolutely necessary that
+the foundation should be put into the frame in such
+a manner that it will not sag or bulge when it is built
+out into the comb and filled with the heavy honey or
+brood. To keep these large sheets from bulging and
+breaking they are held in place by fine wire which
+is strung back and forth across the frame, passing
+through holes made with a small awl in the end-bars.
+These holes should be about two inches apart, the
+upper one one inch from the top bar, and the lower
+one something less than an inch from the bottom
+bar, making four wires in the Langstroth frame.
+After these holes are made, put a small tack at one
+end near the lower hole, twist the wire around it, then
+thread the wire back and forth, making four wires
+parallel with the top and bottom bars, and fasten
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>the wire with a tack; care should be taken not to
+draw the wire too tightly; simply draw up the slack.</p>
+
+<p>The sheets of foundation as sold by the dealers are
+a little smaller than the space in the frame, so that
+when they are fastened to the top bar a bee-space is
+left between the sheet and the bottom and end-bars.
+See <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The sheet of foundation is fastened to the top bar
+of an ordinary frame by means of a Van Deusen
+wax-tube fastener, which is simply a hollow tube that
+may be dipped in and filled with the hot wax which
+issues through a small hole at the sharp, bent end of
+the tube; as the point is drawn along where the
+foundation and frame meet it leaves a stream of hot
+wax that seals the two together. However, the most
+satisfactory way is to get brood-frames, like the
+Hoffman, which have two grooves in the top bar.
+Set the foundation in the groove at the centre, and
+introduce a strip of wood which is wedge-shaped in
+cross-section, thin edge first, into the adjoining
+groove, driving it or pressing it in hard so that it
+pushes the thin partition over, and wedges the
+foundation firmly in place. These strips for wedging
+come with the frames.</p>
+
+<p>After the foundation is fastened to the top bar the
+frame and foundation are laid, wire side up, on a
+board just the size of the piece of foundation so that
+it will slip inside the frame. This board is kept wet
+to prevent the wax from sticking to it. Then we use
+the spur wire-embedder, which is like the tracing-wheel
+used by dressmakers, except that the teeth
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>are spread apart alternately so that they pass astride
+the wire and press it down into the foundation; to do
+this successfully, the foundation should be warm;
+working near a lamp or in a warm room will suffice.
+Embedding the wires by heating them with electricity
+instead of using the spur-embedder is a common
+practice in large apiaries where electricity is
+available, or where it pays to buy a battery with
+proper attachments. This outfit with the dry cells
+costs about five dollars, and is a paying investment
+when the apiary is large. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_SUPER">
+  THE SUPER
+</h3>
+
+<p>The super is that part of the hive that is placed
+above the brood-chamber and is designed to receive
+the surplus honey, either comb or extracted.</p>
+
+<p>When extracted honey is produced the super may
+resemble the brood-chamber described above, or it
+may not be so high, fitted to receive a frame little
+more than half as deep as the standard Langstroth
+frame used in the brood-chamber.</p>
+
+<p>When comb-honey is produced, the super is only
+about half as high as the brood-chamber. For this
+reason a hive consisting of a brood-chamber and one
+super for comb-honey is termed a one-and-a-half-story
+hive. (<a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>A complete super fitted for comb-honey consists
+of the following parts: (1) The outer wall, which
+is of the same length and width as the brood-chamber
+and of the right height to hold the style of
+section-boxes used; on the lower side of each end a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>tin strip is fastened to support the fixtures that it is to
+contain; (2) the section-boxes; these are the wooden
+frames containing the comb-honey when it is placed
+on the market; each holds about one pound of honey;
+four of these are shown in the <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>; (3) the
+section-holder; this is a rack fitted to hold and
+support one row of section-boxes, as shown in
+<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>; when in place in the super, it rests on the
+strips of tin mentioned above; (4) the fence; this is
+a device placed between the rows of section-boxes
+to keep the bees from building the comb beyond the
+edges of the section-boxes; the style used with the
+plain or no-beeway section is shown in <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>;
+the vertical cleats on this fence provide for a bee-space
+between it and the section-boxes, so that the
+bees can build out the comb even with the edge
+of the section-box; (5) the super springs; these are
+three flat springs, fastened to the inner face of one
+side-wall in such a way that they press the fences and
+the section-boxes closely together. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>There are several types of supers in use that differ,
+in certain details, from the one described above.
+In some, the rows of section-boxes and fences are
+pressed together by thumb-screws which pass
+through one side-wall of the super. Many bee-keepers
+still use section-boxes with beeways, that is,
+boxes having the top and bottom narrower than the
+two sides. When such boxes are used, the fences
+lack the vertical slats, or posts; in fact, a simple strip
+of tin may serve as a fence.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the section-boxes in use now are made of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>a single piece, which is dovetailed at the ends and
+has three transverse V-shaped grooves cut in one
+side so that it can be bent into shape, as shown in
+<a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>. These flat basswood sections afford very
+pretty material with which to work. The novice,
+in putting them together, almost always bends them
+with grooves outside at the corners, instead of
+inside, and then wonders why they are askew, and
+break. We wet the sections where they are grooved
+before we begin working with them. This may be
+done by brushing each individual flat with warm
+water, which is a very tedious process; but it is better
+to take a handful of them as they lie, the grooves
+all in a line, set them on edge and pour a little water
+from a pitcher on the grooves. This wets many at a
+time with little trouble. To set up a section, it
+should be taken in the hands, grooves up, bend the
+ends upward evenly, fastening the dovetailed edges
+together gently. Haste and jerkiness are as disastrous
+in handling sections as in handling bees.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation for the comb-sections is much
+lighter in weight than that intended for the brood-frames.
+Some apiarists fill the entire section with
+this foundation, except for the bee-spaces at the bottom
+and at the sides. But we never do this, unless
+we are obliged to do it to coax the bees to use the
+supers; for it is not so satisfactory as to use a narrow
+strip for a guide at the top of the section, as a starter
+to show the bees where to build the comb. We cut
+these strips about an inch deep and almost as wide
+as the section, and, with the Daisy fastener, fix each
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>strip at just the middle line of the upper bar of the
+section. The objection to filling a section with a complete
+sheet is, first, the expense of the foundation; and,
+secondly, that it is likely to give a tough central portion
+or “fish-bone” to the comb-honey. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_PREPARE_THE_SUPER">
+  HOW TO PREPARE THE SUPER
+</h3>
+
+<p>If they are not ordered set up ready for use, the
+supers come in flat pieces with dovetailed ends, and
+putting them together is a pleasing occupation,
+after one has learned how. The best way to learn
+how is to carefully observe a super already properly
+set up; for, though the directions for putting these
+together are as plain as may be, yet a person may err
+therein and yet not be a fool. Unless one has
+learned, or can learn, to drive a nail, one had best
+not undertake bee-keeping, for the bee-keeper must
+become a carpenter to be successful; it adds much
+to the interest of the occupation to make all sorts of
+things for one’s own bees. The principle on which
+the super is built is that it may hold the sections
+tightly in place, and not allow them to drop through.
+Therefore, at the bottom of the super, along each
+narrower end, is a tin strip to support the ends of the
+section-holders; to keep the ends of the section-holders
+even a wedge-shaped strip of wood is nailed
+across the end of the super, thick edge down and
+flush with the bottom edge, resting against the tin
+strips. We use the Hetherington super springs,
+one at each end and one at the middle of one side
+of the super; the trick of putting these in is to set
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>them opposite the posts of the fence, one at either
+endpost, and one at the middle post, else the spring
+will be of no use. Driving in the sharp end of this
+spring successfully requires a little practice. The
+super is now ready to be filled. (<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII.</a>)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xii_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class=ccap>(<i>a</i>) Two self-spacing frames; one of them fitted with a sheet of foundation.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xii_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+<p class=ccap>(<i>b</i>) An empty super, showing the springs and the wedge-shaped
+    piece at the end.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100 pb2" id="plate_xii_c" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii_c.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption><p class=ccap>(<i>c</i>) The Doolittle division board feeder.</p>
+  <p class=ccap>PLATE XII.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiii.jpg" alt="A man in a white shirt, vest and straw hat is kneeling on the grass next to an open beehive. He is holding one frame aloft, it is covered in bees.">
+<div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div>
+<figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XIII. EXAMINING THE BROOD-FRAMES</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>First place a fence in the super on the side opposite
+the spring; then a section-holder filled with four
+starters, always remembering that these foundation-starters
+should be at the top of the section. Then
+place another fence and another section-holder. The
+eight-frame super will hold six of these rows, with
+fences between and one on each side. Putting in
+the last fence is the final test of whether the springs
+are in the right place, for, if they are right and press
+against the posts of the fence, it will be very hard
+to push in this last fence; when it is in, the sections
+are all held snugly in place. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III</a>, <a href="#plate_xv">XV</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Where the super is placed on the hive, it should
+closely fit the top of the brood-chamber, with no
+cracks between. If the hive has a flat cover, which
+leaves only a bee-space above the sections, the cover
+may be placed immediately above the super, with
+nothing between. With covers like the telescope
+cover, a super-cover is needed. This may be a
+quilt or a piece of enamelled cloth; but we prefer a
+super-cover made of a thin board, bound on the
+ends to prevent warping, which is now on the market.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_HANDLE_THE_BEES">
+  HOW TO HANDLE THE BEES
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is generally believed, and for good reasons,
+apparently, that bees like some people and despise
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>others, who are just as good, so far as we can detect.
+This apparent capriciousness has been explained
+in many ways. Some hold that the bees have a
+fine sense of smell, and thus distinguish us by odours
+rather than by sight; and in this case their ire is
+aroused because they do not like the perfume
+exhaled by the obnoxious person. Others claim
+that it depends upon the movements; if one
+moves nervously and quickly, he is much more
+subject to attacks. It is certainly true that if a bee,
+which is buzzing threateningly, is struck at, she
+becomes more enraged and is more certain to sting,
+but this is because she recognises an aggressive foe
+because of the act. However, the senior partner
+in our apiary is an exceedingly active and nervous
+man, and I have seen him move with all haste and
+energy while working with bees, and though he
+seldom uses bee-veil or gloves, he is rarely stung.
+Our bees seem to be acquainted with him, and
+accept his rapid movements as one of the common-places
+of bee existence. It is well for anyone who
+wishes to work with bees to spend some time in the
+bee-yard just watching the little citizens coming and
+going, and listening to the peculiarly soothing hum
+which always fills the air around the hives. It is
+sympathy with the bees more than actions that
+finally results in handling them without harm.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_OPEN_THE_HIVE">
+  HOW TO OPEN THE HIVE
+</h3>
+
+<p>First of all, fire up the smoker. The way to do
+this properly is to place some easily ignited material
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>in the bottom of the fire-chamber, touch a match to
+it, and crowd in above it material which will make
+plenty of smoke, and will not burn too rapidly;
+give a puff or two with the bellows to be sure that
+the fire is started. We have used excelsior in our
+smoker because it was near at hand, but it is not a
+perfect or lasting fuel. Fine chips, especially
+planer shavings, old rags, greasy cotton waste, and
+even pine needles are used. Anything is desirable
+that will make a smudge and will not burn out too
+quickly; for when we are working with the bees we
+have little time or inclination to stop and “putter”
+with the smoker; and we cannot afford to have the
+smoke give out at the critical moment when we most
+need its protecting incense. A minimum amount
+of fire with the maximum amount of smoke is the
+desirable quality in the smoker. If the fire gets too
+hot the blasts will burn the bees, which is an outrage,
+and which is never permitted by a civilised individual.
+The <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Cornell" id="Cornell2">Corneil</ins> smoker has a hook attached to
+the bellows, so it may be hung on the edge of the
+open hive to be at hand in time of need. If it becomes
+too hot, we lay it flat on the ground so as to
+stop the draft. Each time after the smoker is used
+it should be emptied, otherwise it is likely to start
+a conflagration. We have an ash pail near the
+apiary in which we always empty the smoker on our
+way back to the bee-room. Mr. Root speaks of
+never using the smoker until it is needed; when his
+bees trouble him, he gently pats them on the back
+with a little grass to get them out of his way as he
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>lifts up the frames. And we never can admire Mr.
+Root enough for dealing thus gently with his bee-people.
+But we would not advise the novice to
+try this, as a person has to be on very intimate terms
+with bees to be able to pat them on the back with
+grass and impunity. However, this is an ideal to
+work toward. The nervous beginner almost invariably
+uses too much smoke, and this makes his
+little dependents unhappy. The breathing of
+smoke is hardly a pleasant experience for us, and it
+seems to be still more distressing to the bees. We
+remember once how, in the enthusiasm of our novitiate,
+we inadvertantly smoked the bee-man instead
+of the bees in our misguided efforts to help,
+and the result was a blueness of the atmosphere
+which rendered more smoke superfluous.
+Every beginner ought to get at least one headache
+from the fumes of the smoker to teach him
+charity and care.</p>
+
+<p>There are several reasons why the hive must be
+opened, aside from the fun one derives from the
+experience. First, the brood needs to be examined
+occasionally to see that it is all right, and in the fall
+the brood-comb must be examined to see that there
+is enough honey stored within it to winter the bees.
+Second, during the swarming season to find and
+remove the queen cells. Third, to hunt for the
+queen to be sure she is present and active, or perchance
+to find her and clip her wings. Fourth, to
+take off supers filled with honey. A warm day
+should be selected for opening the hive for whatever
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>reason, and the middle of the day is the best time
+for the work.</p>
+
+<p>Send two or three puffs of smoke in at the entrance
+to drive back the frightened sentinels who keep careful
+watch of the portals of the hive. Then lift one
+edge of the cover of the hive a little and send two or
+three puffs in the crack; then lift off the cover and
+set it down beside you; then lift the quilt or super-cover
+at one edge, and give two or three puffs of
+smoke beneath it to drive the bees down among the
+frames, always remembering that under ordinary
+circumstances a very little smoke is necessary to
+frighten and subdue the bees. In fact the same
+rule applies to smoking bees as to smoking tobacco;
+if one is moderate in its use, the least harm will
+result.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_EXAMINE_THE_BROOD-CHAMBER_Plate_VIII">
+  HOW TO EXAMINE THE BROOD-CHAMBER. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Stand at one side of the hive, and not in front of it.
+Hang the smoker on the side of the hive, so as to
+have it within reach. Mr. Root advises sitting on
+the cover of the hive set on edge while you examine
+the brood-frame. This will do for a well-poised
+person, but we prefer a little stool, which we can
+carry easily from hive to hive, as we wish something
+that we can sit on calmly as the situation requires.
+Commence at one side and loosen the outside section
+with a knife, or what is better, an old screw-driver.
+Take the frame by the projecting ends, and lift it up
+so that you may examine it on one side, then twirl it
+half-way over to examine it on the other. It requires
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>some experience to placidly lift out a frame, covered
+with what at first sight looks like a dark, boiling,
+viscous fluid, fit only for a witch’s cauldron, but
+which soon to the startled eye resolves itself into bee
+particles. If the brood must be examined or queen
+cells found, then it becomes necessary to get rid of
+this seething, enveloping bee-mass, which is done in
+a manner that seems like nothing less than tempting
+Providence. The brood-frame is seized firmly in
+the operator’s hands, and held about waist high in
+front of the hive, then let to drop, hands and all,
+swiftly to within about six inches of the doorstep of
+the hive, then suddenly jerked back again; the bees
+being heavy and receiving the downward impetus,
+keep right on as a man keeps on when his bicycle
+stops suddenly in a rut—with this difference that the
+bees land safely at the entrance of the hive, into
+which they scamper as soon as their dazed wits will
+allow. One would naturally think that the bees
+would attack the active agent of this indignity, but
+while bees are ever ready to fight recognised enemies,
+they have evolved no plan of action which is equal
+to a cataclysm, except to get under cover as soon as
+possible. Thus being shaken from their foundations
+is to them what an earthquake is to us, and the
+attitude of Riley’s boy is theirs.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container fs90">
+  <div class="poetry">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <div class="verse indent0">“Where’s a boy a-goin’ an’ what’s he goin’ to do,</div>
+      <div class="verse indent0">An’ how’s he goin’ to do it, when the world bu’sts through?”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus it is that among the first accomplishments
+of the apiarist is the one that enables him skilfully
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>and with dispatch, and without harming the individuals
+to shake the surprised little mob off the frame
+or out of the boxes, to a place where its members
+may recover shelter and equanimity as expeditiously
+as possible.</p>
+
+<p>After the comb is freed from the bees, it requires
+some experience with honey-comb topography to
+see at a glance just the condition of the brood.
+There may be cells that look empty until a ray of
+light reveals at the bottom a glistening egg; and
+there may be cells with a little milky substance at the
+bottom in which the young larva is floating; or in
+some cells the bee grubs may be distinctly seen if
+they are four or five days old. If the cells are
+capped, it may puzzle the novice to know what lies
+behind that closed waxen door. If the cells contain
+honey, the substance of which the cap is made
+is whiter than that which covers the brood. In case
+of worker-brood the cap is depressed slightly below
+the plane of the comb, which is not the case if the
+cells contain honey. The large size of the drone
+cells distinguishes them readily from the cells of the
+workers. Often honey is stored in drone cells, for
+the bees seem to like to make these larger cells, and
+for good reason, since they give greater storage
+capacity for the amount of wax used. However,
+the drone cells which contain brood are covered
+with dark, dirty, yellow caps which are quite convex,
+looking like kopjes on the comb plain. At the
+height of the honey season there should be plenty
+of brood, and later the cells in the brood-frames
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>should be filled with honey. The cells containing
+bee-bread are not capped, as this staff of bee life is
+packed so hard that it does not need to be covered.
+All honey remains uncapped until it is properly
+evaporated and ripened. (<a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>After one frame has been thus examined, it should
+be leaned up against the side of the hive so as to give
+space to lift out the next frame without crushing the
+bees.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_FIND_THE_QUEEN_CELL">
+  HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN CELL
+</h3>
+
+<p>Fortunately for us, this is quite prominent, being
+a veritable oriel in shape. However, there may be
+other excrescences of the comb which somewhat
+resemble a queen cell; sometimes the queen cell may
+be more or less embedded and so escape observation.
+The bee-keeper who is cocksure that he can find all
+the queen cells in his hives has to be most experienced,
+and even then cocksureness may come to grief.
+But this unglazed oriel window in which the queen
+develops is usually quite noticeable, and is ordinarily
+decorated with a small, hexagonal pattern
+in relief. We have often wondered if this was
+done for the sake of decoration, or because the
+bees are so in the habit of fashioning wax into
+hexagonal patterns that they do it involuntarily.
+For the person who rashly asserts that honey-comb
+is the result of fortuitous force and pressure,
+this queen cell with its hexagonal frescoes
+is a poser. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>To cut out the queen cell a sharp, pointed knife
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>is necessary, in order to injure the comb beneath the
+cell as little as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_FIND_THE_QUEEN">
+  HOW TO FIND THE QUEEN
+</h3>
+
+<p>If we simply need assurance that the queen is
+present and active, the discovery of eggs or young
+larvæ in the cells is sufficient evidence of her presence,
+and saves the tiresome search for her majesty. But
+if we wish to find her, she is usually present on the
+middle frame of the hive. It is not safe to pull out
+this middle frame from the narrow place which it
+occupies for fear of hurting the queen and crushing
+the other bees; so it is best always to take out an end
+frame, first looking at it carefully to make sure she
+is not upon it; then shake off the bees and set it
+beside the hive, and move the other frames along
+in the space thus made until we are able to remove
+the middle frame with ease. It requires some experience
+to ferret out the queen from the bee-mob
+which seethes over the comb. The burly, big, blunt-ended
+drones are much more readily detected.
+However, after a little training in the devious ways
+of royalty one becomes expert in seeing that long,
+graceful, pointed body extending far back of the
+wings which characterises the queen. If the bees
+are not too much disturbed, she is likely to be surrounded
+by a rosette of workers, all with their faces
+toward her, for even in the court of the hive etiquette
+does not permit that the ladies-in-waiting turn their
+backs to the queen. If for any reason the queen is
+to be lifted out, she should be seized by the wings or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>thorax or imprisoned in a queen trap, but never
+under any circumstances should she be seized by
+the abdomen. (<a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>, Queen trap.)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="CLIPPING_THE_QUEENS_WINGS">
+  CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WINGS
+</h3>
+
+<p>This does not mean cutting off all four of the
+wings, but that the wings on one side should be
+clipped, leaving stubs not more than an eighth of an
+inch long. Various devices have been invented to
+aid clumsy hands in cutting off the royal petticoats.
+One, the Monette queen-clipping device, is a little
+cone-shaped cage made of wire laid in spirals. She
+goes into this cage head first and the door is shut
+behind her. Then the scissors are slipped between
+the spirals at the proper point and the deed is done.
+Another simple device is a bit of section-board
+whittled in the shape of a tiny bootjack with a rubber
+band stretched rather tightly across the prongs.
+The forks are placed across the queen so that the
+rubber presses against the thorax, thus pinning her
+fast to the comb while she is barbered. The only
+skill needed in this device is in fixing the tension of
+the rubber band so that it will be sufficient to hold
+her majesty fast, and yet not stiff enough to hurt her.
+Our invariable plan is as follows: After the queen
+is discovered, we hold the brood-frame in one hand,
+pick up her royal highness in the other most gently,
+then still more gently set the frame down, leaning
+it against the hive; then, holding her royal person
+firmly but carefully in our own unworthy thumb and
+fingers, clip her wings with presuming scissors; then,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>putting the scissors down as we pick up the frame,
+and put her back as nearly as possible on the spot
+where we found her. We always use the sharp-pointed
+embroidery scissors for this delicate operation.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_TAKE_OFF_HONEY_IN_SUPERS">
+  HOW TO TAKE OFF HONEY IN SUPERS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Lift the hive cover and quilt with a slight introduction
+of smoke, then lift off completely. Smoke
+from above for a moment, being very careful not to
+burn the bees, always remembering that smoke is
+meant to scare and not to punish. Then loosen the
+super with a screw-driver if the bees have fastened
+it down with bee glue, lift it and place it on a bottom board
+near at hand. Put on an unfilled super if it
+is needed and cover the hive. Lift the honey-sections
+out of the super, brushing off the adhering
+bees with a bee-brush, so that they will fall on the
+doorstep of the hive, and place each section as it is
+cleaned in a basket or box in which it is to be carried
+to the store-room. This is our usual way of procedure
+when our apiary is small, and we do this
+work during spare moments which are not predictable
+the night before. However, there is one best
+way to do this work, and that is to put on a Porter
+bee-escape the night before the super is to be removed.
+Wise from experience, we advise beginners
+to study this device and become imbued with a knowledge
+of its workings to the extent of being able to
+tell which is the upper and which the under side, lest
+disastrous results ensue and all of the bees escape
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>into the super instead of out of it. If the bee-escape
+is placed on the night before, there will be no
+bees in the super when it is removed next day. To
+introduce a bee-escape one does not need to lift off
+the super; simply lift it up at one side, send a little
+smoke into the crack, push in the bee-escape, and
+then set it straight upon the hive and the super
+straight upon it. (<a href="#plate_iii_a">Plates III</a>, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">XVIII.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>The novice might conclude that a good plan would
+be simply to set off the super near the hive, and let
+the bees find their own way back to their brood and
+kindred. But bee-nature has to be reckoned with
+in this instance, and the bees, conscious that the
+honey is their own, are likely to uncap the cells and
+carry the honey into the hive; or worse still, the bees
+from other hives will be attracted to these open
+stores and will begin to rob. And in the bee courts
+of equity, when bees begin to rob, then the “devil is
+to pay.”</p>
+
+<p>There have been various bee-tents devised under
+which the supers are placed after being removed
+from the hive. These tents are arranged with a
+little hole at the top by which the bees may escape,
+but may not return. Doctor Miller invented a simple
+plan of piling several supers filled with honey on
+top of each other, leaving no crevices between them;
+over these was spread a cloth with a hole in the
+middle, over which was placed a wire cone with a
+hole in the top large enough to let a bee pass out.
+Thus the bees from all of the sections escaped, one
+by one, and robbing was avoided. However, the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>bee-escapes introduced between the super and the
+hives are used to-day by most enterprising bee-men.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="OBSERVATION-HIVES_Frontispiece">
+  OBSERVATION-HIVES <span class="fs90">(Frontispiece)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Anyone who has worked long with bees, cannot
+fail to become filled with curiosity concerning the
+way their work is carried on in the mysterious darkness
+of the hive; to such a person, the observation-hive
+is a source of perennial delight, as well as of
+interesting and useful knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Observation-hives have been used by bee-keepers
+from the time of Huber to the present, and naturally
+many forms of them have been devised. The type
+in most common use now is a small hive, containing
+one, two or three frames, and furnished with glass
+sides, through which the bees can be observed. The
+glass sides are covered with a door or curtain, except
+when observations are being made; for, if not, the
+bees will cover the glass with a coat of propolis, rendering
+it opaque.</p>
+
+<p>It is somewhat difficult to keep a colony in good
+condition upon a single frame; and if two or more
+frames are used side by side the observer is unable
+to see what goes on between the frames. Professor
+Kellogg, of Stanford University, has devised a perfectly
+satisfactory two-frame observation-hive for his
+laboratory. It consists of a glass-sided box, large
+enough to hold two Langstroth frames, one above
+the other; as both sides of the comb are exposed,
+any individual bee may be kept constantly in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>sight while she is working. The passage which
+leads from the hive to the opening in the window
+has a glass top, so the actions of the bees as they
+enter the hive may be watched. A hood of thick
+black cloth is pulled down over the hive when the
+observations are finished. Similar observation hives
+may be purchased of dealers in apiarists’ supplies.</p>
+
+<p>Such an observation-hive would be of great value
+to the enterprising bee-keeper, as it would be the
+means of helping him to understand conditions
+which were puzzling, and thus aid him in dealing
+with crises that are sure to occur. The advantage
+of this hive over any other is that frames from any
+hive may be kept under closest observation. But if
+the hive were a means of interest merely, it would
+still be worth while, for the bee-keeper cannot know
+too much about the ways of bees, <em>supposing all he
+knows is true</em>.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_OPENING_THE_HIVE">
+  MAXIMS FOR OPENING THE HIVE
+</h3>
+
+<p>Have the smoker ready to give forth a good volume
+of smoke.</p>
+
+<p>Use the smoker to scare the bees rather than to
+punish them.</p>
+
+<p>Do not stand in front of the hive lest the bees
+passing out and in take umbrage.</p>
+
+<p>Be careful not to drop any implements with which
+you are working; take hold of all things firmly.</p>
+
+<p>Move steadily, and not nervously.</p>
+
+<p>Do not run if frightened, for the bees understand
+what running away means as well as you do.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p>
+
+<p>If the bees attack you, move slowly away, smoking
+them off as you go.</p>
+
+<p>If a bee annoys you by her threatening attitude
+for some time, kill her ruthlessly.</p>
+
+<p>If stung by a bee, rub off the sting, instead of
+pulling it out with the nails of the thumb and forefinger
+and thus forcing more venom into the
+wound.</p>
+
+<p>Ammonia applied to the wound made by a bee-sting
+will usually afford immediate relief.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">
+    CHAPTER IX
+    <br>
+    DETAILS CONCERNING HONEY
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>HOW TO MAKE COMB-HONEY</h3>
+
+<p><span class="fs90">Every</span> bee-keeper who sends to the market honey
+in the comb enfolded in an attractive carton, or with
+the section neatly glazed, has produced a work of
+art; for comb-honey as now marketed is an æsthetic
+production, and the bee-keeper is an artist as much
+as if he had painted a picture or had fashioned a
+jewel. To most people who have an apiary as a
+pleasurable adjunct to life in the country, the production
+of comb-honey is most attractive, while the
+production of extracted honey does not appeal to
+them at all. Just the word “honey” calls to the
+mind of most people a vision of amber sweetness
+set in white-walled, waxen cells.</p>
+
+<p>The production of comb-honey is attended by
+more difficulties than is the production of extracted
+honey. The reason for this is largely because the
+bees work more readily in cells already made from
+which the honey has been extracted, than they do in
+sections where they must undertake all of the expense
+and labour of producing wax for the comb. More
+than this, honey may be extracted from the comb
+of the brood-chambers, a harvest which is lost to the
+producer of comb-honey.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+
+    <p>(<i>a</i>) Alley’s queen and drone trap.</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>    <p>(<i>b</i>) A well filled section.</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xiv_c" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv_c.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>    <p>(<i>c</i>) One empty section-holder, and one filled with section-boxes, in which
+    are foundation-starters; two of these have been added to by the bees.</p>
+  <p>PLATE XIV</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xv" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xv.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XV. One and a half story hive for comb-honey; the super is filled with section-boxes.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For the production of comb-honey it is necessary
+that the colony winter in excellent condition and
+develop much well-fed brood early in the season,
+so that there shall be a great number of active young
+workers in the hive just before the chief honey-harvest
+of the summer begins. In New York State
+we have two large honey harvests, that of the basswood
+in July and the buckwheat in August, so our
+colonies are made strong and ready by the last of
+June. In order to have the bees ready to work, the
+swarming fever must be subdued or controlled before
+this period of honey-flow. The colonies are carefully
+watched early in the season, and if after the first
+pollen-gathering occurs there is no honey coming in,
+the bees are fed so that the brood may be developed.
+We rarely have to feed at this season of the year as
+the fruit bloom gives our bees plenty of honey for
+rearing their brood, and we never expect any surplus
+before the basswood season.</p>
+
+<p>The supers are put on when there is plenty of
+brood and plenty of honey to feed to it in the hive;
+and under such conditions our bees, though Italians,
+usually push up into the sections at once. We
+prepare the sections with mere strips of wax foundation
+for starters. (<a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>Supers thus equipped put on at this time and under
+such conditions seem to take away all desire to
+swarm on the part of the bees, if the queen cells have
+been previously removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p>
+
+<p>If the brood-chambers are crowded when the super
+is put on, the queen may go up into it and start
+brood. This rarely occurs with us, but in case it
+does a queen-excluding honey-board may be introduced
+between the super and the brood-chamber.
+Sometimes a colony seems unwilling to go into the
+super after it has been added, and the bees will hang
+on the outside of the hive and threaten to swarm,
+and through doubt and vacillation lose two or three
+of the precious days of the basswood harvest.</p>
+
+<p>The usual reason why the bees will not go into
+the super is that they are not sufficiently crowded
+below; if they have room they prefer to store their
+honey in the brood cells rather than carry it to the
+upper story.</p>
+
+<p>If a colony is strong and has plenty of brood and
+honey and is still obstinate, men of experience
+advise the taking of a frame of sections from a colony
+which is storing in the supers and putting bees and
+all in the midst of the unused super of the reluctant
+colony. We have never tried this because we were
+never obliged to. It sounds very practical and
+sensible, and it is practised by Mr. Root, and that
+is sufficient recommendation.</p>
+
+<p>Our way of coaxing the bees into a super which
+they have sedulously ignored is to place in it some
+of the imperfect sections, which are not worth much
+in the market and which contain some capped
+honey and many empty cells. One section-holder
+filled in this way seems to encourage the reluctant
+colony to climb and to store as rapidly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p>
+
+<p>In large apiaries the following plan is followed:
+First, put on a super of shallow extracting frames
+from which the honey has been removed; as these
+cells are all ready, the bees are likely to go to work
+in them at once; and after they are working well
+raise the super, and put in one below it filled with
+sections containing starters, and all will be well.
+In dealing with this phase of bee-keeping it is well
+to remember that full sheets of foundation in the
+sections are more attractive to the bees than starters;
+and that sections containing comb already made are
+still more pleasing, and if some of these made cells
+contain honey, their attractiveness is doubled. One
+condition should be observed in putting on a super
+in the summer: it should be shaded in some way;
+if it is in the direct rays of the sun, the heat is likely
+to keep the bees out of it. However, later in the
+season bees may be induced to work in the super
+by placing over it a cushion so that it will be warm.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="TIERING_UP">
+  TIERING UP
+</h3>
+
+<p>If the honey is coming in at a good rate, and the
+bees are working well, when the sections in the super
+are something more than half full, lift it up and place
+another containing sections with starters beneath
+it. The reason for this is that the bees would not
+naturally go into the empty super if it were placed
+on top until the other was completely filled. But
+with this plan they continue working in the super,
+even though it be on top, and meanwhile find it
+“handy” to fill the intervening sections. If the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>honey-flow is great, even another super may be
+placed next the hive and below the other two. However,
+in our practice we rarely put on more than two,
+usually taking off the top one when we need to interpolate
+another. This process is called “storifying”
+in the English books, which is a most graphic term
+and should be introduced into our nomenclature.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="TAKING_OFF_SECTIONS_Plate_XX">
+  TAKING OFF SECTIONS. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xxa">Plate XX.</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>In taking off the sections we do not need to wait
+for the completion of every one in the super. The
+outside rows are rarely perfect, and we usually put
+these unfinished sections back on some other hive
+to be finished.</p>
+
+<p>These unfinished sections, if not too empty, serve
+very well to sweeten the daily bread of the home
+table. If sent to the market they bring low prices,
+and the bee-keeper who is working for comb-honey
+should plan to have as few of them as possible. While
+the honey left long in the super has a much finer
+flavour than that which is removed early, yet care
+should be taken not to leave the sections on
+the hive so long that the comb becomes soiled.
+It is an interesting fact that honey ripened in
+the hive gains special richness, as if it were
+somehow imbued with the spirit of the little
+socialists that make it.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xvi" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xvi.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Brown Brothers</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class=pcap>
+
+    PLATE XVI. Drone and queen trap, below; queen mailing and introducing cage, above at the left; queen-protector
+    and queen-cage used in queen-rearing, in centre; and bee-escape, at the right.
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xvii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xvii.jpg" alt="A woman stands under an apple tree in full blossom. She is wearing a long sleeve full length dress, and her arm reaches up to the branches. A story hive with lid on, sits at the base of the tree.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XVII. “IN APPLE-BLOSSOM TIME”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Toward the end of the season it is best not to tier
+up, but to place an empty super on top. The bees
+will not use it unless necessary, but will devote their
+energies to the sections below. The great danger
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>to be avoided in tiering up is a surplus of partly
+filled sections, and the way we avoid this is not to
+interpolate a super until the one on the hive is at
+least three-fourths filled.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="STAINED_SECTIONS">
+  STAINED SECTIONS
+</h3>
+
+<p>A regular part of bee exercise consists of promenading
+up and down and across the sealed honey;
+the bee has not as yet, unfortunately, attained the
+fastidiousness which leads her to wipe any of her
+six feet carefully before entering her domicile, consequently
+the sections of honey thus walked over
+may be stained and unmarketable. There is no
+remedy for this except to look after the supers carefully,
+and take out the sections before they are
+soiled.</p>
+
+<p>Some sections may look dirty because old wax is
+used in making the caps. If such is the case, and
+it is simply yellow, the wax may be bleached by
+standing it in the sun or by subjecting it to sulphur
+fumes. Some apiarists have special rooms and
+others tight boxes for the sulphur bleaching. Only
+two things are necessary to accomplish this successfully;
+first, that the room or box be tight; second,
+that the sulphur placed in an iron dish be heated
+so that the fumes are strong and all-pervading. Some
+say that the sulphur should be heated so that if a
+match be touched to it, it will flame. The combs
+need not be subjected to such fumes more than
+a half-hour to become as white as they can
+be bleached.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="SCRAPING_THE_SECTIONS">
+  SCRAPING THE SECTIONS
+</h3>
+
+<p>In preparing comb-honey for the market, it is
+necessary to first scrape the propolis from the
+sections so as to leave the wood white and beautiful.
+To do this the section should be set square on and
+in line with the edge of a table, and below should be
+a pan to receive the scrapings. Hold the section
+firmly in one hand and scrape the side that is in line
+with the edge of the table with a downward stroke
+of the knife; a case-knife is best for this. To scrape
+the wood clean and not in any way injure the honey,
+and to do the work rapidly, measure the skill attained
+in this business. In scraping the sections it is best
+to have four of the shipping-boxes at hand, so that
+the honey may be graded and placed in its proper
+class as it is cleaned.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="GRADING_COMB-HONEY">
+  GRADING COMB-HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>First, as to the way the sections are filled, or in
+other words, as to the bee technique. There are
+three grades—Fancy, No. 1, and No. 2. In the
+fancy grade almost every cell is well filled, and the
+comb has the surface evenly built and well capped.
+No. 1 has an even surface and is well filled, but may
+not be so perfect in the corners as is the fancy.
+No. 2 must be at least three-fourths full. Anything
+below No. 2 is called chunk honey if sold in the
+comb, but it is more profitable to extract honey from
+all sections that range below No. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Second, as to the colour of honey: It is graded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>as white, amber, buckwheat and dark, and these
+need no explanation. Thus honey is listed perhaps
+as “fancy white,” or “fancy buckwheat”; in each
+case it is the best of its kind.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="SHIPPING-CASES">
+  SHIPPING-CASES
+</h3>
+
+<p>These should be ordered rather than made, as a
+good-looking shipping-case adds materially to the
+value of the honey. These cases come in different
+sizes, and have one side made of glass so that the
+handlers may see that the contents are fragile, and
+therefore may possibly be persuaded to deal with
+them gently; the cases come in flats and are easily
+put together. For anything that looks so well put
+up as honey sealed in its perfect cells, it has a most
+amazing capacity for leaking. Once, in the enthusiasm
+of girlhood and inexperience, I carried some
+honey carefully packed in a box in my trunk, hoping
+to give a friend a treat. Needless to say that honey
+was “linked sweetness long drawn out,” by the time
+I arrived at my destination; and all the clothes that
+I carried in my trunk were literally “too sweet for
+any use.”</p>
+
+<p>Shipping comb-honey to market is likely to be a
+disastrous performance at best, since it is almost
+impossible to guard against careless handling. Some
+ship in glass-covered sections which protect the
+comb, and make a very attractive appearing product.</p>
+
+<p>Shipping the sections in cartons is winning its way
+now for fancy grades. A carton is a pasteboard
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>box which may be bought in flats with the shipper’s
+name printed upon it. While these cartons may be
+bought in almost any style, from perfectly plain to
+those highly ornamented, and provided with tape
+handles, yet we believe there is a chance for personal
+initiative in this particular field. An artistic design
+in pretty colours, individual and unique, would
+certainly prove a special attraction for selling honey
+in cartons. The great advantage gained from the
+use of the carton is that the honey reaches the consumer
+in a neat package without further handling,
+and may be carried like a box of bonbons. When
+cartons are used the shipping case should be a size
+larger than for the plain sections.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MARKETING_COMB-HONEY">
+  MARKETING COMB-HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>There are two ways of marketing honey open to
+most bee-keepers. First and best, the local market.
+If the honey can be placed in the hands of the grocer
+directly from the bee-keeper, certain advantages
+accrue. The comb is not broken by much careless
+handling, and it reaches the market in good shape.
+Though the price may be somewhat lower perhaps
+than the highest quoted prices, yet it is reliable, and
+there is no discount for breakage in shipping, and
+for differences of opinion in grading. It is certainly
+far more satisfactory for all concerned to place
+comb-honey on the home market; this is usually
+practicable for all except the greater apiarists. We
+know one man who has about forty hives, and who
+lives in a town of about three hundred inhabitants;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>though he produces a reasonable amount of honey
+he very inadequately supplies the demand for it in
+this little village, and he receives city prices.</p>
+
+<p>The second and least desirable method of marketing
+comb-honey is to ship it to a commission
+merchant. If this is done, it is well to select a middleman
+in whom we have absolute confidence, or
+we are likely soon to become pessimistic regarding
+his honesty; so frequently is the price of honey
+reduced on account of breakage and leaking and
+other accidents which this very frail delicacy is heir
+to, that we rarely realise the prices quoted in the
+newspapers. If a good middleman can be found,
+then our advice is to stick to him, and send him the
+very best product possible, fairly graded and in the
+most attractive form, hoping that he may be able to
+do for us what we should do for ourselves, and that
+is, work up a special market.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="STORING_COMB-HONEY">
+  STORING COMB-HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>It is far better to market comb-honey the year
+it is made. However, if it is to be stored, it must
+be placed in a room that has a constant temperature
+above 60°F. It is best to fumigate the sections if
+there is any danger from the bee-moth, for this little
+rascal will destroy a great amount of comb-honey in
+a very short time. (See “Bee-Moth.”)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="CANDIED_COMB-HONEY">
+  CANDIED COMB-HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some kinds of honey will granulate much sooner
+than others. The longer the honey is left in the hive
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>and the more perfectly it is ripened, the less liable
+it is to granulate. Extracted honey will candy
+much sooner than honey left in the comb. We have
+kept comb-honey more than a year without crystals
+appearing in it. The only way to prevent comb-honey
+from candying is to keep it in a temperature
+that does not fall below 60 degrees. After honey
+is candied in the comb, nothing can be done with
+it except to sell it at a lower price, or keep it to feed
+back to the bees. The latter is probably the most
+profitable way to dispose of it. Some people like
+comb-honey after it is granulated and the home-table
+may use a certain amount of it.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_PRODUCING_COMB-HONEY">
+  MAXIMS FOR PRODUCING COMB-HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p>
+
+<p>The bees should be kept warm and well fed in the
+spring.</p>
+
+<p>The bees must have wintered well.</p>
+
+<p>The colony must have brood and plenty of honey in
+the brood-chambers at the beginning of the honey
+season.</p>
+
+<p>Never let the honey in sections or supers be
+exposed in the apiary to incite robbery.</p>
+
+<p>Keep the sections in a room in which the temperature
+never falls below 60°.</p>
+
+<p>Fumigate the sections before they are stored if
+you are troubled with bee-moth.</p>
+
+<p>Send the honey to market in as attractive form
+as possible. Make your product individual in appearance,
+and strive to create for it a special market.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">
+    CHAPTER X
+    <br><br>
+    EXTRACTED HONEY
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>HOW TO PRODUCE IT</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is certainly fortunate for bee-keepers that
+centrifugal force is one of the unalterable laws of
+the physical world. However, this force might never
+have been of any use to the apiarist had it not been
+for a certain Major Francesco de Hruschka of
+Venice, who is a most interesting figure in the history
+of bee-keeping. Next in importance to the invention
+of the movable frames by the venerable Langstroth
+was the invention of the honey-extractor. We
+have a picture of Major Hruschka in our minds
+as not only a brave man of war as indicated by his
+military rank, but also as a happy man of peace,
+who loved his hives with their little citizens, and
+who also possessed notable domestic virtues and
+loved the companionship of his children and was
+interested in their doings. For it was when his
+little son accompanied him to his apiary and, having
+a comb full of honey set up in a basket, began whirling
+it boy-like by the rope attached to the handle,
+that the Major discovered the honey was being
+thrown out of the comb by this action. Instead of
+spanking the boy as most fathers would have done,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>the thoughtful Major cogitated on the fact that such
+a simple motion should have emptied the comb of
+honey, and he straightway proceeded to invent the
+first honey-extractor. This was in 1865; up to that
+time the liquid honey was extracted by a method
+which we remember well. The comb was crushed,
+and with it too often, alas! the dead bees, larvæ
+and any dirt whatsoever that happened to be present;
+this mixture was suspended in a cloth bag, over a
+tub or vat in a warm room; and the honey, carrying
+with it much of the débris, slowly dripped out reeking
+with an aroma and a flavour quite unknown in these
+regenerate days, and forming a product that may
+well be spared from the world’s marts.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1865, many honey-extractors have been
+invented in America, and almost all of them which
+have survived the test of use are satisfactory. The
+perfection of the invention is an automatically
+reversible machine with ball bearings, highly geared
+in order to attain the maximum of steadiness and
+rapidity with the appliance of a minimum of power.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of construction underlying all of the
+best extractors is a cylindrical can containing wire
+pockets in which the combs are set on edge, and
+which are revolved by being geared to a crank at the
+top of the can. There is room for more or less
+honey below the wire pockets, and at the bottom of
+the can is a faucet or honey gate, through which
+the extracted honey may be drawn off into a pail or
+vat.</p>
+
+<p>The extractor is a very excellent adjunct to any
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>apiary, however small, even if comb-honey is the
+chief product, for it saves much honey that otherwise
+would be wasted. When the apiary consists of
+less than forty hives of bees, one of the small non-reversible
+extractors may be used. These weigh
+less and cost less; but every frame of comb has to be
+taken out after the honey has been extracted on one
+side and reversed and put back in order to clear the
+honey from the other side. Though the automatic
+reversible machine costs more and is heavier, it is
+far more satisfactory on the whole, if there is much
+honey to be extracted.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="EXTRACTING-FRAMES">
+  EXTRACTING-FRAMES
+</h3>
+
+<p>The frames used for extracting honey are in form
+similar to those which hold the brood, except they
+may not be so deep. However, most bee-keepers
+use both supers containing the shallow extracting-frames,
+and also those filled with frames of the full
+depth. The bees will go into the shallow frames
+more readily than into the deeper ones, as they are
+better able to keep the small chambers warm. But
+if the colony is very strong and the harvest good, the
+deeper frames are acceptable to the bees and save
+the time of the bee-keeper. (<a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_TO_EXTRACT_HONEY">
+  WHEN TO EXTRACT HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some producers practice extracting the honey
+before it is capped, so as to save the trouble and
+expense of uncapping. There is one danger attending
+this method: the green, unripened honey is thus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>often extracted, and it is the most insipid of sweets.
+Honey needs to ripen slowly in a warm temperature
+in order to be palatable. Some, like Quinby, advocate
+the ripening of honey in vats or evaporators
+after it has been extracted. But it is the consensus
+of opinion that honey to be of perfect flavour needs
+to ripen in the warm, bee-odour-laden atmosphere
+of the hive. The bees ordinarily leave the honey
+uncapped for some time as it thus ripens more
+readily. Therefore, those who produce an especially
+fine quality of extracted honey usually begin
+to tier up as soon as the super is fairly filled and
+before the honey is capped. The bees have ample
+room to go on storing honey in the interpolated
+super, and do not bother to cap the honey already
+stored above. Thus these supers, three or four or as
+many as practicable, are left on the hive until the
+end of the honey harvest, and thus the honey attains
+its proper ripeness and flavour.</p>
+
+<p>There are others who claim that honey is never
+properly ripened until capped, and therefore practice
+tiering after the cells of comb are at least partly
+covered.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="UNCAPPING_Plate_XIX">
+  UNCAPPING. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX.</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>There are various knives invented for this process,
+the Bingham uncapping knife being the favourite.
+It is used thus: The frame containing the honey
+standing on one end and leaning over a receptacle
+for the caps is held with the left hand, the knife in
+the right hand begins at the bottom of the comb
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>and running backward and forward as it is moved
+upward shears off very neatly the covering of the
+cells. The knife must be very sharp, and skill in
+cutting is shown in just the merest film of wax which
+is removed. A pan of hot water should be at hand
+on an oil stove perhaps; every time a sheet of capping
+is removed, the knife needs to be scraped on a stick,
+which will not dull it; and quite often it should be
+dipped in the hot water to clean it. If there is
+much uncapping to be done, it is best to have two
+knives, keeping one in the pan; for cleanliness and
+heat are quite as potent factors as is sharpness in
+making the uncapping knife effective.</p>
+
+<p>There are on the market uncapping-cans, the
+Dadant being the most popular. It is a double can
+with an arrangement on top convenient for holding
+the end of the frame on a pivot and with wooden
+cross-pieces on which the knife may be wiped. Below
+there is a wire screen for holding the cappings, with
+a space in the bottom of the can for the honey which
+drains off, and which is always of the most excellent
+and delicious quality. Of course, the cappings are
+saved to be made into beeswax.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="CARE_OF_EXTRACTED_HONEY">
+  CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Honey, whether in the comb or out, will crystallise
+when subjected to low temperature or when left
+standing for a long time. However, extracted honey
+crystallises much more readily than that which is
+in combs; and this crystallisation is one of the
+problems of putting up and marketing extracted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>honey. To prevent it extracted honey should be
+evaporated until it is thick, sealed while hot in air-tight
+cans, and kept in a room the temperature of
+which never falls below 65° F. It should be kept
+in tin or galvanised iron cans, rather than in wood.
+Some people seem to have been successful in using
+wooden vessels for holding the honey after having
+given them a coating of wax; but the way honey gets
+through small places is more proverbial among bee-keepers
+than is the ability of the stingy man to do
+the same; even when a tub or pan seems water-tight
+the honey will triumphantly work its passage
+through.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xviii_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xviii_a.jpg" alt="A set of four beehives sit in front of a house or barn. The left three are two level, the fourth has had its top level removed. A person is removing the top story from the third bee hive. They are wearing long sleeves, heavy gloves, and a hat with a vail.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>Taking off upper story of hive containing combs for extracting. The bees have
+    been moved from the supers by the bee-escape seen at the right.</p>
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xviii_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xviii_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    Extracting-room showing extractor, strainer, uncapping can, bee-escape,
+    smoker, uncapping knife, gloves, funnel, supers and sections, extractor pocket
+    containing extracted sections, partly filled sections as yet uncapped, extracting
+    frame with comb, etc.
+    </p>
+  <p class="ccap">PLATE XVIII</p>
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class=col50>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xixa" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xix_a.jpg" alt="A person stands in a storeroom. They are scraping a frame of honey over a bucket.">
+  <div class="attr">&nbsp;</div>
+  <figcaption>
+    Uncapping comb before extracting the honey.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class=col50>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xixb" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xix_b.jpg" alt="In the same room the person is putting the frame into the extractor. The extractor is a metal barrel about the size of a steel drum, with a handle at the top.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    Placing uncapped comb in one of the pockets of the extractor.  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p class="center fs80">PLATE XIX</p>
+
+<p>In order to preserve extracted honey in packages
+it must be canned or bottled, and the air entirely
+excluded. There are two methods of accomplishing
+this: First, the honey is heated in bulk, and run
+off into hot cans or bottles. Second, the honey is
+put in the bottles first and then heated; in both
+cases the honey is heated by hot water. Perhaps the
+easier method is to heat it in bulk, and if there is not
+at hand a double boiler, one can be improvised by
+using a wash-boiler in which pails containing the
+honey may be set. In any case the honey and the
+water surrounding it should be of the temperature of
+the room to begin with; then a slow, steady fire is
+needed to bring the temperature of the water up to
+160° F. Mr. Root advises the use of a gasoline
+stove for this purpose as the heat may thus be carefully
+regulated, and it is very important that the
+process be a slow one. After the temperature of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>honey reaches 160° F. it may be poured into freshly
+scalded cans or bottles and sealed, air-tight. If
+bottles are used, the corks should have paraffine
+poured over them so as to make sure of excluding
+the air.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="PACKAGES_FOR_EXTRACTED_HONEY_Plate_XXI">
+  PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY. <span class="fs90">(<a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI.</a>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>Mason fruit jars are extensively used for this as
+they are practical, cheap and useful afterward. The
+No. 25 honey-jar, somewhat resembling the Mason
+can, is made purposely for putting up honey, and is
+attractive in appearance. The Muth bottles are
+made in four sizes for extracted honey; the largest
+holding two pounds, and the smallest a quarter
+of a pound. These bottles are decorated with a
+design of an old straw skep, and bear the prophetic
+inscription “pure honey” moulded into the glass.
+Jelly-glasses are often used and paraffined paper is
+placed over the honey, just as it is placed over jelly
+to exclude the air before the tin cover is put on.
+Glass packages are by all means the most attractive
+for extracted honey in small quantities. However,
+tin pails of various sizes are in use, and may be serviceable
+for a cheap and inferior grade of honey,
+which is thus made ready for the consumer who is
+willing to buy “aside unseen.” But a fine quality
+of honey rejoices in the light of day and in the
+scrutiny of eyes which may look at it first critically
+and then longingly.</p>
+
+<p>The most practical packages for shipping honey
+in quantity are the large, square cans in common use
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>which hold sixty pounds each. These are convenient
+for shipping and for measuring and are safe from
+breakage.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of extracted honey over that of
+comb-honey are: Almost double the honey may be
+produced, because the bees having no comb to build,
+devote their energies to storing honey; and also the
+honey from the brood-combs may be extracted; it is
+more easily and safely handled and shipped; it is
+more easily produced, since the bees work more
+readily in the emptied cells of the extracted combs
+than in sections where they are obliged to build new
+cells; swarming is more easily controlled, because the
+bees more readily accept the enlargement of their
+quarters when the supers contain fully made comb,
+also larger hives may be used.</p>
+
+<p>The disadvantages are: It is more “mussy” and
+requires special apparatus; and unless great care
+is given, the bees will be starved through this convenient
+way of pilfering their stores.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_THE_PRODUCER_OF_EXTRACTED_HONEY">
+  MAXIMS FOR THE PRODUCER OF EXTRACTED HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Use glass or tin, rather than wood, for honey
+receptacles.</p>
+
+<p>Be careful not to expose the honey as you take it
+out of the supers, lest the bees begin robbing.</p>
+
+<p>Honey should be canned while hot, and kept from
+the air.</p>
+
+<p>Heating honey to a higher temperature than 160°
+destroys its flavour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p>
+
+<p>Cooling honey to a temperature below 60° produces
+granulation.</p>
+
+<p>Work in a warm room.</p>
+
+<p>Have a label of your own, with some unique and
+individual design, which, when placed on the package,
+will render it attractive.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">
+    CHAPTER XI
+    <br><br>
+    POINTS ABOUT BEESWAX
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>HOW TO MAKE IT</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beeswax</span> is a unique product; the little socialists
+of the hive have formed a trust for its manufacture,
+which for many and good reasons has never been
+infringed upon. The special value of beeswax is
+that it retains its cohesiveness and ductibility, under
+both higher and lower temperatures, than do other
+kinds of wax. It has a specific gravity of 960–972,
+and melts at 143–145° F.</p>
+
+<p>Beeswax has been in demand in the world since
+ancient times, being put to many and diverse uses.
+Now, however, the making of foundation-comb is
+the most important of these uses and most affects
+the beeswax market of to-day. Countless thousands
+of sheets of wax foundation are manufactured
+yearly in America. When foundation was first
+used it was thought that it might be adulterated
+safely with paraffine, but it was soon found that
+beeswax thus adulterated, when subjected to the
+heat of the hive in summer, would invariably bulge,
+buckle and sag. We know an apiarist who lost
+money, honey, bees and temper through trying to use
+this kind of foundation, which did not stand firm.</p>
+
+<div class=col50>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxa" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xx_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr">&nbsp;</div>
+  <figcaption>
+    Drawing honey from extractor. The honey is strained through
+    a fine wire strainer set in the top of the pail.    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class=col50>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxb" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xx_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+   Pouring extracted honey into keg for shipping in bulk.
+    </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p class="center fs80">PLATE XX</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxi_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxi_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+
+    <p>Extracted honey in pails—candied</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxi_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxi_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    Extracted honey in glass jars ready for market.</p>
+  <p>PLATE XXI</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_PRIMITIVE_METHOD">
+  THE PRIMITIVE METHOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>The process of making wax from honey-comb
+may be primitive and yet quite successful. Well do
+we remember the method as practised in the days
+of our early youth in the kitchen of the old farmhouse,
+usually a comfortable and altogether delightful
+room. Its yellow-painted floor seemed to have
+caught the sunshine streaming in through white-curtained
+windows and held it there for us to tread
+upon. The chintz-covered settee and Boston rockers,
+and a few widths of bright rag carpet, made one end
+a cozy sitting-room. At the opposite end the cupboards,
+their shelves covered with elaborately scalloped
+newspapers, and beset with orderly dishes and
+tinware, bespoke the kitchen. Midway between
+stood the heavy cherry drop-leaf table which revealed
+the dining-room; in the midst of this Protean apartment
+stood the cook-stove, polished so that it would
+put to shame the rosewood case of a piano, bearing
+on its top the pink-copper tea-kettle singing gayly
+after its daily bath of cleansing buttermilk, and
+holding within the roaring fire which ever seemed
+the spirit and soul of the place. The neatness that
+held sway in this kitchen was the perfect sort that
+conduces to comfort, and not to misery. Only
+at certain periods was this delectable room given
+over to discomfort and untidiness; these included
+“wash-days,” the days following the yearly sacrificial
+rite of butchering and the days when beeswax
+was made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
+
+<p>We were wont to make beeswax as follows: The
+broken combs were packed in a muslin bag which
+was weighted by a sinker and hung in the wash-boiler
+by tying the bag to the poker, which was
+placed crosswise the top. By this contrivance the
+bag was completely surrounded by water, which
+filled the boiler, and yet did not touch the bottom,
+and so there was no danger of burning; the cloth
+acted as a strainer and the bag was pressed occasionally;
+this act being judiciously performed by
+means of the tongs, which had previously been
+cleaned. After the wax had boiled out the boiler
+was taken off and the whole contents cooled, after
+which the wax was taken from the top in pieces and
+remelted in a dish set on the back side of the stove
+so as not to burn, then poured into oiled bread-tins,
+and thus caked for the market. Some of it was
+clarified for special use thus: It was allowed to
+simmer on the back of the stove for some hours in
+water to which vinegar had been added, and then
+was dipped off into scalloped patty-tins and a neat
+little loop of cord inserted at one side. These cakes
+when cooled had a long though scarified existence
+ensconced in work-baskets with spools of thread,
+for wax thus cleaned and prepared made very
+pretty little gifts for lady-friends. But the experience
+of rendering wax was never complete
+without spilling some of it on the stove, which
+spread with fearful rapidity and smoked with
+stifling smoke; because of the certainty of this
+accident we always made the beeswax in the late
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>fall, lest our bees regarding the pungent smoke as a
+direct invitation should come visiting in embarrassing
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Sundry old pieces of rag carpet were spread on the
+floor around the stove to keep the yellow paint intact
+from the wax, which was so hard to clean off. We
+had no benzine in those days, and our only resort
+was boiling hot water, which cleaned off the paint as
+well as the wax.</p>
+
+<p>One privilege that was always granted to us
+children on this day was that of having “our fingers
+made.” As the wax was cooling the finger was
+dipped in it, and the film was cooled while the finger
+was held very still; then the film was slipped off,
+a crucial point in the process, and used as a mould
+into which was poured the cooling wax; and presto!
+there was the finger as natural as life to every crease
+and wrinkle, but with a death-like pallor that
+rendered the row of fingers thus made a fascinatingly
+gruesome collection, as if they had been chopped off
+with a hatchet.</p>
+
+<p>This old process of rendering wax in the wash-boiler
+is still practised where apiaries are small.
+Mr. Root advises the following modification:
+Sticks are placed crosswise the bottom of the boiler
+on which the bag is placed; the bag is packed very
+full of wax by pressing the comb into balls with the
+hands before it is put in. Water is added and the
+whole is placed upon the stove and brought slowly
+to a boil, then a board that acts as a follower on the
+bag is placed on top with a heavy weight upon it;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>this acts as a press and decreases the bulk in the
+bag, leaving the wax floating on the surface.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_SOLAR_WAX-EXTRACTOR">
+  THE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR
+</h3>
+
+<p>There are many modern and up-to-date methods
+advised for extracting wax. The most common is
+through the use of the Solar wax-extractor, which
+was invented for extracting honey in California,
+where the sun can be depended upon to do its work
+unflinchingly day after day. There was more than
+myth in the story of Icarus who fastened his wings
+on with wax, and then dared to face the sun. The
+ancients evidently knew that no other substance of
+the sort is so susceptible to the sun’s rays. I
+shall never forget my amazement at the efficiency of
+the first Solar extractor that I ever saw; it was home-made
+and there was naught in its appearance to
+indicate its power. The comb was hard and blackened
+and full of dirt, while the wax that oozed out
+and hardened below was as shining and yellow as if
+the sun itself had exhaled it. A Solar extractor
+ought to be in every apiary where twenty colonies or
+more are kept, and into this every fragment of comb
+should be put instead of storing it to become infested
+by the bee-moth, or leaving it around to
+incite the bees to robbing. The fragments thus are
+saved and without any expense or trouble are made
+into a beautiful product for the market.</p>
+
+<p>There are several of these Solar extractors made
+and sold by dealers. The Doolittle, the Rauchfuss
+and the Boardman are the three commonly used.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>The Doolittle is small and all right for a small apiary.
+The Rauchfuss has a clever arrangement by which
+the wax in flowing out overflows from one pan to
+another and thus cleanses itself automatically. The
+Boardman is especially adapted for large apiaries,
+and is on rockers so that it may be tilted to face the
+sun. The general plan of the Solar wax-extractor
+is as follows: It consists of a shallow box lined with
+sheet-iron on which is a frame for holding the comb
+with a strainer below it, and a place where the wax
+thus extracted is received. The box has a tight-fitting
+glass cover, and all the woodwork on the box
+is painted black so as to absorb all the heat possible.
+The box is tilted so as to get the direct rays of the
+sun, and it is important that the cover be of one pane
+of glass, or several panes matched without cross
+sash, as such sash interferes with the rays of the sun.
+Here in the East this extractor works excellently
+during the summer months. If the wax does not
+look clean as it comes from the extractor, it may be
+put through again. The only difficulty with the
+Solar extractor is that here in the East it works only
+in the summer time, and that it does not extract all
+the wax from the refuse which bears the graphic and
+euphonious name of “slumgum.”</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_SWISS_WAX-EXTRACTOR">
+  THE SWISS WAX-EXTRACTOR
+</h3>
+
+<p>There are many patent wax-extractors which are
+run by the heat of a stove. The best of these utilise
+steam for heating the wax, though some of them use
+hot water in a sort of a modification of the old wash-boiler
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>method. The best of these machines for a
+small apiary is the Swiss extractor, which may be
+set over a kettle of hot water, like an ordinary vegetable
+steamer, which it resembles. The comb is
+placed in a wire basket, which has a cone-shaped
+bottom, over which the wax flows down as it melts
+and drains off through a spout into a pan in
+which it is to be caked. This machine costs only
+three or four dollars and is simple and excellent;
+though it takes but comparatively little comb at a
+time, it keeps up a continual performance and
+there is no danger whatever of burning the wax.
+The basket may be replenished from time to time, and
+a large amount of wax may be extracted in a day
+while other work is being performed in the room.
+Mr. Root has an improved Swiss extractor and so
+has Mr. D. A. Jones, and both of them are most
+satisfactory. Mr. Jones’s machine is the larger and
+may be used as an uncapping can as well; the cappings
+when taken off falling directly into the extractor.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_WAX-PRESS">
+  THE WAX-PRESS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Wax is such a precious product in these days of
+the manufacture of foundation-comb that every
+particle of it should be saved. This is quite impossible
+with any of the extractors; as the slumgum
+always holds much wax, to extract which a wax-press
+is needed. All wax-presses are necessarily rather
+expensive machines when bought, and not very
+easily manufactured at home. In some of them the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>comb is melted by steam and in some by hot water;
+in others the heated wax is dipped from a kettle of
+hot water and poured into the press.</p>
+
+<p>The German steam wax-press is in general use in
+America, Mr. Root having an improvement on it.
+It is a strongly built can, at the bottom of which is a
+place for water, and above it an arrangement to
+receive the wax drippings. A basket of perforated
+metal holds the comb and occupies the larger and
+upper part of the can; a follower worked by a screw
+presses down upon the heated comb and forces the
+wax down and out through a spigot. This machine
+weighs sixty pounds and costs fourteen dollars, and
+if the apiary contains more than forty hives of
+bees, such a wax-press will pay for itself soon with
+the wax which would otherwise be lost.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen one home-made press constructed
+from a half barrel worked by the machinery of a
+cheese-press. The follower was cleated on the under
+side, and the barrel was filled with boiling water;
+the wax as it was pressed out was run off by a spout
+at the top. Another which was used successfully
+was simply a box with cleated bottom and a cleated
+follower into which the hot wax was poured and
+pressed out most successfully. One of the wax
+presses used by many is called the Hatch-Gemmill
+press, which is run on the principle of dipping the
+hot wax off hot water and squeezing it through the
+press.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="REFINING_WAX_WITH_SULPHURIC_ACID">
+  REFINING WAX WITH SULPHURIC ACID
+</h3>
+
+<p>On a small scale this may be done in an agate
+or porcelain-lined kettle. Mr. Root even advises
+on occasion the use of a large iron kettle. The
+kettle is filled half full of water, 100 parts to one part
+acid, and is brought nearly to the boiling point over
+a slow fire; the wax is then added and is kept hot
+for a little time after it is melted, and then the fire is
+allowed to die down; as soon as it is cool enough so
+that the dirt has settled, the wax is dipped off, great
+care being taken not to stir up the settlings. If an
+iron kettle is used it should afterward be thoroughly
+washed with boiling water, and rubbed with fresh
+lard or some other unsalted grease to stop the action
+of the acid upon it. Beeswax may be bleached by
+exposing it in thin sheets to the sunlight.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="ADULTERATED_BEESWAX">
+  ADULTERATED BEESWAX
+</h3>
+
+<p>Dishonest dealers have attempted to adulterate
+beeswax with several substances; tallow, paraffine
+and cerasin being more commonly used. Tallow
+or other greasy adulterants may be detected by the
+smell; and because the cakes of wax containing them
+feel and look greasy. But paraffine and cerasin are
+not so easily detected by the eye or feel. The
+specific gravity test is the one used by dealers. A
+piece of wax known to be pure is placed in a jar of
+water, and enough alcohol is added so that the wax
+will just settle to the bottom. Then a piece of the
+suspected wax is placed in the jar, and if it contains
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>either paraffine or cerasin it will still float. Another
+test but not so exact is made by chewing the wax; if
+it is pure it will be brittle and break as it is chewed,
+but adulterated wax is cohesive like gum.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_BEESWAX_MAKING">
+  MAXIMS FOR BEESWAX MAKING
+</h3>
+
+<p>The wax-market is always good, and the wise bee-keeper
+saves every scrap of this precious material.</p>
+
+<p>Do not be mussy when making beeswax, or it
+will take longer to clean up than to make the wax.</p>
+
+<p>Do not use galvanised iron vessels for boiling wax
+as the quality is thus injured.</p>
+
+<p>Clean wax off with hot water or benzine.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">
+    CHAPTER XII
+    <br><br>
+    FEEDING BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>WHEN TO FEED</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">At</span> least twice during the season bees are likely to
+need more food than they can get in the fields, if
+the bee-keeper is to do a profitable business. Once
+early in the spring when for some reason the nectar
+supply fails, and it is desirable to stimulate the rearing
+of brood; again, late in the season when the colony
+has not enough honey for winter use. When the
+cupidity of the bee-keeper leads him to extract
+too much honey, then must he forsooth open his
+pocketbook and buy expensive sugar to feed back
+to those whom he has robbed. However, bees
+should be watched closely; they may need feeding at
+any time, for it is hard to predict when the honey
+or pollen harvest may fail in a given locality.</p>
+
+<p>When food is given the bees in the spring, it is
+largely for the sake of stimulating them to extra
+activity; and thus develop large, strong colonies
+ready for work as soon as the harvest occurs. The
+brood-chambers should be closely watched in the
+early spring and if there is not sufficient food for the
+brood present, it should be provided. In the fall
+the hive should be examined by the middle of September
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>or the first of October. A colony of ordinary
+size ought to have at least thirty pounds of capped
+honey. The ordinary Langstroth frame, when
+filled on both sides, contains about five pounds of
+honey; therefore, there should be an equivalent of
+six filled frames in each hive. If the swarm lacks this
+amount, an estimate should be made of how much
+more it needs, and this amount should be fed.</p>
+
+<p>Bees are usually fed upon honey or syrup made
+from the best granulated sugar, although some
+have claimed that the best grade of coffee-sugars
+make a good syrup; but the consensus of opinion is
+in favour of the granulated. The syrup is made
+in two ways: First, by heat. Melt the granulated
+sugar in its own weight or measure of water; it
+should be heated slowly, and never reach a temperature
+higher than 180° F. lest it burn, for scorched
+syrup fed in winter is as fatal to bees as so much
+poison. The mixture should be stirred until the
+sugar is entirely dissolved, then allowed to cool
+slowly, and it is ready for use. If there are many
+to feed, a wash-boiler is a very convenient utensil to
+use, as it is easier to make a large quantity at a time.
+Because of the danger of scorching a cold process has
+been evolved. It consists of taking equal measures
+of sugar and water; the latter should be boiling hot
+and the two stirred together until the sugar is dissolved.
+This may be done in a churn or in the
+honey-extractor. In following this process it is
+best to add the sugar a bowlful at a time, while
+stirring the mixture industriously. The syrup
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>should be thin when finished, as it is better to let
+the bees attend to the ripening of it.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_FEED">
+  HOW TO FEED
+</h3>
+
+<p>There are two general plans for feeding bees. One
+is to place the syrup outside the hive, and the other
+to place it within the hive. The first is much more
+convenient for the apiarist, but unless the work be
+done very carefully or in the evening, and the
+syrup well guarded, the bees may become demoralised
+and begin robbing. Feeding outside the hive can
+be done only during warm weather. There are
+several simple feeders in which the syrup is placed at
+night, and taken away in the morning; but the method
+most generally followed is to fill a Mason fruit can
+with the syrup and place on it a perforated cover,
+then invert it in a box in front of the hive; the
+entrance to this box is so connected with the entrance
+to the hive that robbing is impossible. The box
+and cover are sold under the name of the Boardman
+feeder. As there is very little air in the can, the
+syrup oozes out very slowly through the perforated
+cover, and the bees take it as fast as it comes. This
+feeder is satisfactory in that we can tell at a glance
+when it needs replenishing.</p>
+
+<p>However, most apiarists follow the custom of
+feeding within the hive, and strive to accomplish
+this without loss of warmth in the brood-chambers,
+and without disturbing or daubing the bees. Of
+all the devices for feeding within the hive, the
+division board feeder is the most practical. It consists
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>simply of a division board made to hold the
+syrup, which is placed in the hive instead of a frame,
+<a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>. There is a hole at the top so that it may
+be refilled by simply pushing back the cover, and
+pouring in the syrup from a pitcher. The only
+objection to this feeder is its size, as it does not hold
+more than two pounds of syrup, and if used for fall
+feeding would need to be filled many times. This
+feeder is especially useful for stimulating the bees in
+the spring, and is also most practical in developing
+nuclei. In a small apiary it is quite practical for all
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Of the larger inside feeders the Smith, the Heddon
+and the Miller are generally used. These are alike
+in one respect; they are flat boxes placed directly
+above the frames and beneath the quilts. The
+Heddon and the Miller each take a certain specified
+number of pounds of syrup, so that when we use
+them we can tell just how much we are feeding.
+The Miller is especially convenient in this respect,
+and has one advantage over the others in that the
+entrance for the bees is directly above the centre of
+the brood-chamber, so that the bees may enter it
+easily without loss of heat. This fact renders it an
+excellent feeder for cold weather. Some still use
+the pepper-box feeder, which consists of a tin can
+with perforated cover, inverted above the frame, but
+this lifts the quilts and lets in the cold, and is awkward
+to use; and as it does not hold very much it is
+quite inconvenient to manage.</p>
+
+<p>Some altruistic people take the frames of comb
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>from which honey has been extracted and fill the
+cells with syrup. This is done by laying the comb
+flat and letting the syrup into it through a fine sieve,
+or by using a force-pump with a spray nozzle. After
+the frame is filled it is allowed to stand on edge until
+the drain has ceased and then it is hung in the hive,
+and presto! the bees never know that they have been
+robbed.</p>
+
+<p>In the happy days, when we were getting our first
+experience, we fed some colonies for the winter by
+introducing chunk honey into the bottom of the hive
+and it worked like a charm, except that we were
+obliged to lift the hive to put in the honey, and again
+to remove the beautifully cleaned comb. One never
+realises how beautiful empty honey-comb may be
+unless he has had the privilege of examining a freshly
+made comb or one which the bees have cleaned.
+Bee-books advise putting in the chunk honey above
+the brood-frames, using Hill’s device above it so it
+will not be crushed by the quilt. We have done this,
+setting the comb in every direction, and our bees
+ignored it in a most provoking way; but when they
+found it at the bottom of the hive, they carried it up at
+once. We never knew why our bees were so contrary
+in refusing to take the honey from above
+because other people’s bees seem to like it administered
+in that way.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_AND_WHEN_TO_FEED_CANDY">
+  HOW AND WHEN TO FEED CANDY
+</h3>
+
+<p>If necessary to feed the bees in midwinter many
+people use candy. This is made by boiling granulated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>sugar in a double boiler until it is brittle when
+dropped in cold water. It is then taken off and
+stirred and poured into flat dishes to harden, from
+which it can be taken as a cake and placed on top of
+the frame at the centre of the hive. Some pour the
+candy into the wooden butter-trays and after it
+hardens invert the tray over the middle of the brood-nest.
+Some, instead of caking it thus, mould it in
+a brood-frame by holding the frame flat on a table
+or board covered with oil paper and pouring the
+candy in; it thus hardens fast to the frame, and may
+be put directly in the brood-nest. The famous
+Good candy, so called because it was invented by
+Mr. Good, although the excellence of the product
+would have given it that name anyway, is made by
+taking extracted honey, and heating it until it is
+quite thin, but not allowed to boil, and mixing into it
+confectioner’s sugar until the spoon can no longer
+stir it; then the mixture is taken out, and placed on a
+board and more sugar kneaded into it until it is of
+firm consistency. In hot weather more sugar is
+needed than in the winter. In making this candy
+skill is evinced in getting it as soft as possible, and
+yet stiff enough so that it will not flow. Only the
+best honey is used for this; and if the confectioner’s
+sugar seems impure, then granulated sugar should
+be pounded in a mortar or rolled under a rolling-pin
+until fine and used instead. The confectioner’s
+sugar may be tested by putting a little in a glass of
+water and noting if there is a sediment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="FEEDING_RYE_FLOUR">
+  FEEDING RYE FLOUR
+</h3>
+
+<p>This is given as a substitute for pollen, and is
+often of great use in the spring when the flowers are
+late in blossoming, or when severe rains wash the
+pollen from the fruit bloom. Pollen or its equivalent
+is absolutely necessary for rearing the brood. The
+unbolted rye flour, or even oatmeal, or whole-wheat
+flour may be used by the bees as a substitute with
+perfect success. The meal may be mixed with the
+candy if it is desirable; but the usual way is to place
+it in a trough or box that is shallow, press it down hard
+so that it will be not more than an inch or two thick,
+to prevent the bees from getting suffocated while
+working in it. We must remember that the bee has
+two rows of holes along each side of the body through
+which it breathes, and thus could be suffocated
+as easily in soft flour as in water. The box containing
+the meal is usually placed a few rods distant
+from the apiary, and often some old combs with
+honey in them are placed on top so as to attract the
+bees to the box, and let them know that it contains
+food for them. Most bee-keepers say that the box
+needs to be placed in the sun or the bees ignore it.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="FEEDING_FOR_HONEY">
+  FEEDING FOR HONEY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some bee-keepers practise feeding all the colonies
+early in the season so that the brood has plenty of
+sugar-syrup stored near it when the honey season
+opens; and since the brood-comb is full the bees
+begin at once to store in the supers. Mr. Boardman
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>who invented the best entrance-feeder practises this,
+with the result of getting more honey than other bee-keepers
+of his neighbourhood, who do not feed at
+this time. It is especially valuable in years when the
+honey is scarce, for then the bees store all the honey
+they gather in the supers. However there is one thing
+to consider carefully in this feeding, and that is the
+relative price of syrup and honey. If the market
+is glutted and honey is plentiful and cheap, this sort
+of feeding would better be practised cautiously;
+but when honey is scarce and dear, it is certainly a
+safe experiment.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="FEEDING_BACK">
+  FEEDING BACK
+</h3>
+
+<p>When the sections are not well filled in the late
+season, it is the practice of some apiarists to feed
+extracted honey in order to fill them. For this only
+the best honey is used; it is mixed with water, ten
+pounds of honey to one of water, and heated so that
+it is a fluid and then poured in the larger kind of
+feeders, and is put in at night, as the smell of the
+heated honey particularly incites bees to robbing.
+However, the flavour of honey which has been fed
+back is inferior to that which is only once made, and
+but a few apiarists practise feeding back successfully.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WATERING_BEES">
+  WATERING BEES
+</h3>
+
+<p>If there is no fresh water in the immediate vicinity
+of the hives, special provision should be made to
+secure it, as it is a highly desirable adjunct to a well-regulated
+apiary. While there are times during the
+season when the bees get most of the moisture they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>need from the nectar, there are other times when
+they drink water eagerly. This is especially so in
+the spring when they are gathering much pollen and
+little water, and the weather is warm. Running water
+is more desirable, and if the drip from a faucet flow
+over a board, or on pebbles, it affords a nearly ideal
+drinking place for the bees, since they can drink
+freely and are in no danger of drowning. Some bee-keepers
+invert a Mason jar filled with water, on a
+board that has a few shallow groves, perhaps one-eighth
+inch deep; the water flows out slowly owing
+to atmospheric pressure; if a little salt be added to
+the water the bees lap it up eagerly.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_FEEDING">
+  MAXIMS FOR FEEDING
+</h3>
+
+<p>Keep close watch of the bees during the entire
+season, so as to know whether they need feeding or
+not.</p>
+
+<p>Feed only good honey or the best sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Never feed scorched sugar in the winter, as it will
+surely kill the bees.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the practice of feeding at nightfall to
+preclude robbing.</p>
+
+<p>Never spill the syrup or honey around the yard
+lest robbers be led on to black deeds.</p>
+
+<p>Feed small amounts to stimulate a swarm or nucleus.
+Bees are susceptible to small encouragements.</p>
+
+<p>Be careful never to cool off the brood-chamber
+when feeding in early spring or late fall.</p>
+
+<p>See to it that the bees have water near by, especially
+early in the season.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">
+    CHAPTER XIII
+    <br><br>
+    HOW TO WINTER BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>IDEAL CONDITIONS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wintering of bees in the northern latitudes is
+usually attended with more or less loss. Although
+we now think we know the conditions necessary
+for perfect wintering, it is only now and then
+that they are attained. There are so many
+unhappy and unpredictable circumstances and
+vicissitudes, that one must needs be a true prophet
+as well as a good bee-keeper to be sure that all
+his swarms will successfully pass the period of snow
+and cold.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of wintering hinges as much on
+protection from dampness as on protection from the
+cold. We all know that double windows in a room
+keep the frost off the panes. The reason for this
+is that the dampness of the room is not allowed to
+come in contact with the cold outside glass. So it is
+with the beehive; if it is single-walled the dampness
+from the breath of the bees causes the frost to gather
+on the walls of the hive, which later melts and wets
+the bees so that they chill easily; the double-walled
+hive is a guard against this condition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="GETTING_READY_FOR_WINTERING">
+  GETTING READY FOR WINTERING
+</h3>
+
+<p>First of all that watchward of the bee-keeper must
+be fully realised, “Keep the colonies strong.” Most
+men of experience do not attempt to winter a colony
+that is not large enough to cover at least four of the
+Langstroth brood-frames. If a colony is as small
+as this, the division boards should be used to contract
+the hive and make it as cosy and comfortable as possible.
+It is far safer to try to winter a colony that
+covers six frames than one that covers only four;
+the more the bees the warmer the hive, the less the
+loss, and also the less missed are those that die. To
+secure good swarms it is best to keep up the breeding
+throughout the summer, which can be done by feeding
+if the honey is scarce.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to a strong colony is good
+honey and plenty of it sealed in the combs, so that
+wholesome food may help to sustain the bees during
+this trying period. With a four-frame colony four
+frames of sealed stores will be enough. A Langstroth
+brood-frame should hold about five pounds
+of honey if it is well filled. If the colony is larger,
+then more honey must, of course, be given. We
+never allow any of our colonies to begin winter
+without at least thirty pounds of sealed honey, and
+when a colony is very large we have given it
+thirty-five pounds. This may seem wasteful <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: extravgance" id="extravgance">extravagance</ins>
+on our part, but the honey not used in the
+winter is of use in the spring. It is necessary that
+the honey be of good quality; the bee is such a neat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>housekeeper that she will suffer death rather than
+let food pass through her alimentary canal when she
+is dormant, and thus render unsanitary the bee-city,
+a devotion to municipal sanitation which is hardly
+found elsewhere in the annals of living beings. If
+honey of poor quality is fed to the bees and they
+hold within themselves such food, disaster is likely
+to ensue. In preparing the hive for winter what is
+known as the Hill’s device, which is a series of curved
+pieces of wood held in place by a strip of tin, is
+placed above the frames to support the cushion so as
+to allow the bees to readily climb over them. We
+use a super cover in our chaff hives instead of the
+Hill’s device.</p>
+
+<p>There are three ways of wintering bees in common
+use. First in the chaff or double-walled hives left
+in the open. Second, in tenement-hives. Third,
+the hives are carried into cellars. The reprehensible
+way of leaving bees out of doors in single-walled
+hives with no protection during the winter is no
+longer practised by civilised people.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="OUTDOOR_WINTERING">
+  OUTDOOR WINTERING
+</h3>
+
+<p>Many apiarists protect the hive by a box, several
+inches larger than the hive in every diameter,
+placed over the hive, the spaces between being packed
+with chaff or dried leaves. A passage-way out is
+always preserved so that the bees may fly out during
+the early warm days, and free themselves from the
+accumulated waste. This is a cheap way of securing
+the advantages of a chaff hive. Such boxes are sold
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>by the dealers, and many good words are said for
+this method of wintering.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_CHAFF_HIVE">
+  THE CHAFF HIVE
+</h3>
+
+<p>The chaff hive is probably the most perfect of all
+of the devices for out-of-door wintering when convenience
+and the saving of work as well as success
+are taken into consideration. The chaff hive is
+a double-walled hive with wall spaces packed with
+chaff. It is a certain guard against extremes and
+sudden changes of temperature, as it remains cool in
+the hot and warm in the cold weather.</p>
+
+<p>The chaff for packing should be fine. That from
+timothy hay, oats or wheat is commonly used; saw dust
+and planer shavings and dried leaves closely
+packed are also often resorted to. The packing
+should be below as well as on the sides of the hive.
+A cushion made of burlap and filled with chaff is
+put above a Hill’s device or super cover, as this is
+the most convenient method of packing the hive
+on top. The bees should be thoroughly established
+and have their stores ready as early as October 1st.
+It is claimed by the admirers of the chaff hive that
+they prevent spring dwindling by keeping the bees
+warm in the early spring; and also that they keep the
+hive cool enough so that the brood is not developed
+in the combs until the proper time for it.</p>
+
+<p>The chaff hives are sufficiently warm to preserve
+bees during ordinary winters, but neither they nor
+any other out-door device were entirely successful
+during the long, protracted cold of the winter of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>1903–04 when many bee-keepers in the Northern
+States lost 40 per cent. of their bees. It might be
+wise when such a winter occurs to give some temporary
+protection to the hives, like covering them
+with boughs of evergreen or building a close windbreak.
+The entrance to a chaff hive should always
+be contracted in winter to keep out cold and mice.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_TENEMENT_HIVE">
+  THE TENEMENT HIVE
+</h3>
+
+<p>This is a box made for holding from two to ten
+hives, and which we have used with perfect success.
+Our favourite tenement-hive was arranged for six
+hives in two stories. The bottom was packed well
+with dry leaves or chaff, and three hives were set
+somewhat near each other. Entrances were boxed
+back, affording a front hall for each hive-entrance.
+After three hives were thus set in and packed with
+chaff on every side and between, a shelf was put across
+and on this were set three more hives which were
+likewise packed. The entrances to the upper
+row were on the same side as those to the lower row,
+and the cover of the box sloped back from the front
+of the hives and was hinged along its highest edge;
+thus when we wished to examine the hives we lifted
+the cover and examined the bees from the back side
+instead of standing directly in front of the entrance.
+Our losses were rare and small while using these
+tenements. The advantage of the tenement over the
+chaff hive is that it is cheaper, and that several
+colonies packed together help to keep each other
+warm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WINTERING_IN_CELLARS">
+  WINTERING IN CELLARS
+</h3>
+
+<p>The way we always wintered bees in the old days
+was by placing them in a cellar which was used for
+vegetables and was ill-ventilated and damp. We
+well remember that in the spring the cellar windows
+were covered with arrested prisoners; we do not
+recollect that we lost many colonies, but if we did not,
+it was owing to the ways of inscrutable Providence
+rather than our own understanding of the needs of
+the bees. Probably most of the bees in the Northern
+climates are wintered in cellars; and because they are
+wintered in all sorts of cellars with varying degrees
+of dampness the mortality among them is likely to be
+great. A cellar fit for wintering bees should be
+cemented on the floor and sides, made mouse and rat
+tight, and should be well drained, well ventilated and
+so arranged that the temperature may be kept in
+the neighbourhood of 45° F. In such a cellar the
+hives lifted off the bottom boards should be placed
+four or five inches apart on two scantlings laid on
+the floor. In the next tier the middle of a hive
+should bridge the opening between the lower hives
+on which it rests. This arrangement gives plenty
+of ventilation to the hive from below, and it is very
+important that the air be introduced below rather
+than above. The cellar should be kept dark, and if
+the weather is warm and the bees seem uneasy it
+should be ventilated at night by opening the windows,
+which, by the way, should have wire screens to keep
+out intruders. Some leave the bottom boards out
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>on the summer stands, each board bearing the same
+number as the hive which rests upon it, and thus in
+the spring it is easy to find the home of each colony;
+but if the bees are brought into the cellar without the
+bottom boards on the hive they are quite likely to
+fly out more or less. Usually, therefore, they are
+brought in on the bottom boards, and these are piled
+in some convenient place until needed in the spring.
+In this case it is advisable to have a map made of the
+apiary, and the hives and their places numbered on
+the map, and thus each hive may be returned to its
+old stand in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>If bees are wintered in the ordinary house-cellar it
+is far better to partition off the part used for the bees
+from that used for vegetables, and much pains should
+be taken to keep the air good and the cellar well
+ventilated.</p>
+
+<p>Special bee-cellars are in vogue in some large
+apiaries. The cellar is sometimes made beneath the
+bee-house, and sometimes it is a structure by itself.
+Of all such cellars, the Bingham seems to us the
+cheapest, and surely quite as practical as the others.
+It is built like a square cistern, twelve feet square at
+the bottom, sixteen feet at the top and six feet deep;
+it is cemented at the bottom and on the sides, and
+the ceiling is flush with the level of the ground.
+Over this is built a gable roof, the eaves extending
+down to a drain on either side so that all the water
+is carried off. The ventilation is secured through
+a pipe extending from the cellar ceiling to the top of
+the roof. The floor over the cellar is tight and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>covered with sawdust; access to the cellar stairs is
+gained through a trap door. Such a cellar as this
+should be built on a dry knoll. Mr. Bingham has
+wintered successfully ninety colonies in this house;
+and it will hold nearly twice as many.</p>
+
+<p>The bees may come out of the hives and die in
+great numbers when they are wintered in a cellar.
+If any such seem distended and swollen they have
+probably died of dysentery, and the matter should
+be looked into immediately. However, many of the
+bees that die in winter are likely to be the old ones
+which are not vigorous enough to stand the strain of
+the cold. The cellar floor should be swept several
+times during the winter and all the dead bees removed
+so they shall not pollute the atmosphere.
+The cellar should always be dark, but the bees can
+be easily examined with a lamp, or what is better, a
+bull’s-eye lantern.</p>
+
+<p>The carrying of hives into the cellar is an onerous
+task when the apiary is large. The entrance to the
+hive should be closed the night before so as to be
+sure the whole family is moved. The hives should
+be carried with as little perturbance to the occupants
+as may be; several methods of carrying the hives
+easily and quietly have been invented. Mr. Root
+uses a wire bent like a V with the wooden piece of a
+common pail bale at the angle. The prongs of the
+V are bent at right angles into hooks which hook
+under the bottom board; two men carry the hive, one
+on each side, each with a carrier just described.
+Mr. Miller has a simple rope carrier that slips under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>the cleated ends of the hive. Mr. Boardman has a
+delightful device, which is a carrier in the shape of a
+push-cart with two wheels. A board just large enough
+to set the hive upon with rope handles at either side
+serves admirably.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_TO_PUT_BEES_IN_THE_CELLAR">
+  WHEN TO PUT BEES IN THE CELLAR
+</h3>
+
+<p>This should be done as soon as steady cold weather
+comes on. In this northern climate the colonies
+should be ready in October, for the appointed time
+for putting them in the cellar is likely to occur
+between the first and fifteenth of November. If put
+in too soon and the weather is warm they become
+uneasy; they should be put in during a dry day so
+that the hives will not be dampened by rain or fog.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_TO_TAKE_BEES_OUT_OF_THE_CELLAR">
+  WHEN TO TAKE BEES OUT OF THE CELLAR
+</h3>
+
+<p>This is decided somewhat by the bees themselves;
+if they awaken and push out and try to escape in
+great numbers, it is a sign that they had best be put
+out as soon as it can be safely done. Mr. Root makes
+the practice of putting his bees out of the cellar in the
+middle of a warm day in midwinter, so that they
+may have a cleansing flight, and then puts them
+back in the cellar that night; which shows that a
+merciful man is good to his bees. However, some
+other bee-keepers think that this taking them out in
+midwinter is fraught with danger.</p>
+
+<p>In a climate like that of New York it is hardly safe
+to take the hives from the cellar before the last
+of April or the first of May. The general rule is to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>wait until there is a prevalent temperature of 70°, and
+the willow, the alder, and the soft maples are in
+blossom, so that the bees may gather pollen as soon
+as they are put out. The glowing banners of the red
+maple blossoms give signal to most of the bee-keepers
+in the northern climate that it is time that
+the bees were on the wing.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="SPRING_DWINDLING">
+  SPRING DWINDLING
+</h3>
+
+<p>The cause of this is attributed to various conditions
+by various bee-keepers. The evidence of it is shown
+by the listlessness of the swarm, and by the dying of
+the bees. Whatever the reason, all apiarists agree
+it is more common during cold, backward springs,
+and that it is less prevalent when the bees are put out
+in warm, sunny locations. The only remedies suggested
+are that the brood-chambers be contracted so
+that the bees can easily keep the comb warm, and
+that plenty of good syrup and rye flour and water
+be given to the bees if they are unable to get food
+from the flowers. Many apiarists have tried the
+joining of two colonies when this dwindling appears,
+hoping thus to get enough bees in a hive to keep it
+warm, but they all agree that this does not help the
+matter.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_WINTERING">
+  MAXIMS FOR WINTERING
+</h3>
+
+<p>Keep the colonies strong. Be sure that a good-sized
+swarm has at least thirty pounds of sealed
+stores.</p>
+
+<p>Pollen should not be left in the comb for winter use.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxii.jpg" alt="Two beehives sit on a hillside covered in snow. There are leafless trees behind them.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by M. V. Slingerland</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXII. WINTER QUARTERS IN CHAFF HIVES</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxiii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxiii.jpg" alt="Close up pictures of bunches of plum blossoms at the end of branches.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Verne Morton</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXIII. PLUM BLOSSOMS</p>
+    <p>The fruit-bloom is a great aid to the bees while rearing their brood.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p>
+
+<p>Be sure that the honey is of good quality, and not
+made from decayed fruit or honey-dew.</p>
+
+<p>Give the hive ventilation from below.</p>
+
+<p>If wintered out of doors, give the bees a chance
+to fly.</p>
+
+<p>If wintered in cellars, do not put too many bees
+in a cellar. If you have space for fifty colonies, do not
+try to winter more than thirty in it.</p>
+
+<p>In cellars take off the bottom boards and arrange
+the hives so that the bees will get plenty of ventilation
+from below.</p>
+
+<p>Have a thermometer in the cellar and keep watch
+of it. This should not show more than ten degrees
+of variation. If the temperature rises to 55°, open
+the windows at night.</p>
+
+<p>Keep the cellar dark and the air sweet.</p>
+
+<p>Sweep the dead bees off the cellar floor several
+times during the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Contract the brood-chamber in the fall, and again,
+if necessary, when the hives are set out in the
+spring, until there is only comb enough so that the
+bees can cover it well.</p>
+
+<p>See that the bees have plenty of food and good
+water near by when set out in the spring.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">
+    CHAPTER XIV
+    <br><br>
+    REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>QUEEN-REARING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a small apiary there is little need for the special
+rearing of queens; the natural increase may safely be
+depended upon to supply all the colonies which lose
+their queens or which have unprofitable ones. It is
+always well for even the most casual bee-keeper to
+take the trouble to re-queen from his strongest and
+best colonies. However, the time when queen cells
+are naturally built may not be the most convenient
+or the most desirable time for giving certain colonies
+a new mother. This being the case, queens may be
+developed through the power of suggestion, as
+follows: Select a frame of brood from the best
+colony; with a toothpick tear down the partitions
+between three worker cells which contain eggs or
+larvæ less than two days old and destroy two of the
+eggs or larvæ; repeat the operation in several places.
+Place the frame back in the hive, being very sure
+that there is sufficient space between it and its
+neighbouring frame, so that good queen cells may
+be built. If there is a scarcity of honey, feed the
+bees. The cleverness of bees is clearly proven by
+the readiness with which they take a hint, and they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>almost invariably build queen cells upon the comb
+thus treated.</p>
+
+<p>This method we have found perfectly satisfactory,
+but for those who rear queens for sale, other very
+interesting practices have been invented. The
+greatest of these was devised by Mr. Doolittle, one
+of the foremost queen-breeders in America. He makes
+artificial queen cells by dipping a small, smoothly
+rounded stick in warm wax repeatedly, thus making
+a little cup, thin at the edge and thick at the bottom.
+Rows of these little cups are placed on a bar the thickness
+of a brood-frame and fastened there with hot
+wax. In each cup is introduced a bit of royal jelly
+and a very young larva. The bar is then inserted
+horizontally into a frame of brood-comb, part of
+the latter being cut away to give room for the future
+cells, which project down from the bar. In such
+a royal nursery, he develops his queens for the market.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="INTRODUCING_QUEENS">
+  INTRODUCING QUEENS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Though royalty in the hive is of quite another
+feather than in human society, yet there is quite as
+much ado when it comes to installations in one as
+in the other. While a bee-colony is absolutely
+devoted to its own queen, it may seriously object
+to a queen thrust upon it by some outside power.
+And thus it happens that the introduction of a new
+queen into a hive is fraught with danger to her
+majesty as well as to the pocket-book of the bee-keeper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 id="BALLING_THE_QUEEN">
+  BALLING THE QUEEN
+</h3>
+
+<p>“Balling” in the hive is an indignity that may well
+have suggested to other societies the method of
+black-balling unwelcome seekers after honours. The
+bees ball an unwelcome queen by gathering around
+her in a compact mass, remaining there until the
+unfortunate usurper is smothered or starved, or both.
+As if to live up to their mathematical reputation,
+this ball is quite spherical because each bee is an
+animated atom of centripetal force scrambling and
+pushing toward the centre. This method of smothering
+royalty is regarded as an evidence of the
+worker’s reluctance to sting a fertile queen. But
+observations are recorded which state that the bees
+on the outside of the ball seem fiercely trying to
+sting, and that the individuals nearest the queen
+ofttimes share her fate because of this venomous
+attitude of their sisters. Whether this use of the
+sting by the outsiders is for the purpose of fighting
+their way toward the centre, or whether they are
+mad with a desire to kill the queen, is by no means
+a settled question. However, if they were bent upon
+stinging her to death, she would scarcely be alive
+after having been balled for some time; while it is a
+matter of common experience that by breaking up
+the ball and driving off the murderers, the queen
+may be saved. Sometimes the bees will ball a
+queen for a time, then voluntarily release her and
+accept her.</p>
+
+<p>There are two ways generally followed for dissolving
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>this lump of excited regicides and saving
+the queen. One is to drop the ball in a shallow
+bowl of water. This baptism seems to cool the hot
+blood and the bees swim off, trying to preserve their
+own lives. The other is to smoke the ball until it
+dissolves into individual bees, so anxious to get breath
+for themselves that they forget to shut off the breath
+of the obnoxious queen. There is a danger attending
+the latter method, for unless the smoking be
+done carefully and without blowing hot air on the
+bees, they will become infuriated by the heat and
+surely sting the queen; as they evidently regard her,
+and rightly, as the cause of their suffering.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_TO_INTRODUCE_A_QUEEN">
+  WHEN TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN
+</h3>
+
+<p>The colony should have been queenless long
+enough to realise the danger of the situation, but
+not long enough to have done much toward building
+queen cells and developing larval queens; in
+the latter case they prefer a queen of their own
+dynasty and object to any other. Thus, if a
+queen is to be superseded she should be removed
+and, about two days later, the new one should
+be introduced.</p>
+
+<p>It requires experience to know certainly that a
+colony has become queenless, for often, when there
+is no brood or eggs in the cells there is a virgin queen,
+which eludes the eye, as she does not appear very
+differently from the workers; a colony with virgin
+queens of its own cannot be induced to accept an
+introduced queen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Root tests a colony which he suspects is
+queenless in the following clever way: He takes a
+cage containing a laying queen and holds it over the
+frames so that it touches them and the bees may thus
+get the scent. If the bees have no queen they express
+their pleasure at this godsend in a very pretty
+manner by a joyful fluttering of the wings, which
+conveys the idea of happiness to even our dull
+senses. To such a colony, the queen may be given
+with no formalities.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_INTRODUCE_A_QUEEN">
+  HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN
+</h3>
+
+<p>The colony should be made good-natured by
+having plenty of food. If there is scarcity of honey,
+the bees should be fed for a day or so, great care
+being taken not to start other colonies to robbing
+by exposing the syrup. The queen is then introduced
+in a queen-cage, which should be placed between
+the brood-combs. This should be done as
+carefully as possible without disturbing the bees.
+At the end of forty-eight hours an examination should
+be made, and if the bees are balling the cage, she
+should be left twenty-four hours longer. When the
+bees gather around the cage in normal numbers she
+may be entrusted to them without fear.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="QUEEN-CAGES">
+  QUEEN-CAGES
+</h3>
+
+<p>First of these are the shipping-cages, and it is a
+thrilling moment when one takes a package from
+the mail, labelled “Queen Bee, Deliver Quick.”
+And it is still more exciting when the cover slides
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>around, revealing her gracious majesty with a few
+attendants, safe beneath the wire screen; for no bee-dealer
+would be so heartless or foolish as to send a
+queen on a journey without a few ladies-in-waiting
+to give her companionship and care.</p>
+
+<p>The cage in which a queen is shipped is always
+tagged or labelled with directions for introducing
+the queen, which, if followed implicitly, almost
+always insures success.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of a queen-cage is a cell made of wire
+screen with twelve to fifteen meshes to the square
+inch, large enough to allow the bees to thrust in
+their antennæ and thus get acquainted with their
+proposed sovereign, but not large enough to permit
+a sting to be effectively thrust through. The cell,
+itself, is large enough so that the prisoner will not
+suffocate if the cage is balled. At one end of the
+cage is an opening into which is pressed a cork of
+candy, over which is tacked a piece of pasteboard,
+through which is a central line of perforations. At
+first the bees are wild to get at the queen, and incidentally
+in their attack they get a taste of the
+candy through the holes in the pasteboard. This
+distracts their attention, and they work industriously
+at biting away the pasteboard to get at the
+candy. And by the time they have worked their
+way through the delectable door, their attitude towards
+the prisoner is naturally sweetened, and
+usually they accept her at once. The “Good candy”
+is used for this purpose, for the queen is also sustained
+on this confection during her incarceration,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>and unless a moist candy is used, she will suffer for
+lack of water.</p>
+
+<p>Home-made cages are usually employed in introducing
+queens from the home apiary. These are of
+various forms and devices, the Miller being a favourite.
+His materials are as follows: One block of
+wood 3 × 1¼ × ⅜ in.; two blocks of wood 1 × ⁷⁄₁₆ × ⅜
+in.; two pieces of tin 1 in. square; two pieces of fine
+wire 9 in. long; one piece of wire-cloth 4½ × 3½ in.;
+four wire nails ½ in. long. (<a href="#plate_v">Plate V.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>The illustration shows how the material is used.
+The space between the two small blocks of wood,
+held in place by the pieces of tin forms a door for
+the candy. The large piece of wood serves as a plug
+at the other end of the cage, which may be removed,
+and the cage set down over the queen, thus capturing
+her without handling her. When a queen is placed
+in a cage she should always be allowed to climb up
+into it. It is not natural for her to climb down.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_NUCLEUS_METHOD">
+  THE NUCLEUS METHOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>This method of introducing very valuable queens
+is said by experts to be absolutely safe. It is accomplished
+by making a nucleus of two or three frames
+of brood, which is sealed and some of it just breaking
+through the cell caps. Not an adult bee is permitted
+to remain, and there should be as few uncapped
+larvæ as possible, since such will starve. The
+queen is placed on these combs and the young bees,
+as they issue innocent of men’s scheming, accept
+her as their legitimate mother, and a colony is soon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>built up. A nucleus hive of this sort must be placed
+in a warm room, unless it is hot weather, as there are
+no bees to warm the brood. Care must also be
+taken to put a wire screen over the entrance of the
+hive for a day or two to prevent the queen from
+escaping if she becomes uneasy midst such a dreary
+waste of adolescence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_FOR_INTRODUCING_QUEENS">
+  MAXIMS FOR INTRODUCING QUEENS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Be sure the colony is queenless before attempting
+to introduce a queen.</p>
+
+<p>Be sure the bees have not progressed far in rearing
+young queens.</p>
+
+<p>Be careful not to anger or disturb the bees by
+smoke or hot blast or otherwise when placing the
+queen in the hive.</p>
+
+<p>If honey is scarce, feed the colony before trying
+to introduce the queen.</p>
+
+<p>Place the cage containing the queen on the frames
+near the centre of the brood-chamber, wire cloth
+below her, so that the cage rests on the bars of the
+frames.</p>
+
+<p>Do not disturb the colony for forty-eight hours
+after introducing the queen-cage.</p>
+
+<p>Be careful not to allow the queen to escape by
+flight when liberating her.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, a queen crawls up instead of down.</p>
+
+<p>After queens are two or three years old they
+should be replaced by young queens.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">
+    CHAPTER XV
+    <br><br>
+    ROBBING IN THE APIARY
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>A CAUSE OF DEMORALISATION</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> moral law seems to be as potent among the
+bees as among men, and if the law be broken there
+is a moral penalty attached. Nothing demonstrates
+this more fully than robbing in the apiaries,
+for as soon as it begins utter demoralisation ensues.
+All legitimate work is stopped, and all the energies
+of the bees are devoted to ill-gotten gain and in
+fighting with each other, or attacking anything or
+anybody that comes near them. One of the signs
+of this demoralisation is that robbing makes the bees
+very cross. The experienced bee-keeper can detect
+robbing by the angry humming which <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: prevades" id="prevades">pervades</ins> the
+apiary, which is a sound as different from the
+ordinary contented hum of the working bee as martial
+music is from a pastoral symphony.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHY_BEES_ROB">
+  WHY BEES ROB
+</h3>
+
+<p>Bees rob for the very human and natural reason
+that the stores gathered by the hard work of others
+are coveted and are more easily stolen than earned by
+labour. When dealing with bees we must always
+remember that the interest of the individual centres
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>in its own colony, and that it has neither love nor
+devotion to any other colony, nor to bees in general;
+indeed, quite otherwise. Endowed with an instinct
+almost fiendish, bees seem to understand when
+another colony is weak or discouraged, and, therefore,
+offers a legitimate field for plunder. Strong
+colonies are seldom robbed, as they are able to drive
+out and kill the thieves; but the weak colony is a
+constant temptation to ill doing, and should be
+carefully watched and guarded.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHEN_BEES_ROB">
+  WHEN BEES ROB
+</h3>
+
+<p>This occurs usually when there is little honey to
+be found in the field. Satan provides mischief for
+the idle six feet and four wings quite as efficiently
+as for hands. At the end of the honey-harvest there
+may be a general temptation throughout the apiary
+to break open vaults of precious stores belonging to
+others, and escape with the contents. At the close
+of the honey season strong colonies usually have
+plenty of sentinels to guard the entrance and look
+after suspicious strangers. Never at any time should
+honey-comb be left open around the apiary, for
+it always leads to robbing. It seems to suggest
+to the bees that honey gathered is a much more
+desirable product than that worked for in the fields.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when preserving or pickling is going on
+in the house the bees start to rob the kitchen; and
+while they may be deterred by screened windows,
+yet the smell of the sweets may so excite them to
+desires for forbidden wealth that they seem to become
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>discontented with the grind of daily toil, and so
+begin robbing their neighbours.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_THE_ROBBING_IS_DONE">
+  HOW THE ROBBING IS DONE
+</h3>
+
+<p>The robber, unless she be hardened by success,
+alights on the threshold of the hive which contains
+coveted stores with an air that is decidedly apologetic,
+having the general appearance of a prospecting
+dog with his tail apprehensively between his legs.
+She shows her guilty conscience by dodging back if
+she meets one of the legitimate owners coming out
+of the hive; she is thus trying the skill and prowess of
+the sentinels, for if by assuming bravado she can pass
+the sentinels she is usually safe; then she has nothing
+to do but to fill with honey and to run the gauntlet
+of the sentinels again, for perchance some of them
+may stop her and ask her why she is going out of the
+hive <em>filled</em> with honey, a proceeding altogether
+reprehensible in the bee world. If she succeeds in
+carrying back to her own hive the honey thus
+stolen, she creates great excitement there and soon
+she leads back a mob to pillage; and the air is full
+of bees bent on wickedness. Mr. Root describes
+graphically the successful robber thus: “A bee
+that has stolen a load is generally very plump and
+full, and as it comes out has a hurried and guilty
+look; besides it is almost always wiping its mouth
+like a man who has just come out of a beer shop.
+Most of all it finds it a little difficult to take wing as
+bees ordinarily do because of its weight.” As a
+consequence a robber bee borne down with its load
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>of sweetness is likely to crawl up the hive a little way
+so as to have the advantage of a high place to “jump
+from” as it takes wing. The virtuous worker comes
+out of the hive slim and depleted of her load and
+flies off leisurely to the field, while the robber comes
+out stuffed full and furtively climbs up the side of the
+hive in order to be able to be off.</p>
+
+<p>We usually detect robbing in our apiary by the
+fighting which we observe about the entrance; when
+we see a pair of workers rolling over and over with
+each other in the grass near the hive we know that
+one of them is a robber, but as we do not know
+which one we are obliged to apply the test meted to
+the knights of old, and believe that the one who
+survives is in the right. However, we take measures
+at once to defend this hive. Also if we discover the
+bees to be particularly cross some day, we look about
+to see what has aroused their ire, and nine times out
+of ten find that robbing is the cause of their ill
+temper.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_STOP_ROBBING">
+  HOW TO STOP ROBBING
+</h3>
+
+<p>Contract the entrance to the hive being robbed.
+To do this we place blocks in front of it, leaving only
+enough space so that one or two bees can pass in at
+a time. The robbers having to enter in single file
+attract the attention of the suspicious sentinels and
+are either driven back or killed at once. It is unsafe
+to close the entrance entirely, unless it is done with a
+wire screen, for the bees within will smother unless
+the air is admitted through the entrance. It is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>always well to keep the entrance of the hive which
+contains a weak colony or a nucleus somewhat contracted
+as a measure of insurance. If contracting
+the entrance does not stop robbing, Mr. Root advises
+strewing long grass about the entrance which he wets
+thoroughly. The robbers are too wary to try to rob
+after they have wet their “feathers” in passing
+through this grass; for thus handicapped they could
+hardly escape from their enraged victims; while the
+robbers already within the hive after having thus to
+crawl out will hasten home to get their clothes dry.
+Mr. Doolittle uses a common sheet which he places
+over the hive that is being robbed, while Mr. Miller
+places over the victimised hive a bee tent of mosquito
+netting, which has a hole in the top which permits
+the robbers to escape.</p>
+
+<p>A bee tent is a most useful adjunct to the apiary;
+there are many times when it may be used, but it
+is especially useful in preventing robbing. It is
+simply a tent made of mosquito netting large enough
+to be set over the hive and the operator. When
+opening the hives at midday the tent is used to prevent
+the robbers from attacking the exposed stores.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Root advises working at nightfall when bees
+are cross or given to robbing; but most bee-keepers
+declare that the bees will crawl all over one at night,
+and are no more to be gotten rid of than a porous
+plaster, at which Mr. Root promptly responds,
+“Do not stand near the lamp.”</p>
+
+<p>Enterprising men exchange places of the robbers
+and victims, which produces a confusion that restores
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>quiet. The robbers come back to the weak colony
+laden with its own stores and join it and help fight
+off intruders; while a strong colony of robbers is
+quite capable of defending itself.</p>
+
+<p>Another clever trick practised in Europe is to place
+some disagreeable, strong-smelling substance on the
+bottom board of the hive that is being robbed;
+wormwood, musk, carbolised paper, are used for
+this. The odour disconcerts the robber unless she
+is lost to all sense of bee decency; and if she does steal
+honey from such a hive and returns home her doom
+is sealed; for although in the bee world the way of
+the transgressor is not always hard, the way of the
+citizen that smells differently from her sisters leads
+to her murder and sudden death.</p>
+
+<p>If a robber colony has almost completed its
+nefarious work, some people believe that it is best to
+let it make a clean job, and thus become satisfied
+there is no more plunder to be had, else the robbers
+will hunt other hives for depredation. The bee
+memory seems to be very good, and if the robbers
+have not cleaned up all the honey which they
+remember is there, they hunt for it elsewhere. We
+could never bring ourselves to a frame of mind to
+permit this calmly, though it seems like sensible
+advice. Robbing makes us so indignant that we
+refuse to allow the spoils to the victor.</p>
+
+<p>Bees are certainly very clever, and they are able
+to learn. The old and successful robber soon
+reasons it out that where the bee-keeper with a
+smoker belches forth annoying fumes, there are to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>be found open hives ready for robbing; such bees
+will follow the operator from hive to hive, taking their
+tithe from the helpless colonies. For such robbers as
+these a way to appease them is a device for letting
+them rob where they can do little damage. Unsalable
+comb partly filled is put in hives or supers
+piled up. These are ventilated by having a wire
+screen above, the cover lifted, and the entrance
+contracted so that only one bee can pass in and out at
+a time. This keeps the robbers busy and happy
+and out of the way, and the process is called “slow
+robbing.”</p>
+
+<p>Some apiarists remove the robbed colony to a cellar
+for a day or two until it can recover its communal
+courage.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="BORROWING">
+  BORROWING
+</h3>
+
+<p>When a colony is queenless, or for some reason has
+no brood, it often allows the robbers to come and go
+at will, as if it had found life worthless anyhow, and
+that there was no use in struggling. It seems
+possessed of the sort of pessimism which leads to
+stoic recklessness. This can usually be stopped by
+giving the plundered colony a queen and brood; as
+soon as the bees find they have something worth
+while to live for and fight for they are mightily
+heartened and offer a brave defence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WHAT_BECOMES_OF_THE_ROBBED_COLONY">
+  WHAT BECOMES OF THE ROBBED COLONY
+</h3>
+
+<p>Some of the bees are adaptable, and when they
+lose courage in defending their own stores they
+turn about and help carry these stores to the hive of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>the robbers, which they join, thus swearing allegiance
+to a new flag. Others, more loyal, will cling to the old
+empty comb, cluster there, hopeless and despairing
+until they die of starvation.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="MAXIMS_TO_PREVENT_ROBBING">
+  MAXIMS TO PREVENT ROBBING
+</h3>
+
+<p>Be sure that the bees are robbing, before applying
+remedies.</p>
+
+<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p>
+
+<p>Keep watch of the hives in early spring and late
+fall when there is no honey coming in.</p>
+
+<p>Leave no honey or loose comb open around the
+apiary under any circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>If bees are determined to rob when the hives are
+opened by the operator, it is best to work under a
+bee tent or after nightfall.</p>
+
+<p>Robbing demoralises the whole apiary. If the
+bees are cross, look out for robbers.</p>
+
+<p>Be very careful in uncapping not to let the bees
+get a taste of the chyle food, as that makes them very
+cross and wild to rob.</p>
+
+<p>Keep Italians.</p>
+
+<p>Do not let the colony become queenless, as a queenless
+colony is legitimate prey for many depredators.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">
+    CHAPTER XVI
+    <br><br>
+    THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE BEE-MOTH <span class="fs90">(<i lang="la">Galleria mellonella</i>)</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> miserable little pest is classic in its devastations
+as it is mentioned by the old writers, Aristotle
+paying to it bitter tribute. It belongs to a family
+of secretive moths which fold their dull wings
+closely about the body, and thus look more like bits
+of sticks than like insects. They are called the
+snout moths (<i lang="la">Pyralidæ</i>) because the palpi extend out
+in front of the head in a highly ornamental and
+striking manner.</p>
+
+<p>The bee-moth is a most insidious creature, hiding
+in cracks, and, when it flies, darting about with
+almost inconceivable swiftness. It is only by such
+means that it eludes the watchful bees. Professor
+Kellogg observes that the moth simply works against
+time when it rushes into a hive by laying its eggs
+rapidly, dodging about with the utmost rapidity to
+leave as many progeny as possible before the bees
+can get hold of her and tear her asunder, a fate which
+surely awaits her. So it seems that even a parasite
+may be brave and go to certain death in fulfilling its
+destiny. Mr. Cook says that the moth will lay eggs
+while her head and thorax are being dissected, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>shows that even after death she is efficient for mischief
+in the hive.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are small and white and are put into
+crevices. From such an egg there hatches a caterpillar
+which spins about itself a silken tube, wherein
+it lives and in some mysterious way is protected from
+the bees. It may be that these tubes are of such
+texture that the bees cannot sting through them; or
+they may simply be sufficiently thick to protect their
+inmate from bee observation. The caterpillar lives
+upon the wax and young bees, and also upon the bee-bread;
+it is a voracious eater, and tunnels through
+the comb, destroying everything in its path. Those
+who have had experience with it say that by holding
+an infested comb to the ear, the noise made by the
+industrious jaws of the caterpillar can be distinctly
+heard. Its presence can be detected by the filth and
+the débris on the bottom board of the hive and also
+by the silken tubes on the comb. When the caterpillars
+destroy the bee larvæ, the bees take out the
+remains and dump them in front of the hive, thus
+gaining among the ignorant, a reputation for infanticide
+which they little deserve.</p>
+
+<p>In favourable locations the growth of these moths
+from egg to adult may require six weeks; the caterpillar
+when about an inch in length changes to a
+pupa, in a very thick, protecting cocoon of tough
+silk. The silk made by these caterpillars is of a most
+excellent quality; there is in the Cornell University
+Museum a filmy but strong silken handkerchief
+made by bee-moths passing and repassing over a flat
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>board; it was made quite involuntarily as the caterpillars
+spin wherever they go. The bee-moth is
+especially destructive to stored comb if it is piled
+close together.</p>
+
+
+<h3>
+  REMEDY
+</h3>
+
+<p>To prevent the injuries of this pest the colonies
+should be kept strong. The bee-moth follows the
+rule of other parasites and attacks only the weak
+and the irresolute, and never injures a comb that is
+covered with bees. A queenless colony, dejected
+and discouraged, is usually victimised by it. The
+Italian bees have learned to cope with the bee-moth
+and exterminate it whenever attacked by it. Some
+bee-keepers, when a comb becomes infested, introduce
+it into the centre of an Italian colony, being
+sure that the little wretches will find there the fate
+they deserve. But to us this seems rather an imposition
+upon a self-respecting colony of bees.</p>
+
+<p>The use of plain, simple, well-made hives is a
+protection from the bee-moth, as such hives do not
+afford hiding-places for moths and eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Before comb is stored it should be put in a closed
+box out of doors, and a saucer of carbon bisulphide
+placed on top of the comb and left for a day. The
+deadly gas of this poison is heavier than the air and
+so falls instead of rising. Care should be taken not
+to breathe the fumes more than is necessary and
+hence the work should be done in the open air.
+Another reason for this is that the gas is inflammable,
+and hence no fire should be allowed near it. There
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>is another reason why the work should be done in
+the open and that is because of the sickening stench
+of the gas. Comb thus treated should be stored in a
+perfectly tight receptacle, or else be set an inch or so
+apart on shelves. The bee-moth caterpillar does
+not seem to like to work in combs that are not set
+as closely together, as they are in the hives.</p>
+
+<p>If combs infested with the bee-moth are subjected
+to a temperature of 10° F. the moth is usually exterminated.
+However, the pest normally passes the
+winter in the pupa state, and seems to be able to
+survive in hives left out of doors, wherever the bees
+can survive. It should be remembered that the bee-moth
+works only during the summer from May until
+October, and remains quiescent during the winter.
+As a matter of fact the modern up-to-date bee-keeper
+has almost no trouble with the bee-moth.
+It is a special enemy of the heedless and careless man
+who neglects his hives, and thus may well deserve
+to have his bees exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>If a colony is attacked by the bee-moth, the hive
+should be thoroughly cleaned; new good comb
+should be introduced and only enough so that the
+bees can cover it. The infested comb should be
+fumigated with carbon bisulphide, and after the
+moths are killed it may be given to a strong colony
+to clean out and use.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="THE_INDIAN-MEAL_MOTH_Plodia_interpunctella">
+  THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH <span class="fs90">(<i lang="la">Plodia interpunctella</i>)</span>
+</h3>
+
+<p>The Indian-meal moth sometimes forsakes its
+bins of grain and meal and devastates the honey-comb.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>It does not measure more than one-eighth
+of an inch across its wings, and its caterpillar is
+almost too small to be noticed, unless it occurs in
+great numbers. It sometimes attacks the honey-comb
+in the North, and in the South it is often a
+great nuisance. The only remedy for this very
+small pest is to change the bees to smaller hives, and
+expose the infested comb to the fumes of carbon bisulphide.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="BEE-MOTH_MAXIMS">
+  BEE-MOTH MAXIMS
+</h3>
+
+<p>The shiftless bee-keeper is the one who complains
+of the wax-worm.</p>
+
+<p>Keep Italian bees.</p>
+
+<p>Keep the colonies strong.</p>
+
+<p>Do not leave more comb in the hive than the bees
+are able to cover.</p>
+
+<p>Use well-made hives with no crevices.</p>
+
+<p>If you see a web upon the comb, hunt out the
+caterpillar and kill it at once.</p>
+
+<p>If bee-moths get into the honey store-room, close
+the room and fumigate it with brimstone or carbon
+bisulphide.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="FOUL_BROOD">
+  FOUL BROOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>This is an infectious bacterial disease, and its
+presence in the apiary may be attended by serious
+results. When it first appeared in America, large
+apiaries were completely destroyed. In 1874, Professor
+Cohn discovered the organism which causes
+the disease, and which bears the name of <i lang="la">Bacillus
+alvei</i>. This microbe attacks the immature larvæ
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>and they die in the cells. It always attacks, to a
+lesser extent, the adult bee; but these leave the hive
+to die and are not such a dangerous source of infection
+as are the decaying larvæ. Infected honey
+is the medium by which the disease is ordinarily
+spread from hive to hive. Undoubtedly robbing is to
+a great extent responsible for its prevalence.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="HOW_TO_DETECT_FOUL_BROOD">
+  HOW TO DETECT FOUL BROOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>The brood appears in irregular patches and it
+does not all hatch; the caps to the brood cells may
+be sunken and broken at the centre, the holes being
+irregular, instead of the neat circular perforations
+which may be found above the healthy larvæ.
+The sure test of the presence of the disease is found
+in the dead body of the larva, which is dark and
+discoloured; and if a toothpick or pin be thrust into
+it and then drawn back, the body contents will adhere
+to it in a stringy mass, to the extent of a half or even
+an entire inch, as if it were mucous or glue; later the
+bodies of the larvæ dry and appear as black scales in
+the cell bottoms. Another evidence of the presence
+of the disease is a peculiarly disagreeable odour
+which permeates the hive, which Mr. Root likens to
+that of a glue pot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Remedies.</i>—These have been worked out by
+many bee-keepers, notably by Mr. William McEvoy,
+inspector of bees in Ontario, Canada. His remedy
+is as follows: When there is a good honey flow
+so the bees will not suffer, all the comb is taken from
+the infected colony and frames with foundation-starters
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>are given instead. Having no young to
+feed, the bees use all the infected honey in their
+stomachs for making comb. At the end of the
+fourth day all this comb is removed and new
+frames with foundation are substituted, and the
+deed is done.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Root’s practice is to remove the hive from its
+stand about dark, to prevent robbing, and put
+another just like it in its place which contains
+frames filled with foundation. The bees are shaken
+from the infected hive into the new one. Here they
+are shut in without food for three or four days, thus
+being compelled to use all the honey in their honey
+sacs. Then they are fed and the disease does not
+appear again in colonies thus treated. Mr. Root
+burns all the infected comb and frames and disinfects
+the hives with hot water before they are
+used again; other apiarists of experience support
+Mr. Root in this matter. Fumigating the hives with
+burning brimstone would perhaps be an easier or a
+surer way of disinfecting the hives.</p>
+
+<p>Many apiarists who do a large business do not
+destroy the infected comb, but render it in a steam
+wax press. They also thin the infected honey and
+boil it for two hours, adding to it a little salicylic
+acid, and use it to feed back to the bees. But this
+would hardly pay, unless great care were taken, as
+one drop of the infected honey would start the
+disease anew.</p>
+
+<p>Some have tried medicated syrup as a remedy.
+It is true that syrup made with salicylic acid or beta-naphthol
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>will retard the disease, but most bee-keepers
+believe that it is not a sure remedy.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="BLACK_BROOD">
+  BLACK BROOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>This appeared in New York so frequently that it
+was called the New York bee-disease. It was
+differentiated from foul brood by Dr. Wm. R.
+Howard, of Texas, who found the bacillus and
+described it. The chief way of telling it from foul
+brood is that the contents of the body of the dead
+larva is jelly-like, instead of gluey. However, Dr.
+Veranus Moore and Dr. G. Franklin White, of the
+New York Veterinary College at Cornell University,
+worked upon this disease for some time and, in
+1903, reported that the bacillus of this disease is
+<i lang="la">alvei</i> and identical with that discovered and <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: disscribed" id="disscribed">described</ins>
+by Cohn as the cause of foul brood.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="PICKLED_BROOD">
+  PICKLED BROOD
+</h3>
+
+<p>This disease of the brood differs from the others
+in that the body-contents of the dead larva are
+watery and that no peculiar stench in the hive
+emanates from them. Neither is it so contagious as
+foul brood, though it may seriously cripple an apiary,
+if not checked. The remedy for foul brood is applied
+with success to colonies suffering from this disease.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="DIARRHOEA">
+  DIARRHOEA
+</h3>
+
+<p>This disease is part of the difficulty of wintering.
+It is induced by the bees’ habit of retaining waste
+matter in the body until they can fly out of the hive,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>for thus they preserve the cleanliness of their home.
+The first symptom of the disease is the soiling of the
+hive entrance with brownish excrement; the bees are
+also likely to die in great numbers, their bodies
+being much swollen.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the disease is attributed to cold and
+dampness, and poor food. If, in the fall, the bees
+store honey made from the juices of rotting fruit or
+cider refuse, or from honey-dew excreted by plant
+lice, they are very likely to perish by feeding upon it
+during the winter. But even with good honey bees
+wintered in cold, damp hives are liable to contract
+the disease.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="PREVENTION">
+  PREVENTION
+</h3>
+
+<p>Give the bees plenty of good food for winter. If
+the honey they have gathered in August is extracted,
+feed them syrup from the best of sugar. In winter
+keep the hives in proper temperature, with sufficient
+good air and ventilation. After the disease once
+appears, there is no remedy, except warm weather,
+which will promptly bring relief.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">
+    CHAPTER XVII
+    <br><br>
+    THE ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A detailed</span> discussion of the anatomy of the
+honey-bee does not fall within the scope of this book;
+for such a discussion, special works on insect anatomy
+must be consulted. But there are certain of the
+more general features of the structure of the bee
+which the bee-keeper should know; and a discussion
+of these, merits a place even in an elementary book
+on bee-keeping.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of insect anatomy it is customary to
+divide the subject into two parts: first, external
+anatomy, which treats of the structure of the body-wall;
+and, second, internal anatomy, which treats
+of the parts found inside the body-wall.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="I_EXTERNAL_ANATOMY">
+  I. EXTERNAL ANATOMY
+</h3>
+
+<p><i>The body-wall.</i>—Insects differ fundamentally from
+man and other backboned animals. With us, the
+muscles and other soft parts are supported by an
+internal skeleton; with the insects the body-wall, that
+part which corresponds to our skin, is hard and
+serves as a skeleton. In some respects this is a better
+arrangement than that which obtains with us, for
+the skeleton of an insect serves as an armour to
+protect the body as well as a support for the soft
+parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p>
+
+<p>This arrangement of parts holds with the appendages
+of the body of an insect as well as with the body
+itself; the legs, mouth-parts and antennæ are all
+tubular organs, having a firm outer skeleton supporting
+the inner parts.</p>
+
+<p>Movement of the body and its appendages is
+provided for by narrow, flexible, zone-like areas in
+the skeleton which encircle the body and the appendages,
+at frequent intervals. This segmented
+condition of the body is easily seen in the hind part
+or abdomen, which appears to consist of a series of
+rings.</p>
+
+<p>The microscopic structure of the body-wall is
+comparatively simple. There is an inner cellular
+part which consists of a single layer of cells: this is
+the hypodermis (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 2, <i>h</i>); and the outer or
+hard part: this is the cuticle (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 2, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The hypodermis is the active living part; it produces
+the cuticle, which receives additions from
+it constantly during the life of the insect. On
+this account, when a section of the cuticle is
+examined with a microscope it presents a layered
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moulting of the cuticle.</i>—From time to time during
+the growth of the insect the outer layers of the
+cuticle are shed; this is known as moulting. After
+a moult, the inner layers of the cuticle, which have
+now become the outer layers, but which are still
+soft, stretch to accommodate the increased size of
+the body, and then soon become hard. This moulting,
+or shedding of the skin, takes place about six
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>times during the development of the bee. Several
+moults occur during the larval life: one when the
+larva changes to a pupa, and the last one when the
+pupa changes to the adult or winged form, just
+before leaving the cell in which it has been developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The head.</i>—The segments of which the body of an
+insect is composed are grouped into three regions:
+the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The head is the first of the three regions. It is
+formed of several segments grown together so as to
+<ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: from" id="from">form</ins> a compact box. It bears the eyes, the antennæ,
+and the mouth-parts.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes are of two kinds, which are distinguished
+as the compound eyes and the simple eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The compound eyes are two in number, one on
+each side of the head; they are the organs commonly
+recognised as the eyes. They are called compound
+eyes because each consists of a great number of little
+eyes closely pressed together. If a compound eye
+be examined with a microscope, it will be seen to
+present the appearance of a honey-comb, being
+composed of a great number of six-sided elements;
+each of these is a separate eye.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the compound eyes, the bee has
+three simple eyes, or <i lang="la">ocelli</i>, as they are termed.
+They are situated on the upper part of the head
+between the compound eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The antennæ are two slender, many-jointed
+organs projecting from the front part of the head.
+Their use has not been fully elucidated. They
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>are doubtless sense organs; and it is believed that
+certain microscopic pits, which occur in great numbers
+in their cuticle, are the organs of smell. It is
+possible, also, that the antennæ function as organs
+of touch, certain hairs with which they are furnished
+being the tactile organs.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth-parts are very complicated. They consist
+of an upper lip, a lower lip, and two pairs of
+jaws between the lips.</p>
+
+<p>The upper lip is known <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: at" id="at">as</ins> the <i lang="la">labrum</i>. It is a flap-like
+projection situated above, or in front of, the
+other mouth-parts (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, <i>u</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The first pair of jaws, those situated nearest the
+labrum, are the mandibles (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>md</i>).
+Each mandible consists of a single hard piece.
+They are the biting organs. Certain wild bees,
+distantly related to the honey-bee, dig holes in wood
+with their mandibles for nests for their brood. The
+honey-bee uses its mandibles as tools for the manipulation
+of wax and propolis, and as weapons in its
+combats.</p>
+
+<p>The second pair of jaws, which are situated
+between the mandibles and the lower lip, are the
+maxillæ (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>mx</i>). Each maxilla is a long
+blade. The maxillæ, combined with the lower lip,
+constitute what, in popular language, is known as
+the tongue, the organ by means of which the food is
+conveyed to the mouth, or the nectar extracted from
+a flower.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxiv" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxiv.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXIV. SUMAC IN BLOSSOM AND BLOSSOM
+    OF MOUNTAIN MAPLE</p>
+    <p>The Sumac is an excellent honey-producer.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxv" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxv.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    PLATE XXV. <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Vertical longitudinal section of the body of a larva
+    of an insect; <i>s</i>, body-wall or skeleton; <i>m</i>, muscles; <i>a</i>, alimentary canal; <i>h</i>,
+    heart; <i>n</i>, nervous system; <i>r</i>, reproductive organs. <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Section of the
+    body-wall; <i>c</i>, cuticle; <i>h</i>, hypodermis; <i>t</i>, trichogen or hair-forming cell. <span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Head
+    of a bee and its appendages; <i>a</i>, antenna; <i>c</i>, clypens; <i>u</i>, upper lip or
+    labrum; <i>m</i>, mandible; <i>mx</i>, maxilla; <i>l</i>, lower lip or labium; <i>p</i>, labial palpus.
+    <span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Glands of a honey-bee (after Girard); <i>1</i>, supracerebral glands; <i>2</i>, postcerebral
+    glands; <i>3</i>, thoracic glands. <span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—The wax plates (after Cheshire).
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The lower lip, or labium (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>l</i>), is the
+long central part of the so-called tongue; it bears on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>each side a long appendage; these are the labial
+<i lang="la">palpi</i> (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 3, <i>p</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>The thorax.</i>—The thorax is the central region of
+the body. It consists of three body-segments,
+which are grown together so compactly in the adult
+insect that it is difficult to distinguish them. The
+thorax bears the organs of locomotion, the wings and
+the legs.</p>
+
+<p>There are two pairs of wings; but the two wings of
+each side are so closely united that they appear as one.
+The union is accomplished by a row of hooks on the
+front edge of the hind wing, which fasten into a
+fold in the hind edge of the fore wing. The wings
+are strengthened by a framework of heavy lines,
+which extend in various but definite directions.
+Between these lines the wing is a thin membrane.</p>
+
+<p>There are three pairs of legs, a pair borne by each
+of the three body-segments of which the thorax is
+composed.</p>
+
+<p>Each leg consists of nine segments and a pair of
+claws at the tip of the last segment. The first two
+segments, the <i lang="la">coxa</i> and the <i lang="la">trochanter</i>, are short;
+then follow the two principal segments, the <i lang="la">femur</i>, or
+thigh, and the <i lang="la">tibia</i>, or shank; the five remaining
+segments constitute the <i lang="la">tarsus</i> or foot. A striking
+peculiarity in the <i lang="la">tarsi</i> of bees is that the first segment
+differs greatly in form from the other segments
+and is much larger, approaching the <i lang="la">tibia</i> in size.
+This enlarged tarsal segment has received the special
+name of <i lang="la">metatarsus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The legs serve several functions besides that of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>locomotion. Thus, on each fore leg there is an
+organ for cleaning the antennæ. The antenna
+cleaner consists of a circular notch near the base of
+the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i>, which is furnished with teeth like a
+comb (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, F, <i>a</i>), and a spur projecting back
+from the <i lang="la">tibia</i> in such a way as to close this notch
+when the leg is bent. The antenna to be cleaned is
+drawn through this notch and thus the dirt is
+combed from it.</p>
+
+<p>On the middle legs there is a strong spur at the
+distal end of the <i lang="la">tibia</i> which is used in loosing the
+pellets of pollen brought to the hive on the hind legs.</p>
+
+<p>The third pair of legs are furnished with three
+organs which deserve mention here. <i>First</i>: the wax
+pincers. Both the <i lang="la">tibia</i> and the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i> are wide;
+the joint uniting them is at one edge, hence by alternately
+bending and straightening the leg at this
+joint, the space between the two segments (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>,
+B, <i>wp</i>) is opened and shut like pincers. This organ
+is used to loosen from the abdomen the scales of
+wax. <i>Second</i>: the pollen-combs. These are several
+comb-like series of spines, borne on the inner surface
+of the <i lang="la">metatarsus</i> (<a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>, B, <i>pc</i>). When a bee
+visits a flower the pollen is gathered by the tongue and
+fore legs and some of it becomes entangled among the
+hairs on the thorax. It is then combed from these
+parts by means of the pollen-combs and transferred
+to the pollen baskets. <i>Third</i>: the pollen basket.
+There is a pollen basket on the outer surface of the
+<i lang="la">tibia</i> of each hind leg. It consists of a fringe of
+hairs, surrounding a smooth, concave area which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>occupies the greater part of the outer face of this
+segment of the leg. In it the pollen is packed when
+combed from the hairs, and transported to the hive.</p>
+
+<p><i>The abdomen.</i>—The abdomen is the last of the
+three regions of the body. It consists of a series of
+comparatively simple, overlapping segments, without
+conspicuous appendages.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="II_INTERNAL_ANATOMY">
+  II. INTERNAL ANATOMY
+</h3>
+
+<p><i>Relative position of the internal organs.</i>—As has
+been shown in the preceding pages, the body-wall
+serves as a skeleton, being hard and giving support
+to the other organs of the body, which are contained
+within it.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying diagram (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, 1), which
+represents a vertical longitudinal section of the body
+of the larva of an insect, will enable the reader to
+gain an idea of the relative positions of some of the
+more important organs. The parts shown in the
+diagram are the following: The body-wall or skeleton
+(<i>s</i>); this is made up of a series of overlapping
+segments; that part of it which is between the segments
+is thinner, and is not hardened, this remaining
+flexible and allowing for the movements of the body.
+Just within the body-wall, and attached to it, are
+represented a few of the muscles (<i>m</i>); it will be seen
+that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction
+of those on the lower side of the body would bend
+it down, while the contraction of those on the opposite
+side would act in the opposite direction. The
+alimentary canal (<i>a</i>) occupies the centre of the body
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>and extends from one end to the other. The heart
+(<i>h</i>) is a tube open at both ends, and lying between
+the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back.</p>
+
+<p>The central part of the nervous system (<i>n</i>) is a
+series of small masses of nervous matter, connected
+by two longitudinal chords; one of these masses,
+the brain, lies above the alimentary canal; the others
+are situated, one in each segment, between the
+alimentary canal and the ventral wall of the body;
+the two chords connecting these masses, or ganglia,
+pass one on each side of the œsophagus to the brain.
+The reproductive organs (<i>r</i>) lie in the cavity of the
+abdomen and open near the hind end of the body.
+The respiratory organs are omitted from this diagram
+for the sake of simplicity.</p>
+
+<p><i>The respiratory system.</i>—The most striking peculiarity
+in the structure of insects is the form of
+their organs for breathing, for they do not breathe
+through the mouth as we do. If an insect be carefully
+examined, there can be found along the sides
+of the body, a series of openings; these are the
+openings through which the air passes into the respiratory
+system, and are termed spiracles. The spiracles
+of the honey-bee are small, and are not easily
+found by one not trained to look for such things;
+but if the reader will examine the sides of one of our
+larger caterpillars, he will have no trouble in seeing
+them. Typically, there is a pair of spiracles, one
+on each side of the body, in each of the body-segments,
+but they are lacking in the head and in some
+of the other segments. The spiracles lead into a system
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>of air tubes, termed tracheæ, which carry the air
+to all parts of the body. When the body of an insect
+is opened, the tracheæ appear as silvery threads, on
+account of the contained air. In the adult honey-bee
+certain of the tracheæ are greatly expanded so
+as to form large air sacs. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a> <i>b</i>, 2).</p>
+
+<p><i>The glands.</i>—Those glands found in the body of
+the honey-bee that are of most interest to the practical
+bee-keeper are the following:</p>
+
+<p>In the larva there is a pair of long, tubular glands,
+which secrete the silk of which the cocoon is made.
+These glands open through a common duct, which
+has its outlet near the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>In the adult worker bee there are four pairs of
+glands opening into the mouth, which have been
+much discussed by students of this subject. These
+glands are designated both by number and by
+name as follows: System I. or supracerebral
+glands; system II. or postcerebral glands; system
+III. or thoracic glands; and system IV. or
+mandibulary glands.</p>
+
+<p>The supracerebral glands or system I. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>,
+Fig. 4, 1) are situated in the head above the brain.
+They open by two openings in the floor of the mouth
+cavity, one on each side.</p>
+
+<p>The postcerebral glands or system II. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>,
+Fig. 4, 2) are situated in the head behind the brain;
+their outlets unite into a common duct which opens
+on the middle line of the anterior end of the œsophagus
+at the base of the tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The thoracic glands or system III. (<a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>Fig. 4, 3) are situated in the thorax; their outlets
+unite into a common duct, which joins the ducts
+from the postcerebral glands, the two systems of
+glands opening through a common opening.</p>
+
+<p>The mandibulary glands or system IV. are two
+small glands one on each side opening at the base
+of the mandible.</p>
+
+<p>There has been much discussion regarding the
+function of these different glands; and even now any
+statement of conclusions must be regarded as provisional.</p>
+
+<p>The supracerebral glands are large in nurse bees
+and shrunken in the old bees that no longer nurse
+the brood; they are normally found only in the
+workers. It is therefore believed that they secrete
+the milky food, commonly called royal jelly, which
+is fed to all larvæ during the first days of their
+development, to the queen larvæ throughout their
+development, and to the adult queen during the egg-laying
+period. The food fed worker and drone larvæ
+during the latter part of their development is produced
+in the chyle-stomach of the nurse bees, and
+is semi-digested food.</p>
+
+<p>The other systems of glands enumerated above
+produce the saliva, which is supposed to perform
+a great variety of functions. “It helps the digestion;
+it changes the chemical condition of the nectar harvested
+from the flowers; it helps to knead the scales
+of wax of which the combs are built, and perhaps
+the propolis with which the hives are varnished. It
+is used also to dilute the honey when too thick, to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>moisten the pollen grains, to wash the hairs when
+daubed with honey, etc.”</p>
+
+<p>The wax glands are found only in the worker.
+There are four pairs of them. They are situated
+on the ventral wall of the second, third, fourth and
+fifth abdominal segments, and on that part of the
+segment which is overlapped by the preceding segment.
+Each gland is simply a disc-like area of the
+hypodermis, the cells of which take nourishment from
+the blood and transform it into wax. The cuticle
+covering each gland is smooth and delicate, and is
+known as a wax plate. The wax exudes through
+these plates and accumulates, forming little scales.
+(<a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>, <a href="#plate_x">X</a>, also <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>, Fig. 5.)</p>
+
+<p><i>The alimentary canal.</i>—The form of the alimentary
+canal of the adult honey-bee is shown in <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.
+The following parts can easily be recognised: the
+œsophagus, a slender tube, beginning at the mouth
+and extending through the head and thorax to the
+base of the abdomen. Here there is a sac-like
+enlargement of the canal, which is termed the honey-stomach;
+it is in this that the nectar accumulates as
+it is collected by the bee, and is carried to the hive.
+Behind the honey-stomach lies the true stomach,
+the chief digestive organ. Closely applied to the
+true stomach are several small tubes, which open
+into it; which are known as the Malpighian tubes;
+they were named after one of the early anatomists
+who described them; they are the urinary organs.
+Next to the true stomach is the small intestine; and
+behind this, the large intestine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>The reproductive organs.</i>—The internal reproductive
+organs are situated in the abdomen; there is
+a set on each side, but the two sets open by a common
+duct, whose outlet is at the hind end of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The reproductive organs of the female are shown on
+<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a> (<i>a</i>), Fig. 1. There are two ovaries (<i>o</i>),
+one on each side of the body. Each ovary consists of
+a large number of parallel egg-tubes, within which
+the eggs are developed. The egg-tubes of each ovary
+open into an oviduct (<i>od</i>). The two oviducts unite
+and form a single tube on the middle line of the body;
+this is the <i lang="la">vagina</i>; the <i lang="la">vagina</i> leads to the external
+opening of the system. Communicating with the
+<i lang="la">vagina</i>, there is a sac-like pouch, the <i lang="la">spermatheca</i>,
+which is the reservoir for the seminal fluid; this is
+filled at the time of pairing, and the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> may
+remain alive in it for several years.</p>
+
+<p>Each egg-tube produces many eggs. As the eggs
+increase in size, they pass towards the oviduct.
+When the egg is fully developed a shell is formed
+about it. This shell has a minute opening through
+it at one end; this is the micropyle. At the time the
+egg is laid a <i lang="la">spermatozoon</i> may pass from the <i lang="la">spermatheca</i>,
+where thousands of them are stored, into
+the egg through the micropyle, and thus the egg is
+fertilised.</p>
+
+<p>With most animals, the egg must be fertilised
+in order that it may develop. But with bees, both
+fertilised and unfertilised eggs develop, the former
+into females, that is, workers or queens, the latter
+into males, that is, drones.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvi_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvi_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    PLATE XXVI. (<i>a.</i>) The reproductive organs of the honey-bee. (From
+    Leuckart, slightly modified.) <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Reproductive organs of a queen; <i>o</i>, <i>o</i>,
+    ovaries; <i>od</i>, oviduct; <i>s</i>, spermatheca; <i>g</i>, gland; <i>p</i>, poison sac connected with
+    the sting. <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Reproductive organs of a drone; <i>t</i>, <i>t</i>, testes; <i>v</i>, vas deferens;
+    <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, seminal sacs; <i>m</i>, <i>m</i>, mucous glands;
+    <i>ed</i>, ejaculatory duct; <i>b</i>, pouch or bulb.
+    The bulb and the following parts are everted through the outer opening at the
+    time of pairing.
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvi_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvi_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p class="pcap">
+    PLATE XXVI. (<i>b.</i>) <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—The internal anatomy of the honey-bee (after
+    Cheshire). <i>o</i>, œsophagus; <i>hs</i>, honey sac; <i>p</i>, stomach-mouth; <i>cs</i>, true stomach
+    or chyle-stomach; <i>m</i>, malpighian tubes; <i>si</i>, small intestine; <i>li</i>, large intestine;
+    <i>h</i>, heart or dorsal vessel; <i>n</i>, central nervous system; <i>1</i>, supracerebral glands;
+    <i>2</i>, postcerebral glands; <i>3</i>, thoracic glands. The respiratory system and the
+    reproductive organs are not shown in this figure (after Cheshire). <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—The
+    respiratory system of the honey-bee. <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, spiracles; <i>a</i>, enlarged trachea
+    or air sac (adapted from Leuckart).
+    </p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxvii" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxvii.jpg" alt="Old-fashioned beehives made of inverted baskets, and covered with grass on top. They are sitting in a flower garden, with a fence and trees behind them.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Courtesy of Ginn &amp; Company</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXVII. AN OLD-FASHIONED APIARY</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p>
+
+<p>Closely associated with the reproductive organs
+of the female is the sting; this is a barbed dart connected
+with a poison gland, whose use is well known.</p>
+
+<p>In the abdomen of the male there is a pair of
+organs, the testes, in which the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> are developed.
+These correspond in position to the ovaries
+of the female, but are much smaller. From each
+testis there extends a tube corresponding to the
+oviduct, this is the <i lang="la">vas deferens</i>. The two <i lang="la">vasa
+deferentia</i> unite and form the single ejaculator duct.
+Each <i lang="la">vas deferens</i> is enlarged just before it joins
+the ejaculatory duct, forming a reservoir for the
+accumulation of <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i>; these reservoirs are
+termed the seminal sacs. Appended to each seminal
+sac there is a large glandular sac, which adds mucus
+to the seminal fluid. Near the outer end of the
+ejaculatory duct there is a pouchlike enlargement
+into which the <i lang="la">spermatozoa</i> pass. Here they are
+massed into a compact body, known as the spermatophore,
+which is transferred to the female at the
+time of pairing. The terminal part of the reproductive
+organs of the male, the intermittent organ,
+has several appendages, which are firmly grasped
+in the opening of the reproductive organs of the
+female and are torn from the male when the two
+pairing individuals separate. This causes the death
+of the male. The male has no sting. (<a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>,
+Fig. 2.)</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">
+    CHAPTER XVIII
+    <br><br>
+    INTERRELATION OF BEES AND PLANTS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>HONEY-FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> facts revealed by science are not always
+beautiful, however interesting they may be. But
+the discovery of the interrelation of flowers and
+insects, that partnership which has existed so long
+that it has modified both partners, seems to belong
+to the realm of art or poetry rather than to that of
+science. Since plants must needs spend their lives
+where they are developed from seeds, they may not
+roam abroad like animals to seek their mates. But
+this is a difficulty which they readily overcome,
+through sending their messages by the uneasy,
+flying insects; and of all these messengers, the bee
+is surely the flowers’ favourite. Its fuzzy body,
+admirably adapted to be a pollen brush, its swift
+wings and its sedulous attention to business, all tend
+to make it the most important of the flower-partners.
+Thus, especially for the bee, have thousands of
+flower species developed nectar, in pockets placed
+cunningly to entice her to take upon herself a pollen
+load. And for countless ages the flowers have
+painted their petals various hues and shed on the
+atmosphere their perfume, to advertise to the bee-world
+that they had pollen and nectar to spare.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span></p>
+
+<p>This partnership has naturally modified the insects
+less than the flowers, as the latter were obliged
+to develop innumerable devices for winning attention
+from their messengers; naturally also the insects have
+been more largely modified in their mouth-parts
+and appliances for carrying pollen, than in other
+directions. Their habits have also been modified in
+a measure, and the bee has in some mysterious way
+been persuaded to work on one kind of blossom at a
+time. The poetic reproach that the bee is a heartless
+rover, rifling the lily of sweets only to desert her
+for the rose, is as unjust as it is untrue. Repeatedly
+have we watched a bee at work in a bed of pinks.
+Though clover and other blossoms were near by,
+she passed methodically from pink to pink, and
+naught tempted her to fickleness. That the bees
+use pollen for bread, is a part of the bargain; for
+the flowers grow it in plenty for both themselves and
+their partners.</p>
+
+<p>Each species of “honey-plant” has developed its
+own special device for securing the services of bees
+to carry its pollen; and no study is more interesting
+than the unravelling of these flower secrets. Even
+the novice may do this by asking the flower these
+three questions: “Where is your nectar?” “Where
+is your pollen?” “What is the path the bees must
+follow to get to the nectar?” For ready and
+accurate answers to such questions, the flowers are
+not to be surpassed; and if there is any doubtful point,
+the bees are ready to help elucidate it. There are
+so many flowers that have become the special partners
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>of the bees that it is not within the scope of this
+book to make an adequate list. Some of the more
+important are the flowers of trees, and some of farm
+crops; some bloom in gardens and some are mere
+weeds.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="TREES">
+  TREES
+</h3>
+
+<p>Fruit trees, when in blossom, give much pollen
+and honey at a time when these are greatly needed
+by the bees for rearing brood.</p>
+
+<p>Peach, pear, apricot, plum and especially apple
+trees, when in bloom are encompassed about with
+the happy chorus of busy and grateful bees; and no
+other creatures can so successfully vocalise blissful
+contentment as they. Many careful experiments
+have proved beyond doubt that the help of bees is
+necessary for securing the <ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: pollenation" id="pollenation">pollination</ins> requisite to produce
+good crops of fruit. The wise and successful
+fruit-grower recognises this fact and, mindful of his
+true interests, does not spray his fruit trees with
+poisons while they are in blossom, lest he thereby
+kill his friends, the bees. Moreover, to use arsenical
+sprays, at such a time, is injurious to the petals and
+the fruit-producing organs of the flowers; and it is
+also too early to spray successfully against the
+codlin moth. In many states, legislation forbids
+the spraying of poisons during fruit-tree bloom,
+because it is a useless and wanton destruction of the
+bees.</p>
+
+<p>Some time since great injustice was done the bees
+through the accusation that they punctured the ripe
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>fruit for the sake of the juices. This was the special
+complaint of grape-growers. Investigations have
+proved that bees never puncture the rind of ripe
+fruit, although they sometimes are tempted to sip
+the oozing juices, after the rind is broken through
+some other agency.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the fruit-bloom the willows offer a
+feast to break the fast of the hungry swarms. Half
+the winter the pussy-willow stands waiting in her
+furs to be ready with her grist of pollen, so that the
+bees may make bread during the first warm days of
+spring. The willows burned their bridges behind
+them eons ago and depend almost entirely upon the
+bees for fertilisation, since they are diœcious. Some
+apiarists have claimed that their bees get no
+nectar from certain species of willow; but this could
+hardly be so if trees of both sexes were present in a
+locality; for the staminate flowers offer pollen and
+the pistillate flowers give nectar to induce the bees
+to fetch and carry for them.</p>
+
+<p>The maples are not much behind the willows in
+offering the bees food after their winter fast. The
+bloom of the red maple is regarded by most bee-keepers
+as permission from Spring to bring out the
+bee-hives from the cellar and tenements. All our
+common species of maple are very much visited by
+the bees.</p>
+
+<p>The locusts often yield large crops of honey,
+although they vary with the seasons in this respect.
+Honey-locust, when in bloom, is covered with bees.</p>
+
+<p>The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful of our
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>ornamental trees and it gives a great amount of
+dark, rich honey. In New York it blossoms in May
+and June and, like the locusts, is a great help to the
+bees after the fruit-bloom is over. This is a common
+tree in the woods of the South and is not rare in
+Northern forests. It should be planted even more
+generally than it is at present, for the sake of the
+bees.</p>
+
+<p>The basswood, of all honey-producing trees, is
+the most important and most beloved by the bees.
+It blooms in July and only for a brief season; therefore,
+it is important that the colonies be strong and
+able to make the most of these few precious days of
+harvest. Basswood honey has a strong flavour
+when first gathered. But after it is ripened and
+sealed it has a delightful flavour. The way our
+forests have been stripped of basswood during the
+past twenty-five years is nothing less than heartrending
+to the bee-keeper; for to him this tree ranks
+next to the white clover in importance. Mr. Root
+had a single colony take forty-three pounds of honey
+in three days from basswood, and Mr. Doolittle had
+a colony take sixty pounds in the same period.
+The tree is beautiful, and might well be used for
+shade along roadsides and also in ornamental planting.
+It grows rapidly; young trees, transplanted
+from the woodland, blossom in five or six years
+thereafter. No bee-keeper should allow the basswood
+to be cut on his premises; and he should grow
+as many young trees as possible.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxviii_a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxviii_a.jpg" alt="Close up view of thorn-apple blossoms on the branch.">
+  <figcaption>
+
+    <p>Thorn-apple blossoms.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxviii_b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxviii_b.jpg" alt="Close up view of crab-apple blossoms on the branch.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photographs by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    Wild crab-apple blossoms.</p>
+    <p>PLATE XXVIII</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxix" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxix.jpg" alt="Close up picture of blossoms on buckwheat stems.">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>PLATE XXIX. BUCKWHEAT IN BLOSSOM</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p>
+
+<p>Other honey-producing trees of note are the sourwood
+(<i lang="la">Oxydendrum arboreum</i>) of the South, the
+guajilla of Texas, the cabbage palmetto of Florida,
+and the eucalyptus of California.</p>
+
+<p>The flowers of sumac often yield much nectar
+and are sedulously worked by the bees. This
+picturesque shrub is not properly appreciated because
+it is so common. Its foliage is beautiful in the
+summer and is brilliant in the fall. Its blossoms,
+as well as its fruit, conduce to make it an interesting
+and ornamental shrub for planting.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HONEY PLANTS WHICH YIELD OTHER VALUABLE
+CROPS</h3>
+
+<p>To raise plants solely for the sake of the honey
+they produce has not proved a financial success so far
+in America. Mr. Root estimates that it would
+require 500 acres covered with plants blooming in
+succession to keep 100 colonies of bees busy; and,
+at present, most land here is worth too much to be
+put to such use. It is doubtful if artificial pasturage
+will ever prove a paying investment in agricultural
+sections.</p>
+
+<p>However, many apiarists devote some land to
+honey-gardens, and such a garden may be a beautiful
+and interesting place, for many of the honey-plants
+are ornamental. Also, many apiarists have
+introduced certain honey-weeds on waste land in
+the vicinity of their apiaries with excellent results.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, many plants very valuable to the
+agriculturist and horticulturist are the best honey-producers;
+and if a farmer has only twenty colonies
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>of bees, it will pay him to reap one crop from his
+land and let his bees reap another.</p>
+
+<p>Of all such plants the clovers are the most important.
+Not only do they make the best of forage and
+hay, but they also help to fertilise and aërate the
+soil, and should be a factor in every crop rotation.
+Clovers and other <i>legumes</i> have upon their roots
+nodules filled with bacteria, which are underground
+partners of the plant. These bacteria fix the free
+nitrogen of the air and leave it in the soil available
+for plant food. Red clover is not so great a source
+of honey as are the other clovers, since its corolla
+tubes are so long that usually it is only worked by
+bumblebees. But the long-tongued Italians are able
+to get considerable honey from red clover at times.</p>
+
+<p>Crimson clover grew as a weed for a long time in
+America before it became an important factor in
+horticulture. It is an annual and its home is in
+southern Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy
+soils and is of great value as a cover crop for orchards.
+It is a good honey-plant.</p>
+
+<p>Alsike is a perennial and grows in low meadows,
+from Nova Scotia to Idaho. Its blossoms look like
+that of the white clover, except that they are larger
+and are tinged with pink. This is a valuable clover
+for pasturage, and also for hay, and it stands next
+to the white clover as a honey-plant.</p>
+
+<p>The white clover is the very best plant for producing
+honey in the United States east of the Rocky
+Mountains, and the flavour of its honey is famous
+the world over. While in hard soil, the white clover
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>lasts only two or three years, it is perennial on rich,
+moist lands. It is a cosmopolitan plant and may be
+found in almost all regions of the temperate zones.
+It is an ideal plant for pastures and should be established
+everywhere on land not under the plow. It
+shows well its partnership with the bee by turning
+down its flowerets as soon as they are fertilised, and
+leaving those in need of pollen still erect. We have
+seen a head of white clover with a single floweret,
+erect and white, calling to the bees, while all of its
+sister flowerets were deflected and brown.</p>
+
+<p>Among the medics we find the veteran of all
+clovers, the alfalfa, which has been under cultivation
+for twenty centuries, and came to America with the
+Spanish invasion. It was established in California
+in 1854, and has worked its way eastward. But
+it is only recently that it has been practicable to
+grow it in the East. This has been made possible
+by the discovery that it will grow on soil inoculated
+with its root bacteria. Alfalfa is a true perennial and
+may be cut for hay three times a season, and is of
+highest value as fodder or forage. It is a superb
+honey-plant, furnishing great quantities of light-coloured
+and excellent honey. It will support more
+bees to the acre than any other plant known. For
+artificial pasturage it is the most promising of all
+honey-plants.</p>
+
+<p>Buckwheat is, in many localities, doubly profitable
+as a grain and as a honey-plant; especially is it so in
+middle and western New York, where the hills in
+autumn are made brilliant with great fields of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>wine-red stubble. Buckwheat is usually sown late
+in the season, often on ground where oats have already
+been grown earlier in the year. It blossoms
+in August and even in September, and furnishes a
+wealth of nectar when there is little to be found elsewhere.
+The honey made from buckwheat is dark,
+reddish brown and brings a lower price in most
+markets than do the lighter-coloured varieties.
+Though it is strong in flavour, it is preferred by
+many, and on our table it alternates with basswood
+and clover. It has always seemed poetic justice
+that the plant which produces buckwheat cakes
+should produce the honey to eat with them. The
+following are the good points of buckwheat as a
+crop: It is profitable, the grain always brings a
+good price; it grows well on poor soil; it is one of the
+best agencies for ridding a field of weeds. There is
+a certain gameness about buckwheat which we have
+always admired and which was thus characterised
+by a farmer of our acquaintance: “Buckwheat is a
+gritty plant; if it can get its head above ground it will
+blossom. I have seen it, during dry seasons, blossom
+when its stalks were so short that the <em>bees had to get
+down on their hands and knees to gather the honey</em>.”
+While this may be putting the case rather strongly,
+yet it expresses well the habits of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>Black mustard, rape and turnips all furnish nectar
+for excellent honey. The seed of mustard and rape
+brings a good price, and the root of the turnip is
+always valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The blossoms of the red raspberry yield a delicious
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>honey, and the grower of small fruits may well add
+bees to his farm as a source of profit.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="GARDEN_FLOWERS">
+  GARDEN FLOWERS
+</h3>
+
+<p>Most of the blooms in flower gardens, as well as
+vegetable gardens, are worked by the bees. Mignonette
+is a valuable honey-plant, as it blossoms for a
+long time. Marjoram, thyme and sage give rich,
+spicy honey. The sunflower is also a good honey-plant.</p>
+
+
+<h3 id="WILD_FLOWERS_AND_WEEDS">
+  WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS
+</h3>
+
+<p>We shall never forget our profound amazement
+when we saw, for the first time, in a narrow valley
+of the Mojave Desert a great city of white bee-hives.
+Nothing in that desolate landscape could we discern
+that bore the slightest resemblance to a honey-plant.
+The gray sage-brush which grew everywhere looked
+to us about as promising for honey-production as so
+much slag from a furnace; and yet this sage-brush
+of the desert gives the bees the best of pasturage.
+The bloom begins down in the valley and climbs the
+mountain side slowly, thus giving bloom for a long
+period.</p>
+
+<p>There are two species of sage that yield honey, the
+white and the black, or button sage. They are
+allied to the mints, which are generally good honey-plants.
+We learned to care much for the spicy
+sage-honey. A professor of Greek, who was for
+some time in the American school at Athens, tells
+us that the sage-honey is very similar in flavour to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>the famous honey of Hymettus, which is made from
+thyme.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-mint is a very important honey-plant
+of the lower Mississippi Valley and of Texas. Its
+corolla tubes are so long that only the Italians and
+other long-tongued bees can get its honey. Catnip,
+motherwort and gill-over-the-ground and gall-berry
+all furnish an abundance of nectar.</p>
+
+<p>The blue thistle emigrated to Virginia in colonial
+times, and now covers with a heavenly blue thousands
+of acres of the desolate, uncultivated, red Virginia
+soil. It is a great boon to the bees of the region, as
+its blossoms creep slowly up its stalks, thus affording
+nectar for many weeks. It is related to borage,
+which is another good honey-plant.</p>
+
+<p>Spider flower (<i lang="la">Cleome pungens</i>), the Rocky Mountain
+bee-plant (<i lang="la">Cleome integrifolia</i>), and figwort
+(<i lang="la">Scrofularia venalis</i>) have all been planted by bee-keepers
+in their honey-gardens, because they give
+such a great amount of honey per plant.</p>
+
+<p>During September and early October the bees
+work busily on the various species of goldenrod and
+asters, and gather from them a considerable amount
+of honey, which is rich in colour and taste. The
+two common species of <i>Impatiens</i> also give the bees
+good fall pasturage.</p>
+
+<p>Fireweed (<i lang="la">Epilobium angustifolium</i>) comes wherever
+forests have been cleared and burned off. It
+blooms late and yields a fine quality of honey. The
+unlovely Spanish needle (<i lang="la">Coreopsis</i>) also gives much
+honey. The milkweed yields good honey, yet it
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>overdoes the matter by loading the feet of the bee
+with its pollen sacs, until the poor messenger dies of
+exhaustion under the burden of its message, or dies
+a prisoner in the blossom.</p>
+
+<p>The cheerful and ubiquitous dandelion has this
+much in its favour, that it is beloved by the bees and
+often gives them honey and pollen at a time in the
+spring when they need it for brood-rearing.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the weeds which will pay the apiarist to
+establish in waste places, the most profitable are the
+mellilots, or sweet clovers, of which there are two
+species, the white and the yellow. These are most
+beneficent weeds, for they carry nitrogen to the soil
+like other clovers, and they are easily exterminated
+by cultivation, so they are not to be feared.</p>
+
+<p>Sweet clover in blossom fills the atmosphere of the
+country road with perfume, for it is almost everywhere
+a roadside weed; and, as might be expected,
+it is most attractive to the bees. While the honey
+made from it is rather strong in flavour, yet it is of
+good colour, and sells well. When it is mixed with
+the honey from other flowers, it adds much to the
+excellence of the flavour.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">
+    CHAPTER XIX
+    <br><br>
+    BEE-KEEPERS AND BEE-KEEPING
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Most</span> business occupations lead to rivalry and all
+the selfish emotions incident to competition; not
+so is bee-keeping; quite the opposite, indeed, as
+there is a freemasonry that holds bee-keepers together
+and renders their attitude toward each other
+friendly and helpful. Bee-keeping is everywhere a
+bond of brotherhood and a sign of congenial tastes.
+One night at a dinner-party the gentleman on my
+right was a stranger, known to me only by reputation
+as a lawyer of high standing and great erudition.
+He was reserved and silent, and evidently bored by
+the trivialities of table-talk. Some one incidentally
+spoke of our bees, when the face of my neighbour
+became illumined with interest, and he said, “I am
+sure that by becoming a lawyer I spoiled a good bee-keeper.
+I have never found anything else so interesting
+as bee-keeping;” and thus was swept away
+the curtain of cold conventionalism which had hung
+between us, and we began, from that moment, to be
+friends.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere is this brotherly interest more noticeable
+than in the bee-books and the bee-journals. The
+former bear evidence, on every page, of kindness and
+courtesy to all; while the latter are like friendly correspondence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>published, wherein John Smith of
+Maine explains his views on the bee business to
+Timothy Jones of Oregon, and incidentally sends
+his kindest regards to the family.</p>
+
+<p>I never take into my hands that delightful book,
+“A B C of Bee Culture,” without turning to the
+biographies of noted bee-keepers, and looking again
+at the faces there depicted, noting the noble forehead
+of Huber; the keen, scholarly face of Dzierzon; the
+judicial countenance of Friend Quinby and the
+beautiful expression of the venerable Langstroth.
+And thus on, page by page, and getting, by the way,
+a friendly greeting from the kindly eyes of Professor
+Cook, that most excellent of good teachers; and
+finally deriving sincere satisfaction from a long look
+at the keen, humorous face of Mr. A. I. Root himself.
+These leaders in apiculture are men with whom one
+is proud to be associated. And the fact that there
+are, in the United States, 300,000 persons engaged in
+bee-keeping, makes one hopeful that our republican
+institutions are to be guarded by intelligent citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that knowledge of bees has
+been given to the world by men who have attained
+the high peaks of scientific fame. Such knowledge
+began with Aristotle and Pliny in ancient times, and
+received no additions during the uncertain Dark
+Ages. It began anew with Swammerdam, in the
+seventeenth century, was augmented by Linnæus,
+De Geer, Réaumur, Bonnet, Lyonnet, Fabricius,
+Latreille, Lamarck, and finally reached a climax in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>the study of the habits of the bee by the blind Huber,
+who was born in Geneva in 1750. His observations
+made with his own brain, but with the eyes of his
+wife, niece and servant, form a classic in bee literature.
+In 1811 there were born, a continent
+apart, two great bee-keepers: Langstroth in Philadelphia,
+and Dzierzon in Silesia. Both were clergymen,
+but were also true scientists, and both invented
+means by which the combs could be moved and
+examined. Langstroth carried his invention farther,
+and in 1852 devised the movable frame which revolutionised
+bee-keeping.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the business of the bee-man was
+largely guess-work. He did not know anything
+about the condition of his bees in the hive, for
+he had no way of penetrating that dark chamber.
+The ways of reaping the honey-harvest were devious;
+at best the combs were torn from the hives with
+little regard for the rights and lives of the bees.
+Finally, there was devised the truly infernal plan of
+killing the bees with the fumes of burning brimstone,
+before taking their treasure; this method undoubtedly
+originating in the turgid theology of the times.</p>
+
+<p>However, about the time of Langstroth, someone,
+or perhaps many, had discovered that bees stored
+their honey in the upper part of the hive; and the old
+box-hive had a few auger-holes in the top, over
+which was inverted a box, which the bees usually
+filled, and thus saved themselves from the brimstone
+pit. We remember well the delight in our family
+when we used, for the first time, such boxes with glass
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>sides; and as we saw they were being filled with
+combs, we rejoiced that we need not “take up” any
+more swarms, as the suffocation by sulphur fumes
+was termed.</p>
+
+<p>When, to the invention of the box super, was
+added the greater invention of Langstroth, and
+finally thereunto was added the invention of the
+honey-extractor, bee-keeping became a science,
+instead of a haphazard avocation.</p>
+
+<p>Bee-keeping in America has since then passed
+through many phases and survived many experiments.
+Our bee-keepers have been wide awake and
+willing to try all things and hold fast to the good.
+Once, having read of the floating apiaries of the Nile,
+which follow the flower bloom along the banks, an
+enthusiast tried the same scheme on the Mississippi
+River, starting at the southern part early in the
+season and coming north abreast of the spring;
+but too many bees were left behind to make this
+profitable. Another enterprising gentleman took
+his bees south winters, but the cost of transportation
+took away the profits. Now, however, another plan
+for gaining pasturage is proving most successful;
+<i>i. e.</i>, the establishment of out-apiaries. As seventy-five
+or a hundred colonies will usually take all the
+nectar of a given locality, the bee-keeper places his
+surplus colonies in other apiaries far enough distant,
+so there is good pasturage for all. Mr. A. L. Coggshall
+has about 3,000 colonies in out-apiaries in central
+New York.</p>
+
+<p>The up-to-date bee-keeper is not merely an
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>operator in his apiary, but a co-operator with his
+bees, and we firmly believe that the bees are being
+educated by the partnership, as well as the bee-keeper.
+Bees certainly do learn by experience, as
+is well instanced by some Cyprians, which, in their
+native home, build columns of wax and propolis at
+the hive-entrance to keep out the large death’s-head
+moth which preys upon them. After living
+in this country for two years, the bees discovered
+that there were none of these moths about, and so
+ceased building these bars. The readiness with
+which our bees use the comb-foundation and fit
+their combs to the frames and follow the hint given by
+the starters in the sections, all point to their adaptability;
+and however others may regard the matter, we
+never take off a section filled with just one pound of
+pearly comb and amber honey that we do not pay
+tribute to the bee intelligence which placed it there,
+and regard the little artisans as true partners in our
+enterprise. And we never doubt that in the future
+this co-operation and co-education of bees and bee-keepers
+will result in a perfection of honey-production
+as yet undreamed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="plate_xxx" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxx.jpg" alt="">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXX. BOX-ELDER</p>
+    <p>Staminate and pistillate flowers. This and the other maples and the willows give
+    the bees pasturage in early Spring.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate_xxxi" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xxxi.jpg" alt="Close up view of black locust blossoms on the branch.">
+  <div class="attr"><i>Photograph by Ralph W. Curtis</i></div>
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>
+    PLATE XXXI. BLOSSOMS OF BLACK LOCUST</p>
+    <p>The locusts often yield large crops of honey.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">
+    CHAPTER XX
+    <br><br>
+    BEE-HUNTING
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> mere mention of these words always brings
+to us memories of high hills, wound about by
+picturesque roads, bordered by rail fences, from the
+corners of which the goldenrod still flung its banners
+to the breeze, though September and, mayhap,
+frosts had come. Beyond the fences were knolly
+pastures, cropped close except where the mullein,
+the thistle and the immortelle vaunted their immunity
+from the attacks of grazing herds; and still beyond
+were upland meadows, green with second-crop
+clover; and crowning all were forests beginning to
+glow with autumnal hues. Forth into such roads,
+pastures, meadows and woodlands were we wont to
+fare of a sunny morning, to hunt bees with our
+father, whose woodcraft was not the empty accomplishment
+of the man of this generation, but was
+attained on those same hills of western New York
+when he was a pioneer boy, and the deer and the
+wolves roamed those forests, and the beavers built
+their dams in the valley.</p>
+
+<p>Our equipment for hunting was a bottle of diluted
+honey; a box with a sliding glass cover, containing
+pieces of empty comb; and a sharp stake, four feet
+high, topped with a cross-piece on which to set the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>box. When we were far enough afield, some unwary
+bee was lifted from its goldenrod revel and
+imprisoned in the box, where one of the empty
+combs had been filled from the bottle for her special
+delectation. Like a worthy bee, she began to fill
+at once; meanwhile, the stake was pushed into the
+ground and the box placed upon it, the cover removed,
+and we all retired for a little distance to
+watch. When the bee finally lifted herself and our
+honey into the air, we gave her closest attention. To
+make sure of the exact position of her bonanza, she
+always arose in a spiral, each circle being larger than
+the one before, and finally turned the spiral in a
+certain direction. When she suddenly darted away
+with almost the speed of a bullet, it was always the
+eyes of our father, blue as the sky against which the
+bee was outlined, that detected her direction; for
+young eyes, however keen, counted little against
+trained eyes in this competition.</p>
+
+<p>Then there always followed a time of anxious
+waiting for the return of the bee. Meanwhile we
+stretched out on the dry sod in the sun and listened
+to the chirping of the crickets, or the sweet notes of
+the meadow larks and idly watched a hawk circle
+on even pinions above our heads; or we told stories
+of other days of successful bee-hunting. If the bee
+returned within fifteen minutes, all was well and we
+were confident that the tree was distant not much
+more than a mile. But if we had to wait a half hour
+we usually caught other bees and started over again,
+hoping to find some nearer colony. If our first
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>visitor came back soon, and especially if she was
+followed by her anxious sisters, we were satisfied.
+With several bees flying in the same direction, it was
+always easy to get the “line,” which we marked by
+some peculiar tree or other noticeable object in
+the landscape. When several of our visitors were
+eagerly filling themselves with honey, the cover was
+shoved over them and they were carried for a distance
+along the line and then liberated, and the line from
+this new location ascertained. Thus were they
+followed, up hill and down dale, and even through
+woodlands; finally, we would come to a place in a
+forest where we could follow the line no farther,
+and then we took our first lesson in geometry by
+getting a cross-line. This was done by carrying some
+of the bees in the box for some rods to the right or
+left; and when they were established there we knew
+that at the apex of the angle made by the two intersecting
+lines stood the bee-tree.</p>
+
+<p>The triumph which filled us when we finally discovered
+that stream of black particles entering some
+knothole or the broken top of a tree, made us breathless;
+and all the way home we tried to temper our
+excitement so as to make the announcement of our
+discovery with a nonchalance characteristic of invariably
+successful hunters.</p>
+
+<p>However, we were by no means always successful.
+Sometimes it would be too late in the day before
+we established a line; and again a line would lead
+us in a disgusting fashion to some unsuspected
+apiary; and now and then in a woodland tangle
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>we crossed and crisscrossed lines, nearly breaking
+our necks gazing into tree-tops, all to no avail.
+Then, too, even our victory might be tempered by
+conditions. If the bee-tree were small, we judged
+it contained little honey; if the tree were valuable, we
+doubted if the owner would allow it to be cut. As a
+matter of fact, we seldom cut a bee-tree; and when
+we did, we wrested from it a combination of rotten
+wood, bee-bread, crushed brood and bees that made
+a potpourri which would prove disastrous to the
+enfeebled stomachs of this generation. But, though
+we rarely cut a bee-tree, bee-hunting lost none of its
+fascination. For what could be more delightful
+than long days spent in the autumn sunshine, enlivened
+by an occupation vitally interesting that needs
+must be lazily carried on! So we never gave it up
+until the October frosts had killed all the flowers,
+and the fumes of the honey-comb that we burned
+failed to entice an enterprising bee from her winter
+quarters to our box.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">
+    APPENDIX
+    <br><br>
+    BEE BOOKS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The bibliography of bee literature is extensive. Scientists
+of all nations have contributed the results of their investigations
+on bee anatomy and bee physiology, and have made
+bee literature, as a whole, most profound and technical
+reading. However, there are among these books many
+that were written for popular audiences, and that deal with
+the practical side of bee-keeping; of such we add a few
+titles of those best known and of special excellence.</p>
+
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Benton, Frank.</span> “The Honey-Bee.” Mr. Benton, who
+is our national expert of the Department of Agriculture
+at Washington, always writes practically, and has carried
+on experiments with races of bees, which the private
+bee-keeper could hardly afford to make. The enterprising
+bee-keeper should keep in close touch with Mr.
+Benton’s bulletins.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cheshire, Frank R.</span> Two volumes. This is one of the
+finest works that has ever been published upon the
+honey-bee and bee-keeping. It is delightfully written
+and has many fine illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cook, Professor Albert J.</span> “The Bee-keeper’s Guide
+or Manual of the Apiary.” This is the most extensive
+of all the bee-keeping manuals written for American
+bee-keepers. It deals with all phases of the subject
+minutely, and new editions are published frequently
+enough to keep the book up-to-date. Professor Cook
+has a wide reputation as a most excellent teacher,
+and bee-keeping is one of the subjects which he taught
+for years in the Agricultural College of Michigan.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cowen, T. W.</span> “The Honey-bee, Its Natural History,
+Anatomy and Physiology.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Cowen, T. W.</span> “Bee-Keeper’s Guide Books.” The first
+of these little volumes is a clear and excellent account
+of the anatomy of the bee. The second is a concise
+and helpful book on the methods of bee-keeping as
+practiced in England.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Huber, Franz.</span> “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,”
+published in 1792. English translation in 1841.
+This classic in bee literature is one of the most delightful
+of all the bee books that have been written. It shows
+the careful methods of this blind scientist who has
+given us more of the understanding of the bee and its
+life than any other investigator or writer.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Hutchinson, W. Z.</span> “Advanced Bee Culture.”</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Hutchinson, W. Z.</span> “Comb Honey.” Mr. Hutchinson
+is one of our most successful bee-keepers, and he writes
+clearly and understandingly of his methods.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Langstroth, L. L.</span> “The Hive and Honey-Bee.” This
+classic in American apiculture has been revised and
+kept up-to-date by the scholarly Dadants, father and
+son, who are well known on two continents as successful
+bee-keepers. This book written by the father of
+American apiculture is comprehensive, and is good
+literature as well as good bee-keeping.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Lubbock, Sir John.</span> “Ants, Bees and Wasps.” Although
+this is a book of scientific experiments, it should
+be read by every bee-keeper. No other book tells
+so well the patience and ingenuity necessary to
+discover what the bee knows and why it does certain
+things.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Maeterlinck, Maurice.</span> “The Life of the Bee.” This
+exquisite piece of literature and social philosophy has
+attracted much attention, and has introduced the
+world at large to the wonderful life of the honey-bee
+in such a poetic and dramatic manner, that most people
+have regarded it as a work of fiction. Maeterlinck
+is said to be a practical apiarist, and his book is based
+upon the facts of bee life as he understood them at the
+time the book was written. Though some of his facts
+be questioned, yet probably his statements are no
+more doubtful than would be those of almost any bee-keeper
+should he try to write what he thinks he knows
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>about bees. Maeterlinck is the Homer of the bees and,
+therefore, he has a right to poetic license.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Miller, Dr. C. C.</span> “Forty Years Among the Bees.” This
+is a simply told history of the experiences of a successful
+bee-man. It is a most honest and often a humorous
+record of bee-keepers’ successes and failures.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Morley, Margaret.</span> “The Bee People.”</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Morley, Margaret.</span> “The Honey-Makers.” The first
+of these books is written charmingly and simply for
+children and covers in an interesting manner the life
+of the bee. “The Honey-Makers” gives a most
+extended account of the relation of bees to men, giving
+extensive quotations from Hindu, Egyptian, Greek and
+Italian literatures and also a most interesting chapter on
+the curious superstitions and customs regarding the
+honey-bee.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Quinby, Moses.</span> “Mysteries of Bee-Keeping,” revised by
+L. C. Root and now called, “Quinby’s New Bee Book.”
+This is a simple, straightforward account of a practical
+man’s dealings with bees.</p>
+
+<p class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Root, A. I.</span> “A B C of Bee Culture.” The author may
+be pardoned if she speaks with special enthusiasm of
+this book, as Mr. Root was the special teacher that
+helped the Comstock apiary achieve success. The
+interesting and truly human way that Mr. Root refers
+to bees is not only inspiring, but is also most practically
+helpful. The “A B C of Bee Culture” is arranged
+conveniently, encyclopedia fashion, so that the discussion
+of any subject in it may be readily found.
+Every page of it is interesting, and is based upon the
+actual experience of a man who is at once a keen observer,
+a sympathetic friend to the bees, and a most successful
+apiarist.</p>
+
+
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span></p>
+</div>
+<nav data-epub-type="index">
+  <h2 class="nobreak lsp2" id="INDEX">
+    INDEX
+  </h2>
+
+
+
+<ul class="index">
+  <li class="ifrst">ABC of Bee Culture, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Abdomen, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><ins class="corr"
+title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Œsophagus, moved from 225"
+id="Œsophagus">Æsophagus</ins>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">After-swarms led by virgin queen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">prevention of 81.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">reason of and remedy for, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alder, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alfalfa, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alighting board, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alimentary canal, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, Plates <a href="#plate_xxv">XXV</a>., <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">XXVI.</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alley’s queen and drone trap, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alsike, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Anatomy, external, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">internal, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Antenna cleaner, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Antennæ, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ants, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apiaries, floating, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">out, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apiary, high fence for, in city, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in village garden, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">location and arrangement of 20.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">mowing the, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#plate_xxvii">Plate XXVII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">old orchard good place for, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">on city house tops, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">sheep in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">windbreak for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apparatus for extracting, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apple, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xvii">Plate XVII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apricot, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Artificial pasturage, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst"><i lang="la">Bacillus alvei</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Balling of queen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Basswood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">blossoms, frontispiece.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee, anatomy of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">books, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">brush, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Brush, Dixie, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">brush, use of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cellars, for wintering, the Bingham, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">glue, its source, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">glue made from varnish and cement, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">glue, various uses of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">house-keepers, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how she gathers pollen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how she collects propolis, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">ingratitude, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">journals, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moth, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moth, development of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moth, how to detect, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moth, maxims, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moth, remedy for, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">tent, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">tree, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">veil, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">worker, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">worker, brains of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">worker—life and habits of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">worker, sex of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-bread, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">as food, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>Bee-escape, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Porter, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Porter, use of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-gum, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-hunting, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-keepers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">books written by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">number of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-keepers’ supplies, catalogue of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bee-keeping, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">a beginner’s order, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">as a regular business, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">attractive materials of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to begin, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">too successful, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">worst way to begin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bees, as a recreation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">as socialists, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">a study in natural science, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">belong to the garden, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">control population, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">diseases of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">enemies and diseases of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">feeding of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">German or black, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how they collect propolis, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how they secrete wax, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to handle them, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to keep from keeping too many, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to manage when swarming, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to reconcile swarm to new hive, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to unite colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to winter, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to work with, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">hybrids, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Italian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Italian and black bees compared, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Italian, Mr. Root’s test for, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">keep for sake of honey, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">keep for sake of money, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">legends and literature of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">races of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">races of domestic, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">reasons why one should keep, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">relations to plants, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">robbing, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">secreting wax, <a href="#plate_x">Plate X</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">sense of smell, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">swarming of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">telling the, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">watering, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when they swarm, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">why they swarm, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">wild, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Beeswax, adulterated, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">clarified by vinegar, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to make it, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">its value, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for making, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">press, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">primitive method of rendering, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">refining of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">rendered in wash-boiler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Beeswax-extractors, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Black brood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Blue thistle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Boardman wax extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Body wall, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bonnet, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Borage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bottom board, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Box elder in blossom, <a href="#plate_xxx">Plate XXX</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Box hives, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brain, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brimstoning bees, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brood, black, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foul, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foundation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to examine, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">pickled, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brood chamber, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to examine, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brood frame, Langstroth, how much honey it will hold, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>examining of, <a href="#plate_xiii">Plate XIII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to lift out, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Brushing or shaking-out method to control swarming, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Buckwheat, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Buckwheat in blossom, <a href="#plate_xxix">Plate XXIX</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Cabbage palmetto, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cages, queen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Candy for feeding bees, how to make, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Good, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cans for shipping extracted honey in bulk, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Carniolan bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Carton for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Catnip, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cell of queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cellars for wintering bees, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cerasin, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Chaff hives, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Chaff hives for wintering, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Chyle food, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how regurgitated, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">City apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cleome, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Clipping wings of queen, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Cogshall" id="Cogshall">Coggshall</ins>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Colonies, how to unite, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Colony, queenless, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">queenless, Mr. Root’s method of testing, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Comb building, <a href="#plate_ix">Plate IX</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">built by many workers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">drone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cell caps, construction of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foundation for brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to tell honey from brood in capped cells, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">made without pollen, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">making, described by A. I. Root, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">making, Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s observation of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">mathematics of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">placing in extractor, <a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shape of, not fortuitous, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">strength of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">uncapping of, <a href="#plate_xixa">Plate XIX</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Comb-honey and large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">bee-moth in, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">candied, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">compared with extracted honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">conditions for production of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">grading of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to keep, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to make, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in 8-frame hive, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">marketing of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for producers of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shipping of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">storing of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Combs for extracting, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cook, Prof. A. J., method of uniting colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">observation on bee-moth, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Coreopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Corneil smoker, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to use, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Coxa, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Crabapple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxviii_a">Plate XXVIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Crimson clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cuticle, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cyprians, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Daisy foundation fastener, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dandelion, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">De Geer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Details concerning honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Development of worker, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Diarrhœa, prevention of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Diseases of bees, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Division board, what it is, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Division board feeder, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dixie bee-brush, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Doolittle division board feeder, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Drone, the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">appearance of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>cell of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#plate_viii">Plate VIII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cells, how capped, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cells, size of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">comb, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">eggs in worker cells, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">flight of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">food of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">from unfertilised egg, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">life-history of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">killing of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maturity of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">physical characteristics of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">reproductive organs of, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">trap, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">wedding flight of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Drones, great number of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">males, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dzierzon, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Egg, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">tubes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Eggs, unfertilised, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Egyptian bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Enemies of bees, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Entrance to hive, how to contract, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Epilobium angustifolium</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Eucalyptus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Extracted honey and large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">candied, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">care of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">compared with comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">drawing from extractor, <a href="#plate_xxa">Plate XX</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">hive for, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to bottle or can, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to produce it, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in glass jars, <a href="#plate_xxi_a">Plate XXI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for the producers of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">packages for, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Extracting room and apparatus, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XVIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Extractor, honey, invention of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Extractor, Solar wax, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Extractor, wax, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Eyes, compound, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">simple, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Fabricius, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Feeder, Boardman, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Division board, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Doolittle, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">pepper-box, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Feeders, Smith, Hedden, Miller, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Feeding back, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">bees, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">candy, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">chunk honey, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for honey, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for winter, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to do it, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to feed inside the hive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to feed outside the hive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in fall, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in spring, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">rye flour, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">syrup in combs, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">what to feed, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Females of social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fence, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">between sections, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Figwort, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fireweed, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Flowers of the garden, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Food of worker, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Foul brood, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to detect, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">remedy for, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Foundation, brood, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">super, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Foundation-comb, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>for sections, how to cut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to place in frame, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Foundation-fastener, Daisy, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Parker, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">super, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foundation for, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Frames, Hoffman brood, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Hoffman self-spacing, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Langstroth movable, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">self-spacing, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">spacing of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fruit, not punctured by bees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fruit trees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Gall-berry, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Galleria mellonella</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Garden flowers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">German bees compared with Italians, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">German steam wax press, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gill-over-the-ground, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Glands, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Glands of honey-bee, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Goldenrod, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Grapes, not punctured by bees, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Guagilla" id="Guagilla">Guajilla</ins>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Hatch-Gemmill wax press, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Head, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Heart, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hetherington super springs, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hive, arrangement in apiary, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cover, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the description of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">entrance, how to contract, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">essential parts of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to get the cover off, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to handle it, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to lift out the brood-frames, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to open, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">industries of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Langstroth, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-frame, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-frame, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for opening, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">one and one-half story, <a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the reasons why it must be opened, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">telescope cover, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">tenement, for wintering, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to change the location of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hive-stand, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hives, chaff, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">chaff for wintering, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Dadant-Quinby, size of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">decoy, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">devices for carrying into cellar, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">double-walled, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">double-walled, cover for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">entrance toward south, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to group, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">large, for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">large sizes limit swarming, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">observation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shade boards for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shaded by awning, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shaded by thatched roof, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">shaded by trellis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">well shaded, <a href="#plate_iv">Plate IV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">where to put them, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hiving bees, <a href="#plate_xi">Plate XI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Holy Land bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Honey, the amount produced in the United States, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">basswood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">buckwheat, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">composition of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">flowers, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">gardens, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">healthful food, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how produced, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to take off in supers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">house, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>not made in the true stomach of the bee, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">of Hymettus, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the only sweet of the ancients, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">plants, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">ripened in uncapped cells, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">ripening of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">room, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">sage, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">uncapped, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">uncapping of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">unripened for extracting, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">weeds, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when to extract, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">white clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Honey-extractor, invention of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">principles of construction of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Honey-stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Horsemint, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">House top for apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">How to clip the queen’s wings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to examine frames of brood-chamber, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to find the queen, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to find the queen cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to handle the bees, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to introduce a queen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to keep from keeping too many bees, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to make comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to open the hive, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to produce extracted honey, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to rear queens, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to stop robbing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to take off honey in supers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to winter bees, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to winter bees in cellars, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hruschka, Major Francesco de, inventor of honey-extractor, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Huber, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hutchinson, W. Z., method of treating after-swarms, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hymettus, honey of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hypodermis, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Indian meal moth, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Industries of the hive, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Inhabitants of the hive, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Introducing the queen, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">by nucleus method, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Interrelation of bees and plants, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Intestine, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Italian bees, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Italian worker, description of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Jars for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Kellogg, Prof. V. L., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Kitchen, how bees rob the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Labium, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Labrum, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lamarck, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Langstroth, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Latrielle" id="Latrielle">Latreille</ins>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Laying worker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Leg, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Legs of honey-bee, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Legumes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Linnæus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Location of hive, to mark, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Locust blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxxi">Plate XXXI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Locusts, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Males of social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Malpighian tubes, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Malthusian practices of bees, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mandibles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Manum swarm catcher, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Maple, mountain, <a href="#plate_xxiv">Plate XXIV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Maples, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Marjoram, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Marketing comb-honey, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mason’s cans for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Maxillæ, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Maxims for beeswax making, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for feeding, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>for hiving bees, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for introducing queens, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for opening the hive, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for prevention of bee-moth, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for producers of comb-honey, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for the producer of extracted honey, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for wintering, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to prevent robbing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">McEvoy, William, treatment of foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Medics, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mellilots, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Metatarsus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Micropyle, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Milkweed, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Miller, Dr., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mignonette, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Motherwort, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mouth parts, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Muscles, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Muth bottles for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Nervous system, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Nucleus, method of introducing queen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">to begin with, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Observation hives, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, opposite frontispiece.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ocelli, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Out-apiaries, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ovaries, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Oviduct, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Oxydendrum arboreum</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Palpi, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Paraffine, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Parker foundation fastener, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Partnership of bees and plants, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Peach, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pear, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pickled brood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Piping of queen, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Planting for honey impractical, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Plodia interpunctella</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Plum, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Plum blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxiii">Plate XXIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Points about beeswax, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Poison glands, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pollen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">fed to drone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how gathered, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in cells, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how placed in cell, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">made into bee-bread, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pollen-baskets, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pollen-comb, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Porter bee-escape, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Propolis, how collected, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to dissolve, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">its source, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">made from varnish and cement, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">various uses of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pussy willows, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Queen, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">armour of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">balling of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cages, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#plate_xvi">Plate XVI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cages, the Miller, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">capacity for egg-laying, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cell, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cell, how to find, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cell, how to cut out, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">clipping wings of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">development of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">duels, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">egg, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">excluder, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">first flight of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">her attendants, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how she lays eggs, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to find, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to handle, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to introduce, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>introducing by nucleus method, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">introducing cage, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">introducing of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">issues from cell, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">larva, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for introducing, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">mother of her subjects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">piping of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">rearing, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">removed to prevent swarming, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">reproductive organs of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">selection of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">surrounded by workers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">tested, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">trap, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">virgin, leads after-swarms, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">weapons, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">wedding flight of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when to introduce, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Queen-clipping device, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Queen-excluding honey-board, use of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Queenless colony, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Queens, development of new, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">females, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Queen’s wings, how to clip, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Quinby, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Rape, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rauchfuss wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rearing queens, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Réaumur, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Red clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Red maple, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Red raspberry, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Reproductive organs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Respiratory system, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Robbing, borrowing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">fate of the robbed colony, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how it is done, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to detect, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to prevent, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to stop, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims to prevent, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the result of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">slow, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when it is likely to happen, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">why, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rocky Mountain bee plant, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Root, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">treatment of foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">views about smoking bees, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Royal jelly, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rye flour for feeding, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Sage, white, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sage, black or button, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><i lang="la">Scrofularia venalis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Section glazed for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">holder, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">holders, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">of honey, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">Plate XIV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Section-boxes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, Plates <a href="#plate_iia">II.</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">III.</a>, <a href="#plate_xiv_a">XIV.</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">no bee-way, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">with beeways, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sections, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">fence between, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foundation-comb for, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to put together, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to take off, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">no bee-way, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">scraping of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">stained, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">unfinished, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sense hairs, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sense organs, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sense pits, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shade for hives, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sheep in apiary, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shipping-cases for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Skeleton, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Slumgum, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Smell, organs of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>Smoking bees, should be done carefully, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Smoker, Corneil, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#plate_iia">Plate II</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to fill and use, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Social insects, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">increase of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Solar wax-extractor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sour wood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spanish needle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spraying fruit blossoms with arsenic, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spermatheca, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spermatozoa, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spider flower, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spiracles, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spring dwindling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spur, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Spur wire-embedder, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stained sections, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sting, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stomach, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sumach blossoms, <a href="#plate_xxiv">Plate XXIV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Storifying, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sunflower, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Super, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">boxes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cover, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">filled with section-boxes, <a href="#plate_xv">Plate XV</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for comb-honey, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">foundation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to entice bees into, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to prepare, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to prepare and place in hive, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">partly filled, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">ready to be filled, <a href="#plate_xii_a">Plate XII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">springs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Supers, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">different kinds of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to take off when filled with honey, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swammerdam, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swarm, how to hive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to manage in difficult places, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to reconcile to new hive, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to stop, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">size of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">throwing dirt at, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">use, fountain pump with, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">Mr. West’s device for saving, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when given off, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swarm-catcher, the Manum, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swarming, conditions that lead to, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">control by brushing out method, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">control by extracting honey, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">control by giving room, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">control by removing queen, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">lessened by use of large hives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">necessary to produce comb-honey, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">of bees, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">owing to queen or workers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swarms, dividing of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sweet clover, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Swiss wax extractor, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Syrian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Syrup, for feeding bees how to make, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">medicated for foul brood, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Taking up bees, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tallow, wax adulterant, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tarsus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Telescope cover, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tenement hives for wintering, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tents for bee-keepers, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Termites, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Thorax, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Thorn-apple blossoms, <a href="#plate_xviii_a">Plate XXVIII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Thyme, <a href="#Page_203"><ins
+class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: 230" id="typo_230">203</ins></a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tibia, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tiering up, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tin pails for extracted honey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tinned wire, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>Tongue, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">Plate XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tracheæ, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Trap for queen, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Trap, queen and drone, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Trees, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Trochanter, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Turnip, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Uncapping, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Uncapping cans, the Dadant, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Uncapping knife, Bingham, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Urinary organs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Vagina, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Van Deusen wax-tube fastener, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Varnish used as bee glue, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Vas deferens, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Veil, need for, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Village garden for apiary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Wasps, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Watering bees, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax, amount of honey required to make, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">bees hang in curtains to make, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">bees secreting, <a href="#plate_x">Plate X</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the constituents of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how to make it, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">made in the fields, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">made when need for, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">press, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">the secretion of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">scales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax-extractors, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax-glands, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#plate_xxvi_a">Plate XXVI</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax-pincers, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax-plates, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#plate_vi">Plates VI.</a>, <a href="#plate_xxv">XXV</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax-tube fastener, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Weeds, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">When to feed, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">When to introduce a queen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">When to put bees into cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">White clover, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wild flowers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Willow, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wintering bees in single-walled hives, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">diarrhœa, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">getting ready for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">how much food needed for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in cellars, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in chaff hives, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#plate_xxii">Plate XXII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in hive boxes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">in tenement hives, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maxims for, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">out doors, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">poor honey for, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">spring dwindling, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when to put bees in the cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">when to take bees out of cellar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">ways of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wire embedded by heat, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wire embedder, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#plate_iii_a">Plate III</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wire, tinned, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Worker, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#plate_v">Plate V</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cell of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">cocoon of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Worker eggs, in drone cells, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">head of, <a href="#plate_vi">Plate VI</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">leg of, <a href="#plate_vii">Plate VII</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">life and habits of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">life-history of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">maturity of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">moulting of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+  <li class="isub1">old age and death of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Workers, labourers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</nav>
+</main>
+<hr aria-hidden="true" class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote" id="END_NOTE">
+<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations. Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is denoted
+with parentheses. Where possible illustrations have been shifted to be adjacent to their first reference.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+references.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+the text and consultation of external sources.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
+when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable fs90">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Form">Pg 2</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Form’ replaced by ‘From’ in second caption.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Cornell1">16</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#plt_1">16</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Plate I.’ replaced by ‘Plate II.’, in section on Corneil smokers.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#onorous">70</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘onorous’ replaced by ‘onerous’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Cornell2">93</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Cornell smokers’ replaced by ‘Corneil smokers’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#extravgance">146</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘extravgance’ replaced by ‘extravagance’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#prevades">164</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘prevades’ replaced by ‘pervades’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#disscribed">179</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘disscribed’ replaced by ‘described’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#from">183</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘from a compact box’ replaced by ‘form a compact box’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#at">184</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘known at the labrum’ replaced by ‘known as the labrum’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#pollenation">196</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘pollenation’ replaced by ‘pollination’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Cogshall">221</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Cogshall’ replaced by ‘Coggshall’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Guagilla">223</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Guagilla’ replaced by ‘Guajilla’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Latrielle">224</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Latrielle’ replaced by ‘Latreille’.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#Œsophagus">225</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+‘Œsophagus’ replaced by ‘Æsophagus’ and moved to pg 219.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#typo_230">227</a>:
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Page for ‘Thyme’ changed from 230 to 203.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79076 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+[Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook [#79076](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79076)