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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #67101 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67101)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of The North Americans of Antiquity, by
-John Thomas Short
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: The North Americans of Antiquity
-       Their origin, migrations, and type of civilization considered
-
-Author: John Thomas Short
-
-Release Date: January 5, 2022 [eBook #67101]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Robert Tonsing and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICANS OF
-ANTIQUITY ***
-
-
-
-[Illustration: COURT AND TOWER OF THE PALACE, PALENQUE. (After
-  Waldeck.)]
-
-
-
-
-                                  THE
-                            NORTH AMERICANS
-                                  OF
-                               ANTIQUITY
-
-                _THEIR ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND TYPE OF
-                       CIVILIZATION CONSIDERED_
-
-                           BY JOHN T. SHORT
-
-                             THIRD EDITION
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                               NEW YORK
-                     HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS
-                            FRANKLIN SQUARE
-                                 1882
-
-
-                  Copyright, 1879, by JOHN T. SHORT.
-
-
-
-
-                               PREFACE.
-
-
-The growing interest in the origin, migrations and life of the races of
-American Antiquity has led me to believe that the subjects considered
-in these pages would meet with the favorable attention of the public
-and of the specialist in this field. With such a conviction I present
-this volume, realizing the difficulties which attend any efforts to
-elucidate such dark problems. Yet I cannot conceal my satisfaction
-that the age of North American Antiquity is not all darkness, but on
-the contrary is rapidly growing radiant with light, while a host of
-patient searchers for its truths roll up the obscuring curtain. The
-recent discoveries by Geo. Smith, Cesnola, and Schliemann naturally
-cause us to turn with national pride to the rich antiquarian fields
-in our own land. Very satisfactory results have been obtained within
-a few years in the exploration of Mound-works and the Cliff-dwellings
-of the West. A just view of the civilization of the builders of these
-remains, however, requires that it be considered in connection with the
-traditional history and civilization of the ancient races of Mexico and
-Central America, so marked was the influence of the ancient peoples of
-this continent upon each other.
-
-Regarding this to be important, I have endeavored to present a
-comprehensive view of the civilization of the Mound-builders,
-Cliff-dwellers, and Pueblos, and to bring to the attention of the
-reader the traditional history and architectural remains of the Mayas
-of Yucatan and the Nahuas of Mexico. Only the probable origin and
-the most remote period of the growth of these latter peoples could
-receive attention within the limits prescribed for this work, since it
-is my design that this volume shall serve as a manual of information
-relating to the earliest period of North-American Antiquity, and as
-an introduction to Ancient American History. My material relating to
-the Mound-builders has been drawn almost entirely from the Smithsonian
-Reports, the Proceedings of scientific societies, and private memoirs.
-Still it is but justice to one honored co-laborer in the same field,
-Col. J. W. Foster, to say that his excellent work, _The Pre-Historic
-Races of the U. S._, has been of great service in our investigation
-of this subject. Although his sources of information have been, with
-few exceptions, before me, my appreciation of his work is attested
-by my constant reference to it. Nevertheless, the wonderful advances
-which have been made in Mound-exploration since the issue of the
-_Pre-Historic Races_, called for a fresh treatment of the subject.
-
-On the Mayas and Nahuas the following manuscript works in the
-possession of the Congressional Library at Washington were consulted,
-and yielded valuable material:
-
-_Las Casas_: Historia Apologética de las Indias occidentals, 4 vols.
-    folio.
-
-_Las Casas_: Historia de Indias, 4 vols. folio.
-
-_Panes_ (_D. Diego_): Fragmentos de Historia de Nueva España, folio.
-
-_Echevarria y Veitia_: Historia del origen de gentes que poblaron la
-    America Septentrional, 1755, 3 vols. folio (about one-fourth of the
-    work is published in Kingsborough’s Mex. Antiq., vol. viii).
-
-_Escalante in Teniente_ (_Jose Cortes_): Memoria sobre las Provincias
-    del Norte de Nueva España 1799, folio.
-
-_Duran_ (_Diego_): Historia Antigua de la Nueva España 1585, 3 vols.
-    folio (part of the work has been published in Mexico).
-
-These, together with the large number of printed books relating to
-America in the Congressional Library added to works in my possession,
-afforded an ample field for research.
-
-I must express my appreciation of the courteous attentions of the
-accomplished Librarian of Congress, the Hon. A. R. Spofford, who
-together with his assistants did everything possible to facilitate
-my investigations. To the uniform and friendly interest which Mr.
-Spofford has manifested in my work, its successful completion is
-largely due. The substantial assistance which I received from the
-lamented Professor Joseph Henry—the record of whose kindly offices
-to his fellowmen can never be written—was invaluable to me. Besides
-placing the latest material at my disposal, he generously furnished
-most of the engravings in this work relating to the Mound-builders.
-Dr. Charles Rau, also of the _Smithsonian Institution_, has placed
-me under obligations for valued services. To Professor F. V. Hayden
-and to the painstaking offices of Mr. James Stevenson of the _U. S.
-Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories_, I am indebted
-for the engravings as well as the sources of information relating to
-the Cliff-dwellers. The Hon. J. R. Bartlett, of Providence, R. I., with
-equal generosity has conferred like favors. Prof. F. W. Putnam, of the
-Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology at Cambridge,
-Mass., and his courteous assistants, Mr. Carr and Miss Smith, have
-provided me with valuable engravings and reports. Robert Clarke,
-Esq., and Mr. E. Gest, of Cincinnati, have also sent me engravings,
-and the former in particular has conferred frequent favors. Professor
-Ph. Valentini, of Albion, N. Y., with rare liberality, contributed
-interesting material relating to the Nahua Calendar. To Mr. Stephen
-Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Mass., Dr. R. J. Farquharson, of the
-Davenport Academy of Sciences, Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of the _American
-Antiquarian_, Cleveland, O., and to A. J. Conant, Esq., of St. Louis,
-Mo., I am indebted for the interest they have manifested, and for the
-material which they have brought to my attention.
-
-Señor Orozco y Berra, of the City of Mexico, the distinguished author
-of the _Geografía de las lenguas Mexicanas_, has from time to time
-freely made important suggestions concerning some of the problems under
-consideration. To my friend the Rev. John W. Butler, of the City of
-Mexico, whose intelligent efforts in my behalf have been unremitting,
-I have special reason to be thankful. To all these generous friends I
-must be permitted here to express my deep sense of gratitude for their
-favors.
-
-However, this pleasant task would be but half performed were I to
-omit the recognition of the unselfish friendship of the justly
-eminent author of the _Native Races of the Pacific States_. Mr.
-Hubert Howe Bancroft, whose rare erudition and breadth of thought are
-only surpassed by his magnanimity of nature and manliness of spirit,
-with a liberality which has scarce a parallel in authorship, sent me
-the majority of the engravings illustrative of the Maya and Nahua
-architecture and sculpture, used in the fourth volume of the _Native
-Races_. To this I may add the no less valuable encouragement which
-he so heartily gave during the progress of my work. Although some
-of my investigations were prosecuted before the publication of the
-_Native Races_, and though all of Mr. Bancroft’s sources relating to
-subjects which have received our mutual attention were before me and
-underwent a critical examination at my hands, it is but fair to state
-that the assistance which I derived from the _Native Races_ has been
-of incalculable service in the preparation of this volume. If in any
-place I have omitted to render full credit to Mr. Bancroft, and to
-that imperishable monument of learning and industry, his great work,
-the omission has been due to inadvertence rather than intention. My
-obligations to Mr. Bancroft can never be discharged, nor can the kind
-attentions of Mr. Henry L. Oak, of the Bancroft Library, San Francisco,
-be forgotten.
-
-Still my examination of the sources has not always led me to the same
-conclusions as were reached by the author of the _Native Races_. This
-may be owing to our different standpoints of observation, or possibly
-to an inappreciable bias in my own mind. It is, however, but justice to
-myself to say that this work has been prosecuted to its completion with
-the spirit of inquiry rather than of advocacy, and is the embodiment of
-an honest search for the truth.
-
-                                                          THE AUTHOR.
-
-  COLUMBUS, O., _November, 1879_.
-
-
-
-
-                       PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.
-
-
-This, the third edition of “The North Americans of Antiquity,” has been
-carefully revised and new facts incorporated. In this connection I
-take the opportunity of thankfully acknowledging the kindly reception
-and marked consideration which this work has enjoyed at the hands of
-specialists, of learned Societies in both America and Europe, and from
-the University of Leipzig.
-
-                                                             J. T. S.
-
-  COLUMBUS, OHIO, _September, 1881_.
-
-
-
-
-                               CONTENTS.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER I.
-
-               ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
-
-  The Aborigines — Antiquity of the Red Indian — The Mound-builders
-      — Geographical Distribution of Mound-works — Frontier
-      Defences of the Mound-builders — Michigan Mounds — Mounds
-      in the North-west — On the Upper Missouri — In Dakota —
-      Animal Mounds of Wisconsin — Elephant Mound — Discoveries
-      at Davenport, Iowa — Davenport Tablet — Heart of the
-      Mound-builder Country — Cahokia — Resemblances to Mexico —
-      St. Louis and Cincinnati Works — Cincinnati Tablet — Works
-      in Ohio — Fortified Places — Fort Ancient — Signal Systems —
-      Works at Newark — The Ohio Valley — Explorations in Tennessee
-      — Burial in Stone Coffins — Mound Colonies in the South-east
-      — Mr. Anderson’s Calendar Stone — Mounds of the Lower
-      Mississippi Valley — Seltzertown Mound — Alabama and Georgia
-      Mounds — Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee — Explorations in Missouri
-      — Sun-dried Bricks — Remains in the South-west — Direction
-      of the Migration — Architectural Progress — Altar Mounds —
-      Mounds of Sepulture — Ancient Copper Mines — Astronomical
-      Knowledge.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II.
-
-              ANTIQUITY OF MAN ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT.
-
-  Antiquity of the Mounds — No Tradition of the Mound-builders
-      — Vegetation Covering the Mounds — Age of Mound Crania —
-      Probable Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds — Ancient
-      Shell-heaps — Man’s Influence on Nature — Supposed Testimony
-      of Geology — Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone — Remains
-      on Santos River — The Natchez Bone — Remains on Petit
-      Anse Island — Brazilian Bone caves — Dr. Koch’s Pretended
-      Discoveries — Ancient Hearths — Age of the Mississippi Delta
-      — Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New Orleans — Dr. Abbott’s
-      Discoveries in New Jersey — Discoveries in California —
-      Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio — Crania from Mounds in the
-      North-west — No Evidences as yet Discovered Proving Man’s
-      Great Antiquity in America.
-
-
-                             CHAPTER III.
-
-         DIVERSITY OF OPINION AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT
-                              AMERICANS.
-
-  Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism — Arabic Learning in the
-      VIIIth Century — Spirit of the Early Writers on America —
-      Common Opinion as to the Origin of the Americans — Father
-      Duran — Lost Tribes of Israel — Garcia — Lascarbot —
-      Villagutierre — Torquemada — Pineda, etc. — Abbé Domenech —
-      Modern Views — Pre-Columbian Colonization — Plato’s Atlantis
-      — Kingsborough — The “Book of Mormon” — Phœnicians — George
-      Jones — Greek and Egyptian Theories — The Tartars — Japanese
-      and Chinese Theories — Fusang — The Mongol Theory — Traces of
-      Buddhism — White-Man’s Land — The Northmen — The Welsh Claim.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IV.
-
-         ORIGIN OF THE AMERICANS AS VIEWED FROM THE STANDPOINT
-                              OF SCIENCE.
-
-  Origin Theories — Indigenous Origin — Separate Creation Theory
-      — Dr. Morton’s Theory — Agassiz’s Views — Dr. Morton’s
-      Cranial Measurements — Dr. Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity
-      Groundless — Ethnic Relationships — Typical Mound-skull —
-      Crania from the River Rouge — Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements
-      — Crania from Kentucky — Researches in Tennessee by Prof.
-      Jones — Measurements — Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania
-      from Tennessee Mounds — Low Type Crania from the Mounds —
-      Development Observable in Mound Crania — Head-Flattening
-      Derived from Asia — Diseases of the Mound-builders —
-      Physiognomy of the Ancient Americans — Languages — Evolution
-      and its Bearing on the Origin of the Americans — Darwin
-      and Hæckel on the Indigenous American — The Autochthonic
-      Hypothesis Groundless — Unity of the Human Family — Accepted
-      Chronology Faulty.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER V.
-
-             TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE MAYA
-                               NATIONS.
-
-  Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas — The Tradition of
-      Votan — The First Immigrants to America — The City of Nachan
-      — The Votanic Document — Ordoñez — Brasseur and Cabrera on
-      the Tzendal Document — The Empire of the Chanes — The Oldest
-      Civilization — The Earliest Home of the Mayas — The Quichés —
-      Their Origin Tradition — The Quiché Cosmogony — The Creation
-      of Man — The Quiché Migration — Tulan — Mt. Hacavitz — Human
-      Sacrifices Instituted — Four Tulans — Association of the
-      Mayas and Nahuas — Heroic Period of the Quichés — Xibalba and
-      its Downfall — Exploits of the Quiché Chieftains — War of
-      the Sects — Xibalba and Palenque the Same — Mayas of Yucatan
-      and their Traditions — Culture-heroes — Zamna and Cukulcan —
-      Christ Myth.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VI.
-
-            TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE NAHUA
-                               NATIONS.
-
-  The Early Inhabitants of Mexico — Quinames — Miztecs and Zapotecs
-      — Totonacs and Huastecs — Olmecs and Xicalancas — The Nahuas
-      — The Cholula Pyramid — Its Origin Explained by Duran — No
-      Relation to a Flood — Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition —
-      The first Toltecs — The Codex Chimalpopoca Account — The
-      Discovery of Maize — Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas — They
-      came from Florida — Their Settlement in Tamoanchan — Their
-      Migrations — Hue Hue Tlapalan — Its location, according to
-      the Sources — Not Identical with Tlapallan de Cortés — Not
-      in Central America — Probably in the Mississippi Valley —
-      Beginning of the Toltec Annals — The Chichimecs not Nahuas
-      — The Nahuatlacas — The Aztecs — Aztlan — As Described by
-      Early Writers — Aztec Migration — Aztec Maps — Señor Ramirez
-      on Migration Maps — The seven Caves — Three Claims for the
-      Location of Aztlan — The culture Hero, Quetzalcoatl.
-
-
-                             CHAPTER VII.
-
-                THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS AND CLIFF-DWELLERS.
-
-  The Casas Grandes of Chihuahua — Ruins in the Casas Grandes and
-      Janos Valleys — Casa Grande of the Rio Gila — Ruins in the
-      Gila Valley — Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado — Ruins
-      in the Cañon of the Colorado — In the Valley of the Colorado
-      Chiquito — Pueblos of the Zuñi River — Zuñi and the “Seven
-      Cities of Cibola” — “El Moro” — Pueblos of the Chaco Valley
-      — Cliff-dwellers — Mr. Jackson’s Discoveries in the Valley
-      of the Rio San Juan — Cliff-houses of the Rio Mancos —
-      Cliff-dwellings on the McElmo — Traditional Origin and Fate
-      of the Cliff-dwellers — Ancestors of the Moquis — Remarkable
-      Discoveries by Mr. Holmes — The Seven Moqui Towns — The
-      Montezuma Legend.
-
-
-                             CHAPTER VIII.
-
-         ANCIENT AMERICAN CIVILIZATION AND SUPPOSED OLD WORLD
-        ANALOGIES. — ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND HIEROGLYPHICS.
-
-  Analogies, Real and Fancied — MAYA ARCHITECTURE — The American
-      Pyramid — The Palace of Palenque — The French Roof at
-      Palenque — The Trefoil Arch — Yucatanic Architecture — Uxmal
-      — The Casa de Monjas — Kabah — Casa Grande of Zayi — QUICHÉ
-      ARCHITECTURE — Copan — Circus of Copan — Description by
-      Fuentes — Utatlan — NAHUA ARCHITECTURE — Remains in Oajaca
-      — Mitla — Grecques at Mitla — Remains in the State of Vera
-      Cruz — Cholula — Pyramid of Xochicalco — The Temple of Mexico
-      — Teotihuacan — Los Edificios of Quemada — Maya and Nahua
-      Architecture Compared — Old World Analogies — SCULPTURE — Of
-      the Mounds — At Palenque — At Uxmal — Of the Nahuas — Ancient
-      American Art and its Old World Analogies — Egyptian Tau at
-      Palenque — Serpent Sculpture — Nahua Symbolism probably
-      Asiatic — HIEROGLYPHICS — Maya MSS. and Books — Landa’s
-      Alphabet — Attempts at the Interpretation of Maya MSS. by
-      Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny — Rosny’s Classification of
-      the Hieroglyphics — Hopes that a Key has been Discovered —
-      The Mexican Picture-writing — Aztec Migration Maps.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IX.
-
-              CHRONOLOGY, CALENDAR SYSTEMS, AND RELIGIOUS
-                              ANALOGIES.
-
-  No Mound-builder Chronology Known — Maya Calendar — Landa on
-      the Calendar — Maya Days — Maya Months — The Katun — The
-      Ahau Katun or Great Cycle — The Maya System Adjusted to our
-      Chronology — The Adjustment by Perez — Intercalary Days —
-      The Nahua Calendar — The Sources — Divisions of the Mexican
-      Calendar — The Aztec Year — The Nemontemi — Aztec Months —
-      Aztec Days — Nahua Ritual Calendar — Mexican Calendar Stone
-      — Sources of Interpretation — History of the Stone — Its
-      Interpretation — Date of the Origin of the Calendar Stone
-      — Date of the Nahua Migration — Analogies with the Nahua
-      Calendar — RELIGIOUS ANALOGIES — Jewish Analogies — Deluge
-      Traditions — Supposed Parallels in Jewish and Mexican History
-      — Analogies of Doctrine — Analogies of Ceremonial Law —
-      Yucatanic Trinity Myth — Mexican and Asiatic Analogies —
-      Buddhism in the New World — Scandinavian Analogies — Mexican
-      and Greek Analogies — Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Comparisons.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER X.
-
-              LANGUAGE AND ITS RELATION TO NORTH AMERICA
-                              MIGRATIONS.
-
-  Diversity of Languages in America — Causes of Diversity —
-      Richness of American Languages — Polysynthesis — Grimm’s
-      Law — The Maya-Quiché Languages — Stability of the Maya —
-      Oldest American Language — The Maya compared to the Greek,
-      the Hebrew, the North European, the Basque, West African,
-      and the Quichua Languages — Epitome of Maya Grammar — The
-      Mizteco-Zapotec Languages — The Nahua or Aztec — The Classic
-      Tongue — Ancient and Modern Nahua — Epitome of Aztec Grammar
-      — Geographical Extension of the Aztec — In the South — In
-      the North-west — Buschmann’s Researches — The Sonora Family
-      — Opata-Tarahumar-Pima Family — Moqui and Aztec Elements
-      — Aztec in the Shoshone and in the Languages of Oregon
-      and the Columbian Region — Line of Aztec Elements — The
-      Nahua probably the Language of the Mound-builders — The
-      Otomi — Supposed Chinese Analogies — Japanese Analogies —
-      Geographical Names.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XI.
-
-       PROBABILITIES THAT AMERICA WAS PEOPLED FROM THE OLD WORLD
-               CONSIDERED GEOGRAPHICALLY AND PHYSICALLY.
-
-  Legends of Atlantis — Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory — The
-      Subject Examined in the Light of Science — Retzius’ View — Le
-      Plongeon’s Observations — Identity of European and American
-      Plant Types — Revelations of the _Dolphin_ and _Challenger_
-      Expeditions — The Atlantic Floor — Challenger and Dolphin
-      Ridges — “Challenger Plateau” probably once Dry Land —
-      Identity of European and South American Fauna — Elevation and
-      Depression of Coast Level — Of Greenland, the United States,
-      and South America — The Gulf Stream — Equatorial Current —
-      The Trade-Winds — Accidental Discovery of Brazil — America
-      Probably Reached by Ancient Navigators — The Caras — Atolls
-      of the Pacific Ocean — A Pacific Continent — Contiguity
-      of the Continents at the North — Aleutian Islands — The
-      Kuro-Suvo — Behring’s Straits — Inviting Appearance of the
-      American Shore — Remoteness of the Migration — Prof. Grote’s
-      View — Prof. Asa Gray’s Observations — Conditions Favorable
-      to a Migration — Mr. John H. Becker’s Observations.
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XII.
-
-  CONCLUSION
-
-
-  APPENDIX.
-
-      A. MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS.
-      B. ELEPHANT PIPE.
-      C. CHARNAY EXPLORATION.
-      D. HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS.
-
-
-  INDEX
-
-
-
-
-                                  THE
-                            NORTH-AMERICANS
-                                  OF
-                              ANTIQUITY.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER I.
-
-               ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
-
-  The Aborigines — Antiquity of the Red Indian — The Mound-builders
-      — Geographical Distribution of Mound-works — Frontier Defences
-      of the Mound-builders — Michigan Mounds — Mounds in the
-      North-west — On the Upper Missouri — In Dakota — Animal Mounds
-      of Wisconsin — Elephant Mound — Discoveries at Davenport,
-      Iowa — Davenport Tablet — Heart of the Mound-builder Country
-      — Cahokia — Resemblances to Mexico — St. Louis and Cincinnati
-      Works — Cincinnati Tablet — Works in Ohio — Fortified Places
-      — Fort Ancient — Signal Systems — Works at Newark — The Ohio
-      Valley — Explorations in Tennessee — Burial in Stone Coffins
-      — Mound Colonies in the South-east — Mr. Anderson’s Calendar
-      Stone — Mounds of the Lower Mississippi Valley — Seltzertown
-      Mound — Alabama and Georgia Mounds — Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee
-      — Explorations in Missouri — Sun-dried Bricks — Remains in
-      the South-west — Direction of the Migration — Architectural
-      Progress — Altar Mounds — Mounds of Sepulture — Ancient Copper
-      Mines — Astronomical Knowledge.
-
-
-On that eventful morning nearly four centuries ago, when the spell
-of uncertainty and mystery which enshrouded the Atlantic was broken,
-and the darkness of the deep vanished with the darkness of the night,
-the illustrious admiral discovered a world populated with beings
-like himself. They were male and female, with all the physical
-characteristics common to the rest of mankind, and differed from the
-Spaniards only in that their skin was of a copper hue, and their cheek
-bones more prominent. They were tattooed and wore their straight black
-hair, cut short above the ears, with a few unshorn locks falling upon
-their shoulders.[1] These naked uncivilized men and women were the
-same in their physical type with those discovered subsequently on the
-islands and the main land by the Cabots, Vespucius, Verrezano, and
-Cartier. To rehearse their descriptions of the natives whom they first
-met would be but to repeat the experience and observations of Columbus.
-Nearly five centuries earlier the Norse adventurer Thorwald Ericson
-(1002 A.D.) encountered natives on the New England coast, corresponding
-in appearance, habits, and condition to those who occupied the country
-when colonized by the first settlers. To these natives they gave the
-name of _Skrellings_, from _skraekja_, a name which they had previously
-applied to the Eskimo, meaning _to cry out_.[2] Thorfin Karlsefne, who
-also reached the New England coast four years later than Thorwald,
-describes the natives as sallow-colored and ill-looking, having ugly
-heads of hair, large eyes and broad cheeks. They came in canoes to
-his ships for the purposes of trade, and though peaceable at first,
-soon exhibited hostility and treachery.[3] It is probable that these
-Skrellings were North American Indians, who had interbred with the
-Atlantic Coast Eskimo. How long the red man’s occupation of the
-country antedated its discovery by the Scandinavians is uncertain.
-His traditions are worthless on that subject. His chronology of moons
-and cycles is an incoherent and contradictory jumble. Nor does he
-know any more certainly from whence he came. It would seem that his
-race came by installments, if it came at all, and that he was just
-as far advanced in the arts of hunting and war and domestic life
-on the day in which he first possessed himself of the soil, as on
-that in which he was driven from it by the European. Only under the
-fostering care of the white man has he shown any improvement, and that
-has been of such an uncertain character as to amount to proof of his
-incapacity for self-civilization. The Indian, measured by his low
-condition in the scale of progress from the extremest barbarism towards
-semi-civilization, belongs to what is known as the flint age (old-stone
-or Palæolithic) in Europe, in which the rudest flint implements seem
-to have been the chief auxiliaries which he possessed with which to
-supplement and assist his hands in securing a livelihood or to protect
-his person and family from ferocious beasts. Perhaps we may more
-properly place him in a position midway between the flint and the
-stone ages (new-stone or Neolithic), for he no doubt was possessed of
-polished stone implements of a limited number and variety. Whether made
-by his own hands or by those of his predecessors is uncertain.[4] In
-thus assigning the Indian his place in the scale by which man’s state
-of barbarism or degree of civilization has been measured by scholars in
-Europe, we do not pretend to claim for him the antiquity of the man of
-the flint age in any other part of the globe.[5]
-
-[Illustration: Arrow Heads in the National Museum (Washington).]
-
-[Illustration: Methods Employed by Indians of Hafting Stone Weapons.]
-
-[Illustration: Indian and Mound-builder Spear-Heads.]
-
-Dr. Abbott, of New Jersey, in an extended treatment of the _Stone Age_
-in his own State, has shown many evidences of the protracted occupancy
-of the Atlantic States by a people whose weapons resemble those of
-ancient man in Europe. Col. Charles Whittlesey has called attention
-to the discovery of Indian remains in the “Shelter Cave,” near
-Elyria, Ohio, and also in a cave near Louisville, Kentucky, where the
-conditions seemed to point to an interment as long ago as two thousand
-years, but the evidences both as to the remains having been those of
-the red man and the period of burial are too uncertain to be of any
-service in the construction of a theory.[6]
-
-The eras or ages which have been observed to mark the different stages
-of the development of pre-historic man in Europe (in the manufacture
-of implements and the construction of places of abode), are apparently
-reversed in America.
-
-The Neolithic and Bronze ages preceded the Palæolithic at least in
-the Mississippi Basin—not that the last inhabitants deteriorated and
-lost the higher arts which are well known to have been cultivated upon
-the same soil occupied by them, but that they were preceded by a race
-possessed of no inferior civilization, who were not their ancestors,
-but a distinct people with a capacity for progress, for the exercise of
-government, for the erection of magnificent architectural monuments,
-and possessed of a respectable knowledge of geometrical principles.
-The remains of this mysterious people known as the mound-builders
-are spread over thousands of square miles of the United States, and
-it is a question whether the antiquarian is more surprised at the
-greatness of their number than in many instances at the immensity
-of their proportions. The entire valley region of the Missouri,
-Mississippi and Ohio rivers with that of their affluents was occupied
-by this remarkable people—presenting us with a parallel to the ancient
-civilization which flourished in the earliest times on the watercourses
-of the old world. The geographical distribution of these mounds may be
-described in general terms with a view to the territory occupied by
-them in the United States, as central, western, and southern.
-
-The publication of the valuable works of Squier and Davis, of Dr.
-Lapham and those of Mr. Squier alone, in which the remains of these
-regions are described, was like a revelation which brought to light
-the wonders of an entombed civilization.[7] In treating of the mounds
-geographically, we find no evidences of this people having reached the
-Atlantic seaboard, unless we except the great shell-heaps found in
-various localities on the coast, and of which we will speak further on.
-It is true that in South Carolina a few vestiges of their residence
-are found on the Wateree River near Camden, and in the mountainous
-regions of North Carolina,[8] where they wrought mica mines for the
-mineral which they prized as precious, and which so often accompanies
-the remains of their dead. No _authentic_ remains of the Mound-Builders
-are found in the New England States, nor even in the State of New
-York. In the former, we have an isolated mound in the valley of the
-Kennebec in Maine, and dim outlines of enclosures near Sanborn and
-Concord in New Hampshire, but there is no certainty of their being the
-work of this people.[9] In the latter, it was at first supposed that
-the remains found in the western portion of the State were uniform
-in their plan of construction with the works of the Ohio valley; but
-Mr. Squier pronounces them to be purely the work of Red Indians.
-This conclusion should not be viewed as final, even though Cusick’s
-vague statement (in _Schoolcraft_, vol. v) that the Iroquois “were
-compelled to build fortifications in order to save themselves from
-the devouring monsters” lends it an air of plausibility. Either people
-may have been their builders. Col. Whittlesey would assign these
-fort-like structures, differing from the more southern enclosures in
-that they were surrounded by trenches on their outside, while the
-latter uniformly have the trench on the inside of the enclosure, to
-a people anterior to the Red Indian and perhaps contemporaneous with
-the Mound-builders, but distinct from either.[10] A quite reasonable
-view is that of Dr. Foster, that they are the _frontier_ works of the
-Mound-builders, adapted to the purposes of defence against the sudden
-irruptions of hostile tribes. He remarks, “If our country were to
-become a desolation, the future antiquary would find the sea-coast
-studded with fortifications of a complex form, and as he penetrated
-to the interior they would disappear altogether.”[11] It is probable
-that these defences belong to the last period of the Mound-builders’
-residence on the lakes, and were erected when the more warlike peoples
-of the North who drove them from their cities first made their
-appearance. Passing along the boundary of the Mound-builders’ territory
-towards the west, we find the great lakes in all cases to have served
-as its limit on the north. Mr. Henry Gillman has described in several
-publications[12] his exploration of mounds in Michigan and the lakes.
-One of the richest mounds in relics and human remains is known as “the
-Great Mound of the River Rouge,” situated on the stream from which it
-takes its name, near the Detroit River and about four and a half miles
-from the centre of the city of Detroit. The mound now measures twenty
-feet in height, and must originally have measured 300 feet in length
-by 200 in width, though the removal of large quantities of sand from
-it has greatly reduced its proportions and destroyed many valuable
-relics. Many other mounds surrounding it have also been removed. The
-most remarkable result of the exploration was the discovery of tibiæ
-flattened to an extreme degree, such as is peculiar to platycnemic
-man. A circular mound in the vicinity yielded even more remarkable
-specimens of this singular flattening or compression. Two specimens
-presented unprecedented proportions; the transverse diameter of one
-shaft being 0.42 and the other 0.40 of the antero-posterior diameter.
-The circular mound yielded eleven skeletons besides a large number of
-burial vases and stone implements of all descriptions peculiar to the
-mounds. Of the crania from this mound we shall speak in Chapter IV.
-In 1872, Mr. Gillman examined a remarkable group of tumuli situated
-at the head of St. Clair River. These mostly stand on the shores of
-Lake Huron. The relics, besides human remains, consisted of pieces of
-mica, and necklaces of beads of the teeth of the moose alternating with
-well-wrought beads of copper. The same peculiarity of flattened _tibiæ_
-was markedly prominent in the remains.[13] The same investigator has
-examined mounds at Ottawa Point, Michigan, near the mouth of the Oqueoc
-River, at Point La Barbe in the Straits of Mackinac, and at Beaver
-Harbor on Beaver Island in Lake Michigan. Excepting ancient copper
-mines, no known works extend as far north as Lake Superior anywhere in
-the central region. Farther to the North-west, however, the works of
-the same people are comparatively numerous. Dr. Foster quotes a British
-Columbia newspaper, without giving either name or date, as authority
-for the discovery of a large number of mounds, seemingly the works of
-the same people who built farther east and south.[14] On the Butte
-Prairies of Oregon Wilkes and his exploring expedition discovered
-thousands of similar mounds.[15]
-
-[Illustration: Great Serpent, Adams Co., O.]
-
-Lewis and Clarke, in the Journal of their expedition up the Missouri
-River, describe the remains of fortifications on Bonhomme Islands at
-as early a date as 1804–5–6, but until recently their statements have
-been received with a degree of doubt.[16] This doubt has, however,
-been fully set at rest by the members of the United States Geological
-Surveying Expedition of 1872. Not only has it been shown that works
-exist at Bonhomme’s Island, but all the way up through the Yellowstone
-region and on the upper tributaries of the Missouri mounds are found
-in profusion.[17] Dr. C. Thomas, of the above-named expedition, made
-interesting discoveries in Dakota Territory, near the Northern Pacific
-Railroad crossing of the James River. Mounds were examined giving
-evidence of perhaps greater antiquity than those common in the interior
-of the country, if their contents be depended upon as furnishing a
-means of test.[18] The Missouri valley seems to have been one of the
-most populous branches of the wide-spread Mound-builder country. The
-valleys of its affluents, the Platte and Kansas rivers, also furnish
-evidence that these streams served as the channels into which flowed
-a part of the tide of population which either descended or ascended
-the Missouri. The Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, however, formed
-the great central arteries of the Mound-builder domain. In Wisconsin
-we find the northern central limit of their works; occasionally on the
-western shores of Lake Michigan, but in great numbers in the southern
-counties of the State, and especially on the lower Wisconsin River.
-The peculiar and fantastic forms of most of these mounds have led some
-writers to suppose that they belonged to a different race from that
-which occupied the valleys to the south. Instead of the usual type
-of the pyramid and circle, these remains mostly represent animals,
-or birds, or men. Still Dr. Lapham, who has described them fully in
-his admirable work[19] on the _Antiquities of Wisconsin_, concluded
-that sufficient resemblances between these remains and those of the
-south exist to ascribe to them a common origin. A few instances of the
-circle and square are found in association with the animal mounds,
-while in Ohio, on Brush Creek in Adams County, the “Great Serpent,”
-and the “Alligator” in Licking County furnish proof that either the
-same people built them or at least the same impulses, religious or
-otherwise, actuated the people of both districts. The former of the
-above figures is well described by its name, “with its head conforming
-to the crest of a hill, and its body winding back for 700 feet in
-graceful undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail.”
-The length of the latter “from the point of the nose following the
-curves of the tail to the tip, is about 250 feet, the breadth of the
-body forty feet and the length of the legs or paws each thirty-six
-feet.”[20] Until recently no effigy mounds were believed exist further
-south than Ohio; however, Mr. C. C. Jones, Jr., in the _Smithsonian
-Report_ for 1877 has shown this to be a mistake. Mr. Jones describes
-an eagle-shaped stone mound north of Eatonton, in Putnam Co., Georgia,
-of the following dimensions: Height of tumulus at the breast of the
-bird, seven or eight feet; length from the top of the head to the
-extremity of the tail, 102 feet; distance from tip to tip of the wings,
-120 feet; greatest expanse of tail, 38 feet. A careful regard to the
-proportions of the bird are shown. A similar stone mound, of nearly the
-same proportions, was found near Lawrence Ferry on the Oconee River
-in Putnam County. In this instance a circle of stones encloses the
-effigy. At Trenton, Wisconsin, and in many other places examined by
-Dr. Lapham, cruciform works were found, some of which were constructed
-with the arms extending toward the cardinal points.[21] Instances of
-extinct or unknown animal forms occur occasionally: one instance is
-that of an animal somewhat resembling a monkey, having a body of about
-160 feet in length, while the tail describes a semicircle and measures
-alone 320 feet.[22] The most remarkable instance of the kind, however,
-is that of the big elephant mound found a few miles below the mouth
-of the Wisconsin River, so perfect in its proportions and complete in
-its representations of an elephant that its builders must have been
-well acquainted with all the physical characteristics of the animal
-which they delineated.[23] This fact suggests the inquiry whether these
-people were Asiatic in origin and penetrated to the interior of the
-country before their recollections of the elephant were forgotten,
-or whether they were contemporaneous with the mastodon of North
-America? In the remarkable works at Aztlan, Dr. Lapham finds not only
-resemblances to the Ohio antiquities, but striking analogies with those
-of Mexico.[24]
-
-[Illustration: Elephant Mound, Wisconsin.]
-
-Across the Mississippi in Minnesota and Iowa, the predominant type
-of circular tumuli prevail, extending throughout the latter State to
-the Missouri. There are evidences that the Upper Missouri region was
-connected with that of the Upper Mississippi by settlements occupying
-the intervening country. Mounds are found even in the valley of the Red
-River of the North.[25]
-
-Eastern Iowa, especially in the neighborhood of Davenport, has
-furnished some of the most interesting mounds that have yet been
-examined. Several gentlemen—especially Rev. Mr. Gass—of the Davenport
-Academy of Sciences have within a couple of years recovered a number of
-fine specimens of copper axes, nearly all wrapped in Mound-builder’s
-cloth. This cloth had been “preserved by the antiseptic action of
-the salts of copper, in all probability of the carbonates. In all
-specimens one thread of the warp is double or twisted, and there are
-about four to the one-fourth of an inch.”[26] Stone pipes of excellent
-workmanship carved to represent various animals were found. Pottery,
-copper beads in considerable numbers, mica and sea-shells (Pyrula and
-Cassis), one which had an internal capacity of 152 cubic inches, or
-five and one-half pints, were among the relics recovered. Most of the
-human remains were much decayed; although some, among them a skull,
-were preserved. The character of the Altar mound in this group is
-rather unusual. Within the mound hewn rectangular stones were laid upon
-one another with perfect regularity, so as to break joints, forming
-something resembling the exterior appearance of a chimney. We are not
-aware of any similarly shaped altar ever having been discovered in the
-mounds. The most remarkable discovery of all, however, was made January
-10, 1877, by Rev. Mr. Gass and his assistants in one of the mounds
-which previously had been examined in part. Two tablets of coal slate
-covered with a variety of figures and hieroglyphics were found.[27] One
-of these, the larger, is of a most interesting character. On one side,
-as will be seen in the accompanying cut, a number of persons with hands
-joined have formed a semicircle around a mound, upon which a fire has
-been kindled, probably for the purpose of sacrifice, or for converting
-into a hardened and water-proof covering the layer of clay which may
-have been spread over the remains of some distinguished personage
-beneath. The presence of a layer of baked clay above human remains
-in so many Ohio mounds leads to this conjecture. The three prostrate
-human figures may be those of wives or servants of the deceased, to be
-sacrificed upon his grave, as has been the custom from the remotest
-times in India and among many savage tribes. The conspicuousness of
-the sun, moon, and stars, suggest even a sadder thought, that perhaps
-it may be purely a religious ceremony in which human victims are being
-offered to the heavenly bodies. Sabine worship, which spread throughout
-the entire length of the continent, is known to have been accompanied
-with the most horrid rites. Above the arch of the firmament are
-hieroglyphics which if deciphered no doubt would tell of the nature of
-this and other similar scenes. On the reverse side of the tablet is a
-rude representation of a hunting scene in which various animals, such
-as the buffalo cow, deer, bear, etc., etc., are figured. It has been
-conjectured that a large animal in the upper left-hand corner may be a
-mammoth, but there is little ground for the supposition. The scene is
-probably a representation of the exploits of the person buried in the
-mound. The smaller tablet is evidently a calendar stone with signs of
-the zodiac regularly marked upon it; of this calendar we shall speak in
-a future chapter. The above conjectures as to the significance of the
-representations on these tablets are based upon the supposition that
-they are genuine and not the work of an impostor, of which we cannot
-refrain from expressing a slight suspicion. That Rev. Mr. Gass has
-given a true account of his discovery there cannot be the slightest
-doubt—that he and his co-laborers in the work of excavation believe
-them to be genuine is equally certain.
-
-[Illustration: The Davenport Tablet.]
-
-Descending to the interior, we find the heart of the Mound-builder
-country in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. It is uncertain whether its
-vital centre was in Southern Illinois or in Ohio—probably the former
-because of its geographical situation with reference to the mouths of
-the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. To enter upon a detailed description
-of the antiquities of this remarkable region would alone more than
-occupy the entire limits which we have prescribed for this work. This
-undertaking has already been well performed by Atwater, Squier and
-Davis, Foster, Baldwin, and many others. We shall therefore confine
-our remarks to notices of the most conspicuous remains and the general
-peculiarities of Mound-builder architecture. This people possessed
-a due appreciation of the physical advantages of certain localities
-for their cities. The site of St. Louis was formerly covered with
-mounds, one of which was thirty-five feet high, while in the American
-bottom on the Illinois side of the river their number approximates two
-hundred. In a group of sixty or more, lying between Alton and East St.
-Louis, stands the most magnificent of all the Mound-builders’ works,
-the great Mound of Cahokia, which rises to a height of ninety-seven
-feet and extends its huge mass in the form of a parallelogram, with
-sides measuring 700 and 500 feet respectively. On the south-west there
-was a terrace 160 by 300 feet, reached by means of a graded way. The
-summit of the pyramid is truncated, affording a platform of 200 by 450
-feet. Upon this platform stands a conical mound ten feet high. Dr.
-Foster remarks: “It is probable that upon this platform was reared a
-capacious temple, within whose walls the high-priests gathered from
-different quarters at stated seasons, celebrating their mystic rites,
-whilst the swarming multitude below looked up with mute adoration.”[28]
-When we consider the analogy between the general features of this
-pyramid and that on which the temple of Mexico was situated, it is not
-unnatural to reflect that Cahokia may have served as the prototype of
-the more magnificent structure which was so often deluged with the
-blood of its thousands of human victims. The temple of Mexico and many
-others of its type may have been the embodiment of the same principles
-of architecture employed at Cahokia, but carried to greater perfection
-under the more favorable conditions afforded in the valley of Anahuac,
-or precisely the reverse may be true. Such speculations are, however,
-more easily set forth than sustained. Dr. Foster, through a mistake,
-states that the monster mound has been removed. This, we are happy to
-say, is not the case.[29]
-
-[Illustration: Drilled Ceremonial Weapons. (Nat. Mus.)]
-
-Numerous interesting explorations have been conducted recently in
-Illinois with rich results. Among the most notable of these are the
-discoveries of Mr. Henry R. Howland, reported in a paper read before
-the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, March, 1877 (_Bulletin of the
-Buffalo Soc. of Nat. Sc._, vol. iii., p. 204 _et seq._). In January,
-1876, Mr. Howland witnessed the removal of a mound near Mitchell
-Station in the American Bottom. In a stratum four or five feet from the
-base, composed chiefly of human bones, a large quantity of matting and
-a number of copper relics were disclosed to view. The matting was a
-coarse vegetable cane-like fibre simply woven, without twisting. Among
-the articles wrapped in the matting were several miniature tortoise
-shells formed of copper. They were of beaten copper of one sixty-fourth
-of an inch in thickness, the largest being but two and one-eighth
-inches in length. “A narrow flange or rim, about five thirty-secondths
-of an inch in width, is neatly turned at the base, and over the entire
-outer surface the curious markings peculiar to the tortoise shell are
-carefully produced by indentation—the entire workmanship evincing
-a delicate skill of which we have never before found traces in any
-discovered remains of the arts of the Mound-builders.” These shells
-were covered with several wrappings, the first and nearest to the
-shell proving to be of vegetable fibre, the second of a dark-brown
-color; when placed under the microscope and examined by Dr. G. J.
-Engleman and Sir Joseph Hooker, proved to be a very fine cloth woven
-from animal hair—of the rabbit and possibly of the deer. The third
-envelope was made from the intestine of some animal. The lower jaws of
-deer were discovered in which the forward part containing the teeth
-were encased in thin copper and wrapped in the fine hair-cloth just
-described. From holes bored in the back of each jaw, it is inferred
-that the articles were suspended from the neck as totems or badges
-of authority. Three wooden spool-like objects were found in the same
-place, partially plated with thin copper. Copper rods or needles from
-fourteen to eighteen inches in length, a beautiful shell necklace, and
-a spear head of chert a foot long, were also discovered. Among the rest
-were several sea-shells (_Busycon Perversum_), evidently brought from
-the Gulf a thousand miles distant. In the summer of 1874, Mr. H. R.
-Enoch, of Rockford, Ill., discovered a tablet in a mound situated on
-the bank of Rock River, five miles south of Rockford. The “Rockford
-Tablet” created quite a sensation at first because it was thought to
-bear upon its face several symbols found upon the Mexican Calendar
-stone. However, a thorough investigation of its claims prove it to be
-a fraud, no doubt placed in the mound where discovered for the purpose
-of deception. Mr. J. Moody of Mendota, Ill., in referring to the twelve
-symbols of the tablet said to be Mexican, remarks: “Six are nearly
-exact counterparts of that number of Lybian characters which I find
-represented in Priest’s _American Antiquities_. * * * From a comparison
-of the Rockford Tablet with the plates in the work referred to above,
-the inference is almost irresistible that the engraver had a copy of
-Priest’s _American Antiquities_ before him while doing his work.” (See
-_Congrès International des Américanistes, Luxembourg_, 1877. Tome ii,
-p. 160.)
-
-The same sagacity which chose the neighborhood of St. Louis for these
-works, covered the site of Cincinnati with an extensive system of
-circumvallations and mounds. Almost the entire space now occupied by
-the city was utilized by the mysterious builders in the construction
-of embankments and tumuli built upon the most accurate geometrical
-principles, and evincing keen military foresight.[30] Dr. Daniel Drake
-described these works in 1815, and many others subsequently.[31] The
-most important discovery made among these remains was that of the
-“Cincinnati Tablet” in 1841. This singular relic was taken from a large
-mound formerly thirty-five feet high, removed at the above date from
-the extension of Mound Street across Fifth Street. When found, it was
-lying on a level with the original surface under the skull of a much
-decayed skeleton, with two polished, pointed bones about seven inches
-long, and a bed of charcoal and ashes. This stone in all probability
-served the double purpose of a record of the calendar and a scale
-for measurement.[32] Mr. E. Gest, the courteous owner of the tablet,
-provided the accompanying cuts expressly for this work, regarding them
-as the first correct representations of the stone.
-
-[Illustration: Cincinnati Tablet. (Front.)]
-
-[Illustration: Cincinnati Tablet. (Back.)]
-
-[Illustration: Dagger ½ Size. (Nat. Mus.)]
-
-The vast number as well as the magnitude of the works found in the
-State of Ohio, have surprised the most careless and indifferent
-observers. It is estimated by the most conservative, and Messrs.
-Squier and Davis among them, that the number of tumuli in Ohio equals
-10,000, and the number of enclosures 1000 or 1500. In Ross County
-alone, 100 enclosures and upwards of 500 mounds have been examined.
-Some of the works exhibit fine engineering skill; such, for instance,
-are those near Liberty, Ohio, where two embankments, each forming a
-perfect circle, are found in conjunction with a perfect square. The
-larger circle measures 1700 feet in diameter and contains forty acres,
-while the smaller has a diameter of 800 feet. The square contains
-twenty-seven acres and measures 1080 feet on each side. One set of
-works in Pike County consists of a circle enclosing a square, the
-four corners of which each touch the circular embankment. The opening
-or doorway through the circle is opposite the opening in the square.
-Prof. E. B. Andrews found a conical mound enclosed by a circle, the
-base of the mound reaching to the edge of the ditch outside of which
-is the circular wall. The mound was located on the Hocking River,
-nine miles northward of Lancaster, Ohio (see _Tenth Ann. Rep. of
-Peabody Mus. of Arch. and Eth._, p. 51). The works at Hopetown, near
-Chillicothe, present several combinations of the square and circle.
-The two principal figures of these works are a square and circle—each
-containing exactly twenty acres. The discovery of these geometrical
-combinations—executed with such precision—in many parts of the country,
-lead to the belief that the Mound-builders were one people spread over
-a large territory, possessed of the same institutions, religion, and
-perhaps one government. These facts are highly important as shedding
-light upon the degree of their civilization. The evidence is ample
-that they were possessed of regular scales of measurement, of the means
-of determining angles and of computing the area to be enclosed by a
-square and circle, so that the space enclosed by these figures standing
-side by side might exactly correspond. In a word, their scientific and
-mathematical knowledge was of a very respectable order.
-
-[Illustration: Works in Liberty Township, Ross County, Ohio.]
-
-[Illustration: Celts. (Nat. Mus.)
-
-  The large celt, upper line, from a mound (Tenn.). The others Surface
-  Finds.]
-
-[Illustration: Aboriginal Chisels, Gouges and Adzes. (Nat. Mus.)
-  Surface Finds.]
-
-The military works of the Mound-builders, other than those previously
-mentioned as existing on the Lakes and in Western New York State,
-are of a twofold character, consisting first of fortified eminences,
-of which an instance is found in Butler County, Ohio, where 16³⁄₁₀
-acres are walled in on the summit of a hill, and the entrance to the
-enclosure guarded by a complicated system of covered ways. On Paint
-Creek, Ross County, a remarkable stone work encloses 140 acres, in
-the centre of which was an artificial lake, probably to supply water
-in case of a siege. Perhaps the most remarkable fortification left
-by the Mound-builders is that known as Fort Ancient, Ohio, on the
-Little Miami River, forty-two miles north-east of Cincinnati. The
-specialist is already familiar with the oft-quoted description of the
-Survey by Prof. Locke, made in 1843. We will therefore only refer to
-a few of the measurements contained in that description. “The work
-occupies a terrace on the left bank of the river, two hundred and
-thirty feet above its waters. The place is naturally a strong one,
-being a peninsula defended by two ravines, which, originating on the
-east side, near to each other, diverging and sweeping around, enter
-the Miami, the one above, the other below the work. The Miami itself,
-with its precipitous bank of two hundred feet, defends the western
-side.” * * * “The whole circuit of this work is between four and five
-miles. The number of cubic yards of excavation may be approximately
-estimated at 628,800”. The embankment stands in many places twenty feet
-in perpendicular height. The most interesting and valuable paper on
-this work is that by Mr. L. M. Hosea, of Cincinnati, in the _Quarterly
-Journal of Science_ (Cincinnati), October, 1874, p. 289 _et seq._ This
-writer observes that it has often been remarked that the form of Fort
-Ancient resembles a rude outline of the continent of North and South
-America. None of the mounds contained in the enclosure have yielded
-any relics of special interest. The greatest possible diversity of
-opinion exists concerning the antiquity of the abandonment of the
-works. Judges Dunlevy and Force, the latter in his memoir on the
-_Mound-builders_,[33] estimate the period as a thousand years, while
-Mr. Hosea thinks several thousand years would be required to produce
-the numerous little hillocks and depressions which mark the spot where
-trees have grown, fallen and decayed. Reasoning from other data, we are
-inclined to the more conservative opinion of Judge Force as altogether
-the safer. Fort Ancient, which could have held a garrison of 60,000 men
-with their families and provisions, was one of a line of fortifications
-which extend across the State and served to check the incursion of the
-savages of the North in their descent upon the Mound-builder country.
-
-The second class of military works, which are exceedingly numerous on
-all the watercourses—existing not only on the Ohio and Mississippi, but
-on all their tributaries, especially on the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami,
-Wabash, Illinois, Kentucky, and minor streams—are mounds which served
-as outlooks. These were always placed in positions to command extended
-views, and from which signals could be given to still others of the
-same character, or probably to settlements remote from the watercourses.
-
-[Illustration: Square Mound, Marietta.]
-
-A system of these works no doubt formerly existed on the Great Miami
-River extending north of Dayton, Ohio, southward to the Ohio River,
-and connected with the great settlement on the site of Cincinnati
-and with the high bluffs on the Kentucky shore. The great Mound
-at Miamisburgh, ten miles south of Dayton, formed a part of this
-chain. This monster mound is sixty-eight feet high and 852 feet in
-circumference, and may have served the double purpose of a signal
-station and the base of a small edifice devoted to astronomical or
-religious purposes. There is little doubt that the Mound-builders in
-the latter period of their occupancy of this region, when apprehensive
-of danger from their enemies, employed a system of signal telegraph
-by which communication was had, through means of the watch-fire or
-the torch, between localities as distant as those now occupied by
-Cincinnati and Dayton. Only a few minutes were necessary by means of
-such a perfected system in which to transmit a signal fifty or one
-hundred miles. Squier and Davis remark on this subject: “There seems
-to have existed a system of defences extending from the sources of the
-Alleghany and Susquehanna in New York, diagonally across the country,
-through Central and Northern Ohio to the Wabash. Within this range the
-works which are regarded as defensive are largest and most numerous.”
-The signal system we have reason to believe was employed throughout the
-entire extent of this range of works. The majority of the enclosures
-found in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys are presumed not to have
-been designed for military purposes, since the trench is usually
-_inside_ of the embankment. However, instances of the trench being
-outside of the parapet occur in Southern Ohio.[34] The most magnificent
-Mound-builder remains in Ohio are the extensive and intricate works
-near Newark in Licking County. The survey made by Col. Whittlesey and
-published in the _Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_, is
-the most reliable as well as the fullest source of our information
-concerning their magnitude, though the plan has been corrected
-considerably by more recent surveys. These works occupy an area of two
-miles square, and formerly consisted of twelve miles of embankment.
-The spacious gateways—one of which has embankments on both sides
-measuring thirty-five feet in height from the bottom of the interior
-trench—the labyrinthine system of avenues, the strangely-shaped mounds,
-one of which resembles a huge bird-track with a middle toe 155 feet
-in length and the remaining two each 110 feet in length—together with
-the solitude of the ancient forest which entombed this buried city,
-we confess impressed us with a sense of wonderment and that strange
-perplexity which an insoluble mystery exercises over the mind. We
-can appreciate the remark of Mr. Squier in his description: “Here
-covered with the gigantic trees of a primitive forest, the work
-truly presents a grand and impressive appearance; and in entering
-the ancient avenue for the first time, the visitor does not fail to
-experience a sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the
-portals of an Egyptian temple, or in gazing upon the ruins of Petra of
-the Desert.” It is estimated that a force of thousands of men assisted
-by modern appliances and implements as well as horse-power, which the
-Mound-builder did not possess, would require several months in which
-to construct these works.[35] At Marietta a most interesting system of
-works exist, covering an area three-fourths of a mile long and half
-a mile broad. These occupy the river terrace or second bottom at the
-confluence of the Muskingum River with the Ohio, and present analogies
-with the works further south and with those of Mexico.[36] Two
-irregular squares inclose fifty and twenty-seven acres respectively.
-The walls of the larger are between five and six feet high and from
-twenty to thirty feet wide at the base. Within an enclosure are four
-truncated pyramids or platforms, one of which, the largest, is 188 feet
-long, 132 feet wide, and only 10 feet high, with a graded way reaching
-to its summit, as have also two of the other pyramids. No one can look
-at these structures without seeing the force of Lewis H. Morgan’s
-Pueblo theory,[37] which makes these mounds or flattened pyramidal
-elevations the foundation for edifices of a perishable nature;
-constructed perhaps of hewn wood, but not of a combination of the adobe
-and wood as he supposes, since no material for such a combination is
-found in the Ohio valley.[38] The most elevated of the Marietta works
-is an elliptical mound thirty feet high, enclosed by an embankment.
-
-[Illustration: Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.]
-
-The most recent and satisfactory exploration of mounds in Ohio, was
-that conducted by Prof. E. B. Andrews for the Peabody Museum of
-American Archæology and Ethnology, and published in the Tenth Annual
-Report of the Trustees (Cambridge, 1877). The mounds examined are in
-Fairfield, Perry, Athens, and Hocking Counties. In Fairfield County
-they were all located upon hills and commanded extensive views. Their
-contents indicated great age, being much decayed. At New Lexington in
-Perry County, ancient flint diggings, unquestionably worked by the
-Mound-builders, were examined, many of the pits being six to eight feet
-deep. In Athens County, on Wolf Plain, situated in Athens and Dover
-Townships, several circles and nineteen conical mounds are found. One
-of the latter measures forty feet high, with a diameter of 170 feet,
-and contains 437.742 cubic feet. Another, known as the Beard Mound, was
-excavated, and the interesting fact discovered that in its construction
-the dirt had been “thrown down in small quantities—averaging about a
-peck—as if from a basket.” Prof. Andrews is of the opinion that the
-mound was a long time in building, “for we find,” he remarks, “at
-many different levels, the proof that grasses and other vegetation
-grew rankly upon the earth heap and were buried by the dirt.” In a
-neighboring mound known as the George Connett Mound, under a bed of
-charcoal five feet below the summit, a skeleton was found in a box or
-coffin, enclosed by timbers. The upper part of the coffin and middle of
-the body had been destroyed by fire. A circle of five hundred copper
-beads was found around the body. A copper instrument resembling a
-calker’s chisel, measuring 141 mm. in length, width at flattened end,
-52 mm., diameter of cylindrical part, 20 mm. The instrument was formed
-from sheet copper, beaten with such care that no traces of the hammer
-are visible. “The edges are brought together and united very closely
-by a slight overlap.” Professor Andrews describes and figures a piece
-of leather ornamented with oval copper beads taken from a point eight
-feet below the surface of a mound designated as the “school-house
-mound.” The original piece measured eight or ten inches square, but
-unfortunately fell into the hands of bystanders, who tore it in pieces
-for relics. The Professor regards the curiosity as of Mound-builder
-origin, and thinks it belonged to an ornamented dress. We cannot
-detail these interesting explorations here, and must dismiss them with
-the deduction that in certain cases the cremation of the bodies found
-in mounds was accidental, caused by the heat penetrating through a
-layer of earth on which a fire had been kindled. In other instances,
-the body seems to have been burned intentionally, and the ashes and
-charred bones heaped together in the centre of the mound. Some clay and
-stone tubes of fine workmanship were obtained. The same document above
-cited contains a valuable paper by Mr. Lucian Carr on his interesting
-exploration of a mound in Lee County, Virginia.
-
-Grave Creek Mound, situated twelve miles below Wheeling in West
-Virginia, is the Monster work of the Ohio Valley. It measures seventy
-feet in height and nine hundred feet in circumference. Its form is that
-of a truncated cone, the flattened area on the top being fifty feet in
-diameter.[39] The States of Indiana[40] and Illinois formed with Ohio
-a portion of the great centre of the Mound-builder country, as the
-remains found on the watercourses of both States testify. The valleys
-of the Wabash, Kankakee, Illinois and Saline Rivers were the once
-populous dwelling-places of a thrifty and industrious people who have
-left thousands of structures behind them.[41] The Alleghany Mountains,
-the natural limit of the great Mississippi basin, appears to have
-served as the eastern and south-eastern boundary of the Mound-builder
-country. In Western New York, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
-and in all of Kentucky and Tennessee, their remains are numerous
-and in some instances imposing. In Tennessee especially, the works
-of the Mound-builders are of the most interesting character. Prof.
-Joseph Jones, of the University of New Orleans, has by his thorough
-and recent explorations under the patronage of the Smithsonian
-Institution, brought to light very interesting materials for the study
-of the history of this people. The works of defence in the shape
-of stone forts, by some thought to be peculiar to New York and the
-lake boundaries, with occasional exceptions in the Ohio Valley, have
-been found to abound in Coffee and other counties. One very perfect
-example of this kind of fortification, but very imperfectly described
-and figured by Haywood,[42] is that known as the stone fort near
-Manchester, Tenn. This enclosure, containing over fifty-four acres, has
-been minutely described by Prof. Jones.[43] In the accompanying cut
-the reader will obtain a pretty clear idea of the form of this fort.
-The wall, which varies from four to ten feet in height, is composed
-of loose rocks gathered apparently from the bed of the streams below,
-and the vicinity. The ditch shown in the cut at the rear of the works
-was probably designed to convey water from one creek to the other.
-The entrance is quite complicated and constitutes the most remarkable
-feature of the fortification.
-
-[Illustration: Pendants and Sinkers. (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.]
-
-[Illustration: STONE FORT.]
-
-One peculiarity of burial noticeable in this locality, and one
-which evidently indicates progression when we come to compare these
-people with those farther north, is the fact that the ancient race of
-Tennessee buried their dead in rude stone coffins or cists, constructed
-of flat pieces of limestone or slaty sandstone which abound in the
-central portions of the State. In most of the mounds this mode of
-burial prevailed, but was not confined to them, for outside of the
-mounds in many enclosures a large number of stone graves occur. Of
-the class of “Stone-grave Burial Mounds”, one situated twelve miles
-from Nashville, near Brentwood, is worthy of mention. This mound was
-about forty-five feet in diameter by twelve feet high, and contained
-one hundred skeletons. These were mostly in stone graves, which were
-constructed in ranges one above another, three or four deep. The lower
-graves were short and square, containing bones that had apparently
-been deposited after the flesh had been removed. The upper graves
-were full length and contained remains in which the bones occupied
-their natural relation to each other. The workmanship both of the
-mound and stone cists was of the most perfect character. The lids
-of the upper stone cists were so arranged as to present a perfectly
-rounded, sloping rock surface. The mound was situated on the eastern
-slope of a beautiful hill, covered with a heavy growth of the native
-forest. In a large and carefully constructed stone tomb, Prof. Jones
-discovered the skeleton of an aged individual of immense length, having
-toothless jaw bones. In a grave occupied by a skeleton of a female,
-a small compartment or stone box was found near the head, separated
-from the main coffin by stone slabs, in which was the skeleton of an
-infant. It should be added that in the square or short graves so often
-met with, the skull was placed in the centre and the other bones
-arranged around it.[44] Numerous stone graves not covered by mounds
-were found on the Cumberland River opposite the mouth of Lick Branch,
-surrounding a chain of four mounds. A similar graveyard was found
-on the same bank of the Cumberland, a mile and a half farther down.
-Others were met with on White Creek, nine miles from Nashville, at
-Sycamore in Cheatham County; at Brentwood, in White County near Sparta,
-and along the tributaries of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers at
-short intervals. At Oldtown on the Big Harpeth, is an extensive and
-remarkable collection of stone graves. All these burial grounds seem
-to be those of the people who constructed the mounds, for most of the
-mounds examined contained stone graves, not in their upper strata, but
-on the level of the surrounding land. A mound opposite Nashville, on
-the east bank of the Cumberland River, of great interest, was examined.
-Prof. Jones is convinced that it formerly served as the site or base
-of a temple. Its dimensions were one hundred feet in diameter by only
-ten feet high. In the centre of the mound and only three feet from its
-surface the Professor uncovered a large sacrificial vase or altar,
-forty-three inches in diameter, composed of a mixture of clay and
-river-shells. The rim of this flat earthen vessel or sacrificial altar
-was three inches in height and appeared mathematically circular. The
-surface of the “altar” was covered by a layer of ashes about one inch
-in thickness. The antlers and jaw-bone of a deer were found resting on
-the surface of the altar, and it is probable that part of the animal
-had been consumed as a sacrifice. The whole had been carefully covered
-with three feet of earth and the ashes preserved. In this mound rude
-sarcophagi were ranged around this sacred centre with the heads toward
-the altar and the feet toward the circumference of the circle, while
-the directions of the bodies were those of radii. Those bodies near
-the altar were ornamented with numerous beads of sea-shell and bone.
-In a carefully constructed stone sarcophagus, in which the face of
-the skeleton was turned toward the setting sun, the beautiful shell
-ornament shown in the cut, measuring 4.4 inches in diameter, was found
-lying on the breast-bone of the skeleton. It was made from some large
-shell derived from the sea-coast. Of the numerous interesting places
-examined by Prof. Jones, the site of Oldtown, on the Big Harpeth River,
-about six miles south-west of Franklyn, Tennessee, is worthy of special
-attention. The plan of the works and their general dimensions will be
-seen in the cut. At present, the crescent-shaped wall of 2470 feet in
-extent is but from two to six feet in height, having been reduced to
-its present condition by the plowshare. Thirty years ago it is said
-to have been so steep that it was impossible to ride a horse over
-it. Within the enclosure are two pyramidal mounds; the larger is one
-hundred and twelve by sixty-five feet and eleven feet high, and the
-smaller, seventy by sixty feet by nine feet high; also a small burial
-mound measuring thirty by twenty feet and 2.5 feet high. Another burial
-mound is covered by the residence of the owner, Mr. Thomas Brown. Many
-curiously-shaped clay vessels were obtained at these works by the
-explorers. Some of the vases were fashioned into effigies of frogs and
-various animals, and one vase obtained by Mr. Brown in excavating for
-the foundation for his residence, had a neck terminating in two human
-heads. Some of the vessels from Oldtown are figured in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: Clay Image from a Stone Grave in Burial Mound near
-  Brentwood, Tennessee.]
-
-[Illustration: “Stone Sword” from Ancient Earthwork on Big Harpeth
-  River, Tennessee. ¼ Natural Size.]
-
-[Illustration: Shell Ornament from the Breast of a Skeleton found in a
-  carefully constructed Stone Coffin in a Mound near Nashville, Tenn.]
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Oldtown Works.]
-
-[Illustration: Stone Pipe, Murfreesboro, Tenn. ¼ Natural Size.]
-
-[Illustration: Pottery from Oldtown, Tenn.]
-
-[Illustration: Black Vase from an Aboriginal Cemetery, Nine Miles from
-  Nashville.]
-
-The art of painting seems to have been extensively practised by the
-mound people of Tennessee, not only in the decoration of pottery, but
-in representing ideal conceptions, which they spread out in extensive
-pictures upon the smooth faces of rocky walls overhanging the rivers.
-The material generally used was _red ochre_. Prof. Jones says: “The
-painting representing the sun on the rocks overhanging the Big Harpeth
-River, about three miles below the road which crosses this stream
-and connects Nashville and Charlotte, can be seen for a distance
-of four miles, and it is probable that the worshippers of the sun
-assembled before this high place for the performance of their sacred
-rites.”[45] The Professor’s vast collection of relics in stone and
-clay, including several images, we cannot here describe. We refer the
-reader to the Memoir itself. The Professor has clearly shown that the
-Mound-builder people and the Indians were distinct, and has set at
-rest a question upon which some few doubts were still entertained by
-a certain school of Archæologists, which has really never been very
-strong. The connection with or identity of the Mound-builders and the
-Toltics or the same family of people is also shown satisfactorily. We
-will add that the Professor is disposed to consider the Natchez as the
-connecting link between the Mound-builders and the Nahuas. We regard
-the Memoir one of the most important which has ever appeared on the
-subject of mound exploration. The rich collection of crania will be
-referred to in a future chapter.
-
-In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss, also
-a party under Major Powell excavated a large number of mounds and
-stone graves, mostly in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. The
-results were substantially the same as those obtained by Prof. Jones.
-Prof. Putnam found within an earthwork near Lebanon, in Wilson County,
-sixty miles east of Nashville, what he considers to be the remains of
-dwellings of the Mound-builders. There were circular ridges of earth
-varying from a few inches to a little over three feet in height, with
-diameters ranging from ten to fifty feet. Within these enclosures, a
-few inches below the surface, hard floors, upon which fires had been
-made, were discovered. Under these floors, in many instances, infants
-and children had been buried, while the adults had been interred in a
-neighboring mound. Accompanying the skeletons of the children, many
-beautiful vessels of strange and artistic forms were found (cuts of
-three of these were kindly furnished by Prof. Putnam for this work),
-all evincing the tenderness with which the offspring of this people
-were regarded. Prof. Putnam examined nineteen of the earth-circles,
-which he adds, “proved to my satisfaction that the ridges were formed
-by the decay of the walls of a circular dwelling. * * * These houses
-had probably consisted of a frail circular structure, the decay of
-which would only leave a slight elevation, the formation of the ridge
-being assisted by the refuse from the house.”[46]
-
-[Illustration: Painted Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).
-
-  (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)]
-
-[Illustration: Dish from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).
-
-  (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)]
-
-Colonies of Mound-builders seem to have passed the great natural
-barrier into North Carolina and left remains in Marion County, while
-still others penetrated into South Carolina and built on the Wateree
-River. In March, 1873, Mr. Jas. R. Page examined several mounds in
-Washington and Issaquena Counties in the State of Mississippi. One
-mound explored in Washington County on the old bank of the Mississippi
-River, was a truncated cone eighty feet in diameter by forty feet
-high. A mound in the neighborhood, only eleven feet high, yielded
-rich returns for the labors of excavation. A white oak on its summit
-measured thirty-six inches in diameter. This mound yielded twelve
-skeletons with their crania. The group was in a sitting posture around
-a circle, with their faces looking toward its centre. Directly in
-front of the mouth of each skeleton were placed two or three vessels
-of pottery, beautifully ornamented with etchings and graceful lines.
-The object of the vessels, placed in such near proximity to the mouths
-of the buried remains, can only be conjectured. We regret that no
-measurements of the crania are given, and what is more, we deplore the
-loss of most of the crania in the course of their transportation.[47]
-Mr. W. Marshall Anderson, of Circleville, Ohio, examined Mounds in
-Issaquena County, Miss., with interesting results; in one mound
-opened, not far from its outer edge, three skeletons were found
-buried in a standing position, as though they had acted as the guards
-of a more distinguished person deposited in the centre. Penetrating
-the mound still farther by means of a trench, Mr. Anderson reached a
-large deposit of ashes and burnt earth. Near the centre of the mound
-and five feet above the level of the earth, upwards of twenty-five
-unbroken specimens of fine pottery were discovered. At the very centre
-three individuals had been buried apparently in great state, with
-all the insignia of their important positions in life. These were
-ornaments, urns, vases, beads, and arrow-points; while adjoining the
-heads of each were food and drinking vessels. Not far removed from
-these, two skeletons were found with bowls placed upon their heads
-like helmets. Mr. Anderson is the possessor of a very remarkable stone
-disk obtained for him by Dr. Robinson from a Issaquena mound near
-Lake Washington, Miss. The disk is nearly eight and a half inches
-in diameter and three-quarters of an inch thick, of fine-grained
-sandstone. The device which it bears upon its face is composed of two
-entwined rattlesnakes. A trifling ornamental border is graven on the
-reverse side of the disk. When found it was broken in two pieces. Mr.
-Anderson, in comparing its strange device to the Aztec Calendar Stone,
-remarks: “Here are the eighteen pipes of the border corresponding to
-the eighteen months of the year, but the twenty days of the month and
-the five intercalaries are not to be found. The thirteen hieroglyphical
-figures, and the four zodiacal signs, which as multiples give the
-fifty-two years of the Aztec cycle, are also absent on the Mississippi
-stone.”[48] The serpent-symbol appears to have played its part among
-the Mound-builders, as well as in Mexico and Central America. The great
-serpent of Adams County, Ohio, is the most extensive delineation of
-the all-important symbol on the continent. Out of eighteen engraved
-circular plates made of the shell of the Pyrula and taken from
-Brakebill and Lick Creek Mounds in East Tennessee (and now deposited
-in the Peabody Museum of Archæology) thirteen bear the device of a
-rattlesnake. In one of the mounds of “Mound City,” Ross County, Ohio,
-several small tablets representing the rattlesnake were unearthed,
-while other mounds in the same locality yielded pipes bearing the same
-representation.[49]
-
-[Illustration: Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).
-
-  (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)]
-
-[Illustration: Works in Washington County, Miss.]
-
-[Illustration: Aboriginal Shuttle-like Tablets. (Nat. Mus.) Surface
-  Finds.]
-
-On the Southern Mississippi, in the area embraced between the
-termination of the Cumberland Mountains near Florence and Tuscumbia in
-Alabama and the mouth of Big Black River, this people left numerous
-works, many of which were of a remarkable character.[50] The whole
-region bordering on the tributaries of the Tombigbee, the country
-through which the Wolf River flows and that watered by the Yazoo River
-and its affluents, was densely populated by the same people who built
-mounds in the Ohio Valley. Mr. Fontaine describes the mounds of this
-region and of the Tennessee River Valley as being most frequently of
-the truncated pyramidal type, and refers to one (seen by him in 1847)
-seventy feet high, covering an acre of ground. It is remarkable that
-the entire valley of the great river from Cairo to the mouth of Pointe
-à la Hache, fifty miles below New Orleans, is thickly studded with
-mounds.[51] As at Cahokia the Monarch Mound occupied a space equal
-to six acres, so at Seltzertown, Mississippi, we have another immense
-mound covering nearly the same area. Its dimensions are: length, about
-six hundred feet; breadth, four hundred feet at the base; height,
-forty feet, with a summit nearly four acres in area, reached by means
-of a graded way. The structure lies with its greatest length nearly
-due east and west. Upon the platform summit are three conical mounds,
-one at each end and the third in the centre. The mound at the western
-extremity of the summit rises to a height of nearly forty feet, while
-the one at the opposite extreme does not fall far short of the same
-altitude. This would give a total height of eighty feet above the level
-of the base. Both of these mounds are truncated. Eight other mounds of
-minor proportions are observable. The most remarkable feature connected
-with this mound is a wall of sun-dried bricks, built two feet thick, as
-its support on the northern side. These were filled with grass rushes
-and leaves, while some of the bricks of great size used in angular
-tumuli which mark the corners of the mound, retain the impressions of
-human hands.[52] The Mound-builders were certainly numerous in the
-Gulf States east of the Mississippi. On the Etowah River in Alabama a
-mound seventy-five feet high and twelve hundred feet in diameter at the
-base, has a graded avenue leading to its flattened summit. It has close
-affinities to the Mexican and Yucatan mounds.[53] M. F. Stephenson
-describes a group of ten mounds near Cartersville, Georgia, on the
-Etowah River, the principal one of which is eighty feet high and one
-hundred and fifty feet square on the top. A stone idol, gold beads,
-mica mirrors, translucent quartz beautifully wrought, and many relics
-of interest were here discovered. He also describes three chambers hewn
-out of the solid rock at the falls of Little River, near the Alabama
-line; while at Nacooche the crest of a conical hill was cut off at
-fifty feet from its base, leaving a platform top with an area of an
-acre and a half. Two sides are quite precipitous, but the others are
-protected by a ditch and wall. Two other instances of the stone wall
-are mentioned. First at Yond Mountain, four thousand feet high of solid
-granite, and perpendicular on all sides except a small space which
-is protected by a stone wall of artificial construction. The second
-instance is quite similar, occurring at Stone Mountain, which reaches a
-height of 2360 feet.[54] These natural eminences no doubt were utilized
-for the purposes of worship or observation, just as many natural hills
-in Mexico were graded and shaped symmetrically to serve similar uses.
-
-Wm. McKinley, Esq., has described and surveyed additional works in
-Georgia of quite a remarkable character, on Sapelio Island in McIntosh
-County and on Dry Creek in Sacred Grove, Early County. But the most
-lofty work of all, the giant of the mounds, is the pyramid of Kolee
-Mokee in the same county, reaching a height of ninety-five feet and
-having a circumference at its base of 1128 feet. Its form is that of
-a parallelogram, 350 feet long and 214 wide. The plane on the summit
-measures 181 feet in length by 82½ feet in width.[55] In Florida the
-works of the Mound-builders have been extensively examined by Prof.
-Jeffries Wyman, to whose labors we shall refer in the next chapter.
-Dr. A. Mitchell made some interesting explorations in 1848 on Amelia
-Island, and was rewarded by the recovery of some well-marked mound
-crania.[56]
-
-Returning to the confluence of the Missouri with the Mississippi,
-the point at which we left the western boundary of the Mound-builder
-country in order to treat the characteristics of its central region,
-we find mounds, as we previously stated, in great numbers in the
-neighborhood of St. Louis. In the valley of the St. Francis River,
-mounds that have been explored have yielded many rich relics, artistic
-water vessels, vases and statuettes. In Green County, Missouri, N. Lat.
-37° 20´ and 16° Long, west of Washington City, is a very remarkable
-truncated conical mound which has only been externally surveyed. This
-mound is 60 feet high, 350 feet in diameter at the base, and 130 feet
-in diameter on the top. It is surrounded by a trench (except about
-twenty feet at the north) about two hundred feet wide and four feet
-deep. On the north the excavation is seven or eight feet deep.[57]
-These trenches served a double purpose—that of furnishing material for
-the construction of the mound, and when completed, of providing an
-impassable moat filled with water, that neither enemies nor the rabble
-might approach the sacred mount.[58] In Phillips County, Prof. Cox
-discovered an ancient fortification near Helena, built like a part of
-the Seltzertown mound, of sun-dried bricks; stems and leaves of the
-cane were used instead of straw in making the bricks.[59]
-
-Professor Swallow, in company with a number of scientific gentlemen,
-opened a large mound in Lewis’ Prairie, west of New Madrid, Missouri
-(in December, 1856), in which he found a great collection of earthen
-dishes and vases. The mound was elliptical in form, measuring 900
-feet in periphery at the base, 570 feet at the top and twenty feet in
-height. The remarkable feature of the mound was that it contained a
-room formed of poles, lathed with split cane and plastered with clay
-both inside and out, forming a solid mass. “Over this room was built
-the earthwork of the mound, so that when it was completed the room was
-in its centre. The earthwork was then coated with the plaster, and
-over all nature formed a soil. This mud plastering was left rough on
-the outside of the room, but smooth on the inside, which was painted
-with red ochre.”[60] Some of the plastering was burned as red and hard
-as brick, while other parts were only sun-dried. Professor Swallow
-believes the mounds of the region to be very ancient. On mounds
-and neighboring embankments a sycamore tree twenty-eight feet in
-circumference, three feet above the ground, a black-walnut twenty-six
-feet in circumference, a white ash twelve feet and a chestnut oak
-eleven feet in circumference were observed. In addition to these
-evidences of age, the Professor states that six feet of stratified
-sands and clays have formed around the mounds since they were deserted.
-(See Eighth _Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, pp. 16 _et seq._
-Cambridge, 1875.)
-
-Mr. A. J. Conant, in a very able paper published in the _Transactions
-of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences_ for April 5, 1876, has more fully
-described the mound works near New Madrid. On the western bank of the
-Bayou St. John, partly in a cypress swamp covered with heavy timber
-and partly on adjacent prairie land, an earthwork encloses an area of
-about fifty acres. In this enclosure are three large mounds, one of
-which is pyramidal in form and still has traces of a graded way. An
-ancient well is discernible near it. A circular mound at the opposite
-end of the enclosure is estimated by Mr. Conant to have afforded a
-place of burial for a thousand individuals. The bodies were buried with
-their heads pointing toward the centre of the mound. A gourd-shaped
-vase, a small jug or drinking vessel, and an earthen pan or platter
-was found with each skeleton. The mouths of the vases were fashioned
-into the form of the head of some bird or the figure of some animal or
-of a human female. In depressions about three feet deep, within the
-enclosure, remains of burnt clay ovens were found. Fire-places were
-disclosed, as well as fragments of earthen vessels capable of holding
-ten or twelve gallons. The veritable kitchens of the Mound-builders,
-with their furniture, seem to have been brought to light. In front of
-the enclosure and projecting out into the bayou, are tongues of land
-about thirty feet long by ten or fifteen feet in width, and about the
-same distance apart, “resembling upon a small scale the wharves of a
-seaport town.” Mr. Conant pronounces them artificial, and that when
-employed by these builders, the present cypress swamp was the channel
-of a river. The multitude of mound works which are scattered over the
-entire south-eastern portion of Missouri indicate that the region “was
-once inhabited by a population so numerous, that in comparison its
-present occupants are only as the scattered pioneers of a newly-settled
-country.”[61]
-
-[Illustration: Discoidal Stones. (Nat. Mus.)
-
-  Central figure, upper line, from Illinois Mound.]
-
-Prof. C. G. Forshey in _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, presents most
-valuable information relative to the mounds in the south-west. His
-observations convince us that the State of Louisiana and the valleys of
-the Arkansas and Red Rivers were not only the most thickly populated
-wing of the Mound-builder domain, but also furnish us with remains
-presenting affinities with the great works of Mexico so striking that
-no doubt can longer exist that the same people were the architects
-of both. He describes works, some of them of immense proportions, on
-the Mississippi fifty miles above Vicksburg; on Walnut Bayou; the
-south-west bend of Lake St. Joseph, and at Trinity in the parish of
-Catahoula, Louisiana. On the east bank of the Little River, a couple of
-miles above its mouth, where it empties into Lake Ocalohoola, stands a
-bluff walled with roughly hewn stone. The same writer observed a mound
-near Natchez twenty-five feet high, standing isolated in a swamp. This
-mound is one among many in different parts of the lower Mississippi
-region surmounted by comparatively younger trees than are found on the
-remains farther north. Works occur in the Atchafalaya basin, in the
-rear of Baton Rouge, on the uplands of Lake Pontchartrain and on the
-banks of Bayou Gros Tête. A remarkable group of truncated pyramids,
-peculiarly Mexican in their style of architecture, exist in Madison
-Parish, Louisiana, and are figured in Squier and Davis and copied
-by Foster.[62] It is needless to discuss the fact that the works of
-the Mound-builders exist in considerable numbers in Texas, extending
-across the Rio Grande into Mexico, establishing an unmistakable
-relationship as well as actual union between the truncated pyramids
-of the Mississippi Valley and the Tocalli of Mexico and the countries
-further south.[63] There can be no doubt as to the unity of the origin
-of the works in both countries. There are evidences also that the most
-recent works of Louisiana and Texas do not compare in antiquity with
-any found in the Ohio Valley, showing it to be altogether probable
-that the Mound-builders occupied the Lower Mississippi Valley and
-Gulf coast for a considerable period after they were driven from the
-northern and central region by their enemies.[64] Several recent
-writers, with no more proof than that obsidian from Mexico has been
-found in the mounds, have confidently expressed the belief that the
-Mound-builders entered the Mississippi Valley and the Central Region
-from the South. This was based also on the assumption that no remains
-were found in the North-west. It, however, is proper to note here the
-marks of architectural progression observable in the geographical
-distribution of ancient works. Men all around the world have been
-mound or pyramid builders. To attempt to demonstrate this well-known
-fact to an intelligent reader by citing the customs of antiquity and
-the works of the present great Asiatic nations, would seem little
-less than pedantry rather than the work of serious investigation. The
-religious idea in man, whether observed in the darkest heathenism or
-partially enlightened civilization, has always associated a place of
-sanctuary with the conditions of elevation and separateness. It matters
-not whether you apply the rule to the practices of the most obscure
-antiquity, where a hill or natural eminence was the sanctuary of an
-idol, the residence of a god, or examine the motives which prompt the
-erection of the dome of a St. Paul or a St. Peter’s, or coming nearer
-home, analyze the reasons for the construction of the ordinary church
-spire, the same inexplicable intuition is found at the bottom of them
-all. The simple mound so common in the northern and central region
-of the United States, represents probably the first attempts at the
-imitation of nature in providing a place of worship. In the absence
-of hills and natural eminences on great plains like the prairies of
-the North-west (for instance in such cases as are cited on pages 28
-and 29), nothing would be more natural than the construction of an
-artificial hillock, especially if the elements and nature were the
-objects of worship. The next step might have been again a copy or an
-imitation, but instead of choosing a subject from inanimate nature,
-an advance is made in the artistic scale, and the animal kingdom
-furnishes not only one but varied models for reproduction. The custom
-among savage tribes of personifying the deity, of dressing him up in
-some form, tangible and visible, was especially characteristic of the
-mythology of the Nahua nations of Mexico. It is not necessary to go to
-Egypt, or India, or China to find animals of various kinds dedicated
-to and associated with the national gods, for in the Maya and Nahua
-mythologies, as well as in the traditions of some of the wild tribes of
-the Pacific coast, the serpent, the coyote, the beaver and the buzzard
-play an active part. The erection of religious structures representing
-animals no doubt sacred to the Mound-builders, was carried on to a
-remarkable extent in Wisconsin. These strange works probably indicate
-the second step in their scale of architectural progression. In the
-Ohio Valley, while the ordinary mound is found in great numbers, and a
-few instances of animal mounds occur, three new architectural features
-present themselves in marked prominence, all of which are artistically
-in advance of those existing in the North and North-west. These are
-the enclosures, the truncated mounds, and principally the truncated
-pyramids, all of which are a departure from the strict imitation of
-nature, and exhibit the gradual growth of the architectural idea and
-the outcropping of the notion of utility. South of the Ohio Valley
-the animal mounds disappear altogether and the truncated mounds grow
-less common, while the truncated pyramid, the highest artistic form,
-with its complicated system of graded ways and its nice geometrical
-proportions, becomes the all predominant type of structure. In the
-Lower Mississippi Valley, in some cases, as we have observed, dried
-brick were used in the walls and angles of pyramids of the most
-perfect type. Stone was also employed in a few instances. Here we find
-the transition to Southern Mexico complete. No break exists in the
-architectural chain.
-
-[Illustration: Stone Plates. ⅙ Natural Size. (Nat. Mus.)
-
-  The left and central figures from an Alabama Mound.]
-
-Squier and Davis (and Foster as well as most other writers have
-followed their example) classified the works of the Mound-builders as
-follows:
-
-                     {_For Defence._
-       I. ENCLOSURES {_Sacred._
-                     {_Miscellaneous._
-
-                     {_Of Sacrifice._
-      II. MOUNDS     {_For Temple-Sites._
-                     {_Of Sepulture._
-                     {_Of Observation._
-
-To this some have added mounds for residence.
-
-It does not fall within the scope of this work to treat of the specific
-character and uses of the works of the Mound-builders, but rather
-to note their extent and indications of age with relation to their
-bearing on the antiquity of man in this country. Some of the arts and
-manufactures of the Mound-builders are set forth in the illustrations
-interspersed throughout the chapter.[65] A few of the cuts figure
-objects found upon the surface. Yet it is not improbable that a due
-proportion of these objects were of Mound-builder origin.
-
-The domestic arts appear the most advanced of any among this ancient
-people. Pottery of respectable quality and of varied patterns is
-abundant among their remains. Coarse cloth woven of vegetable fibre,
-and in some instances partly made of hair, has been discovered in
-mounds in several localities. Shell and copper beads for the purposes
-of ornamentation were made in great numbers. Copper axes of good
-quality have occasionally been exhumed. Copper and bone needles with
-well-drilled eyes were made by them. They wove baskets and coarse
-matting. They carved pipes in stone or moulded them in clay, sometimes
-in fantastic forms, while again they fashioned them with rare skill
-into the perfect effigies of animals and birds, or possibly ornamented
-them with likenesses of their own faces. With the exception of a
-few observations on the altar and sepulchral mounds, we refrain from
-a further treatment of the works above classified, as having no
-particular bearing on the question in hand, and refer the reader to
-the works of Squier and Davis, and also to that of Dr. Foster, already
-often quoted. Of the Altar or Sacrificial Mounds, the first-named
-authors remark: The general characteristics of this class of mounds
-are: 1. That they occur only within the vicinity of the enclosures
-or sacred places; 2. That they are stratified; 3. That they contain
-symmetrical altars of burned clay or stone, on which were deposited
-various remains which in all cases have been more or less subjected to
-the action of fire.[66] The same authors present the following section
-of a mound examined by them at Mound City, near Chillicothe, Ohio,
-which is a fair sample of the usual stratification observed in altar
-mounds.[67] The altar which this mound contained was a parallelogram
-measuring 8 × 10 feet at its base and 4 × 6 feet at its top. It was
-only eighteen inches in height, and contained a basin with a dip of
-nine inches. In this basin were found fine ashes, fragments of pottery
-and shell beads. A reference to the figure shows that the sand-stratum
-is semicircular, with its extremities resting on the outer sides of
-the altar. The skeleton shown in the figure designates a point three
-feet below the apex of the mound where two well-preserved skeletons
-were found. The strata were disturbed for their burial evidently at
-a considerable period after the construction of the mound. This is a
-fair example of the “intrusive burial” practised in the mounds by Red
-Indians. The same authors found some of these altars rich in relics;
-one especially in the vicinity of the above-described mound contained
-nearly two hundred pipes carved in stone. Also a considerable number
-of pearl and shell beads and copper ornaments covered with silver. It
-is quite probable that the copper was from their Lake Superior mines,
-as they alone are known to yield deposits of silver with copper. The
-same peculiarity was observed with reference to the copper ornaments
-and implements found in the Marietta works. The pipes secured in this
-mound were much calcined by heat, and considerable copper had been
-fused in the basin of the altar. In some of the mounds examined large
-collections were obtained, and in some instances, articles made of
-obsidian, which it is believed could be procured nowhere nearer than
-the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo, or the region west of the Rocky
-Mountains.[68]
-
-[Illustration: Pestles and Mullers. (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.]
-
-[Illustration: Section of Altar Mound. (After Squier and Davis.)]
-
-[Illustration: Vase from an Ohio Mound.]
-
-The evidences are abundant that some mysterious rites were performed
-at the altar mounds; cremation only may have been practised, but we
-fear that even more awful and heart-sickening ceremonies took place
-upon these altars as well as upon the high temple sites in which human
-victims may have been offered to appease the elements or the sun or
-moon by their death agonies. What splendid ceremonial, what mystic
-rites administered by a national priesthood in the presence of a devout
-multitude may have accompanied these horrible sacrifices, are beyond
-even the limits of conjecture. Besides cremation, inhumation was also
-practised extensively. Multitudes of mounds were devoted either
-partly or exclusively to such uses. Mr. Tomlinson, the owner of the
-Grave Creek Mound, who sank a shaft from its original summit to its
-centre, and intercepted it by a tunnel along the surface of the ground,
-speaking of the latter excavation, remarks: “At the distance of one
-hundred and eleven feet we came to a vault, which had been excavated
-before the mound was commenced, eight by twelve feet and seven in
-depth. Along each side and across the ends, upright timbers had been
-placed, which supported timbers thrown across the vault as a ceiling.
-These timbers were covered with loose unhewn stone, common to the
-neighborhood. The timbers had rotted and tumbled into the vault. * * *
-In this vault were two human skeletons, one of which had no ornaments,
-the other was surrounded by six hundred and fifty ivory (shell) beads,
-and an ivory (bone) ornament six inches long.” Thirty-five feet above
-the bottom vault another was found containing a skeleton decorated with
-copper rings, plates of mica and shell disks. The number of disks cut
-from the shell known as the _Buscycon perversum_ and collected by the
-excavators was 2350; of mica 250 specimens, and of the little shell
-known as _Marginella apicina_, 500; all of which had been pierced and
-strung as beads. Ten skeletons were subsequently found together upon
-enlarging the horizontal tunnel. Ashes, charcoal and burnt bones were
-also discovered in large masses. Though this was the largest of this
-class of mounds, still the general characteristics of the contents are
-the same in all of them, and are usually disposed in the same relative
-position to each other.[69] One of the most interesting explorations of
-sepulchral mounds was that conducted in the autumn of 1865 by Professor
-O. C. Marsh, assisted by Mr. Geo. P. Russell, of Salem, Mass., in
-what is known as the “Taylor Mound,” situated two and a half miles
-south of Newark, Ohio. The mound was ten feet high and eighty feet in
-diameter, and was surmounted by a forest of oak trees ranging from two
-and a half to eight feet in thickness, while the decaying trunks of
-a former growth were lying upon the ground. The mound was excavated
-from the apex downward. Five feet from the surface a pipe and a tube
-of stone unknown in Ohio were found. Seven feet from the top, in a
-thin white layer of earth, a string of more than one hundred beads of
-native copper were found around the neck of a child about three years
-old. The salts of the copper had preserved the cord of vegetable fibre
-on which they were strung. The beads were about one-fourth of an inch
-in length and one-third in diameter. They evidently had been hammered
-out of the metal in its original state, and the workmanship displayed
-no inferior skill. One foot deeper the remains of two adults, male and
-female, were found carefully buried in layers of bark, their heads
-towards the east, and the body of the female resting upon that of
-the male skeleton. Immediately above these were found a considerable
-number of charred human bones and the evidences of cremation or human
-sacrifice in honor to the couple (probably man and wife) below. The
-Professor even expresses the fear that the wife—who appears to have
-been about thirty years of age—may have been put to death and buried
-above the remains of her deceased consort. A foot deeper the party
-found another layer of charcoal, ashes and charred bones, similar to
-the above, and immediately beneath it a carefully-buried skeleton, much
-decomposed, lying in a white layer of earth, and with its head toward
-the east. A few inches below this skeleton several carelessly-buried
-skeletons were found near the natural level of the earth. Below the
-natural surface a cist six feet long, three feet wide and two feet deep
-was found containing the remains of eight or more skeletons, which seem
-to have been imperfect when buried. The remains had been thrown into
-the grave in a careless and perhaps hasty manner. In the grave were
-found nine lance and arrow-heads of flint. Six small hand-axes, one of
-them of hematite and the others of compact greenstone or diorite, a
-small hatchet of hematite, a flint chisel and scraper, fine needles or
-bodkins made of the metatarsal bones of the common deer, a whistle made
-from the tooth of a young bear, and spoons cut from the shells of river
-mussels. A rude vessel of clay was found, but broken, while several
-bones of animals, all but two of existing species in Ohio at present,
-were discovered; though it is worthy of remark that the remains of
-the deer were of a size seldom attained by the species at the present
-day. All the skulls found in the mound were broken, and all but two so
-badly decayed that no effort was made to preserve them. These two were
-of small size showing the vertical occiput, prominent vertex and large
-inter-parietal diameter. There is abundant evidence that the mound had
-never been disturbed by Indians.[70]
-
-[Illustration: Stone Pipes from Ohio Mounds.]
-
-One of the best evidences which we have of the systematic government
-and habits of the Mound-builders, together with the comparatively
-advanced state of the practical arts among them, is found in the
-ancient copper mines of the Lake Superior Region so extensively
-operated by them at quite a remote period.[71] These were first
-discovered by Mr. S. O. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company,
-in 1848. One excavation explored by this gentleman was thirty feet
-deep, filled with clay and a mass of mouldering vegetable matter.
-Eighteen feet from the surface he found a mass of copper ten feet long,
-three feet wide and two feet thick, weighing over six tons. By digging
-around this great lump of metal, he observed that it was resting on “a
-cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter, the
-ends of which showed plainly the strokes of a small axe or cutting tool
-about two and a half inches in width”. The wood, from its exposure to
-moisture, had lost all its consistency, and opposed no more resistance
-to a knife-blade than would ordinary peat. After having raised the
-mass of copper over five feet along the foot wall of the lode on the
-timbers by means of wedges, the ancient miners had abandoned the task.
-The walls of the mine still show the marks of fire; charcoal and stone
-mauls were taken from this and similar excavations. The largest of
-these mauls weighed thirty-six pounds and was encircled by a double
-groove around its centre. Withes were probably wound in these grooves
-by which two men could wield the maul very effectively. The number of
-smaller hammers of greenstone and porphyry removed from these works by
-Mr. Knapp exceeded ten cart-loads. In one of the pits a rude oak ladder
-was found, made by trimming the branches of a tree at a distance from
-the trunk to leave a sufficient foothold. Wooden levers, preserved
-beneath the water, were also of frequent occurrence. A copper maul,
-shaped by pounding in a cold state, and weighing upwards of twenty
-pounds, was found in this locality, as well as many well-formed copper
-implements designed for various purposes. Upon a mound of rubbish near
-one of the excavations, Messrs. Foster and Whitney saw a pine stump ten
-feet in circumference—the trunk having been broken fifteen feet from
-the ground—which must have grown and died after the earth was thrown
-up. Mr. Knapp mentions a hemlock which he found growing on a heap of
-rubbish which had 395 rings of annual growth. Fallen and decayed trees
-of a previous generation were found lying across the pits. In front
-of the Waterbury mine are blocks of stone weighing two and three tons
-which had been removed by the ancient miners from the shaft, and when
-observed by Colonel Whittlesey, they were covered by a forest growth of
-the full size and kind common to the neighboring region. Under a pile
-of rubbish the remains of a trough of cedar bark was brought to light
-and had been used to carry off water baled from the mine by means of
-wooden bowls, some of which were preserved by water in the mines. Mr.
-S. W. Hill communicated to Dr. Foster in 1872 the discovery of mining
-pits in Isle Royal, measuring fifty feet in depth.[72] In the Ontonagon
-region for thirty miles traces of the ancient miners abound. The idea
-that the Indians formerly worked these mines was abandoned shortly
-after their discovery. They possess no tradition of copper mines, nor
-did their ancestors visited by the Jesuit Fathers in the early part of
-the seventeenth century obtain any intelligence of mines, though they
-penetrated this region in 1660. They often mention the occurrence of
-loose masses of copper found in the shape of boulders, but could learn
-nothing from the Indians as to their origin. It is quite certain that
-no traditions were current among them on the subject. “Instead,” says
-Col. Whittlesey, “of viewing copper as an object of every day use, they
-regarded it as a sacred Manitou, and carefully preserved pieces of it
-wrapped up in skin in their lodges for many years; and this custom has
-been continued to modern times.”[73] Father Allouez, in his _Relation_,
-has described this custom.[74] Father Dablon, who shortly afterward
-visited the Lake Superior tribes, has described their superstitions
-concerning an island where the missionaries first met with copper.[75]
-That the Mound-builders were these ancient miners, there is abundant
-evidence. Col. Whittlesey has described a collection of copper
-implements from Carp River containing pieces of native silver, such as
-have often been found in the Ohio mounds.[76] We have already referred
-to this peculiarity of the Lake Superior copper. The use of copper by
-the Mound-builders was very general all the way from Wisconsin to the
-Gulf, and the labor involved in a journey of a thousand miles from the
-Ohio Valley to the copper regions, the toil of the summer’s mining,
-and the tedious transportation of the metal to their homes upon their
-backs, and by means of an imperfect system of navigation, indicates
-either industry and resolution such as no savage Indian ever possessed,
-or a condition of servitude in which thousands occupied a position of
-abject slavery.
-
-[Illustration: Aboriginal Stone Axes. Surface Finds.]
-
-[Illustration: Stone Mauls and Hammers. Surface Finds.]
-
-[Illustration: Copper Celts—the smaller from a Mound near Savannah,
-  Tennessee. (Nat. Mus.)]
-
-No permanent abodes were erected by the miners in this region, no
-mounds were constructed, but the indications all point to a summer’s
-residence only and a return to the south with the accumulation of
-their toil when the severities of winter approached. Frederick von
-Hellwald expresses it as his opinion that the Mexicans obtained all
-their copper from the Lake Superior mines, and adds that no evidences
-exist that copper was mined in Mexico or Central America prior to the
-Spanish Conquest.[77] Humboldt affirms that various metals were mined
-by the Mexicans, but does not specify copper.[78] Col. Whittlesey and
-Prof. Andrews estimate that in the ancient Lake Superior mines worked
-by the Mound-builders, the removed metal would aggregate a length of
-one hundred and fifty miles in veins of varying thickness. This fact
-certainly indicates that great supplies were transported southward.
-
-This remarkable people was evidently possessed of the beginnings of
-science; at least if the Davenport and Cincinnati tablets are genuine,
-astronomy must have received considerable attention at their hands. In
-the former tablet we observe a cycle divided into twelve months (which,
-however, is so modern and coincides so strictly with our division
-as to excite suspicion of fraud), while in the latter we have the
-number 368 as the sum of the products of the longer and shorter lines,
-suggestive of an approximation to the number of days in a year. Other
-supposed astronomical instruments have been discovered in the mounds
-of Ohio, and several of these, _antique tubes, telescope devices_,
-were discovered in the course of excavations made in 1842 in the most
-easterly of the Elizabethtown group, West Virginia. Mr. Schoolcraft
-makes the following statement concerning them: “Several tubes of stone
-were disclosed, the precise object of which has been the subject of
-various opinions. The longest measured twelve inches, the shortest
-eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite, being skillfully cut
-and polished. The diameter of the tube externally was one inch and
-four-tenths; the bore eight-tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
-the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
-distant objects are more clearly discerned.”[79] A silver figure found
-in Peru represents a man in the act of studying the heavens through one
-of these tubes, and Captain Dupaix saw a stone in Mexico bearing the
-figure of a man sculptured on its side in the act of using a similar
-tube.[80]
-
-[Illustration: Clay Vessels from Mounds in the Mississippi Valley. ¼
-  Size. (Nat. Mus.)]
-
-[Illustration: Clay Tube from an Ohio Mound. ½ Natural Size. (Peabody
-  Mus.)]
-
-With reference to the civilization of the Mound-builders, however
-much writers may differ, we think the following conclusions may be
-safely accepted: That they came into the country in comparatively
-small numbers at first (if they were not Autochthones, and there is
-no substantial proof that the Mound-builders were such), and during
-their residence in the territory occupied by the United States they
-became extremely populous. Their settlements were widespread, as the
-extent of their remains indicate. The magnitude of their works, some of
-which approximate the proportions of Egyptian pyramids, testify to the
-architectural talent of the people and the fact that they had developed
-a system of government which controlled the labor of multitudes,
-whether of subjects or slaves. They were an agricultural people, as the
-extensive ancient garden-beds found in Wisconsin and Missouri indicate.
-Their manufactures afford proof that they had attained a respectable
-degree of advancement, and show that they understood the advantages of
-the division of labor.[81] Their domestic utensils, the cloth of which
-they made their clothing, and the artistic vessels met with everywhere
-in the mounds, point to the development of home culture and domestic
-industry. There is no reason for believing that the people who wrought
-stone and clay into perfect effigies of animals have not left us
-sculptures of their own faces in the images exhumed from the mounds.
-
-[Illustration: Large Clay Vessel from Milledgeville, Georgia. Size 14
-  Inches High and 13 Inches across Aperture. (Nat. Mus.)]
-
-They mined copper, which they wrought into implements of war, into
-ornaments and articles for domestic use. They quarried mica for mirrors
-and other purposes.[82] They furthermore worked flint and salt mines.
-They probably possessed some astronomical knowledge, though to what
-extent is unknown.
-
-Their trade, as Dr. Rau has shown, was widespread, extending probably
-from Lake Superior to the Gulf, and possibly to Mexico.[83] They
-constructed canals by which lake systems were united, a fact which
-Mr. Conant has recently shown to be well established in Missouri.[84]
-Their defences were numerous and constructed with reference to
-strategic principles, while their system of signals placed on lofty
-summits, visible from their settlements and communicating with the
-great watercourses at immense distances, rival the signal systems in
-use at the beginning of the present century. Their religion seems to
-have been attended with the same ceremonies in all parts of their
-domain. That its rites were celebrated with great demonstrations is
-certain. The sun and moon probably were the all-important deities, to
-whom sacrifices (possibly human) were offered. We have already alluded
-to the development in architecture and art which marked the possible
-transition of this people from north to south. Here we see but the
-rude beginnings of a civilization which no doubt subsequently unfolded
-in its fuller glory in the valley of Anahuac, and spreading southward
-engrafted a new life upon the wreck of Xibalba. Though there is no
-evidence that the Mound-builders were indigenous, we must admit that
-their civilization was purely such—the natural product of climate and
-the conditions surrounding them.[85]
-
-[Illustration: Copper Relics from Wisconsin.
-
-  (From photos furnished by Prof. Butler.)]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II.
-
-              ANTIQUITY OF MAN ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT.
-
-  Antiquity of the Mounds — No Tradition of the Mound-builders —
-      Vegetation Covering the Mounds — Age of Mound Crania — Probable
-      Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds — Ancient Shell-heaps —
-      Man’s Influence on Nature — Supposed Testimony of Geology —
-      Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone — Remains on Santos River —
-      The Natchez Bone — Remains on Petit Anse Island — Brazilian
-      Bone caves — Dr. Koch’s Pretended Discoveries — Ancient Hearths
-      — Age of the Mississippi Delta — Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New
-      Orleans — Dr. Abbott’s Discoveries in New Jersey — Discoveries
-      in California — Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio — Crania from
-      Mounds in the North-west — No Evidences as yet Discovered
-      Proving Man’s Great Antiquity in America.
-
-
-At the opening of the preceding chapter we made some allusions to
-the supposed antiquity of the Red Indian, a subject of growing
-archæological significance, though as yet it affords us rather
-unsatisfactory evidence, scientifically considered, relative to
-the problem of man’s antiquity on this continent. Quite different,
-however, is the estimate which we place on data left us by the people
-of the mounds. The question of the antiquity of the Mound-builders
-is one which cannot be accurately determined; no chronometric scale
-can be applied to the uncertain record which they have left behind
-them. Their history is a sealed book, and the approximate date of
-their first occupancy of the Mississippi Basin is as uncertain as
-the period of man’s origin. However, certain data present themselves
-for our consideration which lead us to conclude that a few thousand
-years, three or four perhaps, and possibly even less time, is all
-that is required in which to account for their growth into a nation
-and the moderate advancement which they made toward civilization. As
-to when the Mound-builders left this country, is another question,
-and can be approximated more closely. It is a well-known fact that
-no tradition was ever found among the Indians as to the origin or the
-purpose for which the mounds were constructed. They described them as
-having been found by their ancestors in the same condition in which
-we now see them, and clothed, if not with the same, at least with a
-growth of vegetation similar to that which covers them to-day. It is
-true the Iroquois, who are supposed to have reached the lake regions
-and the Ohio Valley some time previous to the Algonquins, had certain
-vague traditions of a people whom they called the “Allighewi;” but
-there seems to be nothing in those indefinite allusions which would
-associate that unknown people with the mounds. Still, Indian tradition
-is nearly valueless in determining this question, since any fact,
-however grave, was soon forgotten by a people so savage and unsettled.
-The tribes of the lake region, says Dr. Lapham in his _Antiquities_,
-so soon forgot the visit of the Jesuit Fathers that their descendants
-a few generations later had no tradition of the event. The same is
-true of the Indians of the Mississippi Valley with reference to De
-Soto’s expedition, “which must,” remarks Dr. Foster, “have impressed
-their ancestors with dread at the sight of horses ridden by men, and
-the sound of fire-arms, which they must have likened to thunder. Sir
-John Lubbock states that the New Zealanders at the time of Captain
-Cook’s visit had forgotten altogether Tasman’s visit, made less than
-one hundred and thirty years before.”[86] Another argument for the
-construction of the mounds at a remote period, and which is certainly
-of little more value than Indian tradition, is that which supposes
-the Mound-builders to have erected works on the lowest of the river
-terraces existing at the time of their occupancy of the country.
-Much stress has been laid on the fact that no works have been found
-on the lowest-formed of the river terraces which mark the subsidence
-of the western rivers. “And as there is no good reason,” remarks Mr.
-Baldwin, “why their builders should have avoided erecting them on
-that terrace while they raised them promiscuously on all the others,
-it follows, not unreasonably, that this terrace has been formed since
-the works were erected.”[87] To any one familiar with the great rise
-and fall which takes place annually in the water-level of the Ohio
-and Mississippi and all of their tributaries, the fallacy of such
-an argument is at once apparent. We must at least allow that the
-Mound-builders learned by experience, just as animals do, even if we
-could deny them a very high order of intelligence. Little time could
-have elapsed after their advent to these valleys before they observed
-the impracticability of erecting mounds or enclosures on most of the
-alluvial bottoms bordering these streams. The raging torrents which
-sometimes sweep through the valleys of the central basin, uprooting
-the largest trees, carrying away natural embankments, forming immense
-deposits of new alluvium, submerging miles of adjacent country, and
-in many ways changing its physical conformation, would in a few years
-obliterate any traces of earthworks built within their reach.[88] Far
-more certain data, however, is furnished in the arborescent vegetation
-which covers many of the works, with which to measure part of the
-period during which they have remained unoccupied, though we are left
-in uncertainty as to the remoteness of their abandonment. The annular
-rings of a tree present us indisputable evidence as to its age.[89] It
-is evident that the forests which cover these remains have grown up
-since they were vacated, as no difference exists between them and the
-surrounding vegetation—no break exists in the density of the forests
-in the immediate vicinity of the works. The oldest of the trees found
-upon the works present eight hundred annual rings, indicating as many
-years of growth.[90] This cannot, however, be set down as the limit of
-the period of their abandonment, since, as it seems that this country
-was open and mostly unwooded in the sections thickly settled by the
-Mound-builders, a considerable time would be requisite for the slow
-encroachments of a forest, even when the trees which now stand upon
-the mounds may have been preceded by trees of other species or by
-two or three generations of their own.[91] The age of the trees on
-the mound-works in the Ohio Valley or farther north, rarely exceeds
-five hundred or six hundred years, and such cases as that cited by Sir
-Charles Lyell are the exceptions. Farther south, in the Mississippi
-Valley and near the Gulf, they are still younger than those at the
-north.[92] So noticeable is this that we are led to think the Gulf
-coast may have been occupied by the Mound-builders for a couple of
-centuries after they were driven by their enemies from the country
-north of the mouths of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. The condition of
-skeletons found in the mounds indicate an antiquity which they furnish
-us no means of measuring. It is not to be presumed that all human
-remains discovered in excavating the works were interred immediately
-previous to the abandonment of the country. Some of them may belong
-to the middle or beginning of the period of their residence in the
-territory occupied by the United States. Human remains taken from the
-mounds, perhaps furnish us better evidence of the long residence of the
-Mound-builders in this country than any other data in our possession.
-It suffices to say that few Mound-builder crania have been recovered in
-a condition to be of any service to science; although of late years,
-several valuable collections have been made. The preservation of the
-skeletons depends greatly on the composition of the soil in which they
-are found. The Loess has afforded well-preserved remains, however,
-with the gelatinous matter leached out. The crania of the sandy loam
-of river bottoms, on the other hand, are in all cases so far decayed
-upon discovery that the greatest precautions fail to prevent them from
-crumbling to dust when exposed to the light and air. Mastodon bones,
-on the contrary, recovered from peat swamps, and much older than any
-of the remains of the Mound-builders, are found to have retained so
-much of their gelatinous matter as to furnish a nourishing soup.[93]
-To these evidences may be added the testimony derived from the ancient
-ruins which points to long-continued occupation and to a considerable
-lapse of time since their abandonment.
-
-How long the Mound-builders occupied the country north of the Gulf of
-Mexico it is impossible in the present state of science to determine.
-Some authors conjecture that they were here two thousand years; that
-we think would be time enough, though after all it is but conjecture.
-It seems to us, however, that the time of the abandonment of their
-works may be more closely approximated. A thousand or two years may
-have elapsed since they vacated the Ohio Valley, and a period embracing
-seven or eight centuries may have passed since they retired from the
-Gulf coast. As an evidence of a large population having existed in this
-country at a former period, we have immense shell-heaps artificially
-collected, extending along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to
-Florida, on the Gulf coast and up the river valleys through nearly
-all of the Southern States. It is difficult to assign the formation
-of these vast remains to any definite period or to any particular
-people. Though of the same character as the _Kjökken-Möddings_
-(Kitchen-Middens) of the Danish, they furnish no indications of so
-great an antiquity. This has been shown by Dr. Jeffries Wyman in his
-researches in Maine and Massachusetts.[94] Sir Charles Lyell made an
-examination of a shell-bank on St. Simon’s Island, near the mouth of
-the Allamaha River, Georgia, so extensive that it covers ten acres to
-a depth varying from five to ten feet.[95] Dr. Brinton has described
-immense accumulations in Florida. On Amelia Island, shells exist to
-the depth of three feet over an area 150 yards wide and a quarter of a
-mile long. Notable instances of a similar kind are Turtle Mound near
-Smyrna—a mass of oyster shells thirty feet thick—and a shell-bank
-on Crystal River four miles from its mouth, reaching a height of
-forty feet.[96] Dr. Wyman carefully examined many of the fresh-water
-shell-heaps of Florida and obtained pretty satisfactory results.[97]
-Near the Silver spring upon a shell-heap covering nearly twenty acres,
-stand several live-oaks of immense size, the largest of which measured
-between twenty-six and twenty-seven feet in circumference. Excavations
-under this monster, taken together with its position on the side of
-the shell-bank, proved it to be of more recent origin than the latter.
-Prof. Wyman, by allowing twelve rings to the inch and granting it a
-semi-diameter of fifty inches, estimated that it was not less than
-six hundred years old. Of course the shell-bank may have existed a
-long time before any vegetation appeared upon it. The crania of
-the shell-banks of Florida differ from those of the Mound-builders
-in greater thickness as well as greater mean capacity.[98] In his
-_Fresh-water Shell-Mounds of the St. John’s River_, and in his memoir
-on _Human Remains in the Shell-heaps of the St. John’s River_ (_Seventh
-Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, pp. 26 _et seq._), Dr. Wyman reports
-having discovered the startling fact that cannibalism prevailed among
-the barbarous people of the shell-banks. In the Peabody Museum a
-collection of human bones taken from the shell-banks by Dr. Wyman are
-arranged to illustrate this sad discovery. It is possible that this
-people had some relationship to the Caribs. Prof. Forshey has described
-in brief the vast extent and proportions of the marine shell-banks of
-the Gulf coast, and the shores of the bayous, lakes and lagoons where
-Guathodon shells are found. Those of Louisiana, especially near New
-Orleans, are remarkable, but have yielded no remains, except broken
-pottery, flint flakes and stone hatchets. A shell-bank at Grand
-Lake, on the Teche, however, upon which great live-oaks are growing,
-situated fifteen miles inland, from which the sea has receded since
-its formation, “yielded unique specimens of axes of hæmatitic iron-ore
-and glazed pottery.”[99] Probably the most remote shell-bank from
-the sea containing marine shells, occurs on the Alabama River, fifty
-miles inland.[100] Fresh-water shell-banks, other than those examined
-in Florida, furnish evidences of slow accumulation and indicate
-a comparatively remote antiquity for their origin. On Stalling’s
-Island, in the Savannah River, two hundred miles above its mouth, is
-a shell-bank three hundred feet in length by one hundred and twenty
-feet in width, with an average depth of over fifteen feet.[101] In
-the American Bottom and on many of the tributaries of the Mississippi,
-shell-banks occur, composed of varieties of the Unios and Anodons. A
-remarkable example of such accumulation is the well-known shell-bank a
-mile and a half south of New Harmony, Indiana, and situated on a high
-hill 170 feet above the level of an arm of the Wabash River. The bank
-covers an area of a quarter of an acre, and has attracted the attention
-of eminent scientists like Leasure, Say, Lyell and others, but nothing
-of value was developed that would refer the construction of this and
-similar banks to any people more ancient than the Mound-builders.[102]
-On the Pacific coast, great numbers of shell-banks exist, but contain
-nothing different from those in other parts of the country. (See
-Researches in the Kjökken Möddings of the Coast of Oregon and of the
-Santa Barbara Islands and Adjacent Mainland, by Paul Schumacher.
-_Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey_, vol. iii, No. 1.) There can
-be little doubt but these strange and vast accumulations indicating the
-presence of an extinct population, had a remote beginning, and have
-been added to from time to time by different peoples, removed from each
-other both by the diversities of race and the lapse of time.
-
-A trifle more than a decade ago the treatment of the subject of this
-chapter would have called for a discussion of the antiquity of the
-magnificent architectural remains of Southern Mexico, and of the still
-older ruins of the Maya civilization in Yucatan, and the branches of
-that people in Central America; but the indefatigable labor which has
-been bestowed by several eminent antiquarians upon the ancient history
-of the civilized nations of the New World previous to its discovery by
-Europeans, has transferred this part of the subject to another field;
-has elevated it from the uncertain position it occupied in archæology
-to a place in the realm of history. It is true that it is difficult
-to draw the line between tradition and history, and especially so in
-this case; but as tradition does not conflict with archæology in its
-bearing on the ancient civilization of Tropical America, it is better
-than nothing; certainly archæology thus far has amounted to little
-more than nothing in revealing the approximate period of the origin of
-these remains. While it has done much towards verifying tradition and
-assisted largely in its interpretation, it has not been adequate to the
-task of solving the age of these remains. Tradition, on the contrary,
-and we might almost say history, carries us back three thousand years,
-if not farther, as the period when man—whether the first here or
-not—appeared upon the Western Continent. The discussion of this part of
-our subject will be given in a future chapter. Too much doubt exists
-with reference to the stupendous remains of Peru, especially in the
-neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, Tiahuanaco, Old Huanaco, and Grau-Chimu,
-as to whether they antedated the arrival of the Incas by a great lapse
-of time, to admit of a serious discussion here. Nothing of a scientific
-character is available as yet upon which even to base conjecture.
-Rivero and Tschudi, it is true, have treated the subject, and their
-work has been often quoted, but after all it amounts to but little
-more than a description of the remains, which serves the good end of
-exciting interest in the subject. The antiquities and legendary history
-of the Peruvians have so recently been treated with such ability by Mr.
-E. G. Squier, that the South American civilization needs no attention
-in this connection.
-
-In considering the question as to how long man has inhabited this
-continent, his influence upon nature cannot be overlooked. In the
-animal kingdom, certain animals were domesticated by the aborigines
-from so remote a period that scarcely any of their species, as in the
-case of the lama of Peru, were to be found in a state of unrestrained
-freedom at the advent of the Spaniards. In the vegetable kingdom more
-abundant testimony of the same nature is presented. A plant must be
-subjected to the transforming influences of cultivation for a long
-time before it becomes so changed as no longer to be identified with
-the wild species, and infinitely longer before it becomes entirely
-dependent upon cultivation for propagation. Yet we find that both
-of these facts have been accomplished with reference to the maize,
-tobacco, cotton, quinoa and mandico plants; and the only species
-of palm cultivated by the South American Indians, that known as the
-_Gulielma speciosa_, has lost through that culture its original
-nut-like seed, and is dependent upon the hands of its cultivators
-for its life.[103] Alluding to the above-named plants, Dr. Brinton
-remarks: “Several are sure to perish unless fostered by human care.
-What numberless ages does this suggest? How many centuries elapsed ere
-man thought of cultivating Indian corn? How many more ere it had spread
-over nearly a hundred degrees of latitude and lost all resemblance
-to its original form?”[104] Certainly this class of evidence, though
-furnishing no chronometric scale, points us to an antiquity for man on
-this continent more venerable than that suggested either by tumuli or
-architectural remains. The peculiar value of this argument rests in the
-fact that with the exception of cotton, none of the plants indicated
-have ever been cultivated by any other people than the aborigines of
-America, and could not have matured their characteristics of dependence
-in the old world, and been brought hither through the channel of
-immigration.
-
-Back of the age of man’s monuments of an architectural character,
-beyond the beginning of the first existing shell-heap, and at a time
-probably more remote than the first cultivation of maize, it has been
-supposed that man occupied the Western Continent as a contemporary with
-the mastodon, megalonyx and other extinct animals. Our information
-in this department is entirely dependent upon the revelations of
-geological science. Unfortunately very little data which may be termed
-truly scientific has been brought to light. While considerable seeming
-testimony to man’s antiquity on this continent has been produced
-from a geologic quarter, still it mostly has been of an unscientific
-character. Fossils and human remains are said to have been discovered
-in localities and in associations that if the statements of those who
-found them could be relied on, would give man an antiquity here as
-great as in the valley of the Somme or in the bone caves of Belgium,
-France, and England. In the instances alluded to, it is not so often
-feared that the veracity of discoverers is doubtful as that their
-general lack of acquaintance with the science should make them liable
-to error. Where a competent geologist is not present to examine a
-fossil _in situ_, and report intelligently upon its position and
-surroundings, the case must remain open to suspicion. Unfortunately
-for science, this is precisely the weak point in most of the reputed
-“finds” which are cited as evidence in this field. In 1848, Count
-Pourtales found in Florida, according to Agassiz, a human jaw and
-teeth, and bones of the foot, embedded in a calcareous conglomerate
-forming a part of a coral reef. This reef, according to Agassiz, may
-be 135,000 years old, and the human remains at least ten thousand
-years.[105] This statement has been accepted as reliable by Sir Charles
-Lyell,[106] Daniel Wilson,[107] and other noted scientific gentlemen.
-Count Pourtales, however, makes a statement which materially alters
-the case. He says: “The human jaws and other bones found by myself in
-Florida in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in a fresh-water
-sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated with fresh-water
-shells or species still living in the lakes (Paulina, Ampullaria,
-etc.). No date can be assigned to the formation of that deposit, at
-least from present observation.”[108] Human remains were found a number
-of years ago embedded in the solid rock in the island of Guadaloupe.
-“But more careful investigation proved the rock to be a concretionary
-limestone formed from the detritus of corals and shells.”[109] This
-rock was ascertained to have been one of very rapid formation.
-
-Sir Charles Lyell, in his _Travels in America_ in 1842, expressed the
-opinion that certain human remains found embedded in the solid rock
-near the town of St. Paul on the Santos River, Brazil, were of great
-antiquity.[110] Subsequently referring to the memoir of Dr. Meigs on
-the shell-heap of which the rock was a part,[111] he expresses the
-opinion that shells were brought to the place and heaped up over the
-remains, and “were bound together in a solid stone by the infiltration
-of carbonate of lime, and the mound may therefore be of no higher
-antiquity than those above alluded to on the Ohio.”[112] In a few
-instances it has been alleged that the remains of man have been found
-associated with the remains of the mastodon and other extinct animals.
-More than thirty years ago Dr. Dickson of Natchez discovered the
-pelvic bone of a man, the _os innominatum_, mingled with the bones of
-extinct animals (megalonyx and mylodon). This discovery was made two
-and one-half miles from Natchez, at the bottom of what is known as
-Bernard’s Bayou, an immense ravine from thirty to sixty feet deep and
-several miles long, formed by the convulsions of the earthquake of
-1811–12. This bone is now in the possession of the Academy of Natural
-Sciences of Philadelphia. Sir Charles Lyell visited the spot where it
-was discovered in 1846, and made a careful examination of the bone
-then in the possession of Dr. Dickson, and also explored the “Mammoth
-Ravine.” He discusses the case as follows: “It appeared to be quite in
-the same state of preservation and was of the same black color as the
-other fossils, and was believed to have come like them from a depth of
-about thirty feet from the surface. In my _Second Visit to America_ in
-1846,[113] I suggested as a possible explanation of this association of
-a human bone with remains of a mastodon and megalonyx, that the former
-may possibly have been derived from the vegetable soil at the top of
-the cliff, where, as the remains of extinct mammalia were dislodged
-from a lower position, and both may have fallen into the same heap or
-talus at the bottom of the ravine, the pelvic bone might, I conceived,
-have acquired its black color from having lain for years or centuries
-in a dark superficial peaty soil common in that region. I was informed
-that there were many human bones in old Indian graves in the same
-district stained of as black a dye.” * * * “No doubt, had the pelvic
-bone belonged to any recent mammifier other than man, such a theory
-would never have been resorted to; but so long as we have only one
-isolated case, and are without the testimony of a geologist who was
-present to behold the bone when still engaged in the matrix, and to
-extract it with his own hands, it is allowable to suspend our judgment
-as to the high antiquity of the fossil”.[114] Both Dr. Joseph Leidy[115]
-and Prof. C. G. Forshey,[116] who have examined the case, agree with
-the above. A few years ago a fragment of matting composed of the outer
-bark of the southern cane (_Arundinaria macrosperma_) was discovered
-on Petit Anse Island in Vermillion Bay, Louisiana, in connection with
-the remains of a fossil elephant. This island, containing about five
-thousand acres, is the locality of an extraordinary mine of rock salt,
-discovered and worked considerably during the late rebellion. The salt
-is found in nearly all parts of the island at the depth of fifteen or
-twenty feet below the surface of the soil. The matting was discovered
-near the surface of the salt, and about two feet above it were the
-remains of an elephant, including the tusks. Prof. Henry was the first
-to call public attention to the matter in a notice based on the verbal
-statements of T. F. Cleu, Esq., who presented a specimen of the matting
-to the Smithsonian Institution.[117] In 1867, Prof. E. W. Hilgard and
-Dr. E. Fontaine, secretary of the New Orleans Academy of Sciences,
-examined the locality. We regret to say that the report made by the
-latter is so confused in its use of terms and so conflicting in its
-statements as to be of no service to science.[118] Prof. Hilgard is, on
-the contrary, clear on the subject. He considers the heap in which the
-matting, elephant bones, and subsequently pottery in great profusion,
-were found, “A mass of detritus washed down from the surrounding
-hills.” “The pottery,” he remarks, “at some points form veritable
-strata three and six inches thick.” He then adds in a note that “it
-is very positively stated that mastodon bones were found considerably
-_above_ some of the human relics. In a detrital mass, however, this
-cannot be considered a crucial test.”[119] Dr. Foster, after citing the
-above, interposes the objection, “That in an island whose area is less
-than eight miles square, there would be few floods of sufficient power
-to transport such heavy bones as the tusks and molars of mastodons
-to any considerable distance.”[120] Certainly the question is an
-open one, and in its present unsettled status proves nothing. The
-same uncertainty attaches itself to the discoveries of Dr. Lund, the
-distinguished Swedish naturalist, made many years ago in the bone caves
-of Minas Geraes, Brazil. This indefatigable investigator examined more
-than eight hundred caverns, and in only six were human remains found.
-In one instance out of the six, the remains were associated with the
-bones of animals now extinct, but the original stratification had been
-disturbed, and the presumption is that it was a case of comparatively
-recent interment.[121]
-
-The most remarkable instance of the supposed, or we might be allowed in
-this case to say _pretended_ discovery of human remains in association
-with those of extinct animals, is that set forth by Dr. Koch. This
-collector of curiosities described his discovery of a _mastodon
-giganteus_ in 1839 in Gasconade County, Missouri, at a spot on the
-Bourbeuse River, first in a newspaper article of January 1839, and
-cited in the _American Journal of Science and Arts_.[122] And a second
-time in the St. Louis _Commercial Bulletin_ of June 25, 1839, which
-article was also noticed in the above Journal.[123] This article was
-signed “A. Koch, Proprietor of the St. Louis Museum.” Subsequently
-he published descriptions in pamphlets, which unfortunately did not
-always convey the same impressions.[124] Dr. Koch, after referring to
-the discovery of a back and hip bone of this remarkable animal, gives
-the following description: “I immediately commenced opening a much
-larger space; the first layer of earth was a vegetable mould, then a
-blue clay, then sand and blue clay. I found a large quantity of pieces
-of rocks, weighing from two to twenty-five pounds each, evidently
-thrown there with the intention of hitting some object. It is necessary
-to remark that not the least sign of rocks or gravel is to be found
-nearer than from four or five hundred yards, and that these pieces
-were broken from larger rocks, and consequently carried here for some
-express purpose. After passing through these rocks I came to a layer
-of vegetable mould; on the surface of this was found the first blue
-bone, with this a spear and axe; the spear corresponds precisely with
-our common Indian spear; the axe is different from any I have seen.
-Also on this earth were ashes nearly from six inches to one foot in
-depth, intermixed with burned wood and burned bones, broken spears,
-axes, knives, etc. The fire appeared to have been the largest on the
-head and neck of the animal, as the ashes and coals were much deeper
-here than in the rest of the body; the skull was quite perfect, but so
-much burned that it crumbled to dust on the least touch; two feet from
-this was found two teeth broken off from the jaw, but mashed entirely
-to pieces. By putting them together, they showed the animal to have
-been much larger than any heretofore discovered. It appeared by the
-situation of the skeleton, that the animal had been sunk with its hind
-feet in the mud and water, and, unable to extricate itself, had fallen
-on its right side, and in that situation was found and killed as above
-described; consequently the hind and fore-feet on the right side were
-sunk deeper in the mud, and thereby saved from the effects of the fire;
-therefore I was able to preserve the whole of the hind foot to the very
-last joint, and the fore foot, all but some few small bones that were
-too much decayed to be worth saving. Also between the rocks that had
-sunk through the ashes, were found large pieces of skin that appeared
-like fresh-tanned sole leather, strongly impregnated with the lye from
-the ashes; and a great many of the sinews and arteries were plain to
-be seen on the earth and rocks, but in such a state as not to be moved
-except in small pieces the size of a hand, which are now preserved
-in spirits.” “Should any doubts arise in the mind of the reader of
-the correctness of the above statement, he can be referred to more
-than twenty witnesses who were present at the time of digging.”[125]
-Subsequent accounts agree substantially with the above except that
-we never again hear of the “large pieces of skin,” the “sinews and
-arteries,” “which are now preserved in spirits.” The presumption is
-that the author, upon mature reflection, arrived at the conclusion
-that in reality he had seen nothing of the kind, and in fact had never
-preserved such relics in spirits.
-
-Dr. Koch made a second discovery about one year subsequently in Benton
-County, Missouri, in the bottom of the Pomme-de-Terre River, at about
-ten miles above its junction with the Osage River. His description is
-as follows: “The second trace of human existence with these animals
-I found during the excavation of the Missourium. There was embedded
-immediately under the femur or hind-leg bone of this animal, an
-arrow-head of rose-colored flint, resembling those used by the American
-Indians, but of larger size. This was the only arrow-head immediately
-with the skeleton; but in the same strata, at a distance of five
-or six feet, in a horizontal direction, four more arrow-heads were
-found. Three of these were of the same formation as the preceding.
-The fourth was of very rude workmanship. One of the last-mentioned
-three was of agate, the others of blue flint. These arrow-heads are
-indisputably the work of human hands. I examined the deposit in which
-they were embedded, and raised them out of their embedment with my
-own hands. The original stratum on which this river flowed at the
-time it was inhabited by the _Missourium theristocaulodon_ and up
-to the time of its destruction, was of the upper green sand. On the
-surface of this stratum, and partly mingled with it, was the deposit
-of the before-described skeleton. The next stratum is from three to
-four feet in thickness, and consisted of a brown alluvium of the
-_Eocene_ region, and was composed of vegetable matters of a tropical
-production. It contained all the remainder of the skeleton.” “Most of
-these vegetables were in a great state of preservation and consisted
-of a large quantity of cypress burs, wood and bark, tropical cane,
-ferns, palmetto leaves, several stumps of trees, and even the greater
-part of a flower of the strelitzia class, which when destroyed was not
-full blown. There was no sign or indication of any very large trees;
-the cypresses that were discovered being the largest that were growing
-here at the time. These various matters had been torn up by their roots
-and twisted and split into a thousand pieces apparently by lightning
-combined with a tremendous tempest or tornado; and all were involved
-in one common ruin. Several veins of iron pyrites ran through the
-stratum.” “The next over this formation was a layer of plastic clay
-of the _Eocene_ region, also with iron pyrites. It was three feet in
-thickness; over this a layer of conglomerate from nine to eighteen
-inches in thickness; over this a layer of marl of the Pliocene region,
-from three to four feet in thickness; next, a second conglomerate from
-nine to eighteen inches in thickness. This was succeeded by a layer of
-yellow clay of the Pliocene; over this a third layer of conglomerate
-from nine to eighteen inches in thickness, and at last the present
-surface, consisting of brownish clay mingled with a few pebbles, and
-covered with large oak, maple, and elm trees, which were, as near as I
-could ascertain, from eighty to one hundred years old. In the centre
-of the above-mentioned deposit was a large spring which appeared to
-rise from the very bowels of the earth, as it was never affected by the
-severest rain, nor did it become lower by the longest draught.”[126]
-The preceding accounts were presented to the St. Louis Academy of
-Sciences in a special paper several years later (1857).[127]
-
-Dr. Foster is inclined to believe that Dr. Koch was not mistaken
-in his claimed discovery, having arrived at that opinion by
-pointedly questioning him on the subject a short time before his
-(Koch’s) death.[128] Charles Rau is also of the opinion that he was
-truthful.[129] Mr. J. D. Dana, however, discusses the case as follows:
-“In the account of the second case above cited Dr. Koch says that
-the Missourium was embedded in a brown alluvium of the Eocene region
-resting on the ‘upper green sand;’ that next over it was plastic
-clay of the ‘Eocene region’ and beds of the ‘Pliocene region.’ He
-thus makes his Missourium to have come from the lower tertiary, and
-from a bed just above the green sand (cretaceous) when actually from
-quartenary beds; and he uses the terms Eocene and Pliocene, as if he
-had no familiarity with geological facts or language. The earlier
-pamphlet of 1840 avoids this bad geology, ‘the upper green sand,’ in
-that being called simply quicksand and the other beds merely beds of
-clay and conglomerate. All the pamphlets sustain the conclusion that
-Dr. Koch knew almost nothing of geology, and that what he gradually
-picked up from intercourse with geologists, he generally made much of
-but seldom was able to use rightly.”[130] The same critic says: “In
-zoological knowledge he was equally deficient,” and cites the fact of
-the discoverer recognizing the resemblance to the mastodon, still makes
-the animal an inhabitant of the watercourses like the hippopotamus;
-states that his food “consisted as much of vegetables as of flesh,
-although he undoubtedly consumed a great abundance of the latter,”
-and makes the marvelous revelation that he “_was capable of feeding
-himself with his fore-foot after the manner of the beaver or otter_.”
-Mr. Dana continues: “He says that one arrow-head lay ‘immediately under
-the femur or thigh-bone,’ and he further states in his later article
-of 1857, that ‘he carefully thought to investigate the point as to
-its having been brought thither after the deposit of the bone’ and
-decided against it. The observation and conclusion would have been more
-satisfactory had the author been a better observer.” “The descriptions
-of the deposits in Gasconade County containing the remains of an
-animal the principal part of which was consumed by fire is a still
-more unsatisfactory basis for a safe conclusion as to age. But in the
-article of 1857, he says that the layer of ashes, etc., ‘was covered
-by strata or alluvial deposits consisting of clay, sand and soil,
-from eight to nine feet thick, _forming the bottom of the Bourbeuse
-(River) in general_,’ which seems to make it almost certain that the
-beds were of quite recent origin.”[131] Mr. Dana considers Dr. Koch’s
-evidence as “_very doubtful_.”[132] Dr. Foster has figured a fossil
-which, for a better name, he has designated as a “stone hatchet,” from
-the modified drift of Jersey County, Illinois.[133] He is positive as
-to the position in which it was found, but has doubt as to its human
-origin. The probabilities are that its peculiar shape is due to its
-exposure to atmospheric agents. He remarks, however: “On the whole, I
-will not positively assert that this specimen is of human workmanship,
-but I affirm that if it had been recovered from a plowed field I should
-have unhesitatingly said it was an Indian hatchet.” In the _Proceedings
-of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences_ for July, 1859, Dr. Holmes
-describes the occurrence of fragments of pottery in close proximity
-with the bones of the mastodon and megatherium, on the Ashley River in
-South Carolina. The case, however, has not been considered authentic
-by scientific men. Dr. Holmes is possibly mistaken.[134] Col. Charles
-Whittlesey, in 1838, saw at Portsmouth, Ohio, on the Ohio River,
-remains of ancient fire-places situated eighteen to twenty feet above
-low water and about fifteen feet below the surface. He states, “at low
-water and thence up to a height of twelve or fifteen feet is a bed of
-sand and transported gravel, containing pebbles of quartz, granite,
-sandstone and limestone, derived partly from the adjacent Carboniferous
-and Devonian rocks and partly from the northern drift, the upper part
-much the coarsest. On this is a layer of blue quicksand from one to
-five feet thick, in which is a timber-bed including large numbers of
-the trunks, branches, stumps and leaves of trees, such as are now
-growing on the Ohio, principally birch, black-ash, oak and hickory.
-Over the dirt-bed is the usually loamy yellow clay of the valley,
-fifteen to thirty feet thick, on which are very extensive works of the
-Mound-builders. In and near the bottom of this undisturbed homogeneous
-river-loam I saw two places where fire had been built on a circular
-collection of small stones, a part of which were then embedded in the
-bank.”[135] Near these fire-places the writer of the above found the
-membranous covering of common river shells (the Unios). We think that
-no geologist familiar with the constant changes of the Ohio River bed,
-will consider that the conditions surrounding these ancient fire-places
-warrant us in assigning them a much greater antiquity than we attach
-to the Mound-builders’ works in the neighborhood. In 1846, Sir Charles
-Lyell, when at New Orleans, made an estimate of the time required to
-account for the immense annual deposit of the Mississippi River in the
-neighborhood of its delta. From a computation based on certain data,
-which assumed the area of the alluvial plain which is the result of
-those deposits, to equal 30,000 square miles, several hundred feet
-thick in some places, he estimated that probably 100,000 years would
-be requisite.[136] Subsequently, during the process of excavating for
-the New Orleans Gas Works, it was found necessary to cut through four
-buried cypress forests. At the depth of sixteen feet and on the fourth
-forest level, a human skeleton distinctly of the Indian type,[137] was
-found under the roots of a cypress tree, together with burnt wood. Dr.
-Dowler, dividing the history of the delta into, 1. The epoch of grasses
-or aquatic plants; 2. That of the cypress (_Taxodium distichum_)
-basins, and 3. That of the live-oak platform, tabulates the age of the
-strata overlying the skeleton as follows:
-
-  Epoch of aquatic plants                           1,500 years
-  Epoch of the cypress basin, in which he assumes
-      only two successive growths                  11,400   „
-  Epoch of live-oak platform                        1,500   „
-                                                   ——————
-            Total                                  14,400 years
-
-The basis for his estimate of the age of the cypress basins was the
-computed age of the trees of the fourth level, ten feet in diameter and
-probably reaching 5,700 years.[138] Sir Charles Lyell in a later work,
-though still adhering to his former estimate of the time required in
-which to form the delta, cannot accept Dr. Dowler’s great antiquity
-for the remains.[139] The question in hand of course involves the
-question of the antiquity of the deposit where the skeleton was found,
-which is well-nigh identical with the vexed question of the age of
-the delta. The very diversity of opinion on this subject precludes
-the possibility of its consideration here. We will content ourselves
-by citing two estimates in addition to those already given. Professor
-Edward Hitchcock calculated that the entire delta embraced a bulk
-of matter equal to 2,720 _cubic_ miles, for the deposit of which he
-thought 14,204 years necessary.[140] Humphries and Abbot think that
-both the area and thickness of the deposit have been overstated, and
-instead of 30,000 square miles for the former, they claim only 19,450.
-As to the latter, they estimate the thickness of the alluvial matter as
-but twenty-five feet on the river banks along the St. Francis swamp;
-thirty-five along the Yazoo swamp, and continuing of uniform thickness
-to Baton Rouge; while the artesian well at New Orleans showed it in
-that locality to reach a point forty feet below the level of the Gulf.
-These authors base their calculations as to the age of the deposits on
-the following ascertained facts: the total yearly contributions of the
-river equal a prism two hundred and sixty-eight feet in height, with a
-base of one mile square; two hundred and sixty-two feet is the supposed
-mean yearly advance of the river; the original mouth of the Mississippi
-was near the afflux of the Bayou Plaquemine, and has hence progressed
-two hundred and twenty miles since it began to empty its deposits into
-the Gulf. Supposing these data to be correct, they estimate that only
-four thousand four hundred years have elapsed since that period.[141]
-This would give the skeleton alluded to a comparatively recent origin.
-We are inclined to believe that the above estimate assigns a period for
-the formation of the delta as much too short as that of Sir Charles was
-too long. As to the antiquity of the skeleton, probably Dr. Foster’s
-solution of the question is as near correct as any that ever may be
-proposed: “Thus, then, with these carefully-observed computations
-before us, we are not prepared to accept the high antiquity assigned
-by Dr. Dowler to the human remains found beneath the surface at New
-Orleans. What he regards as four buried forests which once flourished
-on the spot, may be nothing more than driftwood brought down the river
-in former times which became embedded in the silts and sediments which
-were deposited on what was then the floor of the Gulf.”[142]
-
-If all the indications were verified, we should be justified in
-assigning man a much greater antiquity in the Rocky Mountain region
-and on the Pacific slope than in any other part of North America.
-Mr. E. L. Berthoud collected numerous stone implements in what he
-considers to be tertiary gravel on Crow Creek and in the region of
-the South Platte River, Lat. 40 N., Long. 104 W. Two shells secured
-in the same locality by him have been pronounced a _corbicula_ and a
-_rangia_ respectively, and are thought to belong to the older Pliocene
-or possibly to the Miocene.[143] The evidence in this case is, however,
-unsatisfactory, and cannot be admitted to be of scientific value
-without further authentication.
-
-In 1857 a portion of a human cranium was found associated with bones
-of the mastodon at the depth of one hundred and eighty feet below the
-surface in a mining shaft at Table Mountain, California. Dr. C. F.
-Winslow sent this fragment to the Boston Natural History Society, but
-no importance was attached to it, since no other evidence other than
-that furnished by workmen in the mine could be obtained. Subsequently,
-when an entire skull was reported to have been found in the gold drift
-near Angelos in Calaveras County, in a shaft one hundred and fifty
-feet deep, the intelligent portion of the community pronounced the
-finder guilty of a scientific fraud, and it is not yet a certainty
-that their decision was incorrect. However, Professor Whitney, of the
-State Geological Survey, upon hearing of the case examined the mine,
-and found that the shaft passed through five beds of lava and volcanic
-tufa and four beds of auriferous gravel. It was in one of these beds
-that the skull was said to have been found. Some of the cemented gravel
-was still adhering to the skull when it came into the Professor’s
-possession, and Professor Wyman, to whom it was submitted subsequently,
-refers to the difficulty which he had in removing the incrustation.
-Professor Whitney, on the testimony of the possessor of the skull,
-pronounced it an authentic “find,” and while his decision has been
-acquiesced in by a number of scientific gentlemen of repute, Professor
-Wyman among them, still the great majority, we believe, are unwilling
-to rest their faith on such slender evidence. Though no crack was
-apparent through which the skull might have fallen from the surface,
-such might have existed at an earlier period. In a region which is the
-product of volcanic action there is room for suspicion, especially in
-cases like both of these, where, as Sir Charles Lyell has said, no
-geologist was present at the moment of discovery to see the fossil
-_in situ_ and extricate it with his own hands from the matrix which
-contained it.
-
-President Edward Orton, of the Ohio State University, recently called
-our attention to the discovery of relics of human workmanship found
-many years ago near Waynesville, Ohio, at the depth of over twelve feet
-below the surface. Dr. Robert Furnas, a clergyman of the Society of
-Friends, courteously furnished us the following statement: “The relic
-was obtained about the year 1824. It was in the process of digging a
-well for my grandfather. My father, then twenty-one years of age, was
-performing the work of excavation, when at the depth of thirteen or
-fourteen feet he came to a dark mould about two feet deep, on the top
-of which was lying _a thimble and a piece of coarse cloth_ six inches
-wide and a yard long. The outer edge containing the fringe showing
-the end of the _chain_ or warp at the end of the fabric and point of
-fastening in weaving.” “The removal above after passing through the
-soil consisted of solid clay of a yellowish-brown color. The farm was
-purchased by my grandfather in 1803, and occupied by him to the time
-of his death in 1863. He was the pioneer of the place, having settled
-there in an unbroken forest. The location is on the top of the hill
-on the east side of the Little Miami River forty or fifty feet above
-the level of the stream. The cloth soon lost all traces of texture on
-coming in contact with the air. The thimble was in a pretty good state
-of preservation.”[144] Professor Orton, who has examined the locality
-and studied the case in hand, expressed the opinion to us that it was
-not only authentic, but (while not amounting to absolute proof) seemed
-to associate man’s works with a deposit which has furnished remains
-of the mastodon. The Professor considers the dark mould referred to
-as that upon which the relics were lying to be of an inter-glacial
-vegetable deposit peculiar to Southern Ohio, and once constituting
-an ancient surface of the land inhabited with animal life.[145] The
-cloth from its coarse character bears a resemblance to that of the
-mounds, while its length of just a yard is suggestive of more modern
-measurements.[146]
-
-Dr. C. C. Abbott has unquestionably discovered many palæolithic
-implements in the glacial drift in the valley of the Delaware River
-near Trenton, New Jersey. Among a number of rude implements from the
-undisturbed gravel of the region is a spear-head, found six feet from
-the surface, on the site of the Lutheran Church, Broad Street, Trenton,
-N. J. The circumstances surrounding it were such as to justify the
-conclusion that the weapon had not gotten into its position where found
-“subsequently to the deposition of the containing layer of pebbles.”
-Subsequent investigation has brought to light sixty well finished flint
-implements, all of them from what appears to be undisturbed drift.
-Some of the relics have as many as from twenty to forty planes of
-cleavage, all equally weathered. The specimens are not unlike their
-neolithic counterparts taken from the aboriginal graves and stone cists
-of Tennessee.[147] Dr. Abbott concludes that the gravel, boulders,
-and rude implements associated with them were deposited by ice-rafts
-on the descent of a glacier down the valley, and that man more rude
-and ancient than the red Indian dwelt at the foot of the glacier,
-being driven south by its advance and following it again to the north
-upon its return.[148] Professors Shaler and Pumpelly, however, while
-considering the deposit as of glacial origin, think it was subsequently
-modified by water-action. Dr. Abbott, with great fairness, admits that,
-“Inasmuch as such subsequent action may have occurred long after the
-final deposition of the gravel, as true glacial drift, the antiquity of
-the contained stone implements is proportionately lessened.” Professor
-Shaler, after a partial examination of the locality, remarks that “if
-these remains are really those of man, they prove the existence of
-inter-glacial man on this part of our shore.”[149] Dr. Abbott and Prof.
-Aug. R. Grote believe that the Eskimo is the surviving representative
-of paleolithic and glacial man in North America. The latter believes
-that man reached this continent during the Pliocene, and before the
-ice-period had interfered with a warm climate in the north.[150]
-Recently Dr. Abbott has said: “It may be that, as investigations are
-carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very
-great antiquity, as in showing how much more recent than usually
-supposed was the final disappearance of the glacier.”[151] On page
-30 we referred to mounds examined in the North-west, N. lat. 47°, W.
-long. 98° 38´, by General H. W. Thomas.[152] In these mounds crania
-indicating a very low type of intelligence were discovered—in form
-resembling skulls of the great Gibbon monkey.[153] From the standpoint
-of the development theory (and by this we do not mean evolution, but
-that progression which takes place when a savage advances from his
-low state toward civilization), the evidences are abundant that man
-is older by far on the Western side of the continent and perhaps in
-the North-west, than elsewhere in the new world. Though this discovery
-by General Thomas does not reach back in antiquity to geologic times,
-still it cannot be denied that a considerable period must have elapsed
-before low-type crania of the North-west could have developed into the
-crania of the Ohio Valley Mounds. Professor James Orton, in commenting
-on the investigations of Wilson on the coast of Equador, refers to the
-discovery of gold, copper and stone vestiges of a former population
-in the system of terraces traced from the coast through the province
-of Esmeraldas to Quito. He remarks: “In all cases these relics are
-situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which
-he (Wilson) infers that this part of the country formerly stood higher
-above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the antiquity of these
-remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast is exceedingly
-slow.”[154] The antiquity of man in Europe is an established fact, but
-how remote is a question which science as yet fails to answer. When
-geologic research opens up Central Asia, no doubt man will be found to
-have existed there a long period anterior to his advent in Europe. But
-for the decadence of Arabic glory and learning we should now probably
-be in possession of a fund of information concerning that region as
-well as of man’s early history. Were the discovery of the human skull
-in the gold drift of California an authentic case, we should have
-strong reasons for supposing a remote intercourse existed between Asia
-and the Pacific coast. It is quite certain the crania of the North-west
-Mounds, as compared with those of the Mississippi region, clearly point
-to that fact. We have seen that as yet no truly scientific proof of
-man’s great antiquity in America exists. This conclusion is concurred
-in by most eminent authorities.[155] At present we are probably
-not warranted in claiming for him a much longer residence on this
-continent than that assigned him by Sir John Lubbock, namely, 3,000
-years. Future research may develop the fact that man is as old here
-as in Europe, and that he was contemporaneous with the Mastodon. As
-the case stands in the present state of knowledge, it furnishes strong
-presumptive evidence that man is not autochthonic here, but exotic,
-having originated in the old world, perhaps thousands of years prior to
-reaching the new.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER III.
-
-         DIVERSITY OF OPINION AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT
-                              AMERICANS.
-
-  Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism — Antipodes — Arabic Learning
-      in the 8th Century — Spirit of Early Writers on America —
-      Common Opinion as to the Origin of the Americans — Father Duran
-      — Lost Tribes of Israel — Garcia — Lascarbot — Villagutierre
-      — Torquemada — Pineda, etc. — Abbé Domenech — Modern Views —
-      Pre-Columbian Colonization — Plato’s Atlantis — Kingsborough
-      — The Book of Mormon — Phœnicians — George Jones — Greek
-      and Egyptian Theories — The Tartars — Japanese and Chinese
-      Theories — Fusang — The Mongol Theory — Traces of Buddhism —
-      White-Man’s Land — The Northmen — The Welsh Claim.
-
-
-Various perplexing problems presented themselves to the minds of
-the discoverers of the new continent for solution, as well as to
-their immediate successors, which were greatly intensified by the
-dogmatic teaching of the times. The status of science in the Middle
-Ages was defined from time to time by some ecclesiastical utterance
-without any reference to the phenomena of nature or the revelations
-of accidental discovery. We say accidental, for no designed or
-systematic investigation was so much as tolerated, much less encouraged
-by friendly recognition. This unfortunate antagonism to progress
-had its foundation chiefly in ignorance, and its origin in the
-misinterpretation and perversion of Sacred Scripture.
-
-Two questions, especially in view of the dogmatic utterances of the
-day, presented grave difficulties to the minds of the discoverers and
-their successors in the New World. “Is the world a sphere?” “Are the
-Inhabitants of the Indias of a common origin with the rest of mankind?”
-These were the most serious problems that forced themselves upon
-their consideration. As long ago as 280 B. C., the investigations of
-Aristarchus of Samos, though not accepted by antiquity, suggested an
-affirmative answer to the first question. But the Fathers of the Church
-had spoken authoritatively on this subject at quite an early day, and
-consequently left no room for speculation. St. Augustine discusses the
-question as follows: “But as to the fable that there are antipodes,
-that is to say, men on the opposite side of the earth, where the sun
-rises when it sets to us, men who walk with their feet opposite ours,
-that is on no ground credible. And, indeed, it is not affirmed that
-this has been learned by historical knowledge, but by scientific
-conjecture, on the ground that the earth is suspended within the cavity
-of the sky, and that it has as much room on the one side of it as on
-the other; hence they say that the part which is beneath us must also
-be inhabited. But they do not remark that although it be supposed or
-scientifically demonstrated that the world is of a round and spherical
-form, yet it does not follow that the other side of the earth is bare
-of water; or even though it be bare, does it immediately follow that
-it is peopled. For Scripture, which proves the truth of its historical
-statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, gives no false
-information; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have taken
-ship and traversed the whole wide ocean, and crossed from this world to
-the other, and that thus even the inhabitants of that distant region
-are descended from that one first man.”[156]
-
-Though, during the kalifate of Al-Mamoun (A. D. 813–833) Arabic
-learning had well-nigh demonstrated the globular form of the earth
-and determined its circumference, according to their measurements,
-to be about 24,000 miles, still not a man in Christendom ventured
-to advocate the theory for almost half a dozen centuries, such was
-the power of the ban put upon investigation which ran counter to the
-pre-expressed opinions of a dark age. The theories of Tascanelli and
-the observations of Columbus on the polar star prepared the way for the
-great triumph achieved by De Gama in 1497–8, in his voyage around the
-Cape of Good Hope; and the question of the globular form of the earth
-was forever set at rest twenty-two years afterwards by the voyage of
-Magellan.[157] When it was definitely determined that America was a
-continent of itself and not the eastern extremity of India, the fact
-that it was inhabited gave rise to speculations which have since been
-often repeated. Through an unaccountable misapprehension, not only
-the questions of the origin of the Americans, but the manner of their
-separation from the rest of the race, together with the routes they
-pursued in reaching the new world—all were thought to be capable of
-solution by the light of Scripture. The education of the early writers
-enables us to account for the intolerance with which they looked upon
-any other solution of the problem than that which alone would conform
-to the teachings of the church.[158]
-
-It is true that the natural nobility of character possessed by such
-writers as Las Casas, Duran and a few others, tempered the fanaticism
-which had been inculcated by education, and enabled them to furnish
-invaluable information concerning the real condition and traditions
-of the so-called Indians. But, upon the other hand, there were great
-numbers of blind, unscrupulous ecclesiastics who either destroyed
-outright the manuscripts and picture-writing of the natives, committing
-them to the flames, or so warping tradition in order that it might
-conform to their mistaken theology, that in many cases the most
-precious information is irretrievably lost. Such men could hardly be
-expected to have treated calmly and with any degree of liberality
-the question before us—one which has so often been asked, but as yet
-never satisfactorily answered, and one which in the present state of
-knowledge cannot be.[159]
-
-The unanimity with which the most celebrated writers on the Americans
-during three centuries following the discovery, fixed upon a solution
-of the problem, will be best illustrated in the following pages: One
-of the most ingenious and at the same time most calmly expressed
-opinions on the origin problem is that recorded by Father Duran, a
-native of Tezcuco in Mexico, in his _History of New Spain_, written in
-the year 1585.[160] He was convinced that the natives had a foreign
-origin, and that they performed a long journey of many years duration
-in their migration to the new world. He arrived at these conclusions
-on account of several considerations, some of which are as follows:
-The natives had no definite knowledge of their origin, some claiming
-to have proceeded from fountains and springs of water, others that
-they were natives of certain caves, and others that they were created
-by the gods, while all admit that they had come from other lands.
-Furthermore, they preserved in their traditions and pictures the memory
-of a journey in which they had suffered hunger, thirst, nakedness and
-all manner of afflictions, “with which,” he adds, “my opinion and
-supposition is confirmed that these natives are of the ten tribes of
-Israel that Salmanasar, king of the Assyrians, made prisoners and
-carried to Assyria in the time of Hoshea, king of Israel, and in the
-time of Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem, as can be seen in the fourth
-Book of the Kings, seventeenth chapter, where it says that Israel
-was carried away from their land to Assyria, etc., from whence, says
-Esdras, in Book Fourth, chapter third, they went to live in a land,
-remote and separated, which had never been inhabited, to which they
-had a long and tedious journey of a year and a half, for which reason
-it is supposed these people are found in all the islands and lands of
-the ocean constituting the Occident.”[161] The preceding opinion was
-concurred in by many Spanish writers; but the first English writer
-to support the theory was Thorowgood, in his work entitled, _Jewes in
-America_.[162] L’Estrange, who replied to this work, controverted the
-theory of the lost tribes of Israel, but concluded that Shem was the
-progenitor of the Americans; that he was ninety-eight years old at the
-time of the flood, and was not present at the building of Babel.[163]
-“Thus far,” he quaintly remarks, “have I offered my week conceptions,
-first, how America may be collected to have bin first planted, not
-denying the Jewes leave to goe into America, but not admitting them
-to be the chief or prime planters thereof, for I am of opinion, that
-the Americans originated before the captivity of the ten tribes, even
-from Shem’s near progeny.”[164] Garcia presents an argument in favor
-of the same theory, based upon the presence of Scripture names in Peru
-and Yucatan. He is positive that the word Peru has the same meaning
-as Ophir, the name of the grandson of Heber, from whom the Hebrews
-derive their name. In Yucatan he also finds the name Ioctan, identical
-with that of Ophir’s father.[165] However, with a determination not
-to be surpassed by any other theorist who might assume the unity
-of the race as the basis of his conjectures, he offers a plan for
-populating the new world so comprehensive that no room was left for
-originality in any who might follow him in the same field. Hispaniola,
-Cuba and neighboring isles, he believed to have been peopled by the
-Carthaginians. The natives of other parts proceeded from the ten
-lost tribes; others from the people whom Ophir commanded to colonize
-Peru; others from the people living in the isle Atlantis; others from
-regions adjoining that island, and by means of it passed to America;
-others from the Greeks; others from the Phœnicians, and still others
-from the Chinese and Tartars.[166] Lescarbot cites five opinions on
-the subject, all based more or less on scriptural authority, and adds
-his own that the Americans were the descendants of Noah. He thinks it
-not impossible for voyagers to have reached the western continent when
-Solomon’s ships were sent on voyages of three years’ duration.[167]
-Herrera, with characteristic soberness, states that because of the lack
-of knowledge concerning the proximity of the continents at the “ends of
-the earth” he is unable to say positively from whom the natives were
-descended, but it seems most reasonable to him to suppose that they are
-the descendants of men who passed to the West Indies by the proximity
-of the land.[168] Villagutierre reiterates the same opinion, believing
-that Noah’s descendants were able to reach the new world either by land
-in some unknown quarter, or by swimming, or by embarking in canoes
-and balsas, for short distances. He supposes that animals reached the
-new continent in the first two ways.[169] Torquemada, after a long
-discussion of the subject, falls in with this view, adding, however,
-the opinion that, because of their color, they in all probability
-were descended from the sons and grandsons of Ham.[170] Pineda adopts
-substantially the preceding opinion, but improves upon it somewhat by
-pointing out the particular branch of the family of Ham, to which we
-may trace the origin of the first Americans. For some reason, perhaps
-no more apparent to himself than us, he designates Naphtuhim, son of
-Mezraim and grandson of Ham, as their progenitor. He thinks that the
-colonization was accomplished soon after the confusion of tongues, and
-may have been effected in any of the numerous ways we have previously
-mentioned. He cites the tradition of Votan as a proof.[171] Siguenza
-y Gongora and Sister Agnes de la Cruz, according to Clavigero, were
-the authors of this opinion, who further designated Egypt as the
-starting-point for that important expedition of colonists.[172]
-
-Echevarria y Veitia treats the subject fully, tracing it through the
-traditions of the people. He cites their creation and flood myths,
-their account of the building of the Tower of Babel and the confusion
-of tongues, their dispersion upon the face of the earth, and the
-passage of seven families to the new world (to _Hue hue Tlappalan_)
-by means of balsas, with which they crossed rivers and arms of the
-sea which they encountered in their journey. Though minute in his
-details, he does nothing more in this respect than other important
-writers to whom we shall refer in a further chapter, except that his
-computations by means of the Mexican calendar have enabled him to
-assign dates to some of these occurrences, which, though they probably
-are not accurate, are at least interesting. His study of the Mexican
-paintings convinces him that the natives had a foreign origin.[173]
-The same author in a part of his work refers to the giants as the
-first inhabitants of the country, but fails to state whether they came
-from the old world or not.[174] Ulloa thinks Noah’s long and aimless
-voyage in the ark was not without fruit to the science of navigation.
-It gave confidence to his immediate descendants, who no doubt were
-enterprising enough to construct similar vessels and undertake voyages
-in them. These, falling in with adverse winds and treacherous currents,
-were driven to strange islands and even to the new world, and being
-unable to return, became the first colonists in these remote regions.
-He thinks the custom of eating raw fish, common to the American
-tribes, was acquired during long sea voyages.[175] The Abbé Domenech’s
-opinion has been cited by Mr. Bancroft in his summary of the views of
-this class of writers; we presume, however, only for the amusement of
-the reader.[176] The Abbé, less than a score of years ago, committed
-himself to the ludicrous and antiquated theory that Ophir had colonized
-Peru.[177] Clavigero considers the creation, flood, and Babel myths
-of the natives sufficient evidence of unity of origin. He, however,
-believes that the migration to this continent began at a very early
-period.[178]
-
-These few writers pretty well represent the opinions of their numerous
-contemporaries who, though they wrote voluminously enough on this
-subject, added nothing to what we have noted. The opinions of modern
-writers are as diverse as those of Garcia, and only surpass him in the
-ingenuity with which they press their favorite theories. Very little
-has been done in this field with a true scientific spirit. Each has
-been an advocate rather than an inquirer; has had his theory to prove
-sometimes at the expense of reason and fact, and it is remarkable that
-the majority of works written by such advocates have presented the
-familiar anomaly of more learning than of probability. It is scarcely
-the province of this work to discuss these well-known productions of
-imaginative and too often credulous writers. To more than refer to them
-would be to lose sight for the time of the object before us.
-
-The claims for the Pre-Columbian colonization of this continent of
-course include most of those already mentioned, and properly are
-of two classes: First, those which fix the period of colonization
-remote enough to account for the old civilization or some phases of
-it. Second, those which avowedly are too recent to have accomplished
-that civilization. Of the first-named class there are about a dozen
-thoroughly elaborated claims, while of the second there are less
-than half that number. Mr. Warden years ago treated them all in a
-manner and with a fullness which has not been excelled by any more
-recent writer.[179] Though it is due to Mr. Bancroft to say that
-never before has the subject been so exhaustively handled in our own
-language as by him.[180] As nothing new has been developed in this
-field of speculation since Mr. Bancroft, and we might add since Mr.
-Warden treated it, and as nothing could be contributed either to
-the sciences of ethnology or archæology by a repetition of the old
-discussion here, for we have our doubts whether any of the claims can
-ever be substantiated at all, we will content ourselves with the simple
-enumeration of the theories. A theory which rivals in antiquity, if
-Egyptian chronology is reliable, the claims of the Fathers that the
-immediate descendants of Noah peopled the new world shortly after the
-deluge, is that which seeks to establish the truth of the tradition
-told to Solon by the Egyptian priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis
-and Sais concerning the ancient island Atlantis. Critias, whose
-grandfather had heard the tradition from Solon, communicated it to
-Socrates. Plato first committed it to writing, and states that the
-events which it described occurred nine thousand Egyptian years before
-Solon heard it. After speaking of the “Atlantic Sea,” the priest adds
-“that sea was indeed navigable, and had an island fronting that mouth
-which you call the Pillars of Hercules; and this island was larger
-than Libya and Asia put together, and there was a passage hence for
-travellers of that day to the rest of the islands, as well as from
-those islands to the whole opposite continent that surrounds the real
-sea. For as respects what is within the mouth here mentioned, it
-appears to be a bay with a kind of narrow entrance, and that sea is
-indeed a true sea, and the land that entirely surrounds it may truly
-and most correctly be called a continent.” The priest concludes his
-account with the statement that an earthquake in a single night buried
-the entire island and its inhabitants. This mysterious island has been
-sought for in every quarter of the globe; but the fact that part of
-the description seems applicable to the West Indies and the Gulf of
-Mexico, has led theorists to place its submerged shores between that
-locality and the Cape Verde or Canary groups. It is claimed that this
-imaginary land bridge, this backbone of earth and rock, may have once
-been the connecting link between the two continents. The claim has had
-many champions, but none so celebrated as the lamented Abbé Brasseur
-de Bourbourg. The labors of this learned Américaniste are too well
-known to require comment.[181] The Codex Chimalpopoca, a Nahua MS. of
-anonymous authorship, which served the Abbé as the chief authority
-for the Toltec Period of his _Histoire des Nations Civilisées_, is the
-basis upon which he rests the advocacy of his “Atlantic Theory.” This
-singular Codex, which appears to the eyes of the uninitiated to be
-only “A History of the Kingdoms of Culhuacan and Mexico,” he considers
-susceptible of an allegorical interpretation, in which he reads the
-history and fate of that first of the continents, on whose soil
-originated all civilization and whose inhabitants were the genii of the
-arts, the origin of which are without even a tradition.[182]
-
-The popularity of the Jewish theory at an early date has been indicated
-by our citations from some of the Spanish missionaries. Garcia, after
-a seven years residence in Peru, wrote his work for the purpose of
-proving conclusively that the Jews had been the chief colonists of
-the continent at an early date. He elaborated the argument set forth
-by Father Duran,[183] which is founded on passages in Esdras, but
-proceeded to prop up this theory with a catalogue of analogies between
-the Jews and Americans, some of which are so remote from each other
-that the very attempt to assimilate them is simply puerile. Garcia
-has had many disciples, some of whom have been no more critical than
-himself.[184] The illustrious advocate of the Jewish colonization of
-America was that indefatigable antiquary, Lord Kingsborough. No more
-masterly, no abler and more exhaustive defence was ever made in behalf
-of a hopeless and even baseless claim than his; and as the result, the
-historian and antiquary has placed at his disposal fac-simile prints
-of most of the important hieroglyphic MSS. of Mexican authorship
-deposited in the various libraries of Europe, as well as pictures
-of the architecture and stone records common to ancient America.
-We must confess that the work itself, with its curious plates, its
-maze of notes and references, its masterly and novel discoveries of
-analogies, though many of them are imaginary, is to us, after prolonged
-examination, as much of a riddle as the great and improbable theory
-which it seeks to establish.[185] Closely allied to the theory of the
-ten lost tribes, is the claim set forth in that pretentious fraud, the
-Book of Mormon, which attributes the colonization of North America,
-soon after the confusion of tongues, to a people called Jaredites, who,
-by divine guidance, reached our shores in eight vessels, and developed
-a high state of civilization on our soil. These first colonists,
-however, became extinct about six centuries B.C., because of their
-social sins. The Jaredites were followed by a second colony, this time
-of Israelites, who left Jerusalem in the first year of the reign of
-Zedekiah, King of Juda. They reached the Indian Ocean by following the
-shores of the Red Sea, where they built a vessel which bore them across
-the Pacific to the western coast of South America. Having arrived
-in the new land of promise, they separated into two parties, called
-Nephites and Laminites respectively, after their leaders. They grew to
-be great nations and colonized North America also. Religious strife
-sprang up between the two nations because of the wickedness of the
-Laminites; the Nephites, however, adhered to their religious traditions
-and the worship of the true God. Christ appeared in the new world
-and by his ministrations converted many of both peoples to Him. But
-towards the close of the fourth century of our era, both Laminites and
-Nephites backslid in faith and became involved in a war with each other
-which resulted in the extermination of the latter people. The numerous
-tumuli scattered over the face of the country cover the remains of the
-hundreds of thousands of warriors who fell in their deadly strife.
-Mormon and his son Morani, the last of the Nephites who escaped by
-concealment, deposited by divine command the annals of their ancestors,
-the Book of Mormon written on tablets, in the hill of Cumorah, Ontario
-County, New York, in the vicinity of which the last battle of these
-relentless enemies took place.[186] The claim, of course, merits
-mention only on the ground of its romantic character, and not on
-the supposition for a moment that it contains a grain of truth. The
-Phœnician and Carthaginian colonization of this continent has been much
-discussed and credited by a larger number of Americanists than any
-other theory, except that which refers the original population to those
-parts of Asia adjacent to Alaska. This claim is based on the maritime
-achievements of that nation of navigators. The three-year voyages of
-Hiram and Solomon’s fleet to Ophir and Tarshish, has often been made to
-do service for this theory. Ophir has most frequently been placed by
-its advocates in Hayti or Peru.[187] Such speculations, however, are
-incapable of proof, and are scarcely deserving of sober consideration.
-The theory itself is one of the few that command respectful attention,
-since tradition, history, and many facts in natural science, seem to
-point to its probability.[188] Mr. Bancroft refers at some length to
-the voyage of Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, whose exploits beyond
-the pillars of Hercules, with a fleet of sixty ships and thirty
-thousand men, is recorded in his _Periplus_.[189] With true critical
-insight, Mr. Bancroft rejects the opinion that Hanno reached America,
-and thinks he only coasted along the shores of Africa.[190] The only
-tradition preserved by the Americans is that of the mysterious Votan,
-whom some have sought to assign to a Phœnician nativity.[191] Of late
-years the theory of the Phœnician colonization has failed to receive
-its share of support from new writers. This is owing probably to the
-fact that the labors of Mr. George Jones, embodied in his _Original
-History of Ancient America Founded on the Ruins of Antiquity; the
-Identity of the Aborigines with the People of Tyrus and Israel, and the
-Introduction of Christianity by the Apostle St. Thomas_,[192] may have
-rendered all such support unnecessary. It is more probable, however,
-that the assumption and credulity displayed in this extraordinary
-work have discouraged any critical writer from aspiring to the honor
-of having his name transmitted to posterity as an advocate of the
-Phœnician theory, side by side with that of the author of the Original
-History. We have no space to devote to so positive a writer, except
-to state that he colonizes America with a remnant of the inhabitants
-of Tyre who escaped from their island-city when it was besieged by
-Alexander the Great in 332 B. C. They sailed out beyond the Pillars of
-Hercules to their colonies in the Canaries, whence the trade-winds bore
-them across the Atlantic to the shores of Florida. Ezekiel xxvii. 26,
-is quoted as proof: “Thy rowers have brought thee into great waters;
-the east wind hath broken thee in the midst of the seas.”[193] The
-theory that the ancient Americans descended from the Greeks has been
-incidentally advocated by several authors, most of the arguments being
-based upon supposed Greek inscriptions. Two advocates of the theory
-are, however, quite decided in its defence, namely, Mr. Pidegeon[194]
-and Mr. Lafitau.[195] The latter believing that the ancient
-inhabitants of the Grecian archipelago were driven from their country
-by Og, king of Bashan, supposes the inhabitants of the new world
-descended from that people, and cites numerous analogies of a political
-and social nature.[196] No claim has been advanced, we believe, which
-advocates an actual Egyptian colonization of the new world, but strong
-arguments have been used to show that the architecture and sculpture
-of Central America and Mexico have been influenced from Egypt, if
-not attributable directly to Egyptian artisans. These arguments are
-based on the resemblance between the gigantic pyramids, the sculptured
-obelisks, and the numerous idols of these pre-historic countries and
-those of Egypt. It requires no practised eye to trace a resemblance in
-general features, though it must be said that the details of American
-architecture and sculpture, are peculiarly original in design.[197]
-The principal advocate of the theory, Delafield, has furnished many
-comparisons, but we think no argument has been presented sufficiently
-supported by facts to prove that American architecture and sculpture
-had any other than an indigenous origin.[198] Turning westward our
-attention is arrested by the probability of the theory which claims
-that this continent was peopled with the Tartars and nations occupying
-the regions of North-western Asia. No one can consider the natural
-certainty of long-continued communication between the two continents
-at Behring’s Straits without being impressed with the truth that that
-narrow channel served probably as the first highway between the old
-world and the new, and _vice versa_. Certainly a part of the ancient
-population of America came upon our soil at that quarter. Mr. Bancroft
-remarks: “The customs, manner of life, and physical appearance of the
-natives on both sides of the straits are identical, as a multitude
-of witnesses testify, and it seems absurd to argue the question from
-any point. Of course, Behring’s Strait may have served to admit other
-nations besides the people inhabiting its shores into America, and
-in such cases there is more room for discussion.”[199] Nearly as
-plausible is the theory which claims that if the original population
-of this continent were not Japanese, at least a considerable infusion
-of Japanese blood into the original stock has taken place from time to
-time, either by intentional colonization or by the accidents incident
-to navigation. The great number of shipwrecks which are continually
-being cast upon our Pacific coast by the Japanese current or Kuro-suvo
-are constant and substantial witnesses to the reasonableness of the
-claim.[200]
-
-The Chinese colonization theory, unfortunately, does not date far
-enough back to account for the oldest American civilization. It is
-nevertheless remote enough, were it proven true, to considerably
-antedate the Aztec and Inca periods. Upwards of a century ago the
-learned French sinologist Deguignes announced that he had found in the
-writings of early Chinese historians the statement that in the fifth
-century of our era certain adventurers of their race had discovered
-a country which they called Fusang.[201] He further expressed it as
-his opinion that the country described must be Western America, and
-probably Mexico. The original document on which the Chinese historians
-base their statements was the report of a Buddhist missionary named
-Hoei-Shin, who in the year 499 A. D., claims to have returned from a
-long journey of discovery to the remote and unknown east. This report,
-whatever may be its intrinsic value, was accepted as true by the
-Chinese, and found its way into the history of Li yan tcheon—written
-at the beginning of the seventh century of our era. In 1841, Dr.
-Neumann, Professor of Oriental Languages and History at Munich, after
-a residence of a couple of years at Canton, published a translation of
-the narrative of Hoei-Shin with comments upon it.[202] A few of the
-most striking passages of the account given by this Buddhist missionary
-are as follows: “Fusang is about 20,000 Chinese _li_ in an easterly
-direction from Tahan and east of the Middle Kingdom.[203] Many Fusang
-trees grow there whose leaves resemble the _Dryanda cordifolia_; the
-sprouts, on the contrary, resemble those of the bamboo tree, and are
-eaten by the inhabitants of the land. The fruit is like a pear in form,
-but is red. From the bark they prepare a sort of linen which they use
-for clothing, and also a sort of ornamental stuff. The houses are
-built of wooden beams; fortified and walled places are there unknown.
-They have written characters in this land, and prepare paper from the
-bark of the Fusang. The people have no weapons and make no wars, but
-in the arrangement of the kingdom, they have a northern and southern
-prison. Trifling offenders are lodged in the southern prison, but
-those confined for greater offences in the northern. The name of the
-king is pronounced Ichi. The color of his clothes changes with the
-different years. The horns of the oxen are so large that they hold
-ten bushels. They use them to contain all manner of things. Horses,
-oxen, and stags are harnessed to their wagons. Stags are used here as
-cattle are used in the Middle Kingdom, and from the milk of the hind
-they make butter. No iron is found in the land; but copper, gold,
-and silver are not prized, and do not serve as a medium of exchange
-in the market. Marriage is determined upon in the following manner:
-the suitor builds himself a hut before the door of the house where
-the one longed for dwells, and waters and cleans the ground every
-evening. When a year has passed by, if the maiden is not inclined
-to marry him he departs; should she be willing it is completed. In
-earlier times these people lived not according to the laws of Buddha,
-but it happened that in the second year—named ‘Great Light’ of Song
-(A. D. 458)—five beggar-monks from the kingdom of Kipin went to this
-land, extended over it the religion of Buddha, and with it his early
-writings and images. They instructed the people in the principles of
-monastic life, and so changed their manners.”[204] Dr. Neumann does
-not claim that the Chinese Fusang tree is identical with the Maguay
-plant, but that the resemblance between it and the great numbers of
-the latter found in Mexico suggested a name for the country to the
-discoverer. The uncertainty as to the distance, arising out of our
-inability to determine what was considered the length of a Chinese _li_
-in the fifth century, is of course an obstacle to the satisfactory
-solution of the question. The amusing and preposterous statement as
-to the size of the horns of oxen is no argument against the general
-truth of the narrative, since we have no data from which to determine
-the capacity of the measure, the name of which is here translated
-bushel, since the widest possible difference exists between the
-ancient and modern Chinese tables of measurement. The references to
-horses and oxen are perplexing, and give the narrative the air either
-of imposture or mistake, since both were brought to America first by
-the Spaniards.[205] The argument by the opponents of this theory that
-Fusang was Japan stands on a very slender foundation, since at a very
-early period, centuries before our era, Japan afforded naval stations
-for Chinese ships.[206] Klaproth, and later Dr. E. Bretschneider,
-designated the island of Tarakai, known as Saghalien on our maps, as
-the Fusang of Hoei-Schin.[207] M. D’Eichthal and Professor Neumann
-have both made able arguments in defence of the authenticity and
-reasonableness of this claim, but there are too many uncertainties
-about it to admit of its unqualified acceptance. We are more disposed
-to give credence to the theory that the Chinese discovered America at
-a very early day, than to attach much importance to the particular
-account of that discovery by Hoei-Shin. The theory is a good one,
-with an abundance of geographical and ethnological testimony in its
-favor.[208]
-
-Closely allied to the Chinese theory is that so enthusiastically
-advocated by Ranking, who maintains that the Mongol emperor Kublai
-Khan, in the thirteenth century sent a large fleet against Japan, but
-that the vast armada was destroyed by a tempest, and a portion of
-its ships were wrecked on the shores of Peru.[209] The first Inca he
-believes was the son of Kublai Khan. It is a well-known fact that the
-Mongol fleet was dispersed by a storm, but there are grave objections
-to the opinion that any of the vessels were cast upon the shores of
-South America. No tradition was found among the Peruvians only three
-centuries later concerning the Incas or any other people having reached
-their shores by the accident of shipwreck, or who could be identified
-as of Asiatic origin. It is true the Incas may have designed to keep
-their human origin as well as their misfortunes a secret, that they
-might the better set up their claim to imperial and divine honors among
-the people whom they sought to subjugate by that most powerful ally to
-ambition—superstition. Mr. Ranking wrote a very plausible book, but
-often fell into errors of credulity and unrestrained enthusiasm which
-leaves many of his statements open to suspicion. The theory cannot be
-accepted without additional and more satisfactory proof.[210] Should
-it prove to be true, it certainly cannot throw light upon the origin of
-the population, but only on a phase of civilization. Humboldt, Tschudi,
-Viollet-le-Duc, Count Stolberg and other writers have pointed out
-striking analogies between the religion of Southern Asia, especially
-of India and that of Mexico.[211] If the argument from analogy is to
-be relied on, there is abundant reason to believe that Buddhism in a
-modified form had permeated the religious systems of the new world with
-its mystic element besides grafting upon them some of its better and
-more humane institutions.
-
-These are all the colonization claims worth mentioning, which date back
-far enough to account for the ancient civilization. Of the second class
-(those too recent to have made much impression on the existing state of
-things) there are three. The earliest of these as to date, is the claim
-which credits the Irish with the colonization of the Atlantic coast
-from North Carolina to Florida. “White-Man’s Land,” so often located
-in this country, is no doubt imaginary. The obscure and unsatisfactory
-chronicle which forms the basis of this claim destroys its own
-authority by the statement that White-Man’s Land was six days’ sail
-from Ireland.[212] Another legend set forth by Broughton, which claims
-that St. Patrick preached the Gospel in the “Isles of America,” carries
-its own refutation upon its face by the use of the word America in
-its text.[213] The Scandinavian discovery of America is a well-known
-fact, and requires no discussion here. The _Codex Flatioiensis_, as
-expounded by the learned Prof. Rafn in the _Antiquitates Americanæ_,
-has, no doubt, set at rest the whole matter. Humboldt, in reviewing
-the evidence upon which the claim is founded, sums it up in these
-words: “The discovery of the northern part of America by the Northmen
-cannot be disputed. The length of the voyage, the direction in which
-they sailed, the time of the sun’s rising and setting, are accurately
-given. While the caliphate of Bagdad was still flourishing under the
-Abbassides, and while the rule of the Samanides, so favorable to
-poetry, still flourished in Persia, America was discovered about the
-year 1000 by Lief, son of Eric the Red, at about 41½° north latitude.”
-No evidence of a substantial character has been produced to show that
-the Scandinavians left any impress upon the American civilization. It
-is true, Brasseur de Bourbourg, when he first began his labors in the
-field of American archæology expressed such an opinion, but we believe
-he never repeated it in the latter years of his life.[214] The learned
-Abbé was guilty of many contradictions, and this may be considered
-one of them. The most positive claims in this direction are advanced
-by two recent authors, M. Gravier[215] and Prof. Anderson,[216] the
-former attributing the Aztec civilization to Norse influence. He cites
-the discovery in Brazil of an ancient city near Bahia, in which was
-found the statue of a man pointing with his forefinger to the North
-Pole; of course, according to M. Gravier, he was a Northman.[217]
-Several authorities for the discovery of Norse remains in the United
-States might be cited, but the unwarrantable arguments of most of them
-add nothing to the already established fact of Norse colonization
-in the tenth century of our era. Another Pre-Columbian claim to the
-discovery of America is that which declares Madoc-Ap-owen and his Welsh
-countrymen to have reached this continent in 1170 A. D. The chronicle
-on which the claim is based, is wanting in authority. A translation
-of it, taken from a history of Wales by Dr. Powell, was published by
-Hakluyt, in 1589. As this claim can have no relation to our subject,
-we refrain from a discussion of it here.[218] The only remaining
-theory, and probably the most important of all, because of its purely
-scientific character, which presents itself for our consideration, is
-that which not only considers the civilization of ancient America to
-have been indigenous, but also claims the inhabitants themselves to
-have been autochthonic; in a word, that by process of evolution or
-in some other way, the first Americans were either developed from a
-lower order in the animal kingdom or were created on the soil of this
-continent. As the latter theory involves a denial of the unity of the
-race, it requires a separate and critical examination.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IV.
-
-            THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICANS AS VIEWED FROM THE
-                        STANDPOINT OF SCIENCE.
-
-
-  Origin Theories — Indigenous Origin — Separate Creation Theory —
-      Dr. Morton’s Theory — Agassiz’s Views — Dr. Morton’s Cranial
-      Measurements Classified — Prof. Wilson’s Measurements —
-      Dr. Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity Groundless — Ethnic
-      Relationships — Typical Mound-skull — Crania from the River
-      Rouge — Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements — Crania from Kentucky
-      — Researches in Tennessee by Prof. Jones — Measurements —
-      Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania from Tennessee Mounds —
-      Low Type Crania from the Mounds — Development Observable in
-      Mound Crania — Head-Flattening Derived from Asia — Diseases
-      of the Mound-builders — Physiognomy of the Ancient Americans
-      — Languages — Evolution and its Bearing on the Origin of the
-      American — Darwin and Hæckel on the Indigenous American — The
-      Autochthonic Hypothesis Groundless — Unity of the Human Family
-      — Accepted Chronology Faulty.
-
-
-The want of evidence for the theories which designate particular
-nations as the first colonizers of the Western Continent, long ago
-produced a feeling of distrust, which led some to repudiate all claims
-for the foreign origin of the first inhabitants of this continent. This
-theory, which claims for the most ancient inhabitants an autochthonic
-origin, has had from time to time among its advocates some of the
-most respectable ethnologists. The character of their attainments,
-and in many cases their arguments in behalf of this most remarkable
-hypothesis, command the respect of all who are interested in this
-fascinating field of speculation.
-
-At first it was maintained that the Creator had placed an original
-pair of human beings here, as Scripture teaches that He did in the old
-world.[219] Other writers equally confident that the first ancestors
-of the American race were indigenous, have not so definitely expressed
-themselves as to the manner of their origin.[220] The most recent phase
-of the autochthonic theory is that which designates evolution as the
-means by which the continent was populated with human beings, developed
-from its own fauna. This latter question is now the most absorbing
-of all that occupy the attention of the American Anthropologists.
-But to go back to the separate creation view, we find it expressed in
-general and unscientific utterances at first, mostly based on the hasty
-observation of travellers who, in many cases, had little knowledge
-of anthropologic or ethnic principles. In fact, the subject was not
-fairly discussed and its advocacy based on satisfactory investigation
-until the justly celebrated Dr. Samuel G. Morton, of Philadelphia,
-issued his _Crania Americana_, containing the results of the most
-diligent researches on the skulls of the Mound-builders, Mexicans,
-Peruvians, and many of the known tribes of the Red Indians. In the face
-of abundant proof among the crania of his own splendid collection, and
-contrary to the testimony of his numerous measurements, which have
-often since been used against his theory, this diligent investigator
-arrived at the conclusion that the Americans were a distinct race,
-originated in this continent, having a uniform cranial type (excepting
-only the Eskimo), from the Arctic Circle to Patagonia.
-
-A division, however, of this supposed homogeneous race was made by this
-author into Toltecan and Barbarous nations; the former appellative
-comprising all the semi-civilized peoples, while the latter embraced
-the wild tribes. All were believed to have had the same origin and to
-belong to the same cranial type. “It is curious to observe, however,”
-remarks Dr. Morton, “that the Barbarous nations possess a larger brain
-by five and a half cubic inches than the Toltecans; while, on the
-other hand, the Toltecans possess a greater relative capacity of the
-anterior chamber of the skull in the proportion of 42.3 to 41.8. Again
-the coronal region, though absolutely greater in the Barbarous tribes,
-is rather larger in proportion in the semi-civilized tribes; and the
-facial-angle is much the same in both, and may be assumed for the race
-at 75°.”[221] In conclusion, the author is of the opinion that the
-facts contained in his work tend to sustain the following propositions:
-(1) “That the American race differs essentially from all others, not
-excepting the Mongolian; nor do the feeble analogies of language, and
-the more obvious ones in civil and religious institutions and the
-arts, denote anything beyond casual or colonial communication with
-the Asiatic nations; and even these analogies may perhaps be accounted
-for, as Humboldt suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from
-similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes.”
-(2) “That the American nations, excepting the Polar tribes, are one
-race and one species, but of two great families which resemble each
-other in physical, but differ in intellectual character.” (3) “That
-the cranial remains discovered in the mounds, from Peru to Wisconsin,
-belong to the same race and probably to the Toltecan family.”[222]
-Among the several ethnologists and naturalists who accepted without
-question the conclusions reached by Morton, the chief was Agassiz,
-who adopted them as auxiliary to his theory of the correspondence of
-human life with certain associations in the animal kingdom.[223] They
-served as a sure foundation, so far as this continent is concerned,
-for his opinion that the races originated in nations. “We maintain,”
-says the eminent naturalist, “that, like all organized beings, mankind
-cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been
-created in that numerical harmony which is characteristic of each
-species. Men must have originated in _nations_, as the bees have
-originated in swarms, and as the different social plants have covered
-the extensive tracts over which they have naturally spread.”[224]
-This view has been enlarged upon by Messrs. Nott and Gliddon, who
-argue that, “if it be conceded that there were two primitive pairs of
-human beings, no reason can be assigned why there may not have been
-hundreds.”[225] The uniqueness of the so-called American race not only
-fails of proof, but is positively disproven by the measurements of
-crania accompanying Morton’s plates, and any thoughtful person cannot
-avoid surprise that so distinguished a scholar as Agassiz should
-have committed himself to a theory without first submitting it to a
-crucial test. That there is a great variety of type observable among
-the crania figured by Morton, even a superficial examination will
-show, while a more careful classification presents several facts of
-interest. For this classification we consider the simple division of
-the crania into long and short skulls sufficient. The question of other
-divisions has been often discussed, but with Mr. Huxley we content
-ourselves with the simplest classification. Referring to a particular
-instance, he says, “taking the antero-posterior diameter as 100, the
-transverse diameter varies from 98 or 99 to 62. The number which
-thus expresses the proportion of the transverse to the longitudinal
-diameter of the brain-case is called the _cephalic index_. Those
-people who possess crania with a cephalic index of 80 and above are
-called _brachycephali_ (short-skulled), those with a lower index are
-_dolichocephali_ (long-skulled).”[226] Dr. Meigs, while accepting the
-classification into long and short skulls, admits that it is open to
-the objection that it forces into either and opposite classes crania
-closely related to each other in type and measurement.[227] Yet it must
-be admitted, that in proportion as arbitrary divisions are increased,
-these difficulties are multiplied, and that this simple, twofold
-classification presents the fewest.[228] In the following tables, which
-contain all the measurements accompanying the plates in the _Crania
-Americana_, the _cephalic index_ is placed in the left-hand column.
-That a wide difference of type is apparent between the extremes of the
-dolichocephalic and brachycephalic measurements, certainly cannot be
-denied.
-
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
-  |      (_A_) DOLICHOCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION    |
-  |                      LESS THAN 80 TO 100.                     |
-  |                                                               |
-  | KEY:                                                          |
-  | A. _Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the         |
-  |    Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100)._           |
-  | B. _No. of Plate in Morton’s Work._                           |
-  | C. _Longitudinal Diameter._                                   |
-  | D. _Parietal Diameter._                                       |
-  | E. _Vertical Diameter._                                       |
-  | F. _Frontal Diameter._                                        |
-  | G. _Extreme Length of Head and Face._                         |
-  | H. _Inter-Mastoid Arch._                                      |
-  | I. _Inter-Mastoid Line._                                      |
-  | J. _Occipito-Frontal Arch._                                   |
-  | K. _Horizontal Periphery._                                    |
-  | L. _Interior Capacity._*                                      |
-  | M. _Cap. of Anterior Chamber._*                               |
-  | N. _Cap. of Posterior Chamber._*                              |
-  | O. _Cap. of Coronal Region._                                  |
-  | P. _Facial Angle._                                            |
-  |                                                               |
-  |*In cubic inches, the remaining measurements in lineal inches. |
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-  |  A. |   B.  | C. |D. |E. |F. |G. | H. |I. | J. | K. | L. | M. |
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-  | 66. |  II   |6.9 |4.6|4.3|3.7|7.5|... |...| ...| ...|64. |17. |
-  | 72.6|  IV   |7.3 |5.3|5.3|4.3|8.2|14. |4.3|15. |19.8|81.5|31.5|
-  | 67. |   V   |6.7 |4.5|4.1|4.1|8.8|11.5|3.6|14.2|18. |65.5|19.7|
-  | 75.2| XVIII |6.9 |5.2|5.4|4.2|...|14.5|4.1|14. |19.2|78. |30. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 78.9| XXIII |7.1 |5.6|5.5|4.7|...|15. |4.1|14.8|20.3|89. |52.?|
-  | 73.6|  XXV  |7.2 |5.3|5.3|4.3|...|14.1|4.5|14.7|19.1|82. |35. |
-  | 79.4| XXVII |6.8 |5.4|5.5|4.3|...|15. |4.4|14.3|20.1|81.5|... |
-  | 78. | XXVIII|7.3 |5.8|5.5|4.8|...|15.1|4.6|14.2|20.9|94. |43. |
-  | 75.3|  XXX  |7.3 |5.5|5.5|4.3|...|14.6|4.6|14.9|21. |90. |33.5|
-  | 73. | XXXIV |7.8 |5.7|5.3|4.4|...|16.8|4. |15.8|22.1|98. |35.5|
-  | 72.4| XXXIII|6.9 |5. |5.3|4.2|...|14.3|3.9|14.4|19.8|71. |26. |
-  | 78.5| XXXII |7.  |5.5|5.1|4.6|...|14.4|4.2|14.5|20. |78.5|33. |
-  | 65.4|  XXXV |7.8 |5.1|5.4|4.2|...|14.2|4.5|15.5|20.8|93.5|35. |
-  | 72. | XXXVI |7.5 |5.6|5.8|4.1|...|14.4|4.3|14.9|20.8|92.5|36. |
-  | 73.6| XXXVII|7.2 |5.8|5.5|4.3|...|15. |4.4|14.2|19.8|74. |32.5|
-  | 76. |   XL  |7.1 |5.4|5.1|4.3|...|13.8|4.3|14. |19.9|77. |38.?|
-  | 79.4|   LI  |7.3 |5.8|5.4|4.4|...|14.6|4.2|14.1|20.3|86.5|... |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 74.6|  LII  |7.1 |5.3|5.5|4.8|...|14.6|4.2|14.6|20. |85.5|... |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 79.7|  LXI  |7.1 |5.6|5.5|4.6|...|15.5|4.1|15. |20.2|87. |... |
-  | 75.7|  LXIV |7.  |5.3|5.1|4.8|...|14.6|4. |14. |20.2|    |... |
-  | 79. |  LXV  |7.2 |5.7|5.1|4.5|...|... |...| ...| ...| ...|... |
-  | 78.2|  LXVI |6.9 |5.4|5.4|4.1|...|15. |4.1|14.2|19.5|84.5|32.5|
-  | 74.7|  ...  |7.1 |5.3|5.2|4.3|...|14.4|4.2|14.5|19.9|82.6|32.8|
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-
-  +-----+-------+----+----+---+--------------------------------------+
-  |  A. |   B.  | N. | O. |P. |              REMARKS.                |
-  +-----+-------+----+----+---+--------------------------------------+
-  | 66. |  II   |47. |... |...|Peruvian Child from Atacama (ancient).|
-  | 72.6|  IV   |50. |16.2|73°|Ancient Peruvian Cemetery near Arica. |
-  | 67. |   V   |45.7|12.7|61°|Ancient Peruvian.                     |
-  | 75.2| XVIII |48. |14.2|76°|Female Skull from Acapacingo, Mexico. |
-  |     |       |    |    |   |  Supposed Ancient Tiahuica.          |
-  | 78.9| XXIII |37.?|19.?|78°|Seminole Warrior from Florida.        |
-  | 73.6|  XXV  |47. |12.2|77°|Cherokee Warrior.                     |
-  | 79.4| XXVII |... |... |75°|Uchee.                                |
-  | 78. | XXVIII|51. |14.7|84°|Chippeway (Algonquin-Lenapé).         |
-  | 75.3|  XXX  |56.5|13.5|75°|Miami Chief (Algonquin-Lenapé).       |
-  | 73. | XXXIV |62.5|19. |80°|Potowatamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).       |
-  | 72.4| XXXIII|45. |    |80°|Naumkeag from Massachusetts.          |
-  | 78.5| XXXII |45.5|16.2|76°|Female Lenapé or Delaware.            |
-  | 65.4|  XXXV |58.5|11.5|78°|Cayuga Chief 150 years old (Iroquois).|
-  | 72. | XXXVI |56.5|18.4|74°|Oneida (Iroquois).                    |
-  | 73.6| XXXVII|41.5| 9.5|78°|Huron Chief.                          |
-  | 76. |   XL  |44.?|18.2|78°|Black Foot.                           |
-  | 79.4|   LI  |... |... |76°|Supposed Mound-builder, Circleville   |
-  |     |       |    |    |   |  Mound.                              |
-  | 74.6|  LII  |... |... |79°|Supposed Mound-builder from a         |
-  |     |       |    |    |   |  Mississippi River Mound.            |
-  | 79.7|  LXI  |... |... |80°|From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.   |
-  | 75.7|  LXIV |... |... |70°|Charib of Venezuela.                  |
-  | 79. |  LXV  |... |... |...|Charib of St. Vincent.                |
-  | 78.2|  LXVI |52. |19. |76°|Arucanian Chief, Chili.               |
-  | 74.7|  ...  |49.2|15.3|76°|Mean.                                 |
-  +-----+-------+----+----+---+--------------------------------------+
-
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
-  | (_B_) BRACHYCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION, 80 AND  |
-  |                         UPWARDS TO 100.                       |
-  |                                                               |
-  | KEY:                                                          |
-  | A. _Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the         |
-  |    Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100)._           |
-  | B. _No. of Plate in Morton’s Work._                           |
-  | C. _Longitudinal Diameter._                                   |
-  | D. _Parietal Diameter._                                       |
-  | E. _Vertical Diameter._                                       |
-  | F. _Frontal Diameter._                                        |
-  | G. _Extreme Length of Head and Face._                         |
-  | H. _Inter-Mastoid Arch._                                      |
-  | I. _Inter-Mastoid Line._                                      |
-  | J. _Occipito-Frontal Arch._                                   |
-  | K. _Horizontal Periphery._                                    |
-  | L. _Interior Capacity._*                                      |
-  | M. _Cap. of Anterior Chamber._*                               |
-  | N. _Cap. of Posterior Chamber._*                              |
-  | O. _Cap. of Coronal Region._                                  |
-  | P. _Facial Angle._                                            |
-  |                                                               |
-  |*In cubic inches, the remaining measurements in lineal inches. |
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-  | A.  |  B.   | C. |D. |E. |F. |G. |H.  |I. | J. | K. | L. | M. |
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-  | 80. |  III  |6.5 |5.2|5.1|4.3|8.3|14.5|4. |13.8|18.5|72.5|26. |
-  | 83. |  VI   |6.5 |5.4|5.2|4.4|...|14.6|4. |14.4|19.5|67.5|28.5|
-  |100. |  VII  |5.4 |5.4|4.6|4. |...|... |...|... |... |61. |... |
-  | 98. |VIII & |6.8 |5.7|5.1|4.4|...|14.5|4.1|12.7|18.4|71.7|28.7|
-  |     |  IX   |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 98.3|  XI   |6.1 |6. |5.5|4.7|...|16. |4.5|14.1|19.5|83. |33.5|
-  | 89.5| XI A  |6.7 |6. |5.6|4.5|...|16.2|4.5|14.5|20.2|89. |34. |
-  | 92. | XI B  |6.3 |5.8|5.3|4.5|...|15. |4. |13.2|19. |76.5|30. |
-  | 98.3| XI C  |6.  |5.9|5. |4.4|...|15.5|4. |13.2|19. |77. |28. |
-  | 81.6| XI D  |6.5 |5.5|5.6|4.6|...|14.8|4.5|13.6|19.5|68.5|33. |
-  | 80. | XVI   |7.1 |5.7|5.2|4.4|...|15.9|4. |14. |20.5|83. |39. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 80. | XVII  |6.8 |5.5|6. |4.6|...|15.6|4.4|14.6|19.9|89.5|33.5|
-  | 80. |XVII A |6.6 |5.3|5.2|4.3|...|14.6|4.1|13.6|19. |74. |28. |
-  | 89. | XVIII |6.4 |5.7|5.4|4.5|...|14.6|4.5|13.5|20.2|77. |30. |
-  | 80. |  XIX  |6.9 |6.6|5.9|4.2|...|15.5|4.3|14. |20. |85. |39.2|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 80. | XXII  |7.3 |5.9|5.8|4.6|...|15.9|4.4|15.3|20.7|93. |35.5|
-  | 84.3| XXIV  |7.  |5.9|5.8|4.5|...|14.7|4.6|14.2|20.5|91.5|44. |
-  | 81.4| XXVI  |7.  |5.7|5.3|4.6|...|15.3|4.5|14.4|20.8|94.7|42.5|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 82.3| XXIX  |6.8 |5.6|5.5|4.2|...|14.7|4.1|14.1|19.9|86.5|36.5|
-  | 81.3| XXXI  |7.  |5.9|5.5|4.7|...|15.3|4.7|14.2|20.9|91.5|40. |
-  | 81.8|XXXVIII|6.6 |5.4|4.9|4.4|...|13.7|4.3|13. |19.1|70.5|31. |
-  | 85. | XXXIX |6.7 |5.7|5.4|4.2|...|14.7|4.4|13.5|19.8|85. |36. |
-  | 90. |  XLI  |6.5 |5.9|5.3|4.6|...|15.1|4.1|13.4|19.5|83. |37.5|
-  | 80.5| XLII  |6.7 |5.4|5.3|4.4|...|14. |4.2|14. |19.4|74. |33. |
-  | 88. | XLIII |6.7 |5.9|4.6|4.7|8.3|14.2|4. |12.9|20. |69. |32.5|
-  | 96. | XLIV  |6.2 |6. |5.3|4.6|...|14.4|4.2|13.4|19. |70. |30. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 91.3|  XLV  |6.9 |6.3|4.8|4.9|8.5|15.7|4. |14. |21. |92. |34. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 89.2| XLVI  |6.7 |6. |4.5|5. |8.3|14.9|4.2|13. |19.8|78. |26. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 92.6| XLVII |6.8 |6.3|4.9|5.2|8.8|14.8|4.3|13. |20.4|87. |35.5|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 87.8|XLVIII |6.6 |5.8|5. |4.8|7.9|14.2|4.2|13. |19.5|79. |36.5|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 87. | XLIX  |7.  |6.1|4.1|4.9|8.8|13.9|4. |12.7|20.2|75. |28. |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 99.9| LIII  |6.6?|6. |5. |...|...|... |...|... |... |... |... |
-  |111.8|  LIV  |5.9 |6.6|5.1|4.4|...|15.6|4.4|12.4|19.6|80. |... |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 84.5|  LV   |6.6 |5.6|5.6|4.1|...|15.2|4.4|14. |19.5|87.5|... |
-  | 87. |  LVI  |6.2 |5.4|4.9|4.3|...|14.6|3.8|13.3|18.5|74.5|30. |
-  | 81.1| LVII  |6.9 |5.6|5.1|4.4|...|15.3|4.3|14. |19.7|79. |29.5|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 86.1| LVIII |6.5 |5.6|5. |4.5|...|14.7|3.8|13.2|19.2|76.5|34. |
-  | 84. |  LIX  |6.3 |5.3|5.4|4.4|...|14.3|4.2|13.5|19.2|74. |... |
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 89.3|  LX   |6.6 |5.3|5.4|4.4|...|14. |4. |14. |19.3|76. |... |
-  | 80.6| LXII  |6.7 |5.4|5.5|4.3|...|14.5|4.1|14. |19.3|81. |35.2|
-  |     |       |    |   |   |   |   |    |   |    |    |    |    |
-  | 80.6|LXVIII |6.7 |5.4|4.9|4.7|...|14.2|4.9|13.4|19.5|77. |32. |
-  | 87. | ...   |6.8 |5.7|5.1|4.5|...|14.6|4.2|13.9|19.5|79.5|37.1|
-  +-----+-------+----+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+----+----+----+
-  | Forty Skulls.                                                 |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-  +-----+-------+----+----+---+---+-------------------------------------+
-  | A.  |  B.   | N. | O. |  P.   |            REMARKS.                 |
-  +-----+-------+----+----+-------+-------------------------------------+
-  | 80. |  III  |46.5|14.7|  68°  |Ancient Peruvian from Lake Titicaca. |
-  | 83. |  VI   |39. |10.2|  76°  |Chimuyan, Peru.                      |
-  |100. |  VII  |... |... |  ...  |Inca Peruvian Child.                 |
-  | 98. |VIII & |43. |11.4|  75°  |Inca Peruvian Female from Temple of  |
-  |     |  IX   |    |    |       | Sun, near Lima.                     |
-  | 98.3|  XI   |49.5|15.7|  81°  |Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.|
-  | 89.5| XI A  |55.5|20.5|  80°  |Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.|
-  | 92. | XI B  |46.5|12.2|  80°  |Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.|
-  | 98.3| XI C  |49. |11.3|  80°  |Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.|
-  | 81.6| XI D  |35.5|... |  75°  |Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.|
-  | 80. | XVI   |44. |17.5|  72°  |Ancient Mexican from Cerro de        |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Quesilas.                          |
-  | 80. | XVII  |56. |19.5|  80°  |Ancient Mexican from Tacuba.         |
-  | 80. |XVII A |46. |11.5|  77°  |Mexican Indian from Pamas tribe.     |
-  | 89. | XVIII |47. |... |  78°  |From an Ancient Tomb near Mexico.    |
-  | 80. |  XIX  |45.7|13.2|  71°  |Chetimaches from Cemetery in St.     |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Mary’s parish, Louisiana.          |
-  | 80. | XXII  |57.5|25. |  72°  |Seminole Warrior.                    |
-  | 84.3| XXIV  |47.5|18.1|  81°  |Seminole.                            |
-  | 81.4| XXVI  |52.2|15.6|  72°  |Skull of the Chief of the Creek      |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Indians.                           |
-  | 82.3| XXIX  |50. |15.5|  79°  |Menominee Female (Algonquin-Lenapé). |
-  | 81.3| XXXI  |51.5|12.7|  82°  |Ottogamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).        |
-  | 81.8|XXXVIII|39.5|10.6|  75°  |Pawnee Female from the Platte River. |
-  | 85. | XXXIX |49. |16.6|  77°  |Dakota Warrior.                      |
-  | 90. |  XLI  |45.5|14.1|  77°  |Osage.                               |
-  | 80.5| XLII  |41. |14. |  76°  |Chinouk (natural form).              |
-  | 88. | XLIII |36.5| 9.9|  72°  |Chinouk (artificially flattened).    |
-  | 96. | XLIV  |40. |... |  70°  |Klalstonl of Oregon, (artificially   |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  flattened).                        |
-  | 91.3|  XLV  |58. |19.3|  73°  |Killemook Chief. Oregon (artificially|
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  flattened).                        |
-  | 89.2| XLVI  |59. | 8.7|  70°  |Clalsap, Columbia River (artificially|
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  flattened).                        |
-  | 92.6| XLVII |51.5|11.2|  68°  |Kalapooyah, on Oregon River          |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  (artificial).                      |
-  | 87.8|XLVIII |42.6|... |  70°  |Clickitat from Columbia River        |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  (artificially flat).               |
-  | 87. | XLIX  |47. | 6.2|  66°  |Cowalitek, Columbia River            |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  (artificially flattened).          |
-  | 99.9| LIII  |... |... |  78°  |Grave Creek Mound.                   |
-  |111.8|  LIV  |... |... |  72°  |From an Alabama River Mound. Supposed|
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Natchez (flattened).               |
-  | 84.5|  LV   |... |... |  80°  |Skull from a Mound in Tennessee.     |
-  | 87. |  LVI  |44.5|14.5|  71°  |Skull from a Mound at Santa Peru.    |
-  | 81.1| LVII  |49.5|14.1|  72°  |Skull from a Tumulus in the Valley of|
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Rimac, Peru.                       |
-  | 86.1| LVIII |42.5|13.7|  74°  |Mound Skull, Valley of Rimac, Peru.  |
-  | 84. |  LIX  |... |... |  76°  |From an Ancient Tomb at Ottumba,     |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Mexico.                            |
-  | 89.3|  LX   |... |... |  77°  |From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.  |
-  | 80.6| LXII  |45.7|18. |  76°  |Skull from a Cave at Golconda,       |
-  |     |       |    |    |       |  Illinois.                          |
-  | 80.6|LXVIII |45. |11.9|  72°  |Arucanian Chief from Chili.          |
-  | 87. | ...   |45. |14.2|75° 31´|Mean.                                |
-  +-----+-------+----+----+-------+-------------------------------------+
-  | Forty Skulls.                                                       |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-It will be observed that the widest range is found between the
-proportions of the skull of the Cayuga chief 100 years old (Plate XXXV)
-with a cephalic index of only 65.4, and those of some of the Peruvian
-crania having a cephalic index of over 98. The supposed Natchez skull
-(Plate LIV) is so artificially flattened as to exclude it from the
-calculation. The mean cephalic index of each of the tables exhibits a
-well-defined type of the long and the short skull respectively. The
-former 74.7 and the latter 87 are both far enough removed from the
-dividing line (80) to leave no doubt that the types are distinct and
-separate. Additional data, materially strengthening the conclusion of
-the variety of types found among American crania, has been furnished by
-that eminent authority Dr. Daniel Wilson.[229] The following table of
-measurements in inches is based upon his extensive researches:
-
-+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+----------+---------+
-|_No. of|                                   |   _Mean    |  _Mean   |         |
-|Crania |                                   |Longitudinal| Parietal |_Cephalic|
-|in each|     _Description of Crania._      | Diameter._ |Diameter._| Index._ |
-|Class._|                                   |            |          |         |
-+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+----------+---------+
-|   8   |Mound Crania (two from Morton, four|            |          |         |
-|       |  undoubtedly from the mounds)     |    6.54    |   5.67   |   86.7  |
-|  12   |Cave Crania                        |    6.62    |   5.78   |   85.7  |
-|  29   |Peruvian Brachycephalic Crania     |    5.97    |   5.12   |   85.7  |
-|  16   |Peruvian Dolichocephalic Crania    |    6.49    |   4.95   |   76.2  |
-|   8   |Mexican Dolichocephalic Crania     |    7.05    |   5.41   |   76.7  |
-|   7   |Mexican Brachycephalic Crania      |    6.56    |   5.51   |   84.0  |
-|  31   |Dolichocephalic Crania of Am.      |            |          |         |
-|       |  Indians                          |    7.24    |   5.47   |   75.5  |
-|  22   |Brachycephalic Crania of Am.       |            |          |         |
-|       |  Indians                          |    6.62    |   5.45   |   82.3  |
-|  12   |Living Algonquins, Brachycephalæ   |    7.25    |   6.00   |   82.7  |
-|  39   |West Canadian Hurons (male)        |    7.39    |   5.50   |   74.4  |
-+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+----------+---------+
-
-It requires no careful examination of these figures to observe that the
-type of skull among the American aborigines, ancient or modern, was in
-no sense constant, since among the same tribes long and short skulls
-occur in almost equal numbers. This fact is especially true among the
-savage Indians. Among the semi-civilized nations, however, as among the
-Peruvians and Mexicans, the long and short skulls mark the successive
-existence and destruction of distinct peoples having physiological
-characteristics peculiar to themselves. The Peruvian elongated crania
-are always found with large-boned skeletons having strong hands, while
-the short or rounded crania accompany very small bones, such as were
-unable to endure labor like the building of pyramids and the erection
-of such edifices as are found in Peru.[230]
-
-It is with the utmost deference to the genius, and with full
-recognition of the valuable researches of Dr. Morton, that we disagree
-with his conclusions and pronounce his theory without foundation in
-fact. There is no evidence furnished by the measurement of crania
-that an American race, as unique in itself and distinct from the rest
-of mankind, ever existed.[231] One of the most interesting studies
-connected with these tables, as well as other measurements made
-more recently, is the question of relationship between the various
-semi-civilized peoples of the ancient period. First and most naturally
-the type of the mound crania attracts attention, and calls for
-comparisons with the Indian type and with that of the remarkable people
-of the more southern civilization.
-
-The “Scioto Mound” skull figured by Dr. Davis in Plates xlvii and
-xlviii of _The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_, was
-pronounced by Dr. Morton in Dr. Meigs’ catalogue of the human crania in
-the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, as
-“perhaps the most admirably formed head of the American race hitherto
-discovered.”
-
-The most important measurements are as follows:
-
-      Longitudinal diameter          6.5 inches.
-      Parietal        „              6.0    „
-      Vertical        „              6.2    „
-      Inter-mastoid arch            16.0    „
-      Horizontal circumference      19.8    „
-                                    ————
-      Cephalic index                92.3    „
-
-The chief features as pointed out by the above-named author, are: the
-elevated vertex, flattened occiput, great inter-parietal diameter,
-ponderous bony structure, salient nose, large jaws and broad face.
-These he pronounces to be characteristics of the American cranium. Dr.
-Wilson has shown that Dr. Morton has contradicted his own previous
-definition of what that type is as well as the description given by
-Humboldt.[232] The propriety of selecting any single cranium as typical
-of the Mound-builders would be as questionable in this connection as
-it was for Dr. Morton and the authors of the _Types of Mankind_ to
-designate the Scioto Mound skull as a type of the American cranium.
-Until within a few years but few genuine mound skulls were accessible,
-and considerable suspicion was reasonably attached to the genuineness
-of several, including three or four of the so-called mound skulls in
-the _Crania Americana_. Recent explorations have brought to light a
-large number, of unquestioned genuineness. The Peabody Museum alone
-possesses 300, and of these 200 were exhumed by Prof. F. W. Putnam.
-
-From a number of measurements only is it possible for us to approximate
-the type of the mound skull. We have already referred to the low
-type skulls secured by Gen. H. W. Thomas from a mound in Dakota
-Territory.[233] Unfortunately we are without measurements, but from
-the description we observe that the forehead is decidedly receding,
-and the orbital ridges are excessively developed. The inferior
-maxillary is of unusual prominence and much more massive, as is the
-entire bony structure, than in the common Indian cranium. Another
-cranium of similar characteristic was exhumed from the great mound on
-the River Rouge near its junction with the Detroit River, Michigan,
-by Mr. Henry Gillman. From this mound several crania were taken, of
-which one (though evidently adult) presented the hitherto, I think I
-may say, unprecedented feature of its capacity being only fifty-six
-cubic inches. The mean given by Morton and Meigs of the Indian cranium
-is eighty-four cubic inches, the minimum being sixty-nine cubic
-inches. This cranium, forwarded with other relics to the Peabody
-Museum, presents (though in no wise deformed) the further peculiarity
-of having the ridges for the attachment of the temporal muscle only
-.75 of an inch apart, in this respect resembling the cranium of the
-chimpanzee. It is rarely that in human crania those ridges approach
-each other within a distance of two inches, while they vary from that
-to four inches apart.[234] Eight crania were exhumed by Mr. Gillman
-from the great mound on Rouge River, which furnished him the following
-measurements:
-
-       DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF CRANIA EXHUMED FROM THE GREAT MOUND,
-                        RIVER ROUGE, MICHIGAN.
-
-  KEY:
-  A. _Capacity (Approximate)._[235]
-  B. _Circumference._
-  C. _Length._
-  D. _Breadth._
-  E. _Height._
-  F. _Breadth of Frontal._
-  G. _Index of Breadth._
-  H. _Index of Height._
-  I. _Index of Foramen Magnum._
-  J. _Frontal Arch._
-  K. _Parietal Arch._
-  L. _Occipital Arch._
-  M. _Longitudinal Arch._
-  N. _Length of Frontal._
-  O. _Length of Parietal._
-  P. _Length of Occipital._
-  Q. _Zygomatic Diameter._
-
-  +--------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+
-  |  _No._ |  A. |  B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. |  H. | I. |
-  +--------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+
-  | 1.[236]|18.65|19.00|7.30|6.00|5.35|4.02|.822| .733|.465|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 2.[237]|18.10|19.50|7.30|5.20|5.60|3.60|.712| .767|.547|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 3.     |18.00|19.50|7.00|5.40|5.60|3.95|.777| .800|.500|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 4.     |18.47|     |7.20|5.40|5.77|4.07|.763| .801|.479|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 5.[238]|16.54|18.50|6.90|4.70|4.94|3.74|.681| .716|    |
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 6.[239]|18.23|22.40|6.80|5.80|5.63|4.63|.853| .828|.397|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 7.[240]|18.82|     |7.60|5.62|5.60|4.01|.739| .736|.473|
-  |        |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |     |    |
-  | 8.     |15.93|18.00|5.35|5.03|5.55|4.08|.940|1.037|.605|
-  +--------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+
-  | Means. |17.84|19.48|6.93|5.40|5.50|4.01|.786| .802|.495|
-  +--------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+
-
-  +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+
-  |  _No._ | J.  | K.  | L.  | M.  | N. | O. | P. | Q. |
-  +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+
-  | 1.[236]|12.15|12.00|11.65|14.00|5.50|4.40|4.10|    |
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 2.[237]|11.80|12.75|11.50|15.35|4.95|5.50|4.90|4.20|
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 3.     |12.65|12.20|10.30|14.60|5.00|4.75|4.85|    |
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 4.     |12.10|12.00|11.10|13.45|4.75|5.40|4.30|    |
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 5.[238]|11.20|10.25|11.30|13.95|4.50|4.75|4.70|5.00|
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 6.[239]|11.10|13.15|11.00|14.85|5.40|4.60|4.85|5.00|
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 7.[240]|11.50|     |     |     |5.10|    |    |    |
-  |        |     |     |     |     |    |    |    |    |
-  | 8.     |11.90|12.80|11.30|13.90|4.90|4.90|4.10|    |
-  +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+
-  | Means. |11.80|12.16|11.16|14.30|5.01|4.90|4.54|4.93|
-  +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+
-
-NOTE.—The fragments of a cranium, consisting chiefly of a very
-retreating frontal, and presenting traits of a low and brutal
-character, reminding one of the Neanderthal skull, were found
-underneath the above tabulated crania.
-
-We observe that only three of these crania are brachycephalic, while
-the remaining five, and the mean of all, fall under the class of
-dolichocephalic crania, according to our classification. Mr. Gillman
-would call some of them Orthocephalic, and the mean of the eight crania
-giving a cephalic index of .786 and .802 as an index of height might
-properly be so classified. The same gentleman exhumed from an ancient
-mound on Chambers Island, Green Bay, Wisconsin, six crania, which as
-to type were equally divided into long and short skulls, while the
-mean cephalic index, .817, assigned them to the brachycephalic class.
-The long skulls were not far removed, however, from the dividing line
-between the classes (.80). The energetic and intelligent labors of
-Dr. R. J. Farquharson of the Davenport, Iowa, Academy of Sciences,
-has placed within our reach measurements upon twenty-five mound
-crania.[241] The following are the most important measurements in
-inches:
-
-  Key:
-  A. CRANIA.
-  B. _Horizontal Circumference._
-  C. _Longitudinal Diameter._
-  D. _Transverse Diameter._
-  E. _Internal Capacity._
-  F. _Cephalic Index or Ratio of Diameter._
-
-  +-------------------------------------+-----+---+----+-----+----+
-  |                 A.                  |  B. |C. | D. | E.  | F. |
-  +-------------------------------------+-----+---+----+-----+----+
-  |Mean of Nine Crania from Albany, Ill.|19.8 |6.8|5.1 |68.  |.768|
-  |Mean of Eleven from Rock River, Ill. |20.15|7.0|5.4 |74.48|.771|
-  |Mean of Four from Henry County, Ill. |19.5 |7.0|5.2 |74.47|.743|
-  |One from Davenport                   |19.5 |7.0|5.25|76.20|.752|
-  +-------------------------------------+-----+---+----+-----+----+
-
-This table introduces a new feature into the investigation in hand;
-the brachycephalic or the near approximation to the short skull is
-displaced by a mean cephalic index of .758, indicating the well-marked
-dolichocephalic type. The mean internal capacity 73.3 inches falls
-considerably below the mean of mound crania as measured by Squier and
-Davis, Wilson and others, from localities farther south.
-
-The mean results of Dr. Farquharson’s measurements[242] show a greater
-vertical than transverse diameter, a peculiarity of most Mississippi
-mound skulls, distinguishing them from Peruvian crania. In the Ohio
-Valley the brachycephalic type is quite decided, though the general
-features of high receding forehead, flattened occiput, and great
-transverse diameter, establish their relationship to all other North
-American mound crania yet discovered. Three Ohio Valley mound skulls,
-as to the genuineness of which no suspicion can be entertained,
-namely the Scioto Mound cranium and two crania from the Grave Creek
-Mound, give the following measurements in the mean: Longitudinal
-diameter, 6.5 inches; parietal diameter, 6 inches; vertical diameter,
-5.5 inches, and 90.7 as their cephalic index. The mean internal
-capacity, though not obtainable with any degree of accuracy, in this
-instance is no doubt from eight to ten cubic inches greater than in
-the Davenport crania. With the general characteristics alike, minor
-differences may in most instances be attributed to artificial pressure.
-A valuable collection of mound crania was made in Kentucky for the
-Smithsonian Institution and the Peabody Museum, by Mr. S. S. Lyon,
-and is thoroughly reliable as a basis for measurements. Professor
-Wyman, in the _Fourth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, describes
-them as follows: “The twenty-four crania measured (Table VIII) show a
-mean capacity of 1313 cubic centimetres, which is greater than that
-of the Peruvians, but less than that of the North American Indians
-generally (viz., 1376 cubic centimetres, or 84 cubic inches). They
-differ also from those of the ordinary Indians in being lighter, less
-massive, in having the rough surface for muscular attachments less
-strongly marked. * * * In proportions they present a very considerable
-variation among themselves. Assuming the length of the skull to be
-1.000, the breadth ranges from 0.712 to 0.950 of the length. The
-average proportion is 0.857, which places them in the short-headed
-group.”
-
-We have already called attention to the extensive and thorough
-work performed by Professor Joseph Jones in Tennessee, the report
-of which was published in 1876 by the Smithsonian Institution in a
-“contribution” entitled _Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of
-Tennessee_. Professor Jones secured above a hundred mound and stone
-grave crania, mostly in the valley of the Cumberland and on the banks
-of the Big Harpeth River. Some of the skeletons accompanying these
-crania were of gigantic stature, a fact which is at variance with
-the opinion that they were related to the diminutive race of Inca
-Peruvians.[243] On the contrary, however, a strong argument for the
-relationship between the Mound-builders and the Peruvians is found in
-the frequent occurrence of the Inca-bone (_os inca_) so-called, on the
-mound crania.[244] Mr. Henry Gillman found this same bone in one of the
-crania exhumed by him from the great mound of Rouge River, Michigan,
-with a disposition to its formation in several others.[245] Professor
-Jones is convinced of the unity of the mound race throughout the entire
-Mississippi Basin. The following table of measurements, published in
-the _Antiquities of Tennessee_, is one of the most valuable which has
-yet been prepared:
-
-  Key:
-  A. _Number of Cranium._
-  B. _Facial Angle in Degrees._
-  C. _Internal Capacity in Cubic Inches._
-  D. _Longitudinal Diameter in Inches._
-  E. _Parietal Diameter._
-  F. _Frontal Diameter._
-  G. _Vertical Diameter._
-  H. _Inter-Mastoid Arch._
-  I. _Inter-Mastoid Line._
-  J. _Occipito-Frontal Arch._
-  K. _Horizontal Periphery._
-  L. _Diameter of Head and Face._
-  M. _Zygomatic Diameter._
-
-  +----+----+------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----+
-  | A. | B. |  C.  | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. | J.  | K. | L. | M. |
-  +----+----+------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----+
-  |  1 |76.5| 75.  | 6.3|5.4 |4.3 |5.5 |15. |5.  |13.5 |19. | 7.5| 5.1|
-  |  2 |80. | 78.  | 6. |5.6 |4.4 |5.4 |14.6|5.1 |13.2 |18.9| 7.2| 5.2|
-  |  3 |75. | 78.  | 6.1|5.7 |4.3 |5.6 |15. |5.2 |13.  |19. | 7.3| 5.3|
-  |  4 |    | 82.  | 6.2|5.7 |4.1 |5.5 |15.2|5.4 |14.  |19. |    | 5.2|
-  |  5 |77. | 84.  | 6.5|5.8 |4.4 |5.8 |15.5|5.2 |14.3 |19.9| 7.4| 5.3|
-  |  6 |76. | 68.  | 6.4|4.9 |3.9 |5.5 |13.9|4.5 |13.8 |18.2| 7.1| 4.6|
-  |  7 |81. |103.  | 7. |5.9 |4.8 |6.4 |16.8|5.3 |15.7 |20.8| 7.8| 5.5|
-  |  8 |80. | 80.  | 6.6|5.6 |4.3 |5.5 |15. |4.6 |13.8 |19.3| 7.2| 5.2|
-  |  9 |78. | 79.  | 7. |5.2 |3.9 |5.8 |14.7|4.6 |15.2 |19.5| 7.4| 5. |
-  | 10 |81. | 76.  | 6.3|6.  |4.4 |5.4 |15.7|4.6 |13.8 |19.4| 6.8| 5.3|
-  | 11 |80. | 90.  | 6.9|5.6 |4.3 |6.  |15.7|4.8 |14.8 |20.3| 7.6| 5.5|
-  | 12 |77. | 80.  | 6.8|5.2 |4.1 |5.8 |15. |4.7 |14.4 |19.5| 7.8| 5.2|
-  | 13 |82. | 81.  | 6.9|5.5 |4.3 |5.7 |15. |4.8 |14.  |19.6| 7.8| 5. |
-  | 14 |    | 92.  | 6.1|6.4 |4.4 |6.  |16.5|5.4 |13.8 |19.8|    |    |
-  | 15 |    | 79.  | 6.1|5.8 |4.6 |5.5 |15. |4.8 |13.4 |18.9|    |    |
-  | 16 |    |      | 7.2|5.7 |4.6 |5.9 |16. |4.6 |15.2 |20.8|    |    |
-  | 17 |    |      | 6.1|5.5 |4.1 |4.5 |14. |    |13.6 |19. |    |    |
-  | 18 |    |      | 6.5|5.8 |4.5 |4.6 |15. |    |     |19.4|    |    |
-  | 19 |82. | 79.2 | 6.7|5.5 |4.2 |5.5 |15. |4.4 |13.5 |19.1| 7.8| 5.2|
-  | 20 |75. | 81.4 | 6.5|5.7 |4.  |5.6 |14.4|5.  |13.3 |19.2| 7.1| 5.3|
-  | 21 |82. | 80.5 | 6.4|5.9 |4.6 |5.7 |15. |4.9 |14.  |19. | 7.3| 5.4|
-  |Max.|82. |103.  | 7.2|6.4 |4.8 |6.4 |16.8|5.4 |15.7 |20.8| 7.8| 5.5|
-  |Min.|75. | 68.  | 6. |4.9 |3.9 |4.5 |13.9|4.4 |13.  |18.2| 6.8| 4.6|
-  |Mean|78.8| 81.44| 6.5|5.68|4.21|5.56|15.0|4.57|13.88|19.8| 7.4| 5.2|
-  +----+----+------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----+
-
-  The most noticeable feature in the table aside from the mean cephalic
-index .874 is the great internal capacity of cranium No. 7, which was
-found in a stone grave in a mound near Nashville, with a skeleton over
-six feet long. The occiput is but slightly flattened, and the general
-contour of the head is symmetrically oval. Morton gives as the mean
-internal capacity of fifty-two Caucasian skulls 87 cubic inches; the
-largest of the series measured 109 cubic inches, and the smallest 75
-cubic inches. This remarkable cranium gives an internal capacity of 103
-cubic inches, vastly above the mean European skull, and only falling
-six cubic inches below the largest measured by Morton. As we observed
-a considerable increase in capacity in the Scioto Mound cranium,
-with its ninety cubic inches, over the crania of the north-west and
-north, of Michigan and Davenport, so here a most remarkable advance
-upon the capacity of the Scioto cranium is presented. The evidence of
-considerable development in the size of the cranium in this same race
-is clear; and taken with other testimony, such as the great improvement
-in art and architecture, indicates probably a movement from north to
-south, and that the mound race was older in the former region than in
-the latter.
-
-In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss exhumed
-sixty-seven crania from stone graves located in the neighborhood of
-Nashville, Tennessee. These crania were measured by Miss Jennie Smith
-and Mr. Lucian Carr, and the latter has tabulated and described them in
-the _Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_ (pp. 361 _et seq._,
-Cambridge, 1878). As some interesting features occur in the tables,
-we insert here Mr. Carr’s mean measurements. It will be observed that
-the classification in this instance is threefold, besides the distinct
-position assigned to the “much flattened” crania.
-
-MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF SIXTY-SEVEN CRANIA FROM STONE GRAVES IN TENNESSEE.
-
-  Key:
-  A. _Number of Crania._
-  B. _Capacity._
-  C. _Length._
-  D. _Breadth._
-  E. _Height._
-  F. _Index of Breadth._
-  G. _Index of Height._
-  H. _Width of Frontal._
-  I. _Index of Breadth._
-
-  +-+--------------+--+----+---+---+---+----+----+--+---------------+
-  | |              |A.| B. |C. |D. |E. | F. | G. |H.|      G.       |
-  +-+--------------+--+----+---+---+---+----+----+--+---------------+
-  | |              |  |  2 | 5 | 5 | 3 |    |    | 5|               |
-  |1|Dolichocephali| 5|1325|184|132|142|.716|.775|94|.730 and under.|
-  | |              |  |  6 | 18| 16| 11|    |    |18|               |
-  |2|Orthocephali  |18|1346|172|134|141|.775|.819|89|.740 @ .800    |
-  | |              |  | 15 | 29| 28| 18|    |    |29|               |
-  |3|Brachycephali |29|1284|165|141|142|.856|.865|90|.800 @ .900    |
-  | |              |  |  7 | 15| 15| 8 |    |    |15|               |
-  |4|Much Flattened|15|1461|156|152|145|.973|.907|93|.900 and over. |
-  +-+--------------+--+----+---+---+---+----+----+--+---------------+
-
-Mr. Carr calls attention to the fact that while the classified crania
-as a whole are brachycephali, still from twenty-three to thirty-three
-per cent. of the whole cannot be considered as falling within that
-group. Whether the five dolichocephali in the table belonged to the
-same race cannot be determined. They were buried together, for Prof.
-Putnam found a long and a short skull side by side in the same grave.
-Mr. A. J. Conant (see _Commonwealth of Missouri_, St. Louis, 1877, 8vo,
-pp. 106–7) discovered in a mound in South-eastern Missouri two crania
-belonging to skeletons buried in regular order, with a large number of
-other skeletons at the bottom of the mound, which differed strangely
-from all others found in that locality. The forehead was entirely
-wanting, and the contour of the top of one of the skulls was almost
-flat. It closely resembles the Neanderthal skull. Mr. Conant thought
-it at first to be an intrusive burial, but careful examination proved
-it to have been placed in position before the building of the mound,
-and to have been interred with as much care as was bestowed upon any of
-the other occupants of the mound. Vases, drinking vessels and food-pans
-accompanied it as they did all the other skeletons.
-
-Mr. Carr thinks such crania as he has pointed out belonged to
-individuals who were conquered in war, or adopted or introduced into
-the tribe by intermarriage. Mr. Conant considers that the low type
-cranium which he discovered belonged to a very ancient race, the
-predecessors of the Mound-builders, and not far removed from the
-palæolithic races of Europe.
-
-The mound skulls are readily distinguishable from those of the Red
-Indian. Only in the Davenport crania and the five dolichocephali
-from Tennessee do we see any approximation as to form. However, the
-remaining characteristics of the Davenport crania establish the fact
-that they belonged to people of the mounds. In our classification of
-Dr. Morton’s measurements, it will be observed that only two _supposed_
-mound skulls appear among the dolichocephali (long skulls, A), and
-too much doubt is attached to their genuineness to admit of their use
-in drawing inferences. All the remainder belong to the savage tribes
-except three Peruvians of the ancient race of the region of Titicaca.
-In the table of brachycephali but few of the savage tribes are
-represented, except those which practice artificial compression to the
-extent of deformity. The mound skull as compared with the Inca Peruvian
-presents few resemblances, except that both generally belong to the
-brachycephalic class, and the singular and important fact already
-mentioned that the Inca bone has been found in North American mound
-crania. It is possible that when more extensive research is made, this
-distinguishing feature may lead to the conclusion that the races were
-one or closely related. On the other hand, the massive bony structure
-of some of the mound crania does not correspond with the facial bones
-of the Inca crania, which are very light and delicate. Prof. Wilson
-has pointed out the additional fact that the vertical diameter of the
-Peruvian short crania is not so great as that of the mound and Mexican
-short skulls, but a reference to the Professor’s own tables shows that
-the mean difference amounts only to thirty-seven-hundredths of an inch,
-altogether too small a variation to serve as the basis for ethnic
-generalizations.[246] Few if any similarities can be traced between
-the dolichocephali of Peru and the brachycephalic Mound-builders, the
-only resemblances being the heavy bony structure possessed in common
-by both races. The crania of the dolichocephali of Peru are pronounced
-of a Mongol cast and form, and are in every respect unlike the mound
-crania. Turning our attention, however, to the ancient Mexican crania,
-we find, so far as we are able to judge from the limited number
-of skulls which have come into the possession of ethnologists, a
-parallelism in measurements and resemblance in the various distinctive
-features, such as flattened occiput, broad transverse diameter,
-retreating forehead, strong bony structure, and a remarkable agreement
-in vertical diameter with those of the mounds of the Mississippi Basin,
-which point unmistakably to the closest relationship. Seven Mexican
-brachycephali measured by Prof. Wilson in the Boston and Philadelphia
-collections previously referred to, gave a mean vertical diameter
-of 5.55 inches.[247] Four Mound-builder crania measured by the same
-investigation gave precisely the same result, while the remaining
-measurements varied from each other but slightly. In confirmation of
-this result it is worthy of notice that the mean vertical diameter of
-the twenty-one mound and stone grave crania from Tennessee varied from
-that of the Mexican crania by only one one-hundredth of an inch (5.56).
-
-When Dr. Morton began his investigations, he was disposed to recognize
-the existence of distinct races, represented by the dolichocephalic
-and brachycephalic crania of Peru.[248] But in later years, and at
-a period subsequent to the issue of his justly celebrated work,
-he concluded that the Peruvian elongated head was the product of
-artificial compression and not the distinguishing mark of an ancient
-race which long antedated the Incas.[249] Prof. Wilson has thoroughly
-discussed this subject, and from a series of investigations, conducted
-on a much more extensive scale than those of Dr. Morton, he has
-shown conclusively that the distinguished craniologist was quite
-mistaken as to the facts upon which he based his later views.[250]
-Much valuable information was afforded Prof. Wilson by the researches
-and collections of John H. Blake, Esq., made during that gentleman’s
-residence in Peru, as well as the extensive collection of Dr. J. C.
-Warren of Boston. Prof. Wilson points out the essential difference
-between the compressed and the naturally dolichocephalic cranium in
-these words: “Few who have had extensive opportunities of minutely
-examining and comparing normal and artificially formed crania, will,
-I think, be prepared to dispute the fact that the latter are rarely,
-if ever, symmetrical. The application of pressure on the head of the
-living child can easily be made to change its natural contour, but it
-cannot give to its artificial proportions that harmonious repetition
-of corresponding developments on opposite sides which may be assumed
-as the normal condition of the unmodified cranium. But in so extreme
-a case as the conversion of a brachycephalic head averaging about 6.3
-inches longitudinal diameter by 5.3 inches parietal diameter into a
-dolichocephalic head of 7.3 by 4.9 inches diameter, the retention
-of anything like the normal symmetrical proportions is impossible.
-Yet the dolichocephalic Peruvian crania present no such abnormal
-irregularities as could give plausibility to the theory of their form
-being an artificial one, while peculiarities in the facial proportions
-confirm the idea that it is of ethnic origin and not the product
-of deformation.” Besides these differences there are peculiarities
-of a structural nature sufficient in themselves to distinguish the
-Peruvian long from the short crania. The former is small, narrow and
-decidedly long; the forehead is low and retreating, and two-thirds
-of the brain-cavity lies behind the occipital foramen. The superior
-maxillary is protruding and holds the incisor teeth obliquely. The
-weight of the bony structure also exceeds that in the brachycephalic.
-Though both classes are found artificially compressed, yet they are
-always distinguishable from each other. One of the best illustrations
-of this fact, and one already used by Prof. Wilson, is afforded in
-contrasting two dolichocephalic crania, both obtained by Mr. Blake
-in his explorations of the ancient cemeteries of Arica and Atacama.
-Both are evidently of children; one is in its normal condition,
-symmetrical, and when viewed from above presents the outlines of a
-graceful oval form, while the other was subjected to such compression
-as to throw the volume of the brain backward and to greatly deform the
-frontal bone.[251] A slight tendency to assume the dog-shaped head of
-the Chinooks of the Columbia River is manifest, where deformation is
-carried to such an extent as to produce monstrosities. However, even
-then, the normal brachycephalic type of skull of the Chinooks is not
-transformed to the dolichocephalic, since the base of the cranium
-remains comparatively unaffected while distension takes place in a
-posterior and upward direction. Mr. Squier in his _Peru_ (p. 580,
-Appendix), has shown that circular compression produces a symmetrical
-effect in the same direction.
-
-The custom of artificially flattening the head has, upon investigation,
-been shown not to be peculiar alone to the aborigines of America,
-but to have been practised by many of the semi-civilized peoples of
-antiquity in different parts of Europe and Asia. Hippocrates, in
-his treatise _De Aëre, Aquis, et Locis_, has described this savage
-practice among a people whom he calls _Machrocephali_, supposed to have
-inhabited the region near the Palus Mæotis, in the vicinity of the
-Caucasus. He says, “The custom stood thus: as soon as the child was
-born, they immediately fashioned its soft and tender head with their
-hands, and by the use of bandages and proper arts, forced it to grow
-lengthwise, by which the spherical figure of the head was prevented
-and the length increased.” Strabo refers to a people occupying a
-portion of Western Asia, who were addicted to the same custom and
-had foreheads projecting beyond their beards.[252] Pliny places them
-in Asia Minor,[253] while Pomponius Mela places the Machrocephali on
-the Bosphorus.[254] Blumenbach has figured in his first decade, a
-compressed skull obtained by him from Russia and probably originally
-from one of the tumuli of the Crimean Bosphorus, where it is supposed
-to have been exhumed during the Russian occupation. In 1843, Rathke
-figured and described in Müller’s _Archiv für Anatomie_, another
-example of the compressed human crania, obtained from an ancient
-grave near Kertsch in the Crimea. In 1820, Count August von Brenner
-obtained on his estate at Fuersbrunn near Grafenegg in Austria, a
-skull of similar characteristics. This was, upon examination, decided
-to have belonged to an Avarian Hun. Prof. Retzius described it in
-the _Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm in
-1844_, adducing arguments to strengthen that supposition. Dr. Tschudi,
-however, conceived the idea that it might have been a Peruvian skull
-which had been brought to Europe as a curiosity during the reign of
-Charles V. and afterwards thrown aside. His communication appeared in
-Müller’s _Archiv für Anatomie_. The opinion of the learned traveller
-was, however, subsequently reversed by the discovery at Atzgersdorf,
-near Vienna, of another and similar cranium. More recently others have
-come to light at the Village of St. Roman in Savoy, and in the Valley
-of the Doubs near Mandense. Dr. Fitzinger has probably investigated
-this subject with more thoroughness than any other writer, and has
-shown in his articles in the _Transactions of the Imperial Academy of
-Vienna_, that this custom was native to the Scythian region in the
-vicinity of the Mœtian Moor, and prevailed in the Caucasus and along
-the shores of the Black and Caspian seas and the Bosphorus. Among the
-most interesting relics cited as sustaining his views is an ancient
-medal struck in commemoration of the destruction of Aquileia by Attila
-the Hun in A. D. 452, and bearing the bust of that “Scourge of God.”
-The head represented in profile is of precisely the same shape as those
-of the other Avir skulls, having a flattened form in a vertical and
-oblique direction. Thierry in his _Attila_ has traced the origin of
-the custom of flattening the skull, to the Huns, who, descending from
-their home upon the steppes of Northern Asia, left their remains upon
-many a field in Europe. One of these deformed skulls was discovered in
-1856 by J. Hudson Barclay, in a large cavern near the Damascus Gate
-at Jerusalem. The skeleton was of unusually large size and decayed,
-but the skull, which was pretty well-preserved, was brought to this
-country and is preserved in the collection of the Academy of Natural
-Sciences of Philadelphia.[255] Dr. J. Atkinson Meigs concluded, upon
-careful examination, that its occiput had been flattened by pressure
-during childhood. The testimony of Dr. Tschudi, rendered undesignedly,
-amounts to the best of evidence of the transition of this custom from
-the eastern shores of Asia to Peru, and this isolated instance has been
-strengthened beyond question or doubt by the abundant proof which has
-been brought to light since attention was directed to the subject.[256]
-
-In referring to the methods by which artificial compression was
-brought about in America, Prof. Wilson remarks: “Trifling as it may
-appear, it is not without interest to have the fact brought under our
-notice by the disclosures of ancient barrows and cysts, that the same
-practice of nursing the child and carrying it about, bound to a flat
-cradle-board, prevailed in Britain and the North of Europe long before
-the first notices of written history reveal the presence of man beyond
-the Baltic or the English Channel, and that in all probability the
-same custom prevailed continuously from the shores of the German Ocean
-to Behring Straits.”[257] Dr. L. A. Gosse testifies to the prevalence
-of the same custom among the Caledonians and Scandinavians of the
-earliest times,[258] and Dr. Thurman has treated the same peculiarity
-of the early Anglo-Saxon.[259] It is a matter of no little surprise
-to the inquirer in this field to learn that this system of skull
-distortion introduced into Southern Europe by the Asiatic hordes which
-overran it in the fifth century has been perpetuated, though somewhat
-modified, and at present is in vogue in the south of France.[260] The
-distinguished Dr. Foville, in charge of the Asylum for Insane in the
-Department Seine-Inférieure and Charenton, has figured this process in
-his work on the _Anatomy of the Nervous System_, as well as a number
-of skulls which have striking Peruvian resemblances. The artificial
-form in this case is produced by the use of peculiar head-dresses
-or bandages.[261] The Egyptians placed a pillow under the neck and
-not for the head; hence the elongated crania characteristic of the
-race, and it is not a little remarkable that the Feejee Islanders
-have the same custom at the present day. The Kankas of the Sandwich
-Islands produce the flattened occiput by supporting the infant’s head
-always in the palm of the hand.[262] The South Sea Islanders have a
-flattened occiput, as Pickering describes it, projecting but slightly
-beyond the line of the neck.[263] Prof. Wilson comments upon this fact
-as follows: “Traces of purposed deformation of the head among the
-islanders of the Pacific, have an additional interest in their relation
-to one possible source of the South American population by Oceanic
-migration, suggested by philological and other independent evidence.
-But for our present purpose the peculiar value of these modified skulls
-lies in the disclosures of influences operating alike undesignedly,
-and with a well-defined purpose, in producing the very same cranial
-conformation among races occupying the British Islands in ages long
-anterior to earliest history, and among the savage tribes of America
-and the simple islanders of the Pacific in the present day.”[264] It
-is a well-known fact that flattening the skull has prevailed from the
-earliest times in most parts of the American Continent, especially on
-the Pacific coast. From the extreme north to Southern Peru, flattening
-the skulls was regarded as an artistic improvement on nature and was
-practised with a maternal solicitude, if we judge from the customs
-of the modern Chinooks, deserving of a higher aim. More centrally
-and toward the Atlantic border the custom was not so carefully and
-generally practised, unless we may except the case of the Natchez, who
-carried it to almost the extreme reached at present by the Columbia
-River tribes. The object of this strange transformation is believed
-to have been twofold, “to give,” as Torquemada supposes, in referring
-to the Peruvians, “a fierce appearance in war,” and to obtain the
-mark of a royal and dominant race, a fashion which seems to have
-been transmitted without a variation, from its Mongol source. The
-Chinooks consider it the mark of superiority, and will not permit the
-tribes subject to them to practise it. Mr. Paul Cane, has illustrated
-this subject with drawings made during his visit to the Columbia
-and Vancouver’s Island, while Dr. Pickering, Mr. Hale and others,
-have described the hideous and beastly aspect of the singular people
-practising the deformation. Skull flattening among the American tribes
-may be classified as intentional and unintentional. To the class of
-intentionally flattened skulls we may assign those of the twenty or
-more tribes of the North-west coast, the Natchez, the ancient Mayas,
-the Peruvians, and some of the more central and eastern South American
-tribes. The North-western flatheads subject the head of a child during
-the first eight or ten months of its life to pressure produced by means
-of a cradle or cradle-board, provided with a board which rests upon
-the forehead and tied down upon it by means of cords extending to the
-foot of the cradle, while the other end is connected to the head of the
-cradle with a hingelike attachment.
-
-[Illustration: Chinooks (Flat-heads), After Catlin.]
-
-The Natchez produced the artificial form by bandaging the infant’s head
-to a well-cushioned cradle-board by means of strips of deer-skin.[265]
-The Caribs bandaged the head with pieces of wool, and gave it a very
-quadrangular shape. The Choctaws produced artificial compression by
-means of a bag of sand.[266] The unintentional flattening of the
-skull arose from the quite general use of the cradle-board without
-any board for pressure, or the custom common among many American
-tribes of the mother suckling the child over her shoulder, a practice
-widely prevalent in Africa and among savage nations. In the former
-instance it is but reasonable to suppose that the form of a tender and
-pliable skull would be modified more or less by the shape of the hard
-cradle-board, and by the position in which it was placed upon its rest.
-This fact accounts for the slight occipital compression of the mound
-skulls and also for the irregularity of the flattening in many cases.
-The latter process, that of nursing the child from its position on the
-shoulder or back would no doubt subject the head to a slight pressure,
-perhaps in most cases in a lateral direction.
-
-The general prevalence of the unnatural custom of flattening the skull
-on the eastern border-land of Europe and among the numerous tribes of
-the western coast of America, together with its presence in Polynesia
-as a connecting link, we think justifies us in concluding that it
-originated among the wild hordes of the northern steppes of Asia, from
-which centre it spread in lines of radiation until it reached the
-remote localities in which recent research has found it.[267] This fact
-is suggestive of a remote intercourse between peoples separated by seas
-and mountains, if it does not serve as an argument for the unity and
-common origin of the human family.
-
-A careful examination of the remains of the pre-historic races other
-than the measurement of crania has contributed largely to our fund of
-information concerning their life and habits. Science has rendered us
-pretty familiar with some of the diseases to which they were subject.
-Dr. Farquharson has described a singular manifestation of disease of
-the cervical vertebræ, shown in a peculiar roughening of the articular
-surfaces, and also by a true or bony anchylosis of these points. He
-concludes that the people of the mounds must have been possessed of a
-considerable degree of civilization and facilities for the care of the
-sick during a long period, in order to have effected the cure which
-the condition of the bones indicate had taken place.[268] One of the
-most alarming discoveries, however, is that which apparently shows
-the general prevalence of syphilis. That this loathsome disease was
-common among the various tribes of Equinoctial America is attested to
-by the discoverers and their successors, and has been much commented
-upon, and held by some authors to have been of American origin. The
-most recent supporter of this view is Professor Jones, to whom we have
-already referred.[269] He found in most of the mounds which he explored
-in Tennessee bones bearing syphilitic nodes, and believes them to be
-the oldest traces of the disease in existence. Dr. Farquharson made
-similar discoveries in the Iowa and Illinois mounds. Prof. Putnam,
-however, attributes the nodes to other diseases. That flattening of the
-leg-bone or tibia, peculiar to pre-historic man in Europe, and perhaps
-the result of rugged exertion in climbing mountains and traversing
-the country with that rapidity which the chase required where the
-horse is wanting, is more noticeable in the remains of some of the
-Mound-builders than in any other people. This peculiarity of the tibia
-called platycnemism, is probably a provision of nature, securing a
-firmer and better defined process upon which the muscles of the leg
-could fasten themselves, and its prominence among the people of the
-mounds indicates the possession of great pedestrian powers.[270]
-
-The singular custom of perforating the skull after death (and possibly
-during life) is shown to have been in vogue by the discovery of a
-number of crania at the River Rouge Mound in Michigan with artificial
-apertures. No light as yet has been thrown upon the significance
-of this strange practice.[271] The nearest approach to the natural
-condition and characteristic physiognomy of the pre-historic
-inhabitants of this continent, is observable in the Peruvian mummies
-collected in latitude 18° 30´ S., on the shore of the Bay of Chacota,
-near Arica, by Mr. Blake, and transferred by him to Boston. Many
-others have since been exhumed, and though embalmed and buried in a
-climate which preserves the brightest colors of the garments with
-which they were enshrouded, still the shrivelled condition of the
-corpses furnishes us the assurance that their type of features can
-never be truly recovered from nature. Dr. Morton has figured the head
-of one of these mummies in Plate I of the _Crania Americana_, from
-which the physiognomy may be partially restored by the aid of a vivid
-imagination. Notwithstanding the temptation which presents itself, and
-one which has been sufficiently indulged already, it would certainly
-be idle to speculate as to what that type might have been. However,
-one feature of the Peruvian mummies has been preserved true to life,
-and is of the greatest value in determining ethnic relations. The
-silicious sand and marl of the plain southward of Arica, where the
-most remarkable cemeteries are situated, is slightly impregnated with
-common salt as well as nitrate and sulphate of soda. These conditions,
-together with the dry atmosphere rivalling that of Egypt, and in which
-fleshy matter dries without putrefaction, the human hair has been
-perfectly preserved, and comes to us as one of the best evidences of
-the diversity of the American races yet produced. In general it is a
-lightish brown, and of a fineness of texture which equals that of the
-Anglo-Saxon race.[272] Straight, coarse, black hair is universally
-characteristic of the Red Indians, and is known to be one of the last
-marks of race to disappear in intermarriage with Europeans. The ancient
-Peruvians appear, from numerous examples of hair found in their tombs,
-to have been an auburn-haired race. Garcilasso, who had an opportunity
-of seeing the body of the king Viracocha, describes the hair of that
-monarch as snow-white.[273] Haywood has described the discovery at
-the beginning of this century of three mummies in a cave on the south
-side of the Cumberland River, near the dividing line of Smith and
-Wilson Counties in Tennessee. They were buried in baskets, as Humboldt
-has described some of the Peruvians to bury, and the color of their
-skin was said to be fair and white, and their hair auburn and of a
-fine texture.[274] The same author refers to several instances of the
-discovery of mummies in the limestone and saltpetre caves of Tennessee
-with light yellowish hair.[275] Prof. Jones supposes that the light
-color of these so-called mummies of Tennessee and Kentucky was due to
-the action of lime and saltpetre.[276]
-
-We have every reason to believe that the men of the mounds were
-capable of executing in sculptures reliable representations of
-animate objects. The perfection of the stone carvings, as well as the
-terra-cotta moulded figures of animals and birds obtained from the
-mounds, have excited the wonder and admiration of their discoverers.
-It was evidently a favorite pastime for those primitive artists to
-reproduce the human features, for effigies and masks have often been
-exhumed together with other sculptures. The perfection of the animal
-representations furnish us the assurance that their sculptures of the
-human face were equally true to nature.[277] The accompanying figures
-of sculpture and masks together with those found in the sculpture
-of the Mayas and Nahuas, shown in a future chapter, furnish us with
-a twofold argument: first, that an American type of physiognomy as
-such did not exist; that, upon the contrary, it was as variable
-and diversified as can now be found among the peoples of Europe or
-elsewhere; second, that a strong resemblance between some of the
-sculptures of the mounds and those of Mexico exist. It is a remarkable
-fact that those of Palenque furnish the most striking likeness to
-those of the Mississippi Valley.[278] There is, perhaps, no means of
-ascertaining of what color the pre-historic Americans were, certainly
-not of the Mound-builders; but judging from the great variety of tints
-and shades that prevail among the wild tribes of North America alone,
-we may conclude that no argument in favor of an _American_ race can be
-based upon color.[279]
-
-[Illustration: Mound Sculptures: upper left-hand figure from a
-shell-heap near Mobile, Ala., the others from Tennessee mounds.]
-
-The Menominees, sometimes called the “White Indians,” formerly occupied
-the region bordering on Lake Michigan, around Green Bay. The whiteness
-of these Indians, which is compared to that of white mulattoes, early
-attracted the attention of the Jesuit missionaries, and has often been
-commented upon by travellers.[280] While it is true that hybridity
-has done much to lighten the color of many of the tribes, still the
-peculiarity of the complexion of this people has been marked from the
-first time a European encountered them. Almost every shade, from the
-ash color of the Menominees, through the cinnamon red, copper and
-bronze tints, may be found among the tribes formerly occupying the
-territory east of the Mississippi—the remnants of some of which are now
-in the Indian Territory and others in the North-west—until we reach
-the dark-skinned Kaws of Kansas, who are nearly as black as the negro.
-The Indians in Mexico are known as the “black people,” an appellation
-designed to be descriptive of their color. Viollet le Duc is of the
-opinion that the builders of the great remains in Southern Mexico
-and Yucatan belonged to two different branches of the human family,
-a light-skinned and dark-skinned race respectively.[281] The variety
-of complexion is as great in South America as among the tribes of the
-northern portion of the continent.
-
-Probably one of the most incontrovertible arguments against American
-ethnic unity is that which rests upon the unparalleled diversity of
-language which meets the philologist everywhere. The monosyllable and
-the most remarkable polysyllables known to the linguist; synthetic and
-analytic families of speech, simplicity and complexity of expression,
-all seem to have sprung up and developed into permanent and in some
-cases beautiful and grammatical systems side by side with each other
-until the Babel of the Pentateuch is realized in the indescribable
-confusion of tongues. The actual number of American languages and
-dialects is as yet unascertained, but is estimated at nearly thirteen
-hundred, six hundred of which Mr. Bancroft has classified in his
-third volume of the _Native Races of the Pacific States_. It is true
-that the American languages present a few features quite peculiar to
-themselves (which will be treated hereafter), but as language is never
-constant, is not a pyramid with its unchanging architectural plan, but
-is a plant which passes through such transitions in the process of its
-growth as to lose entirely some of the elements which it possessed
-at first, so we may as reasonably expect that in the course of time
-certain peculiarities incident to certain climatic conditions, certain
-phases of nature and certain types of civilization, should develop
-themselves as distinguishing features of the speech of the continent.
-The very fact that language is unstable—is a matter of growth—renders
-the argument that these peculiarities indicate unity of the American
-race valueless; while, on the other hand, the fact that here we have
-a greater number and variety of languages than is to be found in any
-of the other grand divisions of the earth, is strong evidence of a
-diversity more radical than that which simply arises from tribal
-affiliations. In view of the wide differences existing between the
-native Americans themselves in every feature which admits of being
-subjected to a scientific test, we are forced to the conclusion, solely
-resting on the evidence in the case, that the theory of American ethnic
-unity is a delusion, an infatuating theory which served only to blind
-its advocates as to the plain facts, and led them into grave errors
-which will become all the more palpable as scientific investigation
-progresses.
-
-As yet no substantial reason for considering the ancient occupant
-of this continent as peculiar in himself, and as unlike the rest
-of mankind, has been set forth. Nothing in the American’s physical
-organization points to an origin different from that to which each
-of the species of the _genus homo_ may be assigned. Whatever truth
-there may be in the diverse origin of the black and white race, the
-separate creation theory, in so far as it maintains that the Creator
-originated upon the soil of this continent a peculiar and separate
-race of men, must in the eyes of this age of criticism lack evidence,
-and be assigned to its place with thousands of others which from time
-immemorial have been contributing to the construction of a foundation
-reef which will ultimately rise like a bold headland above the dark
-waters of uncertainty into the realm of truth.
-
-A few students of American Anthropology have solved the question of
-the origin of the ancient population upon the hypothesis of its having
-developed from a lower order in the animal kingdom, itself indigenous
-to the Western Continent. One of the most distinguished representatives
-of this school, perhaps, is Frederick von Hellwald of Vienna, who
-states his views as follows: “I am unable to give in my adhesion to the
-theory which assumes that the original seat of the human races must be
-sought in higher Asia or somewhere else, whence mankind are supposed to
-have spread themselves gradually over the whole globe; an assumption
-which is contradicted in the most decisive manner by the peopling of
-the new world. It is impossible to enter here into all the hypotheses
-which have been framed for the explanation of a fact so perplexing to
-the Biblical students of the sixteenth century, and of course later
-times; it is enough to say that thus far not one of them have been
-found to correspond even approximately to the demands of science, and
-that theory is probably in every point of view the most tenable and
-exact which assumes that man, like the plant, a mundane being, made
-his appearance generally upon earth when our planet had reached that
-stage of its development which unites in itself the conditions of man’s
-existence. In conformity with this view, I regard the American as an
-Autochthon.”[282] This subject resolves itself into two questions:
-(1) Is the origin of the human race by the processes of development
-from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact? (2) If so, does
-the American continent furnish any species of ape or any known fauna
-from which man could have developed? It is taken for granted that
-the reader is fully familiar with Darwinism (the origin of species
-by means of natural selection, the joint result of the independent
-researches of Darwin and Wallace) and Lamarckism (the theory of man’s
-descent from the ape),[283] both of which have been so enthusiastically
-advocated by Spencer, Huxley, Hæckel and many others. Their works and
-the magnificent array of facts which their patient researches have
-accumulated command our admiration, even if full assent cannot be given
-to all their conclusions.
-
-The first question: _Is the origin of the human race by the processes
-of development from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact?_
-would at first seem to require a lengthy discussion at our hands. But
-in a special work on a subject altogether foreign to the question,
-such a discussion would certainly be out of place. Even if this were
-not true, the above question as stated requires no discussion. We
-believe that no advocate of the hypothesis of evolution could be found
-so sanguine or so unguarded, who would come forward and answer the
-question in the affirmative. On the contrary, we believe the question
-would call forth an honest negative from the great body of scientists
-who hold to the hypothesis of evolution. Obstinacy alone could deny
-that the groups of facts which have been brought to our knowledge, the
-occasional well-marked transitional forms[284] which are turning up,
-the unquestionable tendency in species to vary, and possibly of their
-varieties slowly to form new species under modified surroundings,
-point to a principle, a law in nature, which may be characterized
-as the law of development or evolution. But on the other hand, the
-hypothesis that such a law exists, or, if you please, the fact that it
-exists, does not imply that it is _universal in its application_ or
-that it has _extended through all the realm of nature_. Indeed, pure
-justice to the advocates of the hypothesis requires the statement that
-they have never made such a claim.[285] The fact that such eminent
-scientists as Mivart and Wallace deny the development of man from a
-lower order, is sufficient evidence that the hypothesis in its widest
-bearing is not accepted by all, much less is an ascertained “fact.”
-It appears, therefore, that the first question being unsettled, and
-as yet incapable of solution, the argument turns upon the second
-question: _Does the American Continent furnish any species of ape or
-any known fauna from which man could have developed?_ Before answering
-the question in the light of present knowledge, it will be of interest
-to note the reply made by the late Professor Joseph Henry to the view
-of Frederick von Hellwald, quoted on a preceding page. His estimate of
-the probabilities of man developing from the lower orders of animals
-in more than one locality on the globe is expressed as follows:
-“The spontaneous generation of either plants or animals, although a
-legitimate subject of scientific inquiry, is as yet an unverified
-hypothesis. If, however, we assume the fact that a living being will
-be spontaneously produced when all the physical conditions necessary
-to its existence are present, we must allow that in the case of man,
-with his complex and refined organization, the fortuitous assembly of
-the multiform conditions required for his appearance would be extremely
-rare, and from the doctrine of probabilities could scarcely occur more
-than at one time and in one place on our planet; and further, that
-this place would most probably be somewhere in the northern temperate
-zone. Again, the Caucasian variety of man presents the highest physical
-development of the human family; and as we depart either to the north
-or south, from the latitude assumed as the origin of the human race
-in Asia, we meet with a lower and lower type until at the north we
-encounter the Esquimaux, and at the south the Bosjesman and the Tierra
-Fuegian. The derivation of these varieties from the original stock
-is philosophically explained on the principle of the variety in the
-offspring of the same parents, and the better adaptation and consequent
-chance of life of some of these to the new conditions of existence in
-a more northern or southern latitude.”[286] As a direct answer to the
-question, however, we can do nothing more than refer to the opinions of
-the two greatest advocates of evolution. “In order to form a judgment
-on this head,” says Mr. Darwin, “with reference to man, we must glance
-at the classification of the Simiadæ. This family is divided by almost
-all naturalists into the Catarhine group, or old world monkeys, all
-of which are characterized (as the name expresses) by the peculiar
-structure of the nostrils, and by having four pre-molars in each jaw;
-and into the Platyrhine group or new world monkeys (including two very
-distinct sub-groups), all of which are characterized by differently
-constructed nostrils and by having six molars in each jaw. Some
-other small differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably
-belongs, in his dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and in
-some other respects, to the Catarhine or old world division; nor does
-he resemble the Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any
-characters, excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently
-of an adaptive nature. Therefore, it would be against all probability
-to suppose that some ancient new world species had varied, and had
-thus produced a man-like creature with all the distinctive characters
-proper to the old world division, losing at the same time all its own
-distinctive characters. There can, consequently, hardly be a doubt
-that man is an offshoot from the old world Simian stem, and that under
-a genealogical point of view he must be classed with the Catarhine
-division.”[287] Such was Mr. Darwin’s opinion in 1871; and that the
-views of evolutionists have not changed since that time as to this
-question, we call attention to the words of the distinguished Professor
-Hæckel in his _History of Creation_, which are as follows: “Probably
-America was first peopled from North-eastern Asia by the same tribe
-of Mongols from whom the Polar men (Hyperboreans and Esquimaux) have
-also branched. This tribe first spread in North America, and from
-thence migrated over the isthmus of Central America down to South
-America, at the extreme south of which the species degenerated very
-much by adaptation to the very unfavorable conditions of existence.
-But it is also possible that Mongols and Polynesians emigrated from
-the west and mixed with the former tribe. In any case the aborigines
-of America came over from the old world, and did not, as some suppose,
-in any way originate out of American apes. Catarhine or narrow-nosed
-apes never at any period existed in America.”[288] The same argument
-holds good if it be ascertained that both man and apes developed from
-a common ancestor. With these authoritative utterances from the most
-celebrated representatives of the development school, we shall rest the
-fanciful hypothesis of the autochthonic origin of the ancient American
-population. Some who may not concur in our opinion as to the question
-of man’s development from lower animal forms, may be willing to admit
-that the Americans had an old world origin, which certainly, in the
-light of facts, is the only rational view.[289] The unity of the human
-family is a theory, if not a fact, which is supported by a mass of
-testimony of the most diversified character. The habits and customs,
-the sympathies, the wants and fears, the simpler arts, as well as most
-bodily proportions, point to a relationship which finds its easiest
-explanation in a unity of origin. It is chiefly, however, in the ruder
-arts that this correspondence of style or type is observable. No better
-illustration of this offers itself than the similarity of form or
-forms in which flint arrow-heads are found in all parts of the world.
-It would be impossible for the most expert archæologists to assign a
-promiscuous collection of flint weapons to the various quarters of the
-globe from which they may have been gathered, simply on the ground of
-characteristic forms.[290] The common methods of producing fire by
-means of friction, employed with but slight variation among people
-the most remotely separated,[291] is an inexplicable fact, except on
-the ground of an early community of residence or identical inventive
-genius. The universality of certain architectural forms such as the
-pyramid, and the singular fact that they have generally been used for
-places of sepulture, offers an argument in the same direction. The
-fact indicates either an early community of residence or identity of
-mental organization. The physical resemblances of all races in certain
-stable features which have never been known to change, indicate a
-divergence from a common centre—from one type. The slight differences
-in the type of skull which characterize some nations from others, is
-no argument against original unity, since those peculiarities are
-certainly of more recent origin than the unknown events which at a
-remote period scattered men over the face of the earth.[292] Probably
-no difference between the races of men has been considered so essential
-as that of color, for none has furnished such reasonable ground for
-the views of polygenists as the marked contrast between the African
-and Caucasian types. Years ago the view that color was the result of
-tropical climate was abandoned,[293] for the Eskimo and Lapps are
-almost as dark as many Africans, and their residence under the arctic
-circle has continued from a remote antiquity. Upon the other hand every
-variation in color, from the darkest to the lightest possible shades,
-exist among African tribes. The antiquity of the negro type as we
-now see it, is unquestionably considerable. As proof of this we have
-the oft-referred to argument from Egyptian paintings. In a temple at
-Beyt-el-Welee, in Nubia, constructed in the reign of Rameses II, is a
-painting which has been reproduced by Bonomi, in which a negro kneels
-at the feet of Sethos I, father and predecessor of Rameses II. All the
-peculiarities of the Negroid type are conspicuous; the blackness of the
-color, the thickness of lips, flatness of nose and woolliness of hair
-which pertain to the African of to-day are unquestionably present.[294]
-The painting representing this remarkable ethnic fact is 3200 years
-old, dating from 1400 years before Christ. The Duke of Argyll, on the
-authority of Prof. Lepsius, states that in earlier representations of
-the negro, referable to the “Twelfth Dynasty” or about 1900 B. C., the
-negro color is strongly marked, but not the negro features.[295] It
-is a question whether this fact indicates a transition from one type
-to another, or whether the painting is a true representation of the
-Nubians, who are known not to have flat noses or projecting lips. It
-is supposed also that the unskillfulness of the artists may account
-for the absence of the typal lines.[296] Hieroglyphic writings have
-been found dating about 2000 years B. C., in which mention is made of
-the employment of Negro or black troops by an Egyptian king in the
-prosecution of a great war.[297] At that remote period, when Abraham
-was almost the sole representative of the Jewish race, the negro type
-had multiplied and developed into strong tribes, which were important
-factors in the military contests of the oldest of powers—the Egyptian.
-
-Notwithstanding this seeming permanence of type, it is well known that
-of all physical conditions, color is the most liable to change in
-every organism. Many animals under domestication change their color
-entirely.[298] In our Southern States it was observed that house-slaves
-of the third generation presented quite a markedly different appearance
-from field slaves.[299] This was owing as much, no doubt, to different
-food and different habits of life as to protection from the sun, though
-many different races have quite the same color while their habits of
-life are as different as well could be imagined. Of this class, the
-Eskimo, Chinese, and Fuegeans are examples. However, the fact that
-color is variable even in a slight degree, indicates that considerable
-if not radical changes might be brought about during a great length
-of time. Mr. Darwin has furnished the most rational solution of the
-question, which he describes briefly as follows: “Various facts which
-I have elsewhere given, prove that the color of the skin and hair is
-sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a complete immunity
-from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from the attack
-of parasites. Hence it occurred to me that negroes and other dark
-races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker individuals
-escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly influence
-of the miasmas of their native countries.”[300] This doctrine of the
-survival of only the fittest, while all the weaker and perhaps lighter
-complexioned individuals of a race gradually succumbed to the deadly
-influence of climate, no doubt will explain the origin of the dark
-races, known to enjoy a special immunity against yellow and other
-fevers.[301] At all events, the formation of the distinctive features
-of races requires a great lapse of time. The geologist asks for time
-in which to account for the formation of strata, and the intelligent
-world now grants it to him without limit, and just as reasonably may
-the ethnologist ask for time in which to account for the formation of
-racial types.[302] Nor need the most literal interpreter of Genesis
-object to this demand on the ground of any conflict with the letter
-even of the historic narrative of the Pentateuch. The accepted
-chronology, based on Archbishop Usher’s interpretation, is no part of
-the text of Genesis. It is purely the product of his inadvertence and
-the blindness of many others of his school of Biblical chronologists.
-It is evident that the rules of interpretation applied to the tenth
-chapter of Genesis, according to which the names of the descendants
-of Noah’s sons are taken to represent individuals only, cannot hold.
-The probabilities are that they represent considerable tribes or
-nations. This probability is an established fact in the sixteenth
-and subsequent verses. In the fifteenth verse we learn that Canaan,
-the grandson of Noah, “begat Sidon, his first-born, and Heth.” Here
-the writer seems to refer to individuals, but it is probable that he
-alludes even to the origin of tribes. In the sixteenth verse we are
-not left in doubt on the subject, for there he no longer speaks of
-individuals or generations but of the growth of nations. He immediately
-adds after the above quotation, “and [begat] the Jebusite, and the
-Amorite, and the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the
-Sinite,” etc., etc.[303] The account makes no pretensions at chronology
-or at furnishing data for any system, and the constructions put upon
-its condensed account of the origin and growth of nations during an
-indefinite lapse of time by short-sighted interpreters, are unwarranted
-and certainly do injustice to the oldest of our histories. When we
-go back of the birth of Christ two thousand years—to the time of
-Abraham—this is as far as we can tread with certainty in the light of
-History. This period has been aptly designated by the Duke of Argyll as
-“Time absolute.” But when we go back of 2000 B. C., we are compelled
-to walk in a twilight glimmer, with only the dim rays from occasional
-cuneiform inscriptions, and the condensed accounts contained in
-Genesis, falling across our uncertain pathway. This period the above
-able writer has chosen to call “Time relative,” and the probabilities
-are that its measure is double if not treble that of the portion of
-“Time absolute” which precedes the Christian Era. An additional fact in
-this connection which strengthens the preceding is, that the three most
-ancient versions of the Pentateuch—the Hebrew, the Samaritan and the
-Septuagint—vary considerably in their statements as to the ages of many
-of the patriarchs at the birth of their sons. So wide is the difference
-in this respect between the Hebrew and Septuagint versions that their
-chronologies cannot be reconciled at all, the latter allowing a period
-of eight hundred years more than the former from Adam to Abraham; such
-being the case, it is impossible to arrive at the time of the flood or
-the origin of the race. These contradictions in versions, however, do
-not in any way impeach the historic authority of the Pentateuch, since
-it is in no sense a chronology any more than it is a work on geographic
-or astronomic science. The known antiquity of Egypt and China, to say
-nothing of the facts revealed by geology concerning man’s antiquity,
-can never be reconciled with Usher’s system, which is in no sense the
-true chronology of any known version of the Pentateuch.[304]
-
-In this chapter we have seen that there is nothing to indicate that the
-Americans owe their origin to a special act of creation, and further,
-if they originated by the process of development (for which there is no
-sufficient evidence), that it was not upon the American continent. We
-are supported in these conclusions by the most respectable writers on
-American Ethnology[305] and Antiquities. That the American population
-is of old world origin there can be little doubt; but from whence it
-came, and to what particular people or peoples it owes its birth, is
-quite another question.[306] That view seems open to least objections
-which maintains that the Western Continent received its population at
-a comparatively early period in the history of the race, before the
-peoples of Western Europe and Eastern Asia had assumed their present
-national characteristics or fully developed their religious and social
-customs.[307]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER V.
-
-        TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE MAYA NATIONS.
-
-  Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas — The Tradition of
-      Votan — The First Emigrants to America — City of Nachan —
-      The Votanic Document — Ordoñez — Brasseur and Cabrera on the
-      Tzendal Document — The Empire of the Chanes — The Oldest
-      Civilization — The Earliest Home of the Mayas — The Quichés —
-      Their Origin Tradition — The Quiché Cosmogony — The Creation
-      of Man — The Quiché Migration — Tulan — Mt. Hacavitz — Human
-      Sacrifices instituted — Four Tulans — Association of the Mayas
-      and Nahuas — Heroic Period of the Quichés — Xibalba and its
-      Downfall — Exploits of the Quiché Chieftains — War of the Sects
-      — Xibalba and Palenque the same — Mayas of Yucatan and their
-      Traditions — Culture-Heroes — Zamna and Cukulcan — Christ Myth.
-
-
-The most ancient civilization on this continent, judging from the
-combined testimony of tradition, records, and architectural remains,
-was that which grew up under the favorable climate and geographical
-surroundings which the Central American Region southward of the
-Isthmus of Tehuantepec afforded. The great Maya family with its
-numerous branches, each in time developing its own dialect if not its
-own peculiar language, at an early date fixed itself in the fertile
-valley of the River Usumasinta, and produced a civilization which was
-old and ripe when the Toltecs came in contact with it. Here in this
-picturesque valley region in Tabasco and Chiapas we may look for the
-cradle of American civilization. Under the shadow of the magnificent
-and mysterious ruins of Palenque a people grew to power who spread into
-Guatemala and Honduras, northward toward Anahuac and southward into
-Yucatan, and for a period of probably twenty-five centuries exercised a
-sway which, at one time, excited the envy and fear of its neighbors. We
-are fully aware of the uncertainty which attaches itself to tradition
-in general, and of the caution with which it should be accepted in
-treating of the foundations of history; but still, with reference to
-the origin and growth of old world nations, nothing better offers
-itself in many instances than suspicious legends. The histories of the
-Egyptians, the Trojans, the Greeks, and of even ancient Rome rests on
-no surer footing. It is certain that while the legendary history of any
-nation may be confused, exaggerated, and besides full of breaks, still
-there are some main and fundamental facts out of which it has grown,
-and this we think is especially true of the new world traditions.
-Clavigero says: “The Chiapanese have been the first peoplers of the new
-world, if we give credit to their traditions. They say that Votan, the
-grandson of that respectable old man who built the great ark to save
-himself and family from the deluge, and one of those who undertook the
-building of that lofty edifice which was to reach up to heaven, went
-by express command of the Lord to people that land. They say also that
-the first people came from the quarter of the north, and that when they
-arrived at Soconusco, they separated, some going to inhabit the country
-of Nicaragua and others remaining in Chiapas.”[308] The tradition
-of Votan, the founder of the Maya culture, though somewhat warped,
-probably by having passed through priestly hands, is nevertheless one
-of the most valuable pieces of information which we have concerning
-the ancient Americans. Without it our knowledge of the origin of the
-Mayas would be a hopeless blank, and the ruins of Palenque would be
-more a mystery than ever. According to this tradition, Votan came from
-the East, from Valum Chivim, by the way of Valum Votan, from across
-the sea, by divine command, to apportion the land of the new continent
-to seven families which he brought with him. It appears that he had
-been preceded in America by two others named Igh and Imox, if the
-researches of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg can be relied upon. In
-the Tzendal calendar, Votan’s name appears as that of the third day,
-while Igh and Imox are the first and second respectively. If, as is
-supposed, the names represent the true succession of the Maya chiefs,
-there is some ground for the Abbé’s view.[309] The doubtful portions of
-the tradition which may be interpolations are the ambiguous assertions
-that he saw the Tower of Babel, and was present at the building of
-Solomon’s temple. Probably the remains only of the former structure may
-be referred to.
-
-With these contradictions we have nothing to do, as they do not in any
-way affect the subsequent history of the Votanites, or interfere with
-the probability of their old world origin. To attempt to designate the
-point from which Votan started or the means by which he reached the new
-world, would be the height of folly. Votan is said to have made four
-journeys to the land of his nativity. His achievements in the new world
-were, however, as great as those of any of the heroes of antiquity. His
-great city was named “Nachan,” (city of the serpents), from his own
-race, which was named Chan, a serpent. This Nachan is unquestionably
-identified with Palenque. The date of his journey is placed at 1000
-years B. C.[310] The kingdom of the serpents flourished so rapidly
-that Votan founded three tributary monarchies whose capitals were
-Tulan, Mayapan, and Chiquimula.[311] The former is supposed to have
-been situated about two leagues east of the town of Ococingo; Mayapan
-is well-known to have been the capital of Yucatan, and Chiquimula is
-thought to have been Copan in Honduras.[312] One of the great works
-of this hero was the excavation of a tunnel or ‘snake hole’ from
-Zuqui to Tzequil. He also deposited a great treasure at Huehuetan, in
-Soconusco, which he left under the vigilant care of a guard, directed
-by one of the most honorable women of the land. Finally, he wrote a
-book in which he recorded his deeds and offered proof of his being a
-Chane (or serpent). This ancient document, which is claimed to have
-been written by one of Votan’s descendants, of the eighth or ninth
-generation and not by himself,[313] was in the Tzendal language, a
-dialect or branch of the Maya, spoken in Chiapas and around Palenque.
-Its history is, however, quite checkered, and the information which it
-contained comes very indirectly. For generations the Votanic document
-was scrupulously guarded by the people of Tacoaloya, in Soconusco,
-but was finally discovered by Francisco Nuñez de la Vega, Bishop of
-Chiapas. In the preamble of his _Constituciones_, § xxx,[314] he
-claims to have read this document, but it is probable that only a
-copy, still in the Tzendal language but written in Latin characters,
-had come into his possession.[315] He fails to give any definite
-information from the document except the most general statements with
-reference to Votan’s place in the calendar, and his having seen the
-Tower of Babel, at which each people was given a new language. He
-states that he could have made more revelations of the history of
-Votan from this document but for bringing up the old idolatry of the
-people and perpetuating it. With the zeal of a true Vandal, the bishop
-committed the dangerous documents, together with the treasure which he
-claims Votan to have buried in the dark-house, to the flames in 1691.
-There seems to have been other copies, however, of this remarkable
-manuscript, for about the close of the eighteenth century, Dr. Paul
-Felix Cabrera was shown a document in the possession of Don Ramon de
-Ordoñez y Aguiar, a resident of Ciudad Real in Chiapas, which purported
-to be the Votanic memoir.[316] Ordoñez, at the time, was engaged
-upon the composition of his work on the “_History of the Heaven and
-Earth_.”[317] It appears that Cabrera was admitted to the confidence
-of Ordoñez, and availed himself of a few facts communicated to him by
-the latter, which he supplemented by drawing from his imagination for
-the rest of his account.[318] Brasseur de Bourbourg accuses Cabrera
-of seriously misrepresenting Ordoñez and of warping his account.[319]
-The following, which is Cabrera’s account may be of interest to the
-reader: “He (Votan) states that he conducted seven families from
-Valum Votan to this continent and assigned lands to them; that he is
-the third of the Votans; that having determined to travel until he
-arrived at the root of Heaven, in order to discover his relations,
-the Culebras, and make himself known to them, he made four voyages to
-Chivim (which he expressed by repeating four times from Valum Votan to
-Valum Chivim, from Valum Chivim to Valum Votan); that he arrived in
-Spain, and that he went to Rome; that he saw the great house of God
-building; that he went by the road which his brethren, the Culebras,
-had bored; that he marked it, and that he passed by the houses of
-the thirteen Culebras. He relates that in returning from one of his
-voyages he found seven other families of the Tzequil nation who had
-joined the first inhabitants, and recognized in them the same origin as
-his own, that is, of the Culebras. He speaks of the place where they
-built the first town, which, from its founders, received the name of
-Tzequil; he affirms the having taught them refinement of manners in
-the use of the table, table-cloth, dishes, basins, cups, and napkins;
-they taught him the knowledge of God and of his worship; his first
-ideas of a king and of obedience to Him; that he was chosen captain
-of all those united families.” It is not necessary for us to point
-out the hand of the interpolator in this account; it is sufficiently
-apparent. However, its obnoxious prominence need not destroy our
-faith in the general facts of the account. The interpretation of the
-document we submit to the reader with the simple reminder that the
-symbol of life and power among the Central Americans and Mexicans has
-ever been a serpent, a fact which may have derived its significance
-from the meaning of the name of the Votanites together with the power
-attained by Palenque.[320] Votan’s followers were called Tzequites by
-their predecessors, probably by the descendants of Igh and Imox, the
-signification of which term is ‘men with petticoats.’ The Tzendal
-traditions refer always to the city of Nachan as the capital of the
-kingdom of the Chanes or Serpents, and the most significant feature
-of the traditional names of this people is the fact that the name
-Culhua, applied by the Nahua nations and especially by the Toltecs
-to a powerful people who had preceeded them at the south, is the
-exact equivalent of Chanes; the same is true of Culhuacan.[321] The
-Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg obtained a copy of the fragmentary MS. of
-Ordoñez, which he informs us was written in two separate parts in
-quarto, at different times. The first or mythological part exists in
-a copy owned by the Abbé.[322] The second or historical part, if ever
-written, has never reached the light, and from the description of its
-contents found in the first part, we should think that the author
-might have made a rather imaginative historian.[323] While some of
-the details of the Votanic tradition are not worthy of a moment’s
-consideration, it is quite certain that in the general facts we have
-a key to the origin of what all Americanists agree in pronouncing the
-oldest civilization on this continent, one which was gray and already
-declining when the Toltecs entered Mexico. There is not the slightest
-evidence that it originated in any other place than in Chiapas, where
-it is found, and extended itself into Guatemala, Yucatan, and possibly
-branched northward in a colony as remote as Culhuacan. Sr. Orozco y
-Berra has found fifteen languages or dialects to be related to the Maya
-language, a fact which indicates the age and extent of that remarkable
-civilization.[324] Sr. Orozco is convinced from linguistic and other
-researches, that the inhabitants of Cuba and others of the West India
-Islands were Mayas, and points out the intermediate location of Cuba
-between Florida and Yucatan. He thinks the earliest home of the Mayas
-on this continent was on the Atlantic coast of the United States, from
-whence they emigrated to Cuba and thence to Yucatan.[325] Though we
-are not fully satisfied that the Mayas ever occupied Florida, it is
-quite likely that the islands of the Gulf were inhabited by them at an
-early day. The culture hero Votan is a mystery, and to arrive at his
-true character or office is simply an impossibility. For those disposed
-to speculate, there is abundant opportunity.[326] The most interesting
-traditionary history which has been discovered is that of the Quichés
-of Guatemala. By the name Quiché, in this immediate connection, we do
-not mean to speak of that people after they became amalgamated with
-the Nahua nations from Central Mexico, but as a branch of the great
-Maya monarchy, in all probability located at first at Tulha or Tula,
-which, it is believed, was situated near Ococingo. At first, we think,
-the Quichés developed their own institutions, dialects, etc., as one
-of the allied powers associated with the capital city Nachan, but
-gradually assumed an individuality which became distinctive, until a
-rivalry between the capital and its allied neighbor sprang up, which
-ultimately ended in the overthrow of the former. Sr. Pimentel, on
-the authority of an ancient author, states that the name Quiché was
-applied to the first empire of Palenque and signified _many trees_. It
-was employed by the “innumerable families of different nations which
-composed it, to symbolize its various branches.”[327] The tradition of
-their origin states that they came from the far East, across immense
-tracts of land and water; that in their former home they had multiplied
-considerably and lived without civilization, and with but few wants;
-they paid no tribute, spoke a common language, did not bow down to wood
-and stone, but lifting their eyes toward heaven, observed the will of
-their Creator, they attended with respect to the rising of the sun,
-and saluted with their invocations the Morning Star; with loving and
-obedient hearts they addressed their prayers to Heaven for the gift
-of offspring. “Hail, Creator and Maker! regard us, attend us. Heart
-of Heaven, Heart of the Earth, do not forsake us, do not leave us.
-God of Heaven and Earth, Heart of Heaven, Heart of Earth, consider
-our posterity always. Accord us repose, a glorious repose, peace and
-prosperity, justice, life and our being. Grant to us, O Hurakan,
-enlightened and fruitful, Thou who comprehendest all things great
-and small.”[328] In the _Popol Vuh_, the sacred book of the Quichés,
-we are enabled to arrive more closely at the cosmogony and worship
-of that remarkable people.[329] The reader may not be prepared for
-the irreconcilable contradictions and for the obscure and figurative
-language in which this work abounds; but with the remembrance that
-all nations of antiquity delighted in the use of figures, parabolic
-disguises and personifications under which the truth was couched, we
-may be able to profit by even the seeming foolishness and confusion
-of the Quiché record. The strange, wild poetry of the Quichés, can
-only be fully enjoyed by pursuing the unabridged accounts for which we
-regret we have not space.[330] In the order of the Quiché creation, the
-heavens were first formed and their boundaries fixed by the Creator
-and Former, by whom all move and breathe, by whom all nations enjoy
-their wisdom and civilization. At first there was no man or animal
-or bird or fish or green herb—nothing but the firmament existed,
-the face of the earth was not yet to be seen, only the peaceful sea
-and the whole expanse of heaven. Silence pervaded all; not even the
-sea murmured; there was nothing but immobility and silence in the
-darkness—in the night.[331] The Creator, the Former, the Dominator—the
-feathered serpent—those that engender, those that give being, moved
-upon the water as a glowing light. Their name is Gucumatz, heart of
-heaven—God. “Earth,” they said, and in an instant it was formed and
-rose like a vapor cloud; immediately the plains and mountains arose
-and the cypress and pine appeared. Then Gucumatz was filled with joy,
-and cried out, “Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven, Hurakan,
-thunderbolt!”[332] Animals were next formed, but because they could
-not praise their Maker they were doomed to become objects of prey.
-Four creations of men then followed. The first man was made of clay,
-but he had no intelligence and he was consumed in the water. Upon a
-second trial a man and a woman were made of a sort of pith, but they
-too were unsatisfactory experiments; though they had life and peopled
-the earth, they were very inferior, living like beasts and forgetting
-the Heart of Heaven. The Creator then destroyed them with a flood of
-resin, allowing only a few to escape, that now exist as little apes
-in the woods. The persons of the Godhead, enveloped in the darkness
-which enshrouded a desolated world, counseled concerning the creation
-of a more perfect order, and as a result they formed four perfect men
-named: Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah, and Iqi-Balam. These men
-were miraculously formed of white and yellow maize, and the Creator
-was content with his labors. “Verily, at last, were there found men
-worthy of their origin and their destiny; verily, at last, did the gods
-look upon beings who could see with their eyes and handle with their
-hands and understand with their hearts, grand of countenance and broad
-of limb, the four sires of our race stood up under the white rays of
-the morning star—sole light as yet of the primeval world—stood up and
-looked. Their great clear eyes swept rapidly over all; they saw the
-woods and rocks, the lakes and the sea, the mountains and the valleys,
-and the heavens that were above all; and they comprehended all and
-admired exceedingly. Then they returned thanks to those who had made
-the world and all therein was: we offer up our thanks, twice—yea,
-verily, thrice; we have received life, we speak, we walk, we taste, we
-hear and understand, we know both that which is near and that which
-is far off, we see all things, great and small, in all the heaven and
-earth. Thanks, then, Maker and Former, Father and Mother of our life,
-we have been created—we are.”[333] These four creatures were considered
-too perfect by the gods, and in order that their omniscience might be
-destroyed, they breathed a cloud of mist over their vision. To each of
-these men wives were made while they slept. A fourth creation seems to
-have taken place by which the ancestors of other races were formed.
-
-The account which the _Popol Vuh_ furnishes of the migrations of the
-ancient Quichés is somewhat confused, and it is scarcely possible
-to hope that the locations named should ever be fully identified.
-Their worship was at first purely spiritual. “Only they gazed up into
-heaven, not knowing what they had come so far to do.” In their original
-home, wherever that might have been, they grew weary of this kind of
-service—of watching for “the rising of the sun”—by which it seems they
-meant the coming of temporal power. The four men then forsook their
-abode and journeyed to Tulan-Zuiva, the seven caves or seven ravines.
-Here they found gods; to each of the four men a different deity was
-assigned. To Balam-Quitzé the god Tohil was given; to Balam-Agab the
-god Avilix; and to Mahucutah, the god Hacavitz; and though the fourth
-man Iqi-Balam also received a god, no special account is taken of him,
-since the latter of the four men left no progeny. The journey to Tulan
-is said to have been a very long one. Doubtless in this account we have
-an allusion to one of those modifications in religious notions which
-seems to have often attended a change of residence in early times. The
-abstract worship of the Creator is supplanted by the more material
-and ceremonial worship of intermediate deities (demi-gods). Tulan
-is described as a much colder climate than the eastern and tropical
-land which they had forsaken, and the god Tohil came to their relief
-by the creation of fire. But incessant rains, accompanied with hail,
-extinguished all their fires, which were again kindled repeatedly
-by the fire-god. Tulan was an unfavorable locality for permanent
-abode—rains, extreme cold, dampness, famine prevailed, and the peculiar
-misfortune of the confusion of tongues there befell them. No longer
-were the brother propagators of the race able to communicate with each
-other. “At Tulan there was as yet no sun,” is the significant but
-perplexing language of the narrative. At last Tulan, the mysterious
-land of the “seven-caves,” was forsaken, and under the leadership
-of Tohil the people began a migration which was attended with
-indescribable hardships and famine itself. Their way led through dense
-forests, over high mountains, a long sea passage, and by a rough and
-pebbly shore. We are, however, told that the sea was parted for their
-passage. Their tribulations were at an end when at last they arrived at
-a beautiful mountain, which they named after their god Hacavitz. Here
-they were informed that the sun would appear, and, as a consequence,
-the four progenitors of the race and all the people rejoiced. Here
-was everything beauteous and gladdening. The morning star shed forth
-a resplendent brightness, and the sun itself at last appeared, though
-then it had not the warmth which it possessed at a later day. Before
-the light of the sun, however, the gods Tohil, Avilix and Hacavitz,
-together with the tiger and lion and reptiles, were changed into stone.
-To interpret this paragraph, which is greatly condensed, is a difficult
-undertaking, still there are certain facts which seem to serve as the
-basis of intelligent speculation. The language is extremely figurative
-throughout the entire narrative, and especially so here. Their worship
-of the morning star at an early period seems to connect them with the
-Mediterranean peoples of the old world. The allusions to the sun not
-yet having come may be retrospective, indicating that the worship of
-the sun had not been adopted at that early day, or it may indicate
-that the period of national strength had not dawned. The fact that the
-morning star shone more brilliantly on Mt. Hacavitz than at Tulan (the
-seven caves), may mean either that the worship of the star was more
-splendidly celebrated, or it may have reference to an astronomical
-fact, that the star itself was more luminous, and furnish evidence in
-harmony with the statements of the narrative that Mt. Hacavitz was a
-more southern location than the tempestuous Tulan. The petrifaction
-of the three tribal gods may have been the result of an age of peace
-and prosperity which offered an opportunity for developing their
-cultus; or, upon the other hand, if the coming of the sun refers to
-the advent of a new religion, that which is known to have prevailed
-among the Nahuas, the old gods may have been sculptured in stone,
-that their national character and deeds might not be forgotten before
-the increasing importance of the new faith. There they instituted
-sacrifices of beasts to the three stone gods Tohil, Avilix and
-Hacavitz; they even drew blood from their own bodies and offered it
-to them. Finally, not content with these, the first four men, led by
-Balam-Quitzé, instituted human sacrifices. Captives were taken from
-neighboring tribes, kidnapping was practised extensively, until the
-hostility of their neighbors broke forth into open war. The contest,
-however, resulted favorably to the Quichés, and the surrounding tribes
-became subject to the victorious power. In Hacavitz they composed
-a national song called the Kamucu (“we see”)—a memorial of their
-misfortunes in Tulan—a lament for the loss of so many of their people
-in that unfortunate locality. This loss is described as occasioned by a
-portion of their race being left behind, rather than as the result of
-the misfortunes which attended them there. At last, at the noon-day of
-their national glory, it came to pass that the ancestors of their race,
-Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam, died—the men who
-came from the east, from across the sea, died—and their remains were
-enveloped in a great bundle and preserved as memorials of the ancestors
-of the race.[334] Then the Quichés sang the sad Kamucu, and mourned the
-loss of their leaders and that portion of their race which they left
-behind them in Tulan.
-
-The definite location of Tulan is almost out of the question; it may
-only be conjectured. We have already stated, on the authority of
-Ordiñez, that there was a Tulan near Ococingo.[335] The Cakchiquel
-MS., known only through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but
-evidently a document containing the same facts as those stated in the
-_Popol Vuh_, gives the following information concerning Tulan: “Four
-persons came from Tulan, from the direction of the rising sun—that is
-one Tulan. There is another Tulan in Xibalbay, and another where the
-sun sets, and it is there that we came; and in the direction of the
-setting sun there is another, where is the god; so that there are four
-Tulans; and it is where the sun sets that we came to Tulan, from the
-other side of the sea where this Tulan is; and it is there that we were
-conceived and begotten by our mothers and our fathers.”[336] From this
-it appears that two of these Tulans were not upon the continent at all;
-one in the east across the sea, the birthplace of the race; another
-an imaginary locality somewhere toward the region of the setting sun,
-where the deity dwells; another Tulan is pretty certainly located in
-Chiapas near the capital of Xibalba; with this place, however, they
-do not state that they had any relationship, but another Tulan where
-the sun sets is designated as the locality to which they came from
-across the sea. Mr. Bancroft confounds the Tulan of their misfortunes
-with that which was located near Xibalba; but this view is plainly
-wrong, since the climatic surroundings of the Chiapan Tulan are quite
-the opposite of those described as prevailing at that Tulan where
-fire was so necessary. In the Tulan to which they journeyed they
-suffered from cold, and their god Tohil, whom they received there,
-gave them fire. Señor Orozco y Berra quite positively identifies this
-Tulan with the Toltec capital Tollan, north of Anahuac, and certainly
-with reason.[337] There their tongues were changed, there the Nahua
-language was encountered. No doubt that in the first period of the
-Toltec power in Tollan, the Maya-Quichés who had migrated northward
-from some locality in the Usumacinta region and intermingled with the
-Nahuas, sharing in their worship and appropriating certain elements of
-language, migrated southward to the elevated regions of Vera-Paz and
-founded a Quiché power in Guatemala.
-
-Upon the downfall of the Toltec monarchy in the eleventh century, no
-doubt many noble Toltec families forsook the unfortunate and fallen
-capital and founded in Guatemala the Quiché-Cakchiquel monarchy,
-composed of Maya and Toltec elements, which spread itself southward
-in colonies and branches into various parts of Central America, and
-flourished with such power and fame at the time of the Conquest. It
-is not the province of this work to take up the annals of this or any
-other people, but only to treat of their most primitive period. The
-gap in Quiché history between that which we have been treating and the
-period of the Annals is considerable, and no document has yet been
-discovered which will fill it with the wanting record. Mr. Bancroft
-has placed the annals within the reach of the English reader in his
-fifth volume. Mt. Hacavitz was the point at which the scattered tribes
-collected and formed the nucleus of the subsequently powerful monarchy
-in Guatemala of which Utatlan was the capital. The two places may
-have been identical. Several facts point to the early association of
-the ancestors of the Quichés with the Nahuas who subsequently figure
-so conspicuously as Toltecs and Aztecs. The tribes which migrated
-northward were called Yaqui (according to the _Popol Vuh_), and the
-name ethnographically has the same meaning as Nahuatl.[338] The Quichés
-applied the name to the inhabitants of Mexico. The god Tohil was
-called by the Yaqui tribes Yolcuat Quitzalcuat while the Quichés were
-in Tulan. Quetzalcoatl, of whom we shall speak more fully hereafter,
-was the greatest of the Nahua divinities.[339] The Aztecs and Toltecs
-as well as the Quichés came from the “Seven Caves,” that Tulan which
-seems to have been the early home of the two great families speaking
-radically different languages—the Maya and the Nahua. The statement so
-often met with that Tulan was across the sea is perplexing. Can we look
-for it upon some of the islands of the Gulf or Caribbean Sea? or are
-we to look upon the reference to the sea passage as an earlier event
-in the history of both peoples, which because of the lack of records
-has been confounded with some of the adventures of the march toward
-the northern Tulan, which was undertaken at least by the Mayas and
-possibly by the Nahuas from their common home in the Usumacinta valley?
-We are inclined, in the light of a large margin of testimony, to accept
-the latter view, and consider the Tulan of the Chiapan region to have
-been the early home of both peoples—the primitive one of the Mayas
-and the adopted one of the Nahuas—after leaving Hue Hue Tlappalan,
-the accidental centre to which in their wanderings they converged,
-and in which they met; here in an age of simpler manners they lived
-in the enjoyment of peace, preserving each their own institutions and
-language, though considerably influencing each other’s customs. The
-Tulan of this Central American region may have been confounded in name
-and characteristics with the original home of each race “across the
-sea.”
-
-The Quiché record furnishes us with the account of an epoch in the
-early Quiché history which we are justified in characterizing as
-their heroic period. It occupies the same place in their history as
-the Trojan war in the history of Greece. The tradition of the fall of
-Xibalba, the terror of its neighbors, the power which by its enemies
-was called infernal, is a heroic composition founded on a combination
-of events as mysterious and wonderful as those contained in the Iliad
-itself. To locate the events in their proper place, to assign them
-their true period, is attended with as many difficulties as attend the
-Homeric history. The authorities differ as to the proper chronologic
-order of the record. The _Popol Vuh_, both in the Ximinez and Brasseur
-editions, give the narrative to which we have reference immediately
-after the destruction of the men made of pith or wood—the result of the
-first creation. Mr. Bancroft is somewhat indifferent about the order
-and follows the narrative. Brasseur de Bourbourg, however, considers
-that chronologically the narrative follows the third creation, that
-of the four founders of the Quiché race.[340] If we look upon the
-so-called creations as simply tribal origins and not as mythical
-accounts of the origin of man, there is room for the heroic period
-before the days of the four ancestors of the Quichés; but if, on the
-contrary, the two creations preceding that of Balam-Quitzé and his
-associates are mythical, are the legendary accounts of a fancied order
-in creation and not the origin of tribes, the view taken by the Abbé is
-the only one which can be accepted. The question cannot at present be
-definitely settled. If we resort to the latter view, that of the Abbé,
-it is necessary for us to suppose that the long reign of Balam-Quitzé,
-Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam is that of a line, a dynasty, and
-not of individuals—which is altogether probable. Brasseur supposes
-the time of which the tradition speaks to have been about fifteen
-centuries before the Spanish conquest, and thinks Copan was the capital
-of a province called Payaqui (“in the Yaqui,” which we have seen was
-the name of the Nahuas), and that this capital, otherwise known as
-Chiquimula, owed its origin to a warrior known as Balam, who introduced
-human sacrifices. His authority is the _Isagoge Historico MS._ cited
-by Pelaez, to whose work we have already referred.[341] To attempt to
-determine upon the time definitely would be a hopeless undertaking.
-The mysterious tradition with its confused statements and allegorical
-allusions we will attempt to condense into intelligible shape. This
-has already been accomplished by Mr. Bancroft, and his version greatly
-facilitates our efforts in the same direction.
-
-The second division of the _Popol Vuh_ contains the account of two
-attempts at the overthrow of the great Xibalban monarchy, founded
-by Votan. The first of these proved unsuccessful and fatal to the
-enemies of the great power; the second, undertaken by the descendants
-of the defeated chieftains, resulted in the downfall of the empire
-of the Serpents or Votanites, and in the revenge of the death of
-the unsuccessful warriors. The account is provokingly figurative;
-different allies of each of the powers being spoken of as owls, wild
-beasts, rabbits, deer, rats, lice, ants, etc., a custom which has
-always prevailed among savage and semi-civilized nations. Savages of
-the forests are usually referred to as wild beasts in early tradition.
-Xibalba is so hated by its enemies that its usual title is the
-“infernal regions.”[342] Torquemada refers to it as _hell_, and its
-king as the king of the “shades.”[343] The hatred was intense, and
-the worst invectives were mild in the estimation of the enemies of
-the no doubt oppressive power. We have already given the account of
-creation in which Gucumatz (the Plumed Serpent) figured conspicuously.
-He, however, is seen to have acted at the word of Hurakan (“Heart
-of Heaven”). The closing paragraphs of the first division of the
-_Popol Vuh_ give some of the exploits of the young heroes Hunahpu and
-Xbalanque, who figure as the defendants of the worship of the Heart of
-Heaven. A certain Vucub-Cakix, who assumed to be the sun and god of
-the people, and who in his pride offended the Heart of Heaven, fell at
-their avenging hands. His sons Zipacna and Cabrakan, whose pride was
-as offensive to Hurakan as had been their father’s, shared the same
-fate; though the brothers lost four hundred of their allies in the
-undertaking, by Zipanca toppling over a house upon them while they were
-rejoicing at his supposed death in a pit in which they had buried him.
-
-The second division of the account reverts to events which preceded
-those in the closing paragraphs of the first division by one or
-more generations. The exploits of the ancestors of the brothers are
-narrated. Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, grandparents of the sun and moon,
-had two sons, Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu. The former of these sons
-married, and to him were born also two sons, Hunbatz and Hunchouen,
-who grew up to be wise and skillful and great artists. With all
-these persons Hurakan, the Heart of Heaven, communicated through his
-messenger Voc. At last Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu undertook a journey
-toward Xibalba, playing ball as they went, by which we understand that
-they set out upon a march of conquest. Upon hearing of their approach,
-Hun Came and Vukub Came, kings of Xibalba, sent them a challenge to
-a game of ball by four messengers who were called owls. From the
-ball-ground of Nimxab Carchah (now the name of an Indian town in Vera
-Paz), they followed the messengers down the steep road to Xibalba,
-crossing rivers and ravines and a bloody stream. After arriving at
-the royal palace, and during the process of arranging for the contest
-in which their strength should be tried, they were so unfortunate as
-first to be made the subjects of ridicule for the whole court, then
-put to torture, and afterwards were cruelly and it seems treacherously
-murdered. The head of Hunhunahpu was hung upon a tree, which at once
-became overgrown with gourds so as to hide the head of the unfortunate
-chief. Notwithstanding the royal decree that no one should approach
-the tree, Xquiq, a virgin princess, a Xibalban, determined to taste
-its forbidden fruit, and in an hour of solitude was in the act of
-reaching forth to pluck it, when Hunhunahpu spat into her hand and she
-immaculately conceived. Her condition was discovered by her father, who
-delivered her to the owls, the royal messengers, to be put to death. By
-bribing her executioners she escaped and went to the dwelling of the
-old grandmother Xmucane, who upon the death of Hunhunahpu’s wife had
-taken charge of his sons, the youthful Hunbatz and Hunchouen. Xquiq,
-by miraculous performances, satisfied Xmucane that Hunhunahpu was the
-father of her unborn children, and was received into her home. The
-Xibalban virgin brought forth twin sons in the house of the enemies
-of her country. These she named Hunahpu and Xbalanque. From the very
-first their lot with their great-grandmother was a hard one. Their
-half-brothers Hunbatz and Hunchouen treated them harshly, but in time
-the twins revenged themselves by changing the former into monkeys, and
-succeeding to their artistic skill and musical fame.
-
-Various exploits of the twin brothers are narrated, chiefly—as we would
-interpret the figurative language—with the more savage tribes of the
-forests and mountains. From one of their captives whom they call a rat,
-they learned of the expedition of their father and uncle, and were
-brought into possession of their ball implements. The old ball-ground
-(probably battle-ground) of their fathers was resorted to by Hunahpu
-and Xbalanque, and when the Xibalban monarchs, Hun Came and Vukub Came,
-heard of their purposes, they were angered and sent a challenge to
-them as they had done to their ancestors. The message was delivered
-at the great-grandmother’s home, and the two chieftains, upon being
-acquainted with the news, returned to bid both mother and grandmother
-farewell. Before taking final leave, they planted in the centre of
-the house (probably the court) each a cane, which was endowed with
-the singular attribute of revealing to the family the fortunes of
-each of the brothers. The life and fate of each cane was inseparably
-connected with that of Hunahpu and Xbalanque. On their route to Xibalba
-the bloody river was passed and a stream called Papuhya; but, more
-wise than their predecessors, they took cunning precautions not to be
-deceived and sacrificed by the Xibalban monarchs. For this purpose, it
-is said, they sent an animal called Xan before them, equipped with a
-hair from Hunahpu’s leg, with which he pricked the princes and by their
-exclamations learned their names. Thus they detected the artificial
-wooden men whom we are told deceived their ancestors and made them the
-objects of ridicule.
-
-By this strange personification we think we may understand that the
-father and the uncle of the two young heroes had treated with a couple
-of irresponsible Xibalbans who had been sent out to meet them, with
-the pretence that they were the kings, and when they had induced their
-enemies to enter the city, the true monarchs seized them and repudiated
-the action of the so-called wooden men, avowing no responsibility for
-their pledges. Hunahpu and Xbalanque avoided two other artifices of
-which their ancestors were the victims; one of these was a seat on a
-red-hot stone under the pretence that it was the seat of honor; the
-other was an ordeal in the “House of Gloom.”[344] The angry Xibalban
-kings then met them in a game of ball, but suffered a defeat. Hun Came
-and Vukub Came then requested the victors to give them four bouquets of
-flowers, which request was granted, the fortunate brothers themselves
-bearing them to the defeated kings. At their instance, however, the
-guards of the royal gardens committed Hunahpu and Xbalanque to the
-house of lances—the second of five ordeals common at Xibalba. Scarcely
-had this been done before a swarm of ants—allies of the brothers—came
-to their rescue, entered the royal gardens, bribed the lancers,
-released their leaders and punished the owls—guards of the Xibalban
-kings—by splitting their lips. The defeated monarchs began to realize
-the seriousness of the contest which was being waged against them.
-Hunahpu and Xbalanque were then subjected to ordeals in the houses of
-cold, of tigers, and of fire respectively, but without suffering harm.
-As we proceed, the account becomes more figurative than ever. In the
-next ordeal in the house of bats, we are told that Hunahpu’s head was
-cut off by the ruler of the bats, who, it seems, was recognized as of
-super-terrestrial origin. Strange to say, this violent proceeding did
-not prove fatal to Hunahpu; the animals assembled, came to the heroes’
-relief, and by the strategic skill of the turtle and rabbit, at a
-great game of ball, the brothers came out of all the Xibalban ordeals
-unharmed.
-
-The next act was designed as the beginning of the end of the great
-struggle. Xibalba had failed because the brutes were not its allies.
-The brothers were determined to show the haughty rival their personal
-greatness, and resorted to the use of their magical arts. After
-proper instructions to their sorcerers, Xulu and Pacam, Hunahpu and
-Xbalanque mounted a funeral pyre and endured a voluntary death. But
-their ashes and bones which were thrown into a river, rose instantly
-into life, assuming the shape of young men. Five days subsequent to
-this wonderful event they appeared in the form of man-fishes; and on
-the day following, the sorcery was complete, for the brothers now
-presented themselves in the form of “ragged old men, dancing, burning
-and restoring houses, killing and restoring each other to life, and
-performing other wonderful things. They were induced to exhibit their
-skill before the princes of Xibalba, killing and resuscitating the
-king’s dog, burning and restoring the royal palace. Then a man was
-made the subject of their art. Hunahpu was cut in pieces and brought
-to life by Xbalanque. Finally the monarchs of Xibalba wanted to
-experience personally the temporary death; Hun Came the highest was
-first killed, then Vukub Came, but life was not restored to them.”[345]
-The twin sons of the unfortunate Xibalban virgin, an outcast from her
-home, triumphed, their father and uncle were avenged, the warlike
-Xibalbans—the fierce, frightful-looking, owl-like, faithless,
-hypocritical tyrants, black and white, and with painted faces, as they
-are described—were overthrown forever. The ancestors of the victorious
-chieftains were then deified and given places in the sun and moon;
-while their allies, the enemies of Xibalba, were made stars in the
-firmament.
-
-To interpret fully this figurative account requires further knowledge,
-which it is hoped ultimately may come to light. The beheading of
-Hunahpu in the house of bats may signify the loss of the most important
-division of his army; for when the “animals” came to his relief—by
-which we understand the less civilized tribes of the country—he
-obtained a victory. The closing paragraphs of the account indicate that
-a long and tiresome warfare brought the brothers repeated victories,
-but not the entire overthrow of Xibalba; and that stratagem was
-resorted to—a stratagem no more improbable or difficult to understand
-than that of the wooden horse said to have been used by the Greeks
-at Troy. The stratagem was at last successful, and Xibalba, of the
-Votanites—we suppose the empire of the Chanes—fell. The war seems to
-have been one of religion in part, for Hurakan, “Heart of Heaven,”
-inspired the contest, and Gucumatz, “the Plumed Serpent,” one of
-his associate though minor deities, was the god of Hunahpu and
-Xbalanque. The wicked Xibalbans were puffed up against the Heart of
-Heaven, would not accept the true faith, and hence their overthrow
-before the advancing power of a new religion.[346] It is certain that
-the conquerors of Xibalba (which was no doubt Palenque) were near
-neighbors, who had been closely allied to the great power. Bancroft is
-of the opinion that they were the Tzequiles, who arrived during Votan’s
-absence and introduced new ideas of government and religion among his
-people.[347] Garcia Pelaez, in his _Memorias_, agrees with Juarros in
-calling them Carthaginians, and states that they arrived in that region
-about four hundred years before Christ, founded Tulan, the present
-Ococingo, and overthrew ancient Culhuacan or Palenque.[348] Brasseur
-de Bourbourg says that the Nahuas, coming into Mexico by sea at the
-south [_i. e._, in the south central region] slowly moved toward the
-north, to the regions bordering on California, and also spreading their
-civilization across the Usumacinta River, went into Yucatan and even
-Guatemala. This he thinks occurred in the year 174 of our era; Xibalba
-was at the height of her power, but was overthrown in the revolution
-and conquest.[349] While we do not attach much certainty to the
-Abbé’s date, still we think that the fall of Xibalba was due to Nahua
-influences brought to bear upon the ancestors of the Quichés. The old
-religion and civilization of the Votanites were compelled to yield to
-the vigorous and warlike power which brought with it a religion which
-has ever commended itself to the senses and impulses of semi-civilized
-peoples. The worship of the sun-symbol of the Heart of Heaven was
-destined to supplant all other faiths.
-
-It will be remembered that Quetzalcoatl was the leader and deity of the
-Nahuas, and that in their language his name signified “plumed serpent,”
-while Gucumatz, leader and patron deity of the Xibalban conquerors
-has precisely the same significance in the Quiché language. Utatlan
-upon the Guatemalian highlands was doubtless the point from which the
-allied forces under the brothers descended the precipitous road to
-the Usumacinta region below. It is probable that the Nahuas had lived
-for some time in the country, had reached it in their migrations by
-water along the Gulf coast, and spread their population to quarters
-both north and south of the point at which they entered. They may
-have been permitted to settle in the country without molestation, and
-in time to have united their forces with the rivals of Xibalba for the
-overthrow of a power which was the dread of the entire Central American
-region. The crumbling though wonderful ruins of Palenque are the sole
-vestiges which are left to us of a grand capital and noble empire,
-and these offer us nothing but the sealed histories which are graven
-in hieroglyphics upon its walls. Subsequently the Maya-Quiché nations
-divided and extended their language in three directions; one division
-journeyed toward Guatemala, another toward Mexico, and another into
-Yucatan; the latter region has ever remained a peculiarly Maya country.
-Las Casas states that some of the Guatemalians had a legend of their
-origin, to the effect that a divine pair of beings had thirteen sons
-(but by comparison with other authors, namely, Roman in Garcia, and
-Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 74–5, it is clear that the writer designed
-to write three—_tres_—instead of thirteen—_trece_), or rather three
-sons. The eldest was puffed up in his own conceit, and attempted to
-create man against the will of his parents, but failed, except that
-he was able to produce vessels of the meaner sort. The younger sons,
-who exhibited quite a different spirit, were granted the privilege,
-and after creating the sun and moon and stars, created the first man
-and woman, the progenitors of the human race.[350] Las Casas adds,
-“They have among them knowledge of the flood and of the end of the
-world. They call it ‘butic,’ a name which signifies a flood of many
-waters. They also believe that another ‘butic’ and judgment will come,
-not of water but of fire. They hold that certain persons who escaped
-from the flood populated their land; these were called the Great
-Father and Great Mother.”[351] In Yucatan the origin traditions point
-directly to an eastern and foreign source for the population. The
-early writers report that the natives believed their ancestors to have
-crossed the sea by a passage which was opened for them.[352] It was
-also believed that part of the population came into the country from
-the West. Lizana says that the smaller portion of the population, the
-“little descent,” came from the East, while the greater portion, “the
-great descent,” came from the West.[353] Cogolludo disagrees with this
-view, and considers the eastern colony as the larger; a view which is
-not likely to be true. The author himself is not quite certain as to
-what he thinks upon the subject, and contradicts himself squarely on
-the same page, as to the direction from which Zamna, the Yucatanic
-culture-hero, is said to have come.[354] Señor Orozco y Berra, thinks
-that the Yucatanic population came from the north-east (from Florida),
-by way of Cuba and the islands adjacent.[355] The culture-hero, Zamna,
-the author of all civilization in Yucatan, is described as the teacher
-of letters and the leader of the people from their ancient home. His
-relation to the people and his office of priest and deity combined—the
-fact that he was the leader of a colony from the East, that he named
-all the divisions of the land, all the towns, coasts, bays and
-rivers—identifies him with Votan or rather with one of his disciples
-or associates. Cogolludo’s statement, first that he came from the
-West, may be true of the direction from which he came into Yucatan; and
-the statement that he came from the East, may refer to the original
-migration by which he in company with Votan reached Chiapas and from
-thence entered the peninsula on the north-east. He was the founder of
-the capital city of Mayapan, and after a long life died and was buried
-at Izamal.[356] This became a shrine for pilgrims and was visited for
-centuries afterwards by religious devotees in large numbers. Zamna is
-supposed to have founded the oldest royal house in Yucatan—that of the
-Cocomes.[357] The second culture-hero, of whom mention is made by all
-the early writers, was Cukulcan (meaning plumed serpent, precisely
-the same as Quetzalcoatl), who entered the country from the West and
-settled at Chichen-Itza.[358] Landa is not certain whether he preceded
-or followed the Itzas. His celibacy, general purity of morals, and the
-advanced character of his teachings, seem to identify him with the
-Nahua culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, and it is believed, with reason,
-that he appeared in Yucatan after his mysterious disappearance in
-the province of Goazacoalco. For some unknown reason, Cukulcan left
-Chichen-Itza after a residence there of ten years. Herrera states that
-he had two brothers who remained in Chichen-Itza, while Cukulcan went
-to Mayapan. He describes all as practising the purest asceticism. After
-the disappearance of Cukulcan, temples were erected to his memory and
-he was worshiped as a god.[359] The date of his residence in Yucatan
-is a matter of considerable dispute, Cogolludo placing it in the
-twelfth century, Herrera in the ninth, Brasseur de Bourbourg in the
-eleventh, and Bancroft in the second. To fix dates on no better data
-than such legends is folly. It is probable, however, that Cukulcan
-was the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, who was the teacher of the Nahua
-nations and figured as the introducer of the fine arts, of purity of
-morals, of confessional ceremonies and a humane and enlightened system
-of religion at Cholula, and afterwards disappeared toward the East
-upon the waters of the Gulf. With the rule of the Cocomes and the
-annals of that remarkable branch of the Chiapan family, composed of
-Maya and Nahua elements known as the Tutul Xius, we have nothing to do
-in this work.[360] Las Casas, in examining the doctrine of Hunab Ku,
-“the only God” among the Yucatecoes, who is described as the father
-of Zamna, discovered a most striking Christ myth; one which conforms
-so closely to the gospel account of Christ’s birth and ministry that
-we must conclude that either some foreigner must have been cast upon
-the coast after the Christian era began, bringing the gospel with him,
-or that one of two views is true, namely, that the Fathers fabricated
-the story, or that the natives, expecting favor of their conquerors,
-endeavored to harmonize their belief with that which was being taught
-them. Las Casas tells us of their belief in a Trinity consisting of
-Izona, the Father; Bacab, the Son, and Echuah, the Holy Ghost.[361]
-The Son was born of the Virgin Chibirias, and was rejected of men, was
-scourged and crucified on a tree with cross-arms; he descended into
-the regions of the dead, but rose again on the third day, and finally
-ascended to heaven. In fact the story is the Apostles’ Creed without
-the “Credo,” and is probably as much the work of the credulous and
-imaginative Spanish Fathers as of the designing natives. The story
-ought to be repudiated without question. It only remains for us to
-submit the question to the reader, whether the Maya peoples are not of
-transatlantic origin, as we believe the facts in this chapter indicate.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VI.
-
-        TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE NAHUA NATIONS.
-
-  The Early Inhabitants of Mexico — Quinames — Miztecs and Zapotecs
-      — Totonacs and Huastecs — Olmecs and Xicalancas — The Nahuas —
-      The Cholula Pyramid — Its Origin Explained in the Duran MS. —
-      No Relation to a Flood — Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition — The
-      first Toltecs — The Codex Chimalpopoca Account — The Discovery
-      of Maize — Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas — They came from
-      Florida — Their Settlement in Tamoanchan — Their Migrations
-      — Hue Hue Tlapalan — Its Location, according to the Sources
-      — Not Identical with Tlapallan de Cortés — Not in Central
-      America — Probably in the Mississippi Valley — Beginning of the
-      Toltec Annals — The Chichimecs not Nahuas — The Nahuatlacas —
-      The Aztecs — Aztlan — As Described by Early Writers — Aztec
-      Migration — Aztec Maps — Señor Ramirez on Migration Maps — The
-      Seven Caves — Three Claims for the Location of Aztlan — The
-      Culture Hero — Quetzalcoatl.
-
-
-In considering the origin of the Nahua nations, especially of the
-Toltecs and Aztecs, it is common to look upon the former as the first
-inhabitants of Mexico. Such a conclusion is, however, erroneous, since
-the Toltecs were preceded in Central-Southern Mexico, and even in
-Anahuac, both by people of different extraction from themselves and
-by scattering tribes of their own linguistic family, the Nahua. Of
-the former class, the most conspicuous are the so-called Quinametin
-(or Quinames), otherwise known as giants. These fierce and powerful
-people were encountered by the Olmecs, the first Nahuas to colonize
-the region north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All the early writers
-refer to them in terms which indicate that they were disposed to accept
-the existence of a race of giants as a fact. Veytia and Clavigero,
-however, are convinced that the report is not to be accepted literally.
-The widest possible difference of opinion as to their origin and
-relationship to existing tribes prevails with different authors. All
-agree, however, that they were the first inhabitants of the country.
-These cruel monsters, addicted to the most disgusting vices, the
-terror of the immigrating peoples, at last met their fate, according
-to Ixtlilxochitl, in a great convulsion of nature which shook the
-earth and caused the mountains and volcanoes to swallow up and kill
-them.[362] It is probable that this account was figurative. Duran
-says they were destroyed by the Tlascaltecs while eating.[363] Veytia
-attributes the destruction to the Olmec chiefs, who made a feast for
-their enemies and when they were stupid and drunken fell upon them
-and slew them. We think that in this allusion to the giants, “the
-first inhabitants of the land,” we see the Votanic colonists from
-Xibalba that are supposed to have penetrated Anahuac at an early
-day. They may not have carried any special degree of refinement with
-them from their old home, and if they did, they probably lapsed into
-a state of semi-barbarism. Their power as a people, their enmity to
-the immigrants, and their traditional connection with the hated and
-all-powerful Xibalba, may have won for them the name of giants because
-of the fear that was entertained of them; or, as Mr. Bancroft thinks,
-they may not have been savages at all, but a civilized branch of the
-Xibalbans, carrying on the warfare in the North which had been waged
-farther South.[364] It is quite probable that we have here a figurative
-allusion, from a Nahua standpoint, to the fall of the Xibalban power
-itself—the new-world Babylon, which, like the old, may have met its
-fate during a drunken revel.[365]
-
-To the tribes which figured conspicuously in Mexico prior to the
-Toltecs and not related to the Nahuas, we may add the Miztecs and
-Zapotecs, whose language, though not Maya, is in some respects similar
-to it, while the architectural remains and traditional origin of
-this people associates them with the Nahuas. Their civilization in
-Oajaca rivalled that of the Aztecs in its degree of advancement.[366]
-The Totonacs were formerly, according to Torquemada, of Nahua
-extraction; but the authority in the face of linguistic difficulties
-is doubtful.[367] According to Torquemada’s claim, they were the
-builders of the temple of the sun and moon at Teotihuacan near Lake
-Tezcuco.[368] The Huastecs of northern Vera Cruz were a Maya branch
-of the power at the south; they mark the most northern point reached
-by the Maya tongue. Of the Nahua predecessors of the Toltecs in
-Mexico the Olmecs and Xicalancas were the most important. They were
-the forerunners of the great nations which followed. According to
-Ixtlilxochitl, these people—which are conceded to be one—occupied the
-new world in the third age; they came from the East in ships or barks
-to the land of Potonchan, which they commenced to populate, and on
-the shores of the River Atoyac, between the Ciudad de los Angeles and
-Cholula, they found some giants who had escaped the calamity which
-overtook that race in the second age of the world.[369] Here then comes
-the destruction of the giants referred to above. The first settlement
-of the Olmecs and Xicalancas in Mexico is supposed to have been on the
-site of the ancient city of Xicalanco at the point which still bears
-the name, at the entrance of the Laguna de Terminos, while a second
-city, built probably a little later, was situated on the coast a short
-distance below Vera Cruz; the entire region bore the name of Anahuac
-Xicalanco.[370] The first great exploit of the Olmec chiefs, the
-destruction of the giants, we observe was performed at some distance
-from their earliest settlement. The state of Puebla became their chosen
-ground, and quite soon after the above achievement they undertook the
-building of the famous tower of Cholula, which is so closely allied in
-its traditional history with the Tower of Babel. Several authors state
-that the erection of the pyramid of Cholula was done in memory of the
-erection of the tower of Babel, at which it is claimed the ancestors
-of the Olmec chiefs were present. Boturini is probably one of the
-most sanguine advocates of this view.[371] Others consider that the
-knowledge which the ancestors of this people transmitted to them with
-reference to Babel, in time became associated with the Cholula edifice
-and confounded with its history.
-
-The Toltecs possessed a deluge tradition, which we will notice
-hereafter, which unquestionably had reference to a very general and
-devastating flood; perhaps the scriptural one, but it is clear, as we
-think we have the authority to show, that the Cholula pyramid and its
-origin had no relation to that tradition, though so often confounded
-with it and the tower referred to by the Nahua chroniclers. The
-generally accepted origin of the pyramid is as follows: from the great
-cataclysm which destroyed the giants, seven of that race of monsters
-escaped by shutting themselves up in a mountain cavern. After the
-waters subsided, Xelhua, one of their number, went to Cholula and began
-the construction of this pyramid “to escape a second flood, should
-another occur,” according to Kingsborough, or as a “memorial of the
-mountain called Tlaloc which had sheltered him,” according to Pedro
-de los Rios. The bricks which were manufactured at the foot of the
-Sierra de Cocotl were transported to Cholula by being passed through
-the hands of a file of men extending between the two localities. But
-the angered gods seeing the presumption of mortals, smote both the
-tower and its architects with thunderbolts and stopped their work.[372]
-Lord Kingsborough so intimately connects the erection of the tower
-with the Toltec deluge legend as to derive Xelhua, the builder of
-the tower, from the Toltecs rather than from the race of giants, by
-claiming that he escaped from the deluge with Paticatle the Mexican
-Noah in an ark, and adds that when the tower was destroyed and the
-tongues of the builders confounded, Xelhua led a colony to the new
-world. This last will serve as a specimen of how the Cholula legend
-has been misunderstood and confounded with the tower of Babel. Father
-Duran in his MS.,[373] _Historia Antigua de la Nueva España_, 1585 A.
-D., quotes from the lips of a native of Cholula, over an hundred years
-old, a version of the legend which assigns quite a different object
-for building the Pyramid, one which shows that it never was erected
-as a memorial of Babel nor ever had any reference to an escape from
-any flood either past or in anticipation. It is as follows: “In the
-beginning before the light of the sun had been created, this land
-was in obscurity and darkness and void of any created thing; all was
-a plain without hill or elevation, encircled in every part by water
-without tree or created thing; and immediately after the light and the
-sun arose in the east, there appeared gigantic men of deformed stature,
-and possessed the land, who desiring to see the nativity of the sun as
-well as his occident, proposed to go and seek them. Dividing themselves
-into two parties, some journeyed toward the West and others toward
-the East; these travelled until the sea cut off their road, whereupon
-they determined to return to the place from which they started, and
-arriving at this place (Cholula), not finding the means of reaching the
-sun, enamored of his light and beauty, they determined to build a tower
-so high that its summit should reach the sky. Having collected material
-for the purpose, they found a very adhesive clay and bitumen, with
-which they speedily commenced to build the tower, and having reared
-it to the greatest possible altitude, so that they say it reached to
-the sky, the Lord of the Heavens, enraged, said to the inhabitants of
-the sky, ‘Have you observed how they of the earth have built a high
-and haughty tower to mount hither, being enamored of the light of the
-sun and his beauty? Come! and confound them; because it is not right
-that they of the earth, living in the flesh, should mingle with us.’
-Immediately at that very instant the inhabitants of the sky sallied
-forth like flashes of lightning; they destroyed the edifice and divided
-and scattered its builders to all parts of the earth.”[374] This
-account, the most ancient on record, makes no reference to a flood,
-and is quite distinct from the Mexican deluge tradition. Its value as
-an interpreter of the tendency of the American tribes not only of the
-United States and Mexico, but of both Americas, to erect mounds and
-truncated pyramids is not inconsiderable, since it confirms the opinion
-long entertained that they were connected with sun-worship. The great
-culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, the white saintly personage from the East,
-said to have been the leader of the Nahuas, appeared during the Olmec
-rule, and to his honor the Cholulans erected a temple upon the pyramid
-which their countrymen or predecessors had failed to complete.[375]
-Quetzalcoatl was, however, no tribal hero, but was so intimately
-identified with the institutions and civilization of the entire Nahua
-race that we purposely defer a consideration of his character at
-present in order that we may hasten to the traditional origin of the
-Toltecs.
-
-It is not our purpose to go back to the several traditions of the
-creation of man, preserved in as many localities in Mexico, each with
-its own variations, but simply to take up tradition where it first
-relates to the Toltec families. We are fully aware of the wide range
-of opinion with reference to what properly constitutes this tradition,
-and of the irreconcilable variations in dates and numeric details
-among the several Spanish writers. Probably all will agree that the
-native writer Ixtlilxochitl, who inherited the rich collection of royal
-archives and hieroglyphic paintings belonging to his ancestors (and
-which fortunately escaped the wholesale vandalism of the conquerors),
-though both contradictory and negligent, has furnished us the most
-reliable narrative which has yet been brought to light. Without
-attempting to correct or unravel his chronology, we simply translate
-his account of the origin of the Toltecs. Speaking of the first age
-of the world, the pre-diluvial period, he says: “It is found in the
-histories of the Toltecs that this age and first world as they call
-it, lasted 1716 years; that men were destroyed by tremendous rains and
-lightning from the sky, and even all the land without the exception of
-anything, and the highest mountains, were covered up and submerged in
-water ‘caxtolmoletlti,’ or _fifteen cubits_, and here they add other
-fables of how men came to multiply from the few who escaped from this
-destruction in a ‘toptlipetlacali,’ that this word nearly signifies a
-close chest; and how after men had multiplied they erected a very high
-‘zacuali,’ which is to say a tower of great height, in order to take
-refuge in it, should the second world (age) be destroyed. Presently
-their languages were confused; and not able to understand each other,
-they went to different parts of the earth. The Toltecs, consisting
-of seven friends with their wives, who understood the same language,
-came to these parts, having first passed great land and seas, having
-lived in caves, and having endured great hardships in order to reach
-this land, which they found good and fertile for their habitation; and
-relate that they wandered one hundred and four years through different
-parts of the world before they reached Hue hue Tlapalan, which was in
-Ce Tecpatl, five hundred and twenty years after the flood. Seventeen
-hundred and fifteen years after the flood, there was a terrible
-hurricane that carried away trees, mounds, houses and the largest
-edifices, notwithstanding which many men and women escaped principally
-in caves and places where the great hurricane could not reach them.
-A few days having passed, they set out to see what had become of the
-earth, when they found it all covered and populated with monkeys. All
-this time they were in darkness without seeing the light of the sun
-nor the moon that the wind had brought them. The Indians invented a
-fable which says that men were changed into monkeys. * * * One hundred
-and fifty-eight years after the great hurricane and 4994 from the
-creation of the world, there was another destruction of this land,
-which was of the Quinametin, giants who lived in New Spain, which
-destruction was a great trembling of the earth, which swallowed up and
-killed them, the mountains and volcanoes burst upon them, that for a
-certainty none should escape. At the same time many of the Toltecs
-perished and the Chichimecs their neighbors. That was in the year Ce
-Tecpatl; and this age they call Tlachilonatnip, that is to say, sun [or
-age] of earth.”[376] Here follows an account of the construction of
-the calendar by the assembly of Lords in Hue hue Tlapalan in the year
-5097 of the creation of the world and 104 after the destruction of the
-giants.
-
-The singular agreement of this account with the Mosaic description,
-in some of its details, such as the height attained by the waters
-above the mountains, the escape of certain persons in an ark, and
-the erection of a high tower, together with the subsequent confusion
-of tongues, Lord Kingsborough is convinced furnishes proof that the
-Toltecs were of Jewish descent.[377] While we are not prepared to
-believe the sanguine speculations of that eminent author in this
-case, still one of two views must be true: either the Toltecs were
-of old world origin, and at a remote period treasured up among their
-traditional histories notices of the Mosaic deluge, traditions of
-which are so generally current among the Asiatic nations, or the
-Mexican traditions of local inundation were warped by the teachings
-of the Spanish priests in a degree beyond any precedent in history
-or reasonable expectation, and that within a comparatively few years
-after the conquest. Our authority in this case is a native of Tezcuco,
-a son of the queen; and because of his acquaintance with both the
-hieroglyphic writings and the Castilian, served as interpreter to
-the viceroy. His _Relacions_ were composed from the archives of
-his family and compared with the testimony of the oldest and best
-informed natives. It does not seem to us that the sense of historic
-integrity cultivated to so nice a point at Tezcuco, where the censorial
-council, just prior to the advent of the conquerors, punished with
-death any who should willfully pervert the truth, could have so
-sadly degenerated that Ixtlilxochitl and the venerable natives who
-were conscious of the representations contained in his work, should
-proclaim a falsehood which would not meet with contradiction.[378] We
-are aware that this author’s chronology is an inextricable maze of
-contradictions which cannot be unravelled or reconstructed. The Toltec
-families, seven in number, are, however, said to have reached Hue hue
-Tlapalan five hundred and twenty years after the flood. The journey,
-however, occupied only one hundred and four years of that time. Their
-wanderings, attended with severe experiences, nakedness, and hunger and
-cold, were over many lands, across expanses of sea and through untold
-hardships.[379]
-
-The date of the migration to Hue hue Tlapalan cannot be approximated
-from available data, but it is evident that Ixtlilxochitl fixes it
-at 520 years after the flood, or 2236 years after the creation—a
-period which must have antedated the Christian era by a score of
-centuries or more, even if we accept his chronology, which (on p.
-322 of his _Relacions_), implies that more than five thousand years
-elapsed between the creation and the birth of Christ. The _Codex
-Chimalpopoca_, a Nahua record written in Spanish letters, which
-occupies probably the same relation to early Mexican history that
-the _Popol Vuh_ does to the Maya history, has been made known to us
-through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but as yet it has not
-been published. Ixtlilxochitl was the copyist of this document, and of
-course used it in composing his _Relacions_. Mr. Bancroft has attempted
-to collect from scattered passages, taken from the _Codex Chimalpopoca_
-and found in Brasseur’s writings, a continuous narrative, but with
-little success. “The division of the earth,” by the sun, “six times
-four hundred, plus one hundred, plus thirteen years ago to-day, the
-twenty-second of May, 1558;” in other words, in the year 955 B. C., is
-a date obtained which seems to refer to the division of the land among
-the followers of Votan.[380] In the _Popol Vuh_, Gucumatz (whose name
-signifies plumed serpent) is described as going in search of maize,
-while the _Codex Chimalpopoca_ describes Quetzalcoatl, whose name is
-identical in meaning with that of Gucumatz, as entering upon the same
-undertaking, though under somewhat different circumstances, and states
-that when he had found it, he brought it to Tamoanchan.[381] We shall
-see hereafter that Sahagun locates Tamoanchan in Tabasco, a fact of
-considerable value in studying the Toltec migration. The reader will
-not, however, associate Quetzalcoatl with the above date, since such
-is not the purport of the record. The _Chimalpopoca_ implies that
-Quetzalcoatl afterwards becoming obnoxious to his companions forsook
-them, a statement noted by Mr. Bancroft, though its full value does
-not seem to have been observed by that author.[382] The account
-clearly refers to the role of Quetzalcoatl among the Quichés, when he
-was known as Gucumatz, and prior to his appearance among the Olmec
-(Nahua) tribes. It indicates that the _Codex Chimalpopoca_ account of
-the discovery of maize is purely Quiché, and has no reference to the
-Nahuas whatever. The search for maize by the plumed serpent, call
-him by either his Quiché or Nahua name if you wish, was prior to the
-advent of that remarkable personage among the Nahuas. The reputed
-discovery we consider nothing more than a figurative allusion to
-the introduction of agriculture by this culture-hero, the knowledge
-of which he afterwards communicated to the Nahuas at Tamoanchan. If
-these inferences are true, the _Codex Chimalpopoca_, so far as we
-are acquainted with its contents, can render us no assistance with
-reference to the question in hand. We will now return to the beginning
-of the subject and cite additional authorities, chief among them
-Sahagun. In the introduction to his _Historia General_, in speaking
-of the origin of this people, he expresses the opinion that it is
-impossible to definitely determine more than that they report “that all
-the natives came from seven caves, and that these seven caves are the
-seven ships or galleys in which the first populators of the land came.”
-He adds, “The first people came to populate this land from towards
-Florida, and came coasting and disembarked at the port of Pánuco, which
-they called Panco, which signifies a place to which they come who pass
-the water. This people came in quest of the terrestrial paradise, and
-were known by the name Tamoanchan, by which they mean, ‘we seek our
-home.’ They settled around the highest mountains that they found. In
-coming toward the midday to find the terrestrial paradise, they did
-not err, because it is the opinion of the knowing that it is under the
-equinoctial line.”[383] The above account is rendered more definite
-in the following passage from his third volume:[384] “Countless years
-ago the first settlers arrived in these parts of New Spain—which is
-nearly another world—coming with ships by sea, approached a port at
-the North, and because they disembarked there, it is called Panutla or
-Panaoia, place where they arrive who come by the sea; at present it
-is corruptly called Pantlan. From that port they commenced to journey
-by the shores of the sea, ever beholding the snow-capped Sierras and
-the volcanoes, until they came to the province of Guatemala, being
-guided by their priest who carried with him their god, with whom he
-always counseled concerning what he should do. They settled down in
-Tamoanchan, where they were a long time, and never ceased to have their
-wise men or prophets, called Amoxoaqui, which signifies ‘men learned
-in the ancient paintings,’ who, although they came at the same time,
-did not remain with the rest in Tamoanchan, for leaving them there,
-they re-embarked and took with them all the paintings of the rites
-and mechanic arts which they had brought.” The account continues by
-stating that the priests informed their companions before leaving them,
-that their God had made them masters of the land, and that they should
-inhabit it and await his return. The priests then departed towards
-the East with their idol wrapped in blankets. Whereupon the people
-invented judicial astrology and the art of interpreting dreams. They
-there also constructed the calendar which was followed during the time
-of the Toltecs, Mexicans, Tepanecs and Chichimecs. The first migratory
-movement was to Teotihuacan, where they erected two mountains in honor
-of the sun and moon. Here they elected their rulers and buried their
-princes, erecting mounds over their graves. This seems to have become
-their holy city. The main power which had remained for a long time in
-Tamoanchan was changed to Xumiltepec. From this latter place they,
-however, at the instance of their priests, started again on their
-migrations. First going to Teotihuacan in order to choose their wise
-men. Notwithstanding the remarks of Sahagun that the seven caves were
-the seven ships in which the first settlers came to New Spain, he here
-affirms that in the course of their migration they came to the valley
-of the seven caves. How long they remained in this national centre
-we have no means of knowing, but eventually their god told them to
-retrace their steps, which they did, going to Tollancingo (Tulancingo)
-and finally to Tulan (Tollan). Ixtlilxochitl, if he can be relied
-upon (and if he is unreliable we might as well give up the task of
-tracing the early history of this or any other Mexican people) shows
-clearly that the ancestors of the Toltecs were possessed of certain
-traditions which point to an Asiatic origin; that at a remote period
-they set out from that common home of so many peoples, possessing the
-same traditions, in search of a suitable country in which to live;
-that after one hundred and four years occupied in traversing broad
-lands and seas, they arrived in a country called Hue hue Tlapalan.
-This event, according to his chronology, must have occurred upwards
-of twenty centuries before Christ. He tells us also that in Hue hue
-Tlapalan, the Toltecs regulated their calendar. Sahagun says that
-countless years ago the first inhabitants of the country (Mexico)
-came by sea from the direction of Florida on the North, and landing
-at Pánuco, journeyed down the coast to Guatemala (which is supposed
-to have embraced Chiapas and perhaps Tabasco, though such is only the
-conjecture of an earnest advocate of the Southern location of Hue hue
-Tlapalan, _i. e._, Mr. Bancroft) where they established a city called
-Tamoanchan—there the calendar was regulated or corrected. Whether this
-was the same construction of the calendar referred to by Ixtlilxochitl
-as having taken place in Hue hue Tlapalan is questionable. If positive
-proof of the identity of these occurrences could be produced, the
-identity of Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan would be complete, and the
-disputed location of the latter would be fixed in the Chiapan region or
-the country of the Xibalbans. The fact that Quetzalcoatl brought maize
-to Tamoanchan seems to indicate a comparative proximity of that country
-to the Southern region where that culture-hero figured so conspicuously
-under the Quiché name of Gucumatz. If no other testimony need be
-introduced the disputed locality might be fixed as above indicated.
-However, the contradictory records of Ixtlilxochitl, which we are now
-about to cite, unsettle this conclusion. The Toltec migration from Hue
-hue Tlapalan is briefly as follows: Three hundred and thirty-eight
-years after Christ a revolt occurred among the Toltecs in Hue hue
-Tlapalan, in which two rebel princes attempted to depose the legitimate
-successor to the throne. These rebel chiefs, named Chalcatzin and
-Tlacamihtzin respectively, were unsuccessful, and together with five
-other chiefs and their numerous allies and people, were driven out of
-their city Tlachicatzin in Hue hue Tlapalan. After a journey of sixty
-leagues, they arrived at a place which they called Tlapallanconco, or
-Little Tlapalan. Their departure from their old home did not occur till
-they had withstood a contest of eight years—or, according to Veytia,
-thirteen years—duration.[385] At Tlapallanconco they lived three years,
-at the end of which time there arose among them a great astrologer,
-named Hueman or Huematzin, who counseled them to forsake the land of
-their misfortunes and journey toward the rising sun, where there was
-a happy land formerly occupied by Quinames, but now depopulated. This
-advice seeming good they set out on their journey at the end of the
-three years, or eleven years after leaving Hue hue Tlapalan. After
-traveling twelve days and accomplishing seventy leagues they arrived
-at Hueyxalan, and remained there four years. From thence a twenty days
-journey toward the East, or according to Veytia, toward the West, and
-of one hundred leagues in length, brought them to Xalisco, near the
-sea-shore. Here they remained eight years. Twenty days journey and 100
-leagues more brought them to Chimalhuacan on the coast opposite certain
-islands, where they resided five years. Eighteen days or 80 leagues
-traversed toward the East, and they arrived at Toxpan, where they
-dwelt five years more. Proceeding eastward twenty days’ journey or 100
-leagues, they came to Quiyahuitztlan Anahuac, situated on the coast.
-Here they were obliged to pass inlets of the sea in boats. During a
-six years’ sojourn at this point, they suffered many hardships. An
-eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Zacatlan where
-they dwelt seven years. From thence they journeyed eighty leagues to
-Totzapan and dwelt there six years. They next journeyed to Tepetla,
-distant twenty-eight days, or 140 leagues, where they dwelt seven
-years. Eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Mazatepec,
-where they remained eight years, and a similar journey brought them
-to Ziuhcohuatl where they tarried also eight years. Turning northward
-from this unknown point, they journeyed twenty days or 100 leagues
-and halted at Yztachuexucha, where they dwelt twenty-six years.
-At last, after a journey of eighteen days or eighty leagues, they
-arrived at Tulancingo (Tulantzinco, or Tollantzinco) a name already
-familiar to us. Here the Toltecs emerge from what has been to us an
-unknown wilderness without geographic guide-post or even a polar
-star by which to reckon. Their itinerary, full of so many gaps and
-inconsistencies, its frequent omission of the directions traversed,
-with its starting-point so indefinitely located, is meaningless and
-confusing, and so far as the reader is concerned, practically begins
-nowhere and ends in nothing. At Tulancingo they remained eighteen
-years, living in a house sufficiently large to accommodate them all.
-Their knowledge of architecture must have been quite advanced to have
-enabled them to construct such an edifice. The third year after their
-arrival at Tulancingo, marked a Toltec age of 104 years from the time
-they left their home in Hue hue Tlapalan. Finally, eighteen years
-having elapsed, they transferred the capital to Tollan, afterwards the
-centre of the Toltec empire. Tollan is stated to have been eastward
-of Tulancingo (in all probability a mistake).[386] In this migration
-we have a distance of 1150 leagues traversed; the first two moves,
-aggregating 130 leagues, is in an unknown direction; the next advance
-is 100 leagues in an easterly direction, according to one author, and
-westerly according to another; however, it is agreed that the point
-was on the sea-shore. The next move of 100 leagues is still along the
-sea-shore, but the direction is not stated. We then have two advances
-amounting to 180 leagues, in an easterly direction. The confusion
-is completed in the following advances, aggregating 460 leagues in
-unknown directions. Of the remaining 180 leagues, 100 were traveled in
-a northern direction, while the remaining 80 leagues were taken toward
-an unknown quarter. It is quite plain to any one, that the distances
-traversed in the directions stated could not be traced consistently
-with the geography of Mexico and Central America, upon the assumption
-that Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan are identical and situated in the
-Rio Usumacinta region. The itinerary would carry the emigrants far
-out upon the Gulf of Mexico. It is evident that a broader territory
-than that of Southern Mexico and Central America is required for the
-realization of such distances. The account of the migration is no doubt
-faulty; but even if we disregard the gaps, it presents insuperable
-difficulties when applied to the South-Mexican region. It is manifest
-that Sahagun and Ixtlilxochitl refer to different migrations. The
-former to the Olmecs, who came by sea to Pánuco and thence to Tabasco,
-from which they migrated north to Teotihuacan. The latter narrates the
-wanderings of the Toltecs who subsequently came into Mexico by land.
-If this distinction is borne in mind, much of the obscurity attending
-the subject is cleared away. We are inclined to think that the accounts
-of the two distinct migrations have become confused, and the details
-of one substituted for the details of the other. Every one familiar
-with the study of traditional histories is aware of this danger, or
-even more, this tendency among semi-civilized peoples. No better
-illustration of this fact can be presented than the sad confusion which
-has been wrought by nearly every writer who has attempted to describe
-the two distinct personages in Mexican history, known by the name of
-Quetzalcoatl. Only Sahagun of all the early writers has seemed to have
-any clear conception of their individual and independent attributes.
-The demi-god, and the Toltec king, and the achievements of each, have
-been made to change places so often by Spanish writers, that the result
-has, with each new treatment of the subject, been confusion worse
-confounded. Sahagun’s account of the arrival of the Nahuas in ships,
-from the direction of Florida, their landing in Pánuco, their journey
-toward Guatemala, their residence in Tamoanchan (probably somewhere
-in the Chiapan region) and their subsequent migration northward to
-Teotihuacan with its well-known pyramids, and finally their removal
-to Tollan, north of the City of Mexico, by the way of Tolancingo,
-is a straightforward account which finds support in the best of
-evidence, both of a material and linguistic character. Sr. Orozco y
-Berra has clearly shown by linguistic testimony that the Nahua nations
-entered the country somewhere between the nineteenth and twenty-first
-degrees of north latitude, on the Gulf coast, migrated southward to
-a point seventeen and one-half degrees north latitude, almost to the
-Chiapan region, and then retracing their steps northward, almost to a
-point opposite Vera Cruz, they crossed Mexico to the Pacific coast,
-along which they extended their language northward nearly to the
-twenty-seventh degree north latitude.[387] Sahagun says nothing of Hue
-hue Tlapalan in his account of the migration from Tamoanchan to Tollan
-or from Chiapas to Anahuac, for his account refers to the Olmecs, the
-first Nahuas to reach Mexico.
-
-Mr. John H. Becker, of Berlin, in an able paper addressed to the
-Congrès des Américainistes at Luxembourg (_Compte Rendu de la Seconde
-Session_, tom. i, pp. 325–50), after offering plausible arguments for
-the identification of Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, Hue hue Tlapalan of
-the Toltecs, Amaquemecan of the Chichimecs, and Oztotlan of the Aztecs,
-with the region of the upper Rio Grande del Norte and Rio Colorado—the
-land of the ravines, of grottoes, and of cañons—attempts to trace the
-Toltec migration as given by Ixtlilxochitl. His interesting solution
-of the difficult problem is as follows: “The Toltecs driven out of Hue
-hue Tlapalan by civil wars (towards the end of the fourth century of
-our era?) move in a westerly direction sixty leagues to Tlapalanconco
-(northern Sinaloa and Sonora on the Rio Yaqui, where distinct traces
-of the Nahua language exist?); thence, after eleven years, they go
-to Hueyxalan, seventy leagues distant (perhaps the northern part of
-Durango, where the Tepehuana language shows strong Nahua affinities);
-thence to Xalisco on the coast, one hundred leagues distant; thence
-to Chimalhuacan Atenco on the coast opposite some islands, one
-hundred leagues (opposite the islands in the southern end of the Gulf
-of California)? In that case they did undoubtedly suffer a reverse
-in Xalisco (where they touched upon the more thickly populated and
-civilized country, and by which they were forced to retire); thence
-eastward eighty leagues to Toxpan (in the neighborhood of the Laguna
-de Tlahuila and on the upper Sabina River). In that country there is
-even now a tribe of Tochos, and the Tarahumara language there spoken,
-shows distinct affinities to the Nahua tongue; thence eastward one
-hundred leagues to Quahuitzlan Anahuac, on the coast with inlets—the
-coast-land of the state of Tamaulipas, on the Gulf of Mexico? About
-this locality there can scarcely be a doubt, since this eastern coast
-country and the eastern plateau bore the general name Quetzalapan or
-Huitzilapan, until the Nahuas took possession of them, when the plateau
-was designated as _Huitznahuac_, and the name above given would be
-the natural one to apply to the coast, since while _nahuac_ (_an_)
-means simply the Nahualand, _Anahuac_ (_an_) means the ‘Nahua land on
-the water,’ while Quahuitzlan is the old name retained in order to
-distinguish this Anahuac on the Gulf coast from the Anahuac around the
-Mexican lakes. Here they ‘suffered great hardships,’ and finally went
-westward eighty leagues to Zacatlan (the northern part of the State
-of Zacatecas?); from there eighty leagues to Totzapan, probably again
-in the neighborhood of Toxpan before mentioned (where the Tusanes are
-located even to-day); thence one hundred and forty leagues to Tepetla
-(the extraordinary distance shows that at last they gained a decisive
-victory, and broke through the frontier of the more civilized country
-which they had hitherto felt). Tepetla, mountainland, must consequently
-be sought in the neighborhood of the high mountains of Anahuac; thence
-eighty leagues to Mazatepec (the mountain of the Mazahuas, skirting
-the valley of Mexico towards north and west); thence eighty leagues to
-Ziuhcohuatl, where they probably suffered another defeat, for they move
-full one hundred leagues northward to Yztachuechucha, and stop there
-twenty-three years, a sufficient time to raise another generation of
-warriors; thence eighty leagues to Tollantzingo, and then finally to
-‘Tollan,’ the capital of their future empire, which if Ixtlilxochitl’s
-dates can be trusted, they built about 500 B. C., on the site of a
-former city of the Otomis.” This ingenious and thoughtful review of the
-route commends itself to all who are interested in this subject. Mr.
-Becker considers that one great argument for the correctness of the
-starting-point which he has chosen is “the fact that even the distances
-as given by Ixtlilxochitl agree with the actual situation of the
-various localities here indicated.” Ixtlilxochitl, obscure as he is,
-gives in another part of his work an additional account, besides the
-one we have already quoted, which greatly strengthens our conviction
-that the Toltecs came into Mexico from the north, and confirms the
-investigations of both Mr. Becker and of Sr. Orozco. The account is
-as follows: “In this fourth age there came to this land of Anahuac,
-which is at present called New Spain, those of the Toltec nations who,
-according to the accounts of their histories, were expelled from their
-land, and after having navigated and coasted on the South Sea along
-various lands as far as the present California, they came to what is
-called Huitlapalan, that which at present they call after Cortés. This
-locality they passed in the year called Ce Tecpatl, which was in the
-year 387 of the incarnation of our Lord. Having coasted the land of
-Xalisco, and all the coast of the south, they set out from the port
-of Huatulco, and went through various lands as far as the province of
-Tochtepec, situated on the coast of the North Sea, and having traversed
-and viewed it they came to stop in the province of Tulantzinco, having
-left some people in most of their stopping-places in order to populate
-them.”[388]
-
-It will be observed that in this migration part of the same general
-route above referred to, along the Pacific coast nearly opposite the
-extremity of the California peninsula, and then returning southward
-and inland, is clearly marked out. The Pacific ocean, called the South
-Sea, seems to have facilitated their movements northward. Xalisco
-was coasted, and the entire width of Mexico traversed, the Gulf of
-Mexico reached (Sea of the North), and finally Tolancingo chosen as a
-suitable home. It will be observed that the Huitlapalan named above is
-not identical with Hue hue Tlapalan, the earliest home of the nations.
-Mr. Bancroft has apparently confounded the two names, and endeavors to
-find in the Tlapallan de Cortés (so named because of Cortés’ expedition
-to a Tlapallan) the ancient Hue hue Tlapalan.[389] The Abbé Brasseur
-de Bourbourg attempts precisely the same thing. The investigations of
-both these writers on this point are interesting, though without any
-result, unless unintentionally to strengthen the above distinction
-between Huitlapalan and Hue hue Tlapalan. Substantially the facts are
-as follows: Pedro de Alvarado, writing from Santiago or old Guatemala
-to Cortés in 1524, refers to Tlapallan as fifteen days march inland,
-and Mr. Bancroft thinks that the name must have been applied to a
-region corresponding to either Honduras, Peten or Tabasco. Cortés’ name
-was affixed to a Tlapallan said to lie towards Ihueras or Ibueras, the
-former name of Honduras, because of his expedition to that country.
-The Abbé says the name was applied to a region between the tributaries
-of the Rio Usumacinta and Honduras. Finally, the fact that the second
-Quetzalcoatl, when he embarked on the Gulf coast near the Goazacoalco
-River, announced his intention of going to Tlapallan, is cited as
-proof that the name was applied to a southern locality.[390] The
-entire argument is perfectly satisfactory in locating a Tlapallan in
-the Usumacinta region, but it does not have the slightest value in
-proving that Hue hue Tlapalan was identical with that locality. On
-the other hand, Cabrera, in referring to the ancient country of the
-Toltecs, calls it Hue Hue Tlapalan, and states that the simple name was
-Tlapallan, but that it was called Hue hue—old—to distinguish it from
-three other Tlapalans which they founded in the new districts which
-they came to inhabit. This statement is confirmed by Torquemada.[391]
-It is therefore probable that Bancroft’s and Brasseur’s investigations
-were all expended on one or more of these three Tlapalans. The
-undoubted residence of a tribe of the Nahuas (Olmecs) in the Tabasco
-region for a considerable period—one which is measured relatively in
-the language of Sahugun between the “countless years ago when they
-arrived from towards Florida” and their departure towards Anahuac in
-the fourth or fifth century—has led many writers to suppose that they
-were of southern origin, notwithstanding the statement of Sahagun,
-Ixtlilxochitl and all the early writers to the contrary. Supposing
-that the sweeping assumption of the northern origin so persistently
-adhered to by native and Spanish writers is nothing but a priestly
-fabrication, be admitted, simply that our attention may be turned to
-other testimony, still the evidence is against the southern origin
-theory. The material relics of Honduras and Nicaragua absolutely
-disprove the positive supposition that they were ever the work of the
-people who figured in Anahuac, and no transition from one style of
-sculpture to the other has ever been discovered, nor could be imagined.
-An examination of the first few chapters of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth
-volume and the works from which it has been drawn will fully satisfy
-the reader of this fact. The evidence from the linguistic standpoint is
-even more satisfactory, since the Nahua language as spoken in Central
-America, in the states of San Salvador and Nicaragua, is dialectic,
-indicating a fragmentary migration southward.[392]
-
-It has been the common custom of Spanish writers and those who
-followed them down to the middle of this century, to locate Hue hue
-Tlapalan on the Californian coast. Vater and Humboldt from their
-standpoints of investigation fell in with this view. The former,
-basing his convictions on seeming linguistic affinities in the
-north-west, which, while they are quite significant, indicative of
-Nahua influences if not of Nahua residence, are too few to prove any
-lengthy sojourn. Humboldt based his opinion chiefly on the traditions
-and certain ethnological and geographical facts. Buschmann[393] has
-completely overthrown the arguments of Vater in his series of works
-on American languages, while Mr. Bancroft has shown conclusively that
-there are no material remains assignable to the Toltecs to be found on
-the Californian coast or the adjoining region.[394] When he asserts,
-however, that there are no remains farther north than California, he
-overlooks a well-known fact. We refer to the mounds of Oregon and
-their extension eastward into the Yellowstone and North Missouri River
-region. The most reasonable conjecture as to the locality of Hue hue
-Tlapalan is that which places it in the Mississippi Valley, and assigns
-the works of our Mound-builders to the Nahua nations. In previous
-chapters we have shown the close resemblance of the mound crania to
-the ancient Mexican, and have pointed out the gradual transition from
-the rude and simple mounds of the north to the truncated pyramid of
-the south, constructed on strict geometrical principles, having one
-or more graded ways, and so closely resembling the Mexican teocallis.
-Besides the testimony of Sahagun that the first settlers of Mexico
-came from towards Florida, and the universal report of a northern
-origin prevalent among the Aztecs at the time of the conquest, there
-are other evidences of a racial identity common to Mound-builders and
-Mexicans, such as pottery, sculptured portraitures of the facial type,
-indications of commercial intercourse between the two countries, such
-as the discovery of Mexican obsidian in the mounds of the Ohio Valley,
-and the probability that both worshipped the sun and offered human
-sacrifices.[395]
-
-With the Toltec annals proper we have nothing to do; only the most
-primitive period of the growth of this people concerns us here, and
-that period is conceded to have closed with the establishment of the
-great capital at Tollan, on the site of the present village of Tula,
-thirty miles north-west of the city of Mexico. Seven years after the
-arrival of the Toltecs in Tollan, the government was a theocratic
-republic, with the seven chiefs who had conducted them thither acting
-as their rulers, under the advice of the venerable Huemen. Finally,
-in the beginning of the eighth century, somewhere between 710 and 720
-A. D., the republic was changed into a monarchy and the throne given
-to the son of their dreaded enemies and former neighbors, the warlike
-Chichimecs, as a peace-offering, on condition that the Toltecs should
-always be a free people and in no way tributary to the Chichimecs. The
-history of the Toltec monarchy during the three and a half centuries
-of its duration to the final overthrow of Tollan (1062 A. D.) as well
-as the power of the remarkable people who built the ancient capital,
-has often been sketched, and for us to repeat what has been recorded
-in almost every language of modern Europe, would add nothing to the
-cause of science. This part of ancient American history, so replete
-with the romantic and marvellous, so confusing at times, because of our
-ignorance of many geographic and archæologic features entering into
-it (which, in time, will probably be brought to light), so saddening
-because of its stories of wholesale misfortunes to a people whose
-civilization rivalled that of Europe in the middle ages; and yet, after
-all, so fresh and novel, must continue to receive increased attention,
-if only as a means of recreation to the student of history, wearied
-with the beaten paths from Rome to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. Mr.
-Bancroft has given an excellent _resumé_ of the annals of the Toltec
-period, accompanying it with an ample literary apparatus in the notes.
-During the last century of the Toltec power, Anahuac was overrun by
-the incursions of a fierce and dreaded people—the Chichimecs. These
-semi-barbarians, taking advantage of the internal dissensions in
-the Toltec monarchy, became a powerful factor, either on their own
-part or in the hands of the enemies of Tollan, in the overthrow of
-the empire. In the Toltec traditions we read of the Chichimecs being
-their neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan.[396] In the annals as given
-in Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada and many writers, the Chichimecs are
-represented as having pursued and annoyed the Toltecs, to have followed
-them up in their wanderings. This probably is not literally true, but
-their arrival upon the borders of Anahuac, soon after its occupation
-by the Toltecs, is quite certain. It has been common to consider the
-Chichimecs as a Nahua people, and even so critical a writer as Mr.
-Bancroft adopts this popular error. As long ago as 1855, Sr. Francisco
-Pimentel undertook to show the mistake into which many had fallen, and
-in his _Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_ (published in 1862), has furnished
-conclusive proof that the Chichimecs originally spoke a different
-language from the Nahua nations, but subsequently adopted the Nahua
-tongue, on the principle set forth by Balbi: “It is not the language
-of the conquering people that invariably dominates, but that which
-is most regular and cultured.” On the testimony of Torquemada,[397]
-Ixtlilxochitl[398] and Juan Bautista Pomar,[399] Sr. Pimentel shows
-that the Chichimec language was once distinct and different from the
-Nahua, and that these people came under the civilizing influences of
-the Toltecs during their golden age, but in their declining period
-availed themselves of the opportunity of possessing their country and
-advanced civilization.[400] If the Chichimecs were the neighbors of the
-Toltecs in Hue hue Tlapalan, it is reasonable to expect some light on
-the situation of that disputed locality in the Chichimec traditions;
-but in this expectation we are disappointed. There is no mention of
-that ancient home of the Nahuas, nor of any route pursued in their
-migrations. Amaquemecan is the only name which is applied to their
-most primitive land or history; one of the cities which they occupied
-at some remote period seems to have borne the name. When the Toltecs
-sent to the Chichimecs for their first king, they were, according to
-Ixtlilxochitl, in the neighborhood of Panuco. Panes describes them as
-having passed the sea, and, according to their reckoning, in the year
-Five Tolti to have arrived at the seven caves. Thence they journeyed
-to Amacatepeque, and certain persons left that province to go to
-Tepenec, which is to say “the Mountain of Echo.”[401] Ixtlilxochitl
-and some other authors derive them from Chicomoztoc, a rendezvous
-of the nations, which has been located by Clavigero at about twenty
-miles south of Zacatecas but is considered by Duran and Acosta as
-identical with Aztlan in the region of Florida.[402] It is impossible
-to determine either the starting-point or route of this people, who
-subsequently became amalgamated with the scattered Toltecs after the
-fall of Tollan, and whose rule in Anahuac may properly be dated from
-the (1062) middle of the eleventh until nearly the middle of the
-fifteenth (1431) century.
-
-A few years after the Chichimec power was established there came
-from the North (at least their last move is admitted to have been
-from that quarter) six tribes of Nahuatlacas, who arrived in the
-country adjoining Tollan. There were altogether seven tribes, namely,
-the Xochimilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecs, Tlahuicas, Acolhuas, Tlascatecs
-and Aztecs or Mexicans. The latter people, however, had separated
-themselves from the remaining six tribes at Chicomoztoc and did
-not reach Anahuac until about 1196 A. D. These people all acted as
-tributary to the Chichimecs at first; and of the seven tribes, two
-eventually arose to great political importance, the Tlascatecs who
-founded an independent republic, and the Aztecs whose empire has been
-the wonder of students of antiquity and the subject of histories
-as romantic as the purest fiction. Some authors add a number of
-tribal names to those already given as belonging to fragments of
-the Nahuatlaca family, but the probability is that these minor and
-unimportant tribes were offshoots from the others, after their
-arrival on the central plateau. The representative branch of all the
-Nahuatlacas was the Aztec nation, who separated from their brethren
-in Chicomoztoc, and whose arrival at the Lake region of Mexico, is
-dated subsequent to that of the other tribes. All of these tribes
-are said to have come from the unknown Aztlan, their early home. The
-question of its locality has been as much a subject of controversy
-as the location of Hue hue Tlapalan, since, in fact, the question is
-possibly one and the same, for the Nahua speaking people who migrated
-into Mexico at intervals, extending over a period of a thousand years,
-must have had a common origin. Aztlan is described by Duran as a most
-attractive land and the presumption is that the Nahuas were forcibly
-driven from their fair heritage by the gradual encroachments of their
-enemies. The account of this delightful country given by Cueuhcoatl to
-the elder Montezuma, is as follows: “Our fathers dwelt in that happy
-and prosperous place which they called Aztlan, which means “whiteness.”
-In this place there is a great mountain in the middle of the water,
-which is called Culhuacan, because it has the point somewhat turned
-over toward the bottom, and for this cause it is called Culhuacan,
-which means “crooked mountain.” In this mountain were some openings,
-or caves or hollows, where our fathers and ancestors dwelt for many
-years; there, under this name Mexitin and Aztec, they had much repose;
-there they enjoyed a great plenty of geese; of all species of marine
-birds and water fowls; enjoyed the song and melody of birds with yellow
-crests; enjoyed many kinds of large and beautiful fish; enjoyed the
-freshness of trees that were upon those shores, and fountains enclosed
-with elders, and savins (junipers) and aldertrees, both large and
-beautiful. They went about in canoes, and made furrows in which they
-planted maize, red-peppers, tomatoes, beans and all kinds of seed that
-we eat.”[403] The location of Aztlan is not a philosophical question
-for our consideration, since scarcely sufficient data of a definite
-character are available on which to base a process of reasoning. The
-report common among the Aztecs was that they had come from the North,
-and this was no doubt true of the final move prior to their settlement
-in Anahuac, but whether it was true of their starting-point and the
-general course of the Aztec migration, is a question which cannot
-be satisfactorily answered. Most Spanish writers and others of the
-earlier school, locate Aztlan directly north of the present boundary
-line of Mexico,[404] others again California,[405] while some favor
-the North-western Mexican States.[406] A recent school of Americanists
-assign Aztlan a southern location, placing it in the Central American
-region.[407] Duran and Brasseur de Bourbourg, both celebrated
-authorities, on the other hand locate Aztlan in the United States; the
-former in Florida, by which we are to understand the region of the Gulf
-States,[408] while the latter simply expresses the conviction that
-Aztlan was situated to the north-east of California.[409]
-
-The Aztec migration and the itinerary as generally accepted demands
-consideration before forming any judgment on the location of Aztlan.
-In this primitive abode we are told that each year the Aztecs crossed
-a great river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan for the purpose of offering
-sacrifices in honor of their god Tetzauch. But it happened that a
-bird appeared to Huitziton, one of the greatest of their chiefs (whom
-Bancroft thinks was identical with Mecitl or Mexi—hence the name
-Mexicans), and constantly reiterated the word _tihui_, _tihui_, meaning
-“let us go, let us go.” This singular occurrence was interpreted by
-Huitziton as a command from the gods for them to seek a new country,
-and after persuading the chief Tecpatzin to his view, the divine oracle
-was announced to the people. Accordingly, in the year 1064, according
-to some authors,[410] or in 1090 according to others,[411] or a century
-later than the first-named date according to some of the interpreters
-of the Aztec migration maps, the Nahuatlaca tribes left their ancient
-home and entered upon one of those strange and aimless journeys so
-characteristic of semi-civilized and superstitious peoples. The Aztec
-migration as given by several authorities is scarcely more satisfactory
-than that of the Toltecs, nor can any additional light be thrown on
-the route pursued until Sr. Orozco y Berra publishes the results of
-his critical examination of the subject.[412] The unimportance of
-the itinerary in the solution of any question is apparent, since it
-contributes but little to our knowledge of the location of Aztlan.
-
-Mr. Bancroft has greatly facilitated the comparison of the lists of
-stations as given by different authors, in a note of great length
-on pp. 322–4, thus presenting to the eye at a glance the diversity
-of opinion which meets the reader of this subject. As an example,
-we select two or three of the itineraries, simply to show the wide
-range that opinion has taken on the subject. According to Veytia, the
-tribes left Aztlan in I Tecpatl, 1064 A. D., and one hundred and four
-years afterwards reached Chicomoztoc, where they dwelt nine years;
-the subsequent stations and the duration of their sojourn in each as
-follows: Cohuatlicamac three years, Matlahuacallan six, Apanco five,
-Chimalco six, Pipiolcomic three, Tollan six, Cohuactepec (Coatepec)
-three, Atlitlalacayan two, Atotonilco one, Tepexic five, Apasco three,
-Tozonpanco seven, Tizayocan one, Ecatepec one, Tolpetlac three,
-Chimalpan four, Cohuatitlan two, Huexachtitlan three, Tecpayocan three,
-Tepeyacac (Guadalupe) three, Pantitlan two, and thence to Chapultepec,
-arriving in 1298, after a journey of one hundred and eighty-five
-years, reckoning an additional forty-nine years for their stay at
-Michoachan.[413] According to Tezozomoc, the stations are as follows:
-Aztlan, Culhuacan, Jalisco, Mechoacan, Malinalco (Lake Patzcuaro),
-Ocopipilla, Acahualcingo, Coatepec (in Tonalan), Atlitlanquin, or
-Atitalaquia, Tequisquiac, Atengo, Tzompan, Cuachilgo, Xaltocan, and
-Lake Chnamitl, Eycoac, Ecatepc, Aculhuacan, Tultepetlac, Huixachtitlan,
-Tecpayuca (in two Calli), Atepetlac, Coatlayauhcan, Tetepanco,
-Acolnahuac, Popotla (Tacuba), Chapultepec in two Tochtli.[414]
-Clavigero states that they left Aztlan in 1160, crossed the Colorado
-River, stayed three years in Hucicolhuacan, went east to Chicomoztoc,
-reached Tula in 1196, and finally Chapultepec in 1245.[415] Acosta,
-Herrera and Duran state that Nahuatlaca tribes left Aztlan in 820 A.
-D., and eighty years later reached Mexico; that the Aztecs, however,
-did not start until 1122 A. D.[416] Duran identifies Aztlan with
-Teo-Culhuacan, and locates it towards our Mississippi Valley. He
-in common with other writers identifies Chicomostoc with the seven
-caves.[417]
-
-The Tarascos, though speaking a different language, are said to have
-separated from the Nahuatlacas at Michoacan. They describe the route
-to the seven caves as across a sea, which they passed in balsas and
-the trunks of trees.[418] This statement may be of some value in
-locating that disputed rendezvous of so many tribes; and certainly
-is more important than a mass of groundless speculation. The next
-source of interest in this connection is the much perverted and sadly
-misunderstood migration map first published by Gemelli Carreri, in
-Churchill’s collection of voyages (vol. iv). Humboldt has given an
-interpretation which, with the exception of that part which connects it
-with a deluge and Colhuacan, “the Ararat of the Mexicans,” is generally
-received.[419]
-
-Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt and many others were quite certain that
-they could read in this map the account of the Mosaic deluge.[420] Don
-José Fernando Ramirez, of the Mexican Museum, however, pointed out the
-fact that the Gemelli Carreri map, copied from one owned by Sigüenza,
-and published by Humboldt, Clavigero and Kingsborough, was in each
-case incorrectly represented, and states that the copy contained in
-the _Atlas_ of Garcia y Cubas is the first correct reproduction of the
-original presented to the public.[421] Sr. Ramirez explains away the
-illusion of the Mexican Ararat and deluge in a manner both simple and
-conclusive.[422] The dove with commas proceeding from its beak, is not
-talking, nor giving tongues, but is repeating the word _tihui_, “let
-us go,” referring to the legend already cited, of the bird in Aztlan
-incessantly uttering this word in the hearing of Huitziton the chief.
-A little bird called _tihuitochan_ is still heard in Mexico, having
-a note which is interpreted by the common people to mean the same as
-their ancestors interpreted it in Aztlan. Sr. Ramirez is convinced that
-the map referred to is only a record of the wanderings of the Aztecs
-among the lakes of the Mexican Valley, and that it has no reference
-whatever to any deluge, not even to one of the former traditional
-destructions of the world found in the Nahua cosmogony. Mr. Bancroft
-has added the valuable argument that the story of Cox-cox and the
-deluge is only the product of false interpretation, or else some of
-the earlier writers would have been acquainted with the legend. On
-the contrary, Olmos, Sahagun, Motolinia, Mendieta, Ixtlilxochitl, and
-Camergo are all silent with regard to it. The mountain and boat and
-their several adjuncts are found to be nothing but hieroglyphics for
-proper names.
-
-Chalco Lake is, in the opinion of Señor Ramirez, the point of
-departure for the fifteen chiefs at the end of their first cycle. His
-interpretation of the Boturini map of the migration results in the same
-conclusion. The fifteen chiefs left their island home, passing through
-Coloacan (Colhuacan, according to Gondra’s interpretation) as their
-second station. It appears that the first move and point of departure
-are both unknown, and no satisfactory solution of the question has yet
-been offered. The prevailing tradition that it is in the north has
-been perplexing, since no material remains undoubtedly attributable
-to the Aztecs are found north of the central plateau of Mexico, nor
-indeed in the territories of the United States. If we adopt the general
-theory that the Aztecs came from the Mississippi Valley, possibly the
-original home of the Nahuas, occupied by the Olmecs prior to their
-arrival at Panuco and their descent into the Chiapan region, and by
-the Toltecs before their migration to Anahuac, we have a theory which
-agrees with the testimony of Duran and Sahagun, and seems to find
-support in the pyramidal mounds of the Lower Mississippi, which we
-have already seen are almost as perfect in their plan and construction
-as those found in Mexico, which do not furnish evidence of as great
-antiquity as those of the Ohio and Missouri Valleys. According to most
-accounts, a considerable period elapses between their departure and
-their arrival at Chicomoztoc—the seven caves. According to Veytia it
-was 104 years, but Brasseur adopts twenty-six years, which is also
-the opinion of the majority of writers. Chicomoztoc has some features
-which remind us of the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés—their seven caves,
-from which so many tribes derived their origin. Chicomoztoc is the
-point at which the six Nahuatlaca tribes separated from the Aztecs, and
-thence proceeded to the Mexican lake region. It is quite probable that
-a considerable distance may have been traversed in this interval of
-twenty-six years, a distance which could have brought the Aztecs from
-a comparatively northern latitude to the Chiapan region. Opposed to
-this, however, is the fact that the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés was in a
-cold, inhospitable region, no doubt at the North. Mr. Bancroft suggests
-that the first part of the migration tradition may refer vaguely
-back to the events which followed the Toltecs’ destruction.[423] We
-have already referred to the tendency to confusion in histories that
-are chiefly traditional. In opposition to the view that Aztlan and
-Chicomoztoc were remote from each of these, we have the statement of
-Duran[424] that these caves are in Teo-Culhuacan, otherwise called
-Aztlan, which implies that both Teo-Culhuacan and Chicomoztoc were
-points in the region of Aztlan. Every year it was the custom of the
-Aztecs, while in Aztlan, to cross a river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan
-in order to sacrifice to their god Tetzauh, and after their arrival
-at Chicomoztoc they continued the occupation of boatmen, which they
-had followed while in Aztlan.[425] By way of summary, then, we may
-venture the following: 1. Viewed from the standpoint of Sr. Ramirez,
-Aztlan may be located somewhere not far distant from Chalco Lake. The
-islands which it encircles may correspond to the description of the
-ancient home of the Aztecs, given by Duran as quoted on page 257 and
-described as Culhuacan. Teo-Culhuacan, where the Aztecs sacrificed
-yearly, may be the city of Culhuacan situated in that neighborhood. As
-additional testimony we have the fact that most of the stations named
-in the migrations can be located in the Central Mexican region. The
-report that they came from the north may refer only to the scattering
-of the Nahua or Toltec people from Tollan, just north of the valley.
-2. The statements of all the writers that the Aztecs came from the
-north, the fact that Duran and Sahagun assign the primitive Nahua home
-to the region of Florida, and the prevalence of mounds and shell-heaps
-in great numbers in the Gulf States, together with the extension of
-those mounds through Texas into Mexico, may warrant the opinion that
-Aztlan was in the Mississippi Valley, or, looking in another direction,
-the rock or cave dwellings recently discovered in Southern Utah and
-the Rocky Mountain region (of which we shall give a description in
-the next chapter) may indicate the locality of the ancient and
-much-sought-for land. The identity in meaning of Chicomoztoc (seven
-caves) and Tulan Zuiva (seven caves) together with the fact that both
-places in Quiché and Nahua history were the point of separation for
-many tribes, is a singular coincidence, if they are not one and the
-same. In the preceding chapter we have seen that Tulan Zuiva of the
-Quichés was in a northern or at least a colder climate, where they
-suffered greatly for want of fire, a fact of no little significance. On
-the other hand Teo-Culhuacan, the place of yearly sacrifice, may have
-been a city of the Chiapan region, since Sahagun located Tamoanchan the
-first city of the Nahuas (Olmec) after their arrival from Florida in
-Mexico, somewhere in the Usumacinta Valley. It is possible that a large
-number of the immigrants remained behind the company which migrated
-northward to Teotihuacan and thence to the seven caves, subsequently
-uniting with the Toltecs at Tollan. This view has had quite a number
-of advocates.[426] We will not undertake, in the present state of
-knowledge on the subject, to decide which of these three claims is the
-true one, if either one of them is correct. Our only wish is to furnish
-the reader a margin for his choice. It seems to us that it would be
-unscientific to attempt to decide a question based upon such slender
-and contradictory data.
-
-It is unnecessary for us to follow the Aztecs farther in their
-history. The magnificent empire of the Montezumas, with its advanced
-civilization, but at the same time cursed with its horrid worship, in
-which thousands of human victims bathed the altars of Mexico yearly
-with their life-blood, has been described and its glory handed down to
-history by that most graceful and romantic of American writers, William
-H. Prescott. We cannot, however, dismiss this the most primitive period
-of the growth of the Nahua nations without a reference to the reputed
-author of the higher phases of their civilization. We refer to that
-semi-mythical and semi-divine personage, Quetzalcoatl. The numerous
-legends concerning this culture-hero, scattered chronologically over
-hundreds of years of Nahua history, may have originated in the life and
-character of some noted personage—the leader and civilizer of the most
-ancient branches of the Nahua family, or in the personification of an
-ideal deity, a nature-god whose chief attribute, whose distinguishing
-office, was the fertilization of the earth, the revivification of the
-slumbering forces in nature and consequently the author of prosperity,
-agriculture, and the arts of peace. In either case the name of the
-original Quetzalcoatl, were he either man or deity, was eventually
-inherited by a line of individuals who became the priests of his
-worship, or the representatives of his teachings, and the inculcators
-of the most humane and noble principles which entered into the ancient
-civilization. Without entering into a lengthy discussion of the
-probabilities in the case, we give the substance of the traditions,
-arranged in what appears to us not only the most consistent, but also
-the proper order. We have already acquainted the reader with the
-meaning of Quetzalcoatl, namely, “plumed serpent.”
-
-From the distant East, from the fabulous Hue hue Tlapalan, this
-mysterious personage came to Tulla, and became the patron god and
-high-priest of the ancestors of the Toltecs.[427] He is described
-as having been a white man, with a strong formation of body, broad
-forehead, large eyes, and flowing beard. He wore a mitre on his head,
-and was dressed in a long, white robe, reaching to his feet, and
-covered with red crosses. In his hand he held a sickle. His habits were
-ascetic; he never married, was most chaste and pure in his life, and
-is said to have endured penance in a neighboring mountain, not for its
-effects upon himself, but as an example to others. Some have here found
-a parallel for Christ’s temptation. He condemned sacrifices, except
-of fruits and flowers, and was known as the god of peace; for when
-addressed on the subject of war, he is reported to have stopped his
-ears with his fingers.[428]
-
-Quetzalcoatl was skilled in many arts, having invented gem-cutting
-and metal-casting. He furthermore originated letters and invented the
-Mexican calendar. The legend which describes the latter states that the
-gods, having made men, thought it advisable that their creatures should
-have some means of reckoning time, and of regulating the order of
-religious ceremonies. Therefore two of these celestial personages, one
-of them a goddess, called Quetzalcoatl to counsel with them, and the
-three contrived a system which they recorded on tables, each bearing
-a single sign. That sign, however, was accompanied with all necessary
-explanations of its meaning. It is noticeable that the goddess was
-assigned the privilege of writing the first sign, and that she chose a
-serpent as her favorite symbol.
-
-Some accounts represent that Huemac was the temporal king, or at least
-associated with Quetzalcoatl in the government; the latter occupying
-the priestly as well as the kingly office. Sahagun calls the associate
-ruler Vemac. At all events, Quetzalcoatl had an enemy, the deity
-Tezcatlipoca, whose worship was quite opposite in its character to
-that of Quetzalcoatl, being sanguine and celebrated with horrid human
-sacrifices. A struggle ensued in Tulla (Tollan) between the opposing
-systems which resulted favorably to the bloody deity and the faction
-who sought to establish his worship in preference to the peaceful and
-ascetic service of Quetzalcoatl.
-
-Tezcatlipoca, envious of the magnificence enjoyed by Quetzalcoatl,
-determined upon his destruction. His first appearance at Tulla was in
-the _rôle_ of a great ball-player, and Quetzalcoatl, being very fond
-of the game, engaged in play with him, when suddenly he transformed
-himself into a tiger, occasioning a panic among the spectators, in
-which great numbers were crowded over a precipice into a river, where
-they perished. Again the vicious god appeared at Tulla. This time he
-presented himself at the door of Quetzalcoatl’s palace in the guise of
-an old man, and asked permission of the servants to see their master.
-They attempted to drive him away, saying that their god was ill. At
-last, because of his importunities, they obtained leave to admit him.
-
-Tezcatlipoca entered, and seeing the sick deity, asked about his
-health, and announced that he had brought him a medicine which would
-ease his body, compose his mind, and prepare him for the journey which
-Fate had decreed that he must undertake.[429] Quetzalcoatl received the
-sorcerer kindly, inquiring anxiously as to the journey and the land of
-his destiny. His deceiver told him that the name of the land was Tullan
-Tlapalan, where his youth would be renewed, and that he must visit it
-without delay. The sick king was moved greatly by the words of the
-sorcerer, and was prevailed upon to taste the intoxicating medicine
-which he pressed to his lips. At once he felt his malady healed, and
-the desire to depart fixed itself in his mind.
-
-“Drink again!” exclaimed the old sorcerer; and again the god-king
-pressed the cup to his lips, and drank till the thought of departure
-became indelible, chained his reason, and speedily drove him a wanderer
-from his palace and kingdom.
-
-Upon leaving Tulla, driven from his kingdom by the vicious enmity
-of Tezcatlipoca, he ordered his palaces of gold, and silver, and
-turquoise, and precious stones, to be set on fire. The myriads of
-rich-plumed songsters that made the air of the capital melodious with
-song accompanied him on his journey, pipers playing on pipes preceded
-him, and the flowers by the way are said to have given forth unusual
-volumes of perfume at his approach.
-
-After journeying one hundred leagues southward, he rested, near a city
-of Anahuac, under a great tree, and as a memorial of the event, he cast
-stones at the tree, lodging them in its trunk.[430]
-
-He then proceeded still farther southward in the same valley, until he
-came to a mountain, two leagues distant from the city of Mexico. Here
-he pressed his hands upon a rock on which he rested, and left their
-prints imbedded in it, where they remained visible down to a very
-recent date. He then turned eastward to Cholula, where he was received
-with greatest reverence.[431] The great pyramid was erected to his
-honor. With his advent the spirit of peace settled down upon the city.
-War was not known during his sojourn within it. The reign of Saturn
-repeated itself. The enemies of the Cholulans came with perfect safety
-to his temple, and many wealthy princes of other countries erected
-temples to his honor in the city of his choice.[432]
-
-Here the silversmith, the sculptor, the artist, and the architect, we
-are led to believe, from the testimony of both tradition and remains,
-flourished under the patronage of the grand god-king.
-
-However, after twenty years had elapsed, that subtile, feverish draught
-received from the hand of Tezcatlipoca away back in Tulla, like an old
-poison in the veins, renewed its power. Again his people, his palaces,
-and his pyramidal temple were forsaken, that he might start on his
-long and final journey.[433] He told his priests that the mysterious
-Tlapalla was his destination, and turning toward the East, proceeded
-on his way until he reached the sea at a point a few miles south of
-Vera Cruz. Here he bestowed his blessing upon four young men, who
-accompanied him from Cholula, and commanded them to go back to their
-homes, bearing the promise to his people that he would return to them,
-and again set up his kingdom among them. Then, embarking in a canoe
-made of serpent-skins, he sailed away into the East.[434]
-
-The Cholulans, out of respect to Quetzalcoatl, placed the government in
-the hands of the recipients of his blessing. His statue was placed in
-a sanctuary on the pyramid, but in a reclining position, representing
-a state of repose, with the understanding that it shall be placed upon
-its feet when the god returns. When Cortés landed, they believed their
-hopes realized, sacrificed a man to him, and sprinkled the blood of the
-unhappy victim upon the conqueror and his companions.[435]
-
-Father Sahagun, when on his journey to Mexico, was everywhere asked
-if he had not come from Tlapalla.[436] No wonder when the fleet of
-Cortés hove in sight on the horizon, almost in the same place where
-Quetzalcoatl’s bark had disappeared, that the Mexican, who had been
-waiting centuries for the prince of peace to return, believed his
-waiting to be at an end. No wonder that he inquired of the distant and
-mysterious Tlapalla. In this state of expectancy we find a most natural
-and fruitful soil for the operations of the Spanish conquerors.
-
-Such is the form into which the mass of legends concerning
-Quetzalcoatl have been woven. There is scarcely a doubt, however, that
-it is a matter of growth—is the accumulation of several centuries.
-The name Quetzalcoatl (Nahua), Gucumatz (Quiché) and Cukulcan (Maya),
-translated “feathered” or “plumed” or “winged” serpent, may originally
-have been applied to an intelligent princely foreigner who was cast
-upon the shores of the Central American region, and who introduced the
-art of casting metals, and especially taught agriculture. His doctrines
-of peace and virtue may have been sufficiently wide-spread to have
-brought about the prosperity which is ascribed to his age. From this
-standpoint we would consider him at first to have cast his lot among
-the descendants of Votan, otherwise known as the “Serpents,” from which
-occurrence he may have received his name of “Feathered Serpent.” On
-pages 241–42 we referred to the statements of the Codex Chimalpopoca,
-that Quetzalcoatl, becoming obnoxious to his companions, who seem to
-be Quichés, forsook them. The account also states that he afterwards
-brought maize to Tamoanchan (the city of the Nahuas). Our next account
-of him describes him as figuring among the Olmecs at Cholula. This
-realistic view of the tradition applies to the first Quetzalcoatl,
-who may have been an actual man. While entertaining this view, we
-must not forget that centuries prior to this period (which we may as
-well assign to the first or second century as to any other date), the
-Quichés possessed the ideal of such a personage whom they considered
-a deity, who figures so actively in their cosmogony under the name of
-Gucumatz. This deity was the vivifying force in nature, the bringer of
-the gentle south winds, the god of the harvest and of the air. He was
-best symbolized to the mind of the savage by the vernal shower and the
-return of spring.
-
-The serpent was everywhere considered an emblem of the vernal shower,
-and was thought to be in some way instrumental in bringing it, together
-with its refreshing and fructifying influences. So here, in the name of
-Quetzalcoatl, we find a progressive step indicated in the workings of
-the mind, an advance from the lower figure of the serpent alone to that
-of an aërial combination, which, while it contained all the virtues of
-the serpent, is lifted to a higher element—that from which the shower
-falls. The feathery vapor-clouds of summer are but the plumes or wings
-of the shower which the serpent symbolized.
-
-At last when a teacher of agriculture and the mechanic arts, so
-conducive of prosperity and plenty, appeared—an individual who
-discovers maize and directs the process of its reproduction and guards
-an improvident people against want and famine, the attributes of the
-god are recognized as dwelling in him, the ideal vaguely represented
-by the vernal shower is concreted, is become incarnate, is presented
-in a shape more comprehensible to the untaught mind, and at once the
-name, reverence and worship of the god are attached to the man, the
-culture-hero. This we believe to be the simplest interpretation of the
-origin of the worship of Quetzalcoatl. A priesthood appears to have
-been founded who perpetuated the doctrines of this deified man. That
-part of the legend which relates to Tulla (Tollan) with the expulsion
-of the king and that which followed, properly belongs to Ceacatl,
-surnamed Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king of Tollan, who ascended the throne
-about 873.[437] The father of this monarch had been cruelly murdered,
-and in his early boyhood Ceacatl is said to have wreaked a terrible
-vengeance on the murderer of his father, after which he concealed
-himself for about twenty years. At about the above-named date he
-reappeared, and established his claims to the throne. He espoused the
-religion of Quetzalcoatl, and the peace which followed brought great
-prosperity. Human sacrifices were forbidden, and a golden age seemed
-to dawn in which Tollan exceeded all the cities of the Mexican valley
-in importance and wealth. But a rivalry at once sprang up between the
-priests of the bloody god Tezcatlipoca, worshipped in Culhuacan and at
-Teotihuacan, and those of the peaceful and humane Quetzalcoatl, which
-resulted in the voluntary departure of the Pontiff king, to whom the
-name of his god was attached. The contest between the two sects is
-symbolized in the legend by the tricks of Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl
-was received at Cholula, where he remained some years, but was at last
-driven away before the leader of the Tezcatlipoca faction, namely,
-King Huemac, who advanced upon the peaceful king with a strong army.
-Quetzalcoatl again voluntarily withdrew, rather than occasion the
-bloodshed of his subjects. It is probable that he ultimately reached
-Yucatan and figured there in his old character under the name of
-Cukulcan.[438]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER VII.
-
-                THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS AND CLIFF-DWELLERS.
-
-  Casas Grandes of Chihuahua — Ruins in the Casas Grandes and
-      Janos Valleys — Casa Grande of the Rio Gila — Ruins in the
-      Gila Valley — Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado — Ruins
-      in the Cañon of the Colorado — In the Valley of the Colorado
-      Chiquito — Pueblos of the Zuñi River — Zuñi and the “Seven
-      Cities of Cibola” — “El Moro” — Pueblos of the Chaco Valley
-      — Cliff-Dwellers — Mr. Jackson’s Discoveries in the Valley
-      of the Rio San Juan — Cliff Houses of the Rio Mancos —
-      Cliff-Dwellings on the McElmo — Traditional Origin and Fate
-      of the Cliff-Dwellers — Ancestors of the Moquis — Remarkable
-      Discoveries by Mr. Holmes — The Seven Moqui Towns — The
-      Montezuma Legend.
-
-
-In the State of Chihuahua, Mexico, and in our Territories of Arizona,
-New Mexico, Utah and the State of Colorado, a class of remains are
-found, wholly unlike those of the Mayas, Nahuas, or Mound-builders,
-though in some instances they are associated with earthworks resembling
-those of the latter race. The style of architecture is unlike that of
-any other people on either continent, and though varying considerably
-in its individual examples, still present certain marked and general
-features which leave little room for doubt that the peoples of the
-Pueblos and the Cliffs were the same. The earliest discovered of
-this class of remains are known as the Casas Grandes, situated at
-about half a mile from the modern town of the same name, in the
-fertile valley of the Casas Grandes or San Migual River in Northern
-Chihuahua. These ruins have often been described second-hand and their
-nature is well-known to persons interested in this field of inquiry.
-Of the above-named class of descriptions, the latest and best is
-by Mr. Bancroft, who has added a bibliographical apparatus to his
-account.[439] We will, therefore, confine our discussion of this group
-of remains to the essential facts as given by Mr. J. R. Bartlett, whose
-account of his researches is quite full and satisfactory.[440] These
-facts we will give as briefly as possible, preferring to devote our
-space to the new material composing the latter part of the chapter.
-Several of the early writers refer to the Casas Grandes as one of the
-Aztec stations; but a little intelligent study of the characteristics
-of the ruins, especially in the light of recent explorations in
-the Territories, is likely to dissipate such an opinion. The first
-examination of the ruins of which any reliable record is left, was by
-Sr. Escudero, in 1819, published in his _Noticias Estadísticas del
-Estado de Chihuahua_. A contributor to the _Album Mexicano_ (tom. i,
-pp. 374–5) furnished a good account of the ruins as he found them in
-1842. None of the hasty sketches subsequently made by several writers
-are worth a reference until we come to the excellent description
-written by Mr. Bartlett in 1851, while acting as United States
-Commissioner, in fixing the United States and Mexican boundary line.
-The Casas Grandes, according to Mr. Bartlett, are built of adobe or
-mud, in large quadrangular blocks measuring about twenty-two inches
-in thickness by three feet or more in length. The irregularity of the
-length of the blocks, however, seemed to indicate that they had been
-formed on the wall, _in situ_, by means of a box open at the ends,
-which, when the block dried, was moved along to mould a fresh block.
-The mud is filled with coarse gravel from the plateau, which gives
-greater hardness to the material. The Casas face the cardinal points
-and consist of erect and fallen walls, ranging from five to thirty
-feet in height. The accumulation of rubbish is, however, considerable,
-and if the highest standing walls rest upon a common level with the
-lowest, they will measure from forty to fifty feet in height. The
-edifice was discovered in ruins by the conquerors, and could not have
-been occupied for a century, at the least calculation, prior to its
-discovery. It is, therefore, reasonable to presume that all the walls
-now standing were originally much higher than at present. It appears
-that the outer portions of the edifices were the lowest, and not more
-than one story in height, while the central ones were from three to
-six stories. The central or inner walls are better preserved, partly
-by their greater thickness—five feet at the base—and partly by the
-heaps of ruined walls which have fallen around them. Once prostrate,
-the blocks absorb the water, and in a few years are reduced to a mass
-of mud and gravel. It was with difficulty that Mr. Bartlett traced all
-the outlines of the buildings; but close examination revealed the fact
-that three lofty edifices were connected into one by means of a low
-range of buildings, one storey high, which may have merely inclosed
-intervening courts. The total length of this continuous edifice was
-at least 800 feet by 250 feet wide. A regular and continuous wall was
-observed on the south side, while the eastern and western fronts, with
-their projecting walls, were very irregular. The question of the exact
-number of stories is not capable of solution, as no vestige of timbers
-or wood now remains. The explorer could not even detect a trace of
-any cavities where the floor-timbers had been inserted in the walls,
-so decayed and washed was their condition. Many doorways remained,
-but the lintels having decayed, the tops had fallen in. Clavigero
-states that the edifice had “three floors with a terrace above them
-and without any entrance to the under floor, so that a scaling ladder
-is necessary.” García Condé confirms this statement as to the three
-stories besides a roof,[441] while both authors consider this to have
-been a station on the Aztec migration. Certainly, no architectural
-analogies with the remains farther south justify this opinion. Mr.
-Bartlett was unable to obtain but a partial plan of the Casas Grandes.
-One class of apartments, however, attracted his especial attention,
-from the fact that they were evidently designed for granaries. They
-were arranged along one of the main walls, and measured twenty feet in
-length by ten in breadth. They were connected by doorways “with a small
-inclosure or pen in one corner, three or four feet high.” Numerous long
-and narrow apartments, too contracted for sleeping or dwelling-rooms,
-lighted by circular apertures in the upper walls, are supposed to have
-been devoted to the same use. Large inclosures, too extensive in their
-dimensions ever to have been roofed, evidently were used as courts.
-Two hundred feet west of the Casas, on the plateau, are the remains of
-a building about 150 feet square, divided into compartments, as shown
-in the accompanying plan: Between this edifice and the main building,
-are three mounds of loose stones about fifteen feet high, which the
-explorers did not have time to open. For a distance of twenty leagues
-and covering an area of ten leagues wide along the Casas Grandes and
-Janos Rivers, according to García Condé, are ruins resembling small
-mounds, from which jars, pottery in various forms, painted with white,
-blue and scarlet colors, corn-grinders (metates), and stone-axes have
-been taken. If this region was ever occupied by the Aztecs, even
-temporarily, this latter class of remains might more properly be
-attributed to them, than the Casas Grandes. Innumerable fragments of
-pottery, superior to that now manufactured by the Mexicans, are strewn
-everywhere in the neighborhood of the Casas Grandes. The decoration is
-in black, red or brown, on a white or reddish ground. Several graceful
-and highly artistic vases have been collected about the ruins, and
-stone metates, nicely hewn, have been recovered in perfect condition.
-On the summit of the highest mountain, ten miles south-west of the
-ruins, stands an ancient fortress of stone, the walls of which are said
-by the writer in the _Album Mexicano_ to have been from eighteen to
-twenty feet thick. The fort, which is attributed to the occupants of
-the Casas Grandes, was two or three stories, and in the centre had a
-high mound for the purposes of observation. Clavigero, who describes
-the fort and all of the ruins from hearsay, falls into the error of
-supposing the Casas to have also been constructed of stone. A short
-distance from the point where the 111° (meridian) of longitude crosses
-the Gila River, in Southern Arizona, in the valley occupied farther
-westward by the Pima villages, stands the most famous ruin of all
-the Western remains. The Casa Grande, otherwise named the Casa de
-Montezuma, has attracted the attention of and furnished a fruitful
-subject for most writers on Mexican antiquity, the majority of whom,
-however, have contributed nothing to our knowledge of the history or
-uses of the edifice. Of describers at second-hand, Mr. Bancroft has
-cited thirty-four authors, according to our reckoning, and to this
-number the reader must add that author’s account and ours. This fact
-is an admonition to us to confine ourselves to the briefest possible
-statement of facts, for certainly the thirty-sixth repetition of
-the accounts furnished by two or three original explorers would be
-altogether inexcusable, were it not for the inseparable relation of the
-Gila Casas to the remains to be described farther on. Mr. Bancroft has
-treated the bibliography of the subject in his usually comprehensive
-manner,[442] and it only remains for us to refer the reader to the
-original descriptions. The first of these was written by Padre Mange,
-the secretary of Padre Kino, on the latter’s tour of visitation to
-the missions of the region in 1697.[443] Lieutenant C. M. Bernal, of
-the same expedition, adds also a description.[444] Padre Sedelmair,
-who visited the ruin in 1744, copies literally Mange’s description
-in his account of the Casas.[445] Father Font, who, in company with
-Father Garcés, made an expedition conducted by Captain Anza to the
-Gila and the missions farther north, left a diary—now preserved in
-the original, in the archives at Guadalajara—from which Mr. Bartlett
-translated and published an extensive description of the Casas.[446]
-Of later writers, only four wrote from personal observation, namely,
-Emory[447] and Johnston,[448] of General Kearney’s Military Expedition
-to California in 1846; Bartlett[449] in 1852, and Ross Browne in
-1863.[450] These are the only original sources of information on the
-Casa Grande of the Gila, of which Bartlett’s account may be said to
-be the best. However, Bancroft has contributed much to facilitate the
-study of the subject by his addition of a full literary apparatus.
-
-[Illustration: Part of Ground Plan of Casas Grandes Chihuahua.]
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan of One of the Casas Grandes at Chihuahua.]
-
-From all of these we draw the facts without further citation. Two and
-a half miles south of the Gila, on a slightly elevated plateau, stands
-the remains of the Casa Grande surrounded with a growth of mesquite
-trees. The ascent from the river bottom is so slight and gradual that
-its former inhabitants had constructed acequias between the river and
-the buildings. Mr. Bartlett found three edifices within a space of
-one hundred and fifty yards. The larger one only was in a fair state
-of preservation. Its four outer walls and most of the inner ones were
-standing. Three storeys were plainly marked by the ends of the beams
-remaining in the walls or by the cavities which they once occupied. No
-doubt the building was one story, at least, higher than this indicated,
-as the upper walls have crumbled away considerably and filled the first
-story with disintegrated adobe and a mass of rubbish. The central
-portion or tower furthermore rises eight or ten feet higher than the
-outer walls, and may have formed another story above the main building.
-At their base, the walls are between four or five feet in thickness,
-rising perpendicular on the inside, but on the outside tapering towards
-the top in a curved line.
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan.]
-
-The material of the walls consists of blocks of adobe, prepared as in
-the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, in position on the walls, probably
-in boxes two feet high and four feet long; after the mud had dried
-sufficiently, the box was moved further along the walls and refilled.
-Some difference of opinion has existed as to the color of the mud
-employed, though all admit it to be that of the surrounding valley.
-Mr. Bancroft gives some attention to this point, and observes that
-Bernal pronounced it “white clay,” and that according to Johnston it
-is also white with an admixture of lime from the vicinity. Mr. Hutton,
-a civil engineer who had thoroughly examined them, reported to Mr.
-Simpson that the surrounding earth was of a reddish color, but the
-admixture of pebbles with the mud gave the Casa a whitish appearance in
-certain reflections. Mr. Bancroft seeks by this argument to identify
-this building with Castañeda’s Chichilticale, which is described as
-having been built of red earth.[451] The outer sides of the walls were
-finished with a plaster similar to that which composed the blocks,
-but the inner side was covered with hard finish of such fine quality
-that when visited they still retained their polish after centuries of
-exposure. It is estimated that the edifice must have stood a hundred
-years at least prior to its discovery by the Spaniards. The inner walls
-are slightly thinner than the outer ones, and divide the building
-into five apartments, as shown in Mr. Bartlett’s ground plan. The
-building measures fifty feet in length by forty in width. The three
-central rooms indicated are each about eight by fourteen feet, while
-those at each end of the edifice are ten by about thirty-two feet. The
-doorways indicated in the plan are three feet wide by five feet high,
-except that in the western façade, which is only two feet wide and
-seven or eight feet high. The main part of the edifice was probably
-thirty feet high, while the tower rose still ten feet higher. Padre
-Kino found a floor in an adjoining ruin still perfect, the supporting
-timbers of which were round and about five inches in diameter, while
-the floor proper was formed by placing cross-sticks on the joist and
-covering them with a layer of adobe. Mr. Browne observed the marks of
-a blunt axe still plainly visible in the timbers of cedar or sabine
-which had been thus employed, while their charred ends furnish the
-only clue to the cause of the ruin of the edifice, a fact suggestive
-of the ravages of the savage Apaches. No stairways or other means of
-ascent were discovered, and it is inferred that ladders were employed
-upon the outside as among the modern Pueblos. Near the main building,
-to the south-west, Mr. Bartlett discovered another Casa in ruins,
-and with difficulty traced its ground plan; while a third was so
-completely decayed as to leave no certain outline of its form. To the
-north-west about two hundred yards, was a circular embankment eighty
-or one hundred yards in circumference, which Mr. Bartlett supposes to
-have been used as a stock inclosure. A few yards farther north Mr.
-Johnston observed a terrace, two hundred by three hundred feet and
-five feet high, and having a summit platform seventy-two feet square,
-from which an excellent view of the valley is afforded. This monument
-is unlike any other found among the New Mexican remains. The entire
-valley is strewn with heaps of rubbish and ruined adobe edifices, which
-indicate that once the whole region was thickly populated by this
-remarkable people. Mr. Bartlett found broken metates (corn-grinders),
-and innumerable fragments of pottery painted tastefully with red,
-white, lead color, and black. The figures were geometrical, and many
-of the vessels had been decorated on the inside—a practice not in
-vogue with the modern peoples of the Gila Valley. The finish was also
-far superior to that of modern pottery. The Casa Grande, when last
-observed by Mr. Browne, was fast going to pieces, the moisture having
-undermined some parts of the outer walls, which were only kept erect by
-their great thickness. In 1873, Mr. Bancroft learned that the edifice
-was still standing, but it is evident that it must soon share the fate
-of its fallen neighbors. It is certain that this Pueblo civilization
-spread itself over a large tract of country north of the Gila Valley
-in the basin of the Rio Salado or Salinas, the principal tributary of
-the Gila. Numerous buildings similar to those previously described,
-have been noticed by different writers on the Rio Salado and its
-tributaries. The ruins of large edifices surrounded by smaller ones are
-described by Sedelmair (discovered in 1744) as standing between the
-Gila and Salado.[452]
-
-[Illustration: Casa Grande of the Gila Valley.
-
-(As sketched by Ross Browne in 1863.)]
-
-Velarde has also cited the remains of similar structures at the
-junction of Salado and Verde and of the Salado and Gila.[453] We cannot
-refer to all of the remains reported in this region, especially
-since most of them are indescribable and shapeless heaps of ruins.
-One edifice, however, was observed by Mr. Bartlett, two hundred feet
-in length by sixty or eighty feet in width; and from the accumulation
-of debris, it is estimated that the edifice must have been three or
-four stories in height. This was but one of several similar heaps
-of ruins observed in the immediate vicinity. This locality, distant
-thirty-five miles from the river’s mouth, was evidently at one time
-the site of a populous city. The remains of numerous works, probably
-of a public character, such as irrigating canals—one of which is now
-more than twenty feet wide and four feet deep and several miles long,
-in the construction of which it was necessary to cut down the bank
-of the plateau—occur in considerable numbers. The whole region is
-strewn with fragments of broken pottery of fine workmanship.[454] M.
-Leroux, in 1854, discovered on the Rio Verde ruins of stone houses and
-regular fortifications which did not appear to have been occupied for
-centuries. The walls were of solid masonry of rectangular form, usually
-from twenty to thirty paces in length, and the style of architecture
-similar to that of the Casa Grande of the Gila. Still there was
-sufficient resemblance to the Pueblos of the Moquis to indicate a
-transition from the southern to the northern style of Pueblo dwelling.
-The sudden change in the material employed—that from adobe to stone in
-large blocks, well hewn—is rather remarkable. The ruins are found with
-more or less continuity between Fort McDowell and Prescott.[455] Mr.
-Bancroft, after citing the above, expresses regret at his inability
-to secure information in the possession of officers in the Arizona
-service.[456]
-
-Lieutenant Whipple describes extensive ruins on the small streams
-forming the head-waters of the Rio Verde. Both stone and adobe
-structures were numerous, and the walls usually were found to be about
-five feet thick.[457] Emory has described some Pueblo buildings
-of singular structure on the upper Gila and its tributaries; most
-interesting of these is one with a labyrinthine plan of inner circular
-walls. The region also abounds in rock inscriptions of a rude though no
-doubt conventional character.[458] It is quite natural to suppose that
-remains of this ancient people would have been found extensively on
-the greatest river of the region—the Colorado. Mr. Bancroft passes the
-subject with the statement that “no relics of antiquity are reported by
-reliable authorities,” and fitly explains that it is unlikely, in view
-of the peculiarity of the region, that none will ever be found in the
-immediate vicinity of the river.[459] Whipple and his associates state
-that “upon the lower part of the Rio Colorado no traces of permanent
-dwellings have been discovered.”[460]
-
-Since the publication of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth volume, the public
-has been made acquainted with the details of Major J. W. Powell’s
-exploration of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado.[461] The descent of the
-river was accomplished by the Major and his companions in the summer
-of 1869, amid dangers so appalling and privations so distressing,
-that we need not hesitate in pronouncing it an exhibition of heroism
-having few parallels in the history of exploration. The Major has since
-repeated his perilous journey of which we have enjoyed the pleasure
-of a verbal description in part from the explorer himself. Groups
-of ruins were discovered in the gloomy depths of the Grand Cañon at
-three different points. In referring to them we will reverse the order
-in which they were discovered. A hundred or more miles (for we are
-unable to estimate the distance from the account) above the Virgen
-River, where the granite walls rise perpendicularly from the water’s
-edge thousands of feet, the cañon widened somewhat and a considerable
-group of ruined buildings were discovered on a terrace of trap. There
-had evidently been quite a village in that solitary spot, shut in
-by hundreds of miles of granite walls either up or down the river’s
-course. Mealing stones and fragments of broken pottery were scattered
-about the ruins, and so many beautiful flint chips that the discoverers
-conjectured that it might have been the home of an ancient arrow-maker.
-Major Powell found on a natural shelf in the rock, back of the ruin,
-a globular basket, badly broken, and so decayed that when taken up it
-fell to pieces.[462] Some distance farther up the river, the grim walls
-of more than a mile in height parted to admit the clear waters of a
-stream named by the explorers “Bright Angel River.” In a little gulch
-above the creek the foundations of two or three Pueblo houses were
-discovered. They were built of irregular cut stones, laid in mortar.
-An old, deeply-worn mealing stone and a great quantity of pottery were
-found, and old trails were observed worn into the rock.[463]
-
-It cannot fail, however, to excite the wonder of the reader to learn
-that Major Powell found ruined pueblos hundreds of miles farther up
-that dismal, almost subterranean river. Not far below the foot of the
-Cataract Cañon, and a considerable distance above Escalante River, in
-Southern Utah, the explorers discovered on a wall two hundred feet
-above the river, but removed from the water by a narrow plain, an old
-stone house of good masonry. The stones were laid in mortar with much
-regularity. It had been a three-story building, the first of which
-still remained in good condition, the second being much broken, and
-but little being left of the third. Flint chips, beautiful arrow-heads
-and broken pottery abounded in the vicinity. The faces of the cliffs
-were also covered with etchings. Fifteen miles farther down the river
-another group was discovered, the principal building of which was in
-the shape of an L, with five rooms on the ground floor; one in the
-angle and two in each wing. In the centre of the angle there was a deep
-excavation, doubtless an underground chamber for religious services,
-known as an Estufa. Major Powell considers these remains the work of a
-branch of the people now occupying the province of Tusayan in northern
-Arizona. These Moqui peoples will be noticed farther on. In the
-neighborhood of the last-named ruin, the Major found a tall, pyramidal
-work of nature, formed by smooth rock-mounds, rising one above another.
-On climbing this he observed that this natural eminence had been used
-as an outlook by the people of the Pueblo. A stairway cut in the rock
-by human hands and an old ladder resting against a perpendicular rock
-were discovered.[464]
-
-The Colorado Chiquito and its tributaries flows through the very heart
-of the Pueblo country. One hundred miles above its junction with the
-Rio Colorado, Whipple, Sitgreaves and others, found numerous ruins,
-crowning nearly every prominent point in the valley. The pottery of
-the region is unlike that usually met with, in that it is ornamented
-with impressions and raised work, instead of being painted.[465] Forty
-miles farther up the river colossal ruins were discovered standing on
-the summit of a sandstone bluff. The walls, such as remained standing,
-were ten feet thick, while the building measured 360 feet in length by
-120 in width.[466] With the exception of the remains of stone-houses,
-at the junction of the Rio Puerco with the Colorado Chiquito, the
-only aboriginal remains reported are pottery, scattered arrow-heads
-and numerous rock inscriptions. The next tributary of the Colorado
-Chiquito—the Zuñi River—is celebrated because of its ancient and modern
-Pueblo structures. For fifty miles from the mouth of the Zuñi, the
-antiquarian who could, might read the history of this ancient people,
-spread out upon the imperishable cliffs—the parchment of Nature’s
-children. Within eight miles of the inhabited Pueblo towns, numerous
-ruins are encountered.[467] Here, within a few miles, the almost
-mythical “seven cities of Cibola,” described by Coronado in 1540, and
-by Marco de Niça the year previous, are demonstrated to have been
-situated.[468] Zuñi itself is the Granada of the devoted and romantic
-conquerors. In the centre of a plain upon a commanding eminence, stands
-the inhabited Pueblo of Zuñi. Its frontage is upon the river of the
-same name, while but a short distance in the background, the mesa
-terminates in tall cliffs of metamorphic rock several hundred feet
-high. The town is built in blocks, with terrace-shaped houses, usually
-three stories high, in which the lower stories do service as the
-platform for those immediately following them. Access is obtained by
-means of ladders reaching to the roof or terrace, formed upon the first
-story of each of the houses. The town is very compactly built, many
-of the streets passing under the upper stories of houses. The whole
-is divided into four squares, and the houses in each are continuously
-joined together. The building material employed is stone, plastered
-with mud.[469] A little more than two miles south-east of Zuñi, the
-ancient ruined Pueblo of the same name is situated on an elevated
-mesa of a mile in width, the precipitous descent from which, upon all
-sides, measures a thousand feet. The ruins of old Zuñi are surrounded
-with a growth of cedars, and cover several acres of ground. The walls,
-constructed of small sandstone blocks laid in mud-mortar, are only
-eighteen inches thick and are sadly dilapidated from age, only twelve
-feet marking their highest point of present elevation. Still, there
-is a deeper mystery about this antiquated ruin, for beneath the walls
-now standing, others are found of a more ancient city, whose walls
-were six feet thick, which perished either of age or by the hand of
-the destroyer, before the present was begun. The ascent to the ruin
-is a winding and difficult path, guarded with stone battlements at
-different points. At a sacred spring near Zuñi, Whipple found vases
-standing inverted upon an adobe wall. “Many of these were white,
-well-proportioned, and of elegant forms. Upon their inner and outward
-surfaces they were curiously painted to represent frogs, tadpoles,
-tortoises, butterflies, and rattlesnakes.” The tufted snakes on one
-of the vases are pronounced almost unique in America.[470] Twelve
-miles above Zuñi, at Ojo del Pescado, four or five ruined towns are
-found, but so badly decayed as to furnish little clue to their plan.
-Two of them, however, are constructed elliptically around a spring,
-and present a circumference of about 800 to 1000 feet. Two-thirds of a
-mile down the river, ruined pueblos in a fair state of preservation,
-with two stories standing, are described as covering an area of
-150 by 200 yards. At the time of Möllhausen’s visit, the roofs and
-fire-places were in quite good condition.[471] A square estufa, still
-under roof, and numerous rock inscriptions, were observed. In this
-instance we are furnished with abundant evidence that the destruction
-of this people never was a wholesale one, but that gradually they are
-succumbing to their unpropitious surroundings—a land which is fast
-becoming a howling wilderness, with its scourging sands and roaming
-savage Bedouin—the Apaches. One more locality in this region merits
-attention. Eighteen miles south-east of the sources of the Zuñi River,
-stands a sandstone rock three hundred feet high, which at a distance
-resembles a Moorish fortress. The Spaniards named it El Moro. It is
-also known as “Inscription Rock,” because of the Spanish and Indian
-inscriptions which cover its smooth face. Simpson has copied some of
-them, which is quite fortunate, since later explorers have found many
-of them almost effaced. The ruins of two buildings are found on the
-summit, which is reached by a difficult path. The large group is in
-the form of a rectangle, measuring 307 by 206 feet. The walls, faced
-with sandstone blocks, remain standing to the height of six and eight
-feet. The other group is separated from the first by a deep ravine,
-and is found upon the very brink of the outer precipice. A circular
-estufa thirty-one feet in diameter was also noticed. Cedar timbers
-were found in the walls, and broken pottery in abundance.[472] About
-one hundred miles in a north north-easterly direction from Zuñi, in
-longitude 108° and latitude 36°, the most remarkable of the pueblo
-ruins are situated. These are on the north bank of the Chaco River,
-a tributary of the Rio San Juan, a stream the affluents of which are
-noted for a greater number of pueblo and cliff-dwellers’ ruins than
-are found elsewhere. Lieutenant Simpson has described the ruins of the
-Chaco, eleven in number, occurring within a distance of twenty-five
-miles. The first of these met with in coming from the south is called
-at present (we presume in the absence of the knowledge of the true
-name) the Pueblo Pintado. The most remarkable feature of this great
-structure is the beauty and precision of the masonry. The fine, hard
-gray sandstone blocks are quite uniformly three inches in thickness and
-are laid without mortar, always breaking joints. The crevices between
-the ends of the blocks are filled with very thin pieces of stone, not
-over a quarter of an inch thick. The walls of the pueblo now standing,
-are at their greatest height, thirty feet, and furnish evidence from
-the marks of the floor-timbers that the building was three stories. The
-walls are between two and three feet thick at the base, though this is
-diminished with each succeeding story by a jog of a few inches, upon
-which the flooring timbers rest. These are from six to eleven inches in
-diameter, always of uniform size in the same room. On these beams small
-round sticks are laid transversely, and these in turn covered with thin
-cedar strips, lying transversely of the round sticks. In some rooms the
-chinks in the floor were filled with small stones and the whole covered
-with a layer of mortar. One room, however, had a floor of smooth cedar
-boards, seven inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick. The
-edges and ends were squarely cut, and their smooth surfaces indicate
-that they were polished by being rubbed with flat stones. The size of
-these ruins may be better understood when we state that five buildings
-measured in circumference respectively 872, 700, 1700, 1300 and 1300
-feet; while the number of rooms, still well-defined on the ground
-floor of each, is 72, 99, 112, 124 and 139. Some of these buildings
-undoubtedly had as high as a thousand rooms, while the smallest of them
-probably contained half that number. The smallest apartments are five
-feet square, while the largest are eight by fourteen feet. The ground
-plan of the buildings of this valley have three tiers of rooms, while
-one building, the Pueblo Bonito, has four tiers of apartments. The
-usual form of the buildings corresponds to three sides of a rectangle,
-with the fourth (one of the long sides of the figure) left unbuilt
-(except that in some cases it was inclosed by a semicircular stone
-wall), thus affording a partially enclosed court of large dimensions.
-The exterior walls are in all cases perpendicular, thus differing from
-the pueblos farther south. The terracing in the Chaco structures is
-upon the inside (court side) of the buildings.
-
-In some of the buildings, however, the angles of the quadrangle are
-rounded, and in one instance—that of the Peñasca Blanco—the structure
-is elliptical. From the nature of the plan of any of these buildings
-it is evident that many of the apartments on the ground floor were
-dark, and were probably used for granaries and store-rooms. There are
-no doors whatever in the outer walls, and no windows except in the
-upper stories. Windows and doors opening into the courts are, on the
-contrary, numerous in all the stories but the first. The doors are
-quite small, in many cases not exceeding two and a half feet square.
-The lintels of the doors and windows are in most cases stone slabs, but
-in some instances are small round timbers tied together with withes. A
-remarkable feature of the construction is the presence of the Yucatan
-arch formed of overlapping stones, illustrations of which may be seen
-in our next chapter. Dr. Hammond, a companion of Lieutenant Simpson,
-has minutely described a room of very perfect finish.[473] Each edifice
-was provided with the sacred estufa, and some of the houses had as
-many as seven, circular in form, excavated several feet deep in the
-earth and enclosed with circular walls. One in the Pueblo Bonito was
-of remarkable size, having been sixty feet in diameter, extending
-twelve feet below the surface and rising two or three stories high.
-Lieutenant Simpson found in close proximity to one of the ruins an
-excavation in the cliff which had been enclosed with a front wall of
-well-laid stone and mortar, thus associating one of the simplest of
-the cave-dwellings to which we shall refer presently, with one of the
-most extensive and perfect of the Pueblo buildings; a fact of no little
-value in identifying the architects of both as one and the same.[474]
-This introduces us to another class of ruins, which, with a couple of
-exceptions, were not discovered prior to the summer of 1874. We refer
-to the cliff-dwellings, the most remarkable habitations ever occupied
-by man. The descriptions of them seem more suitable to form parts of
-the most romantic works of fiction than of sober and scientific memoirs
-from the pens of government explorers. One hundred miles westward from
-the ruins of the Chaco lies the Chelly Valley or Cañon. The Chelly is
-one of the tributaries of the Rio San Juan from the south, having its
-source in the Navajo country. The Chelly Cañon is described as from
-one hundred and fifty to nine hundred feet wide, with perpendicular
-sides between three hundred and five hundred feet high. Simpson in 1849
-found several caves built up in front with stone and mortar in a side
-cañon. About four miles from its foot or mouth he observed on a shelf
-fifty feet high, accessible only by ladders, a stone ruin, the plan of
-which resembles that of the Chaco Valley pueblos, except that it was
-constructed on a considerably smaller scale. Three miles further up the
-cañon a double ruin of an extraordinary nature was discovered. At the
-base of the cañon stood an ancient pueblo in ruins, but with parts of
-the first and second stories still erect. Fifty feet in a perpendicular
-line, above and immediately back of the first edifice, in a shelf, or
-in the mouth of a cavern in the cañon’s walls, stood another building
-constructed of sandstone and mortar, and measuring one hundred and
-forty-five by forty-five feet, with walls eighteen feet high still
-standing. Broken pottery was plentiful, as around all the ruins we have
-described. The building was lighted by square windows and provided with
-a circular estufa.[475]
-
-The most surprising results in all the history of archæological
-exploration in this country were obtained in September, 1874, by a
-party connected with the United States Geological and Geographical
-Survey Corps. This party was composed of only three persons, Mr. W.
-H. Jackson and Mr. Ingersoll with their guide, Captain John Moss, a
-resident of La Plata, who possessed both a knowledge of the country and
-an acquaintance with the language of the Indians. In the south-western
-corner of Colorado, the cañons of two of the tributaries of the San
-Juan were examined, namely, the valleys of the Rivers Mancos and
-McElmo.[476] The former stream rises among the western foothills of the
-Sierra La Plata, and flows south-westerly through fertile valleys to
-a great table-land known as the “Mesa Verde,” thence to the San Juan
-near the crossing of the boundary lines of the four territories. In
-the upper valley of the Mancos, between the mountains and the mesa,
-groups of undistinguishable ruins were discovered in great numbers.
-An examination of the shapeless heaps revealed foundations composed
-of great square blocks of adobe. The great multitude of these heaps
-of masonry overgrown with pines indicates a general and unsparing
-destruction of the houses of the people who once inhabited the valley,
-at the hands of their enemies. The cañon through the Mesa Verde is
-quite uniformly two hundred yards wide, with perpendicular walls of
-grayish cretaceous sandstone ranging from six hundred to one thousand
-feet in height. Numbers of the mounds of ruined adobe were met with at
-each advance into the cañon, and upon promontories jutting out towards
-the stream, remains of stone walls were seen as high as fifty feet
-from the river’s bed. Every step revealed great quantities of broken
-pottery, and with this statement we will let the subject of these
-fragmentary relics of the by-gone civilization rest for the present.
-
-One of the first cliff houses discovered by the explorers is a most
-interesting structure, the position of which, over six hundred feet
-from the bottom of the cañon in a niche of the wall, furnishes a
-significant commentary on the straits to which this sorely-pressed
-people were driven by their enemies. Five hundred feet of the ascent
-to this aërial dwelling was comparatively easy, but a hundred feet of
-almost perpendicular wall confronted the party, up which they could
-never have climbed but for the fact that they found a series of steps
-cut in the face of the rock leading up to the ledge upon which the
-house was built.
-
-[Illustration: Cliff-House in the Cañon of the Mancos.]
-
-This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, with a a
-vertical space between it and the overhanging rock of fifteen feet.
-The house occupied only half this space, the remainder having been
-used as an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade resting
-on abutments, built partly upon the sloping face of the precipice
-below. The house was but twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the
-walls did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain whether it
-ever had any other roof. The ground plan showed a front room of six
-by nine feet in dimensions, in the rear of which were two smaller
-rooms, each measuring five by seven feet. The left-hand room projected
-along the cliff, beyond the front room, in the form of an L. The rock
-of the cliff served as the rear wall of the house. The cedar beams
-upon which the upper floor had rested had nearly all disappeared.
-The door opening on the esplanade was but twenty by thirty inches in
-size, while a window in the same story was but twelve inches square.
-A window in the upper story, which commands an extended view down the
-cañon, corresponded in dimensions and position with the door below.
-The lintels of the window were small straight cedar sticks laid close
-together, upon which the stones rested. Opposite this window was
-another and smaller one, opening into a semicircular cistern, formed by
-a wall inclosing the angle formed by the side wall of the house against
-the rock, and holding about two and a half hogsheads. The bottom of the
-reservoir was reached by descending on a series of cedar pegs about
-one foot apart, and leading downward from the window. The workmanship
-of the structure was of a superior order; the perpendiculars were
-true ones and the angles carefully squared. The mortar used was of
-a grayish white color, very compact and adhesive. Some little taste
-was evinced by the occupants of this human swallow’s nest. The front
-rooms were plastered smoothly with a thin layer of firm adobe cement,
-colored a deep maroon, while a white band, eight inches wide, had been
-painted around the room at both floor and ceiling. An examination of
-the immediate vicinity revealed the ruins of half a dozen similar
-dwellings in the ledges of the cliffs, some of them occupying positions
-the inaccessibility of which must ever be a wonder, when considered as
-places of residence for human beings. Half-way down the cañon, one of
-Mr. Jackson’s party discovered a rather remarkable watch-tower, which,
-because of the accumulations of débris, he was not able to accurately
-measure, though approximate figures were given. Since his visit, the
-tower has been thoroughly examined by Mr. W. H. Holmes, to whose work
-in this field we will refer on a future page. Mr. Holmes’ measurements
-and ground-plan are, therefore, substituted for those of Mr. Jackson.
-
-The diameter of the outer wall is forty-three feet, that of the inner,
-twenty-five feet. The outer wall is still standing to the height of
-twelve feet at one point, and is in a fair state of preservation,
-with a thickness of twenty-one inches, and has the stones dressed to
-the curve. The ring-shaped space between the inner and outer wall is
-estimated to have contained ten compartments, two of which at present
-have complete walls. No door or window was observed in the outer wall,
-and it is supposed that access was obtained by means of a ladder. Two
-nearly rectangular openings were found connecting the outer apartments
-with the central part of the tower, which no doubt was used as an
-estufa.[477] Mr. Jackson, after leaving the tower which Mr. Holmes has
-so fully described (of which the above is but a condensed account), saw
-similar towers on a somewhat smaller scale. His next discovery in the
-face of the vertical rock, which here ran up from the bottom of the
-cañon and at a height of from fifty to one hundred feet, were a number
-of nest-like habitations, one of which is figured in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan of Tower in the Mancos Cañon.]
-
-[Illustration: Cliff-dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.]
-
-The cliff-house in this case was reached by its occupants from the
-top of the cañon. The walls are pronounced as firm as the rock upon
-which they were built. The stones were very regular in size, and the
-chinking-in of small chips of stone rendered the surface of the wall
-remarkably smooth and well finished. The dwelling measured fifteen
-feet in length, five feet in width, and six feet in height. A short
-distance below this little dwelling, five or six cave-like crevices
-were found walled up in front with very perfect walls, rendered smooth
-by chinking. Three miles farther down the cañon, the party discovered
-at heights ranging from six hundred and eight hundred feet above their
-heads, some curious and unique little dwellings sandwiched in among
-the crevices of the horizontal strata of the rock of which the bluff
-was composed. Access to the summit of the bluff, a thousand feet
-high, was obtained by a circuitous path through a side cañon, and the
-houses themselves could only be reached at the utmost peril—of being
-precipitated to the bottom of the dizzy abyss—by crawling along a
-ledge twenty inches wide and only high enough for a man in a creeping
-position. This led to the wider shelf on which the houses rested. The
-perfection of the finish was especially noticeable in one of these
-houses, which was but fifteen feet long and seven feet high, with a
-side wall running back in a semicircular sweep. In every instance the
-party found the elevated cliff-houses situated on the western side of
-the cañon with their outlook toward the east, while the buildings at
-the bottom of the cañon were indiscriminately built on both sides of
-the river.
-
-[Illustration: Cliff-Dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.]
-
-A circular watch-tower, which may be said to serve as a fair type of
-others met with at irregular intervals, is shown in the cut (p. 300).
-The tower remained standing to a height of twenty feet. Its diameter
-measured twelve feet and the thickness of the walls sixteen inches,
-the stones being of uniform size and smoothly dressed to the curve of
-the circle. A rectangular structure, divided into two apartments, each
-about fifteen feet square, once joined the tower, but now is in ruins,
-all but the foundation. It is supposed that this edifice was built over
-a large subterranean keep or place of defence. The exploring party here
-emerged from the cañon, and could discern, as they glanced down the
-valley of the Rio Mancos, which now turned towards the west, mounds of
-shapeless ruins at short distances from one another as far as the eye
-could reach.
-
-Bearing around the Mesa to the west, the party encamped upon the
-site of the most extensive mass of ruins yet found in United States
-territory, “known as the Aztec Springs.” As Mr. Jackson’s description
-is but partial, we defer the treatment of this locality until we take
-up the explorations of Mr. Holmes, already mentioned. Four miles
-distant from “Aztec Springs,” the party reached a river-bed, dry during
-most of the year, and known as the McElmo, which, when it flows at
-all, empties into the San Juan farther to the west. On the _mesa_,
-above this river-bed, a tower resembling that first met in the Mancos
-was observed, but of much greater size, having a diameter of fifty
-feet. Adjoining the tower were the ruins of large subdivided buildings
-resembling the community dwellings of the Moquis and the old ruins of
-the Chaco. This group of ruins was very extensive and complicated,
-literally occupying all the available space in the vicinity.
-
-[Illustration: Watch-Tower of the Cañon of the Mancos.]
-
-Half a dozen miles down the cañon of the McElmo, several of the little
-nest-like dwellings peculiar to the Mancos were seen perched forty or
-fifty feet above the valley. A couple of miles beyond these, the tower
-shown in the cut (p. 301) was discovered standing on the summit of a
-great block of sandstone forty feet high, and detached from the bluff
-back of it.
-
-[Illustration: Square Tower on the McElmo.]
-
-The building which surmounts this rocky pedestal is square and about
-fifteen feet high at present. Windows open toward the north and east,
-the directions from which the enemies of this people, according to
-tradition, came down upon them. A wall at the base of the rock is
-mostly in ruins and covered with débris from the building above.
-Immediately beyond this point the boundary line into Utah was crossed,
-and two or three miles distant the party came upon a very interesting
-group, a historic spot in the career of this ancient race. In the
-centre of the widening valley stands a solitary butte of dark-red
-sandstone, upon a perfectly smooth floor of the same, dipping gently
-towards the centre of the valley. This butte or _cristone_ is about
-one hundred feet high and three hundred feet in length, of irregular
-form. All around the rock are remains of stone walls which indicate
-an extensive structure and complicated system of walls and towers. At
-the back of the rock two remains attract special attention. One wall
-forming the corner of a building near the base of the rock, seems to
-have served as an approach to the larger house up in the side of the
-butte. This structure is about eighteen feet in length and twelve feet
-in height, nearly reaching to the top of the rock. Part of the walls
-have fallen, but those standing show a finish surpassing those of any
-structure previously discovered in the region. In front is a single
-aperture eighteen by twenty-four inches. On top of the rock are remains
-of masonry, but too badly ruined to indicate their original form. All
-the crevices and irregularities in the faces of the butte had been
-smoothly walled up; it is supposed, to make its ascent impossible. In
-the vicinity a tower with a rounded corner and twelve feet in diameter
-by twenty feet high stood in a dry creek bed.
-
-[Illustration: Cliff House in the Cañon of the McElmo.]
-
-We remarked that this was a historic locality, as certainly it was if
-the legend obtained by Captain Moss from an old man among the Moquis is
-reliable. Mr. Ingersoll has rendered it in the _New York Tribune_ for
-November 3d, 1874, as follows: “Formerly, the aborigines inhabited all
-this country we had been over as far west as the head-waters of the San
-Juan, as far north as the Rio Dolores, west some distance into Utah,
-and south and south-west throughout Arizona and on down into Mexico.
-They had lived there from time immemorial—since the earth was a small
-island, which augmented as its inhabitants multiplied. They cultivated
-the valley, fashioned whatever utensils and tools they needed very
-neatly and handsomely out of clay and wood and stone, not knowing any
-of the useful metals; built their homes and kept their flocks and
-herds in the fertile river-bottoms, and worshipped the sun. They were
-an eminently peaceful and prosperous people, living by agriculture
-rather than by the chase. About a thousand years ago, however, they
-were visited by savage strangers from the North, whom they treated
-hospitably. Soon these visits became more frequent and annoying. Then
-their troublesome neighbors—ancestors of the present Utes—began to
-forage upon them, and, at last, to massacre them and devastate their
-farms; so, to save their lives at least, they built houses high upon
-the cliffs where they could store food and hide away till the raiders
-left. But one summer the invaders did not go back to their mountains as
-the people expected, but brought their families with them and settled
-down. So, driven from their homes and lands, starving in their little
-niches on the high cliffs, they could only steal away during the night,
-and wander across the cheerless uplands. To one who has traveled
-these steppes, such a flight seems terrible, and the mind hesitates
-to picture the suffering of the sad fugitives. At the _Cristone_ they
-halted and probably found friends, for the rocks and caves are full
-of the nests of these human wrens and swallows. Here they collected,
-erected stone fortifications and watch-towers, dug reservoirs in the
-rocks to hold a supply of water, which in all cases is precarious in
-this latitude, and once more stood at bay. Their foes came, and for
-one long month fought and were beaten back, and returned day after
-day to the attack as merciless and inevitable as the tide. Meanwhile,
-the families of the defenders were evacuating and moving south, and
-bravely did their protectors shield them till they were all safely a
-hundred miles away. The besiegers were beaten back and went away. But
-the narrative tells us that the hollows of the rocks were filled to the
-brim with the mingled blood of conquerors and conquered, and red veins
-of it ran down into the cañon. It was such a victory as they could not
-afford to gain again, and they were glad, when the long fight was
-over, to follow their wives and little ones to the south. There, in
-the deserts of Arizona, on well-nigh unapproachable isolated bluffs,
-they built new towns, and their few descendants, the Moquis, live in
-them to this day, preserving more carefully and purely the history and
-veneration of their forefathers than their skill or wisdom. It was from
-one of their old men that this traditional sketch was obtained.” In a
-side cañon, a tower eighteen feet high was seen perched on a huge block
-of sandstone which had fallen from the top of the _mesa_ and lodged on
-a projecting shelf of rock, midway from top or bottom. Eight or ten
-miles westward of the McElmo, Mr. Jackson and his party discovered on
-a stream known as the Hovenweep, the ruins of a city. Mr. Jackson’s
-description is as follows: “The stream referred to sweeps the foot of a
-rocky sandstone ledge, some forty or fifty feet in height, upon which
-is built the highest and better-preserved portion of the settlement.
-Its semicircular sweep conforms to the ledge, each little house of
-the outer circle being built close upon its edge. Below the level of
-these upper houses some ten or twelve feet, and within the semicircular
-sweep, are seven distinctly marked depressions, each separated from
-the other by rocky débris, the lower or first series probably of small
-community houses. Upon either flank, and founded upon rocks, are
-buildings similar in size and in other respects to the large ones on
-the line above. As paced off, the upper or convex surface measured one
-hundred yards in length. Each little apartment is small and narrow,
-averaging six feet in width and eight feet in length, the walls being
-eighteen inches in thickness. The stones of which the entire group is
-built are dressed to nearly uniform size and laid in mortar. A peculiar
-feature here is in the round corners, one at least appearing upon
-nearly every little house. They are turned with considerable care and
-skill, being true curves solidly bound together.”
-
-[Illustration: Ruins of the Hovenweep.]
-
-[Illustration: Niche Stairway of Chelly Cañon]
-
-Here the labors of Mr. Jackson’s party ended for the year 1874, but
-the work was again resumed in July of the following year with even
-richer results. Two parties were put in the field by the Government
-Surveying Corps, one headed by Mr. Jackson and the other by Mr. W. H.
-Holmes, geologists of the San Juan division of the survey for 1875.
-I am indebted to Prof. Hayden, United States geologist-in-charge,
-for the memoirs prepared by these gentlemen, with the accompanying
-illustrations.[478] The reader has already become acquainted with the
-general character of the remains of the cliff-dwellers, and it will not
-be necessary to repeat the descriptions of buildings or ruins similar
-to those already described in these pages. We shall therefore cite only
-the more remarkable ruins discovered by the above-named explorers.
-Mr. Jackson was accompanied on his second tour, by Mr. E. A. Barber,
-naturalist and correspondent of the _New York Herald_, with Harry Lee
-as guide and interpreter. The party resumed their labors in the arid,
-waterless region around the Hovenweep, and in fact the same barren
-characteristics are peculiar to the whole basin of the San Juan. The
-whole region is rapidly drying up and fast becoming a desert. Down
-the cañon from the pueblo of the Hovenweep, broken towers and rock
-shelters were passed in rapid succession. Seven miles distant from
-their starting-point, they found on the western side of the valley
-three elevated benches ranging one above another in the face of a
-jutting promontory, each of which contained houses (see illustration,
-page 307). The first bench was reached by climbing over a sloping
-mass of débris to a height of one hundred feet from the base of the
-cliff, while the upper benches were only accessible by means of a niche
-stairway similar to the one shown in the figure.
-
-[Illustration: Cliff-House of the Hovenweep.]
-
-Ruins and masses of charcoal were found at the base of the rock.
-Numerous adobe foundations, probably of wooden buildings, always
-circular in form and ranging from fifteen to twenty-five feet in
-diameter, were met with a short distance down the cañon. Near the
-junction of the Hovenweep and McElmo cañons an inscription covers sixty
-feet of the face of a large rock. The figures are those of men, goats,
-lizards, and hieroglyphic signs. As the party proceeded in the cañon
-they met rock shelters and enclosures, the latter on the top of the
-mesa in which slabs of stone three by five feet in size were set on
-end. Mr. Jackson reports that a party connected with the survey corps
-discovered near the head of the Hovenweep, on a ledge three hundred
-feet long by fifty feet wide, one-third of the distance from the top
-of the cañon, some forty houses crowded along the shelf all in a row.
-On the San Juan west of the mouth of the Montezuma Cañon, upon a bench
-fifty feet high, Mr. Jackson found a quadrangular structure of peculiar
-design, as shown in the cut on page 308.
-
-“We see that it is arranged very nearly at right angles to the river,
-its greatest depth on the left, where it runs back one hundred and
-twenty feet; the front sweeps back in a diagonal line, so that the
-right-hand side is only thirty-two feet in depth. The back wall is
-one hundred and fifty-eight feet long, and at right angles to the two
-sides. In the centre of the building, looking out upon the river, is
-an open space seventy-five feet wide, and averaging forty feet in
-depth, its depressed centre divided nearly equally by a ridge running
-through it at right angles to the river. We judged it to have been an
-open court, because there was not the least vestige of a wall in front,
-or on the ridge through the centre, while upon the other three sides
-they were perfectly distinct; although it is difficult to explain why
-it should have been hollowed out in the manner shown in the plan. Back
-of this court is a series of seven apartments of equal size, springing
-in a perfect arch from the heavy wall facing the court, leaving a
-semicircular space in the centre, forty-five feet across its greatest
-diameter. Each one is fifteen feet in length, and the same in width
-across its centre, the walls somewhat irregular in thickness, but
-averaging twenty inches, compact, and well laid. On the left are three
-rooms extending across the whole width of the building, each averaging
-forty-five by forty feet square; on the right only one was discernible.
-Back of the circle, our impression was that the walls diverged in the
-manner shown in the plan, although there is so much confusion resulting
-from the heaping up of the débris that much must be left to conjecture.
-There is also a slight shadow of doubt in regard to the wall facing the
-river on the right; it is barely possible that it extended somewhat
-farther out, although there is here a steep inclination to the
-brink of the bluff, and that it has become entirely obliterated by
-its foundations giving way. The remains of the wall above, however,
-led us to believe that it had been originally built in the way it is
-shown in the plan. Extreme massiveness is indicated throughout the
-whole structure by the amount of débris about the line of the walls,
-forming long rounded mounds four to five feet high, with the stone-work
-cropping out, twenty to twenty-four inches in thickness.”
-
-[Illustration: RUINS UPON THE RIO SAN JUAN]
-
-[Illustration: Rock-Shelters of the San Juan Cañon.]
-
-In the face of the bluff immediately under this ruin and upon
-a recessed bench three hundred feet long was a row of little
-rock-shelters, with just enough room on the ledge in front of them
-to admit of a promenade the entire length of the shelf. All down the
-valley of the San Juan, rock shelters and dwellings similar to the
-group shown in the cut, were met with.
-
-In this instance the houses were situated sixty feet above the trail
-without any visible means of access. If ladders were used, they were
-made of timber taller than any of the trees now growing in the valley.
-Twelve miles below the Montezuma the party discovered really one of
-the most picturesque and wonderful of all the cliff-dwellings. On the
-opposite side of the river, where the bluff was two hundred feet high,
-near the top of the cliff, they observed a deeply receding cave with
-an opening nearly circular “two hundred feet in diameter, divided
-equally between the two kinds of rocks, reaching, within a few feet,
-the top of the bluff above and the level of the valley below. It runs
-back in a semicircular sweep to a depth of one hundred feet; the
-top is a perfect half dome, and the lower half only less so from the
-accumulation of débris and the thick brushy foliage, the cool dampness
-of its shadowed interior, where the sun never touches, favoring a
-luxuriant growth. A stratum of harder rock across the central line of
-the cave has left a bench running around its entire half circle, upon
-which is built the row of buildings which caught our attention half a
-mile away.”
-
-[Illustration: Row of 11 Rooms, one story in height, from 4 to 10 feet
-  in width, by 130 feet.
-
-  HORIZONTAL SECTION
-  of the
-  GREAT ECHO CAVE
-  on the
-  RIO SAN JUAN]
-
-“It will be seen that the houses occupy the left-hand or eastern half
-of the cave, for the reason, probably, that the ledge was wider on
-that side, and the wall back of it receded in such a manner as to give
-considerable additional room for the second floor, or for the upper
-part of the one-story rooms. It is about fifty feet from the outer edge
-in to the first building, a small structure sixteen feet long, three
-feet wide at the outer end, and four at the opposite end; the walls,
-standing only four feet on the highest remaining corner, were nearly
-all tumbled in. Then came an open space eleven feet wide and nine deep,
-that served probably as a sort of workshop. Four holes were drilled
-into the smooth rock floor, about six feet equidistantly apart, each
-from six to ten inches deep and five in diameter, as perfectly round
-as though drilled by machinery. We can reasonably assume that these
-people were familiar with the art of weaving, and that it was here
-they worked at the loom, the drilled holes supporting its posts. At
-_b_, in this open space, are a number of grooves worn into the rock in
-various places, caused by the artificers of the little town in shaping
-and polishing their stone implements. The main building comes next,
-occupying the widest portion of the ledge, which gives an average width
-of ten feet inside; it is forty-eight feet long outside, and twelve
-high, divided inside into three rooms, the first two thirteen and a
-half feet each in length, and the third sixteen feet, divided into
-two stories, the lower and upper five feet in height. The joist holes
-did not penetrate through the walls, being inserted about six inches,
-half the thickness. The beams rested upon the sloping back-wall, which
-receded far enough to make the upper rooms about square. Window-like
-apertures afforded communication between each room, all through the
-second story, excepting that which opened out to the back of the cave.
-There was also one window in each lower room, about twelve inches
-square, looking out toward the open country, and in the upper rooms
-several small apertures not more than three inches wide were pierced
-through the wall, hardly more than peep-holes. The walls of the large
-building continued back in an unbroken line one hundred and thirty
-feet farther, with an average height of eight feet, and divided into
-eleven apartments, with communicating apertures through all. The
-first room was nine and a half feet wide, the others dwindling down
-gradually to only four feet in width at the other extremity. The rooms
-were of unequal length, the following being their inside measurements,
-commencing from the outer end, viz.: 12½, 9½, 8, 7½, 9, 10, 8, 7, 7,
-8, 31 feet; the ledge then runs along, gradually narrowing, fifty feet
-farther, where another wall occurs across it, after which it soon
-merges into the smooth wall of the cave. The first of these rooms had
-an aperture leading outward large enough to crawl through; the wall
-around it had been broken away so that its exact size could not be
-determined; all the others, of which there were about two to each room,
-were mere peep-holes, about three inches in diameter, and generally
-pierced through the wall at a downward angle.” The apartments were well
-plastered, and in one or two places even the delicate lines on the
-thumbs and fingers of the plasterers had been plainly retained. At one
-point an entire hand had left its impress in the cement.
-
-[Illustration: Great Echo Cave.]
-
-All these marks indicated that the hands of these people were much
-smaller than those of the explorers, and it is supposed that they were
-those of women and children. A circular hollow place, all begrimed
-and blackened by smoke, seemed to indicate the locality of a common
-kitchen. The surroundings of this little community of that ancient
-people indicated that they were well-to-do, and were probably the lords
-of the neighboring country. From their home in this elevated gallery,
-under nature’s arching roof of rock, they were in a position to give
-defiance to their enemies and enjoy the pursuit of their pastoral
-occupations. This unique residence was named by the explorers the
-Casa del Eco. Over the plateau westward, the remains of this ancient
-people were numerous and of the same general character as already
-described. The party after reaching the Cañon of the Chelly (the stream
-flowing, as already stated, into the San Juan from the south) found
-several circular caves averaging about one hundred feet in diameter and
-containing the ruins of old houses.
-
-[Illustration: Cave-Village in the Valley of the Rio Chelly.]
-
-About five miles southward from the San Juan, and in a valley of the
-Chelly, a cave-village of considerable extent was discovered, perched
-upon a recessed bench about seventy feet above the valley, and overhung
-by a solid wall of massive sandstone, extending up over two hundred
-feet farther. Mr. Jackson describes it in detail as follows: “The
-left-hand side of the bench supporting the buildings sweeps back in a
-sharp curve about eighty feet under the bluff, and then gradually comes
-to the front again until, on the extreme right hand, the buildings are
-built upon a mass of débris, but partially protected overhead. The
-total length over the solidly built portion of the town is five hundred
-and forty-five feet, with a greater width in no place of more than
-forty feet. There are somewhere in the neighborhood of seventy-five
-rooms upon the ground-plan, with some uncertainty existing as to many
-of the subdivisions on the right; but in the cave-built portion every
-apartment was distinctly marked. Midway in the town is a circular
-room of heavily and solidly built masonry, that was probably meant
-for an estufa or council-hall; that is, if we can reasonably assume
-any similarity in the methods of building or worship to those of the
-pueblos of New Mexico. Starting from this estufa is a narrow passage
-running back of the line of houses on the left to a two-story group,
-where it ends abruptly, further access being had through the back
-row of rooms, or over the roofs of the lower front row, probably the
-latter, for it is likely that these roofs served as a platform from
-which to enter the rooms back of it. At the extreme end a still higher
-ledge occurs, with the overhanging wall coming down close over it, its
-outer edge enclosed by a wall, and a little store-room in its farther
-corner; it was reserved, probably, as an out-door working-room. All
-the buildings of this half are of one story, with the exception of one
-group, the residence probably of the chief or of some other important
-family in the community. The rooms just back of it are the store-rooms
-of the family, where the corn and squashes were put away for the
-winter’s consumption. Near these store-rooms, there are two half-round
-enclosures of stone-work, that are very likely the remains of small
-reservoirs or springs. The rock back of them is dug out beneath, and
-had, even in the dry season, when we were there, a damp appearance, as
-though water was not far removed, and might easily be coaxed to the
-surface. The front line of wall of this left side of the town is built
-upon a steep angle of smooth rock, with the interior of the apartments
-filled up with earth so as to make their floors level, bringing them a
-little below the passage-way. In two or three instances the front wall
-has given way, precipitating all but the back wall to the bottom of the
-cliffs. Holes have been drilled into the rock in a few places beneath
-the walls, evidently to assist in retaining them in their places.
-The whole front of this portion of the town is without an aperture,
-save very small windows, and is perfectly inaccessible, both from the
-solidity of the wall and the precipitous nature of the foundation-rock
-beneath it. Admittance was probably gained from near the circular
-building in the centre, by ladders or any other well-guarded approach
-over the rocks.”
-
-Two miles down the Cañon of the Chelly, below the mouth of the fertile
-Cañon Bonito Chiquito, the house figured on page 306 was found with its
-niched stairway cut in the face of the rock. The house is two-storied,
-twenty feet in height, the lower story of which is eighteen by ten feet
-square, divided into two rooms. A natural reservoir of water was found
-in the rock only twenty rods distant. Eight miles up the Chelly they
-came to the cave Pueblo, seen by Simpson and mentioned on page 293.
-From this point it was but forty miles to the inhabited Moquis town
-Tegua. The explorers after visiting that interesting place returned
-northward again to the San Juan, reaching Epsom Creek, a tributary of
-the same from the north, a short distance from the mouth of the Chelly
-Cañon. Among a number of remains found in the Cañon of Epsom Creek,
-one in particular is of interest; this was the remnant of a square
-tower, of most perfect masonry, built upon a point of rock entirely
-inaccessible to the explorers.
-
-[Illustration: Elevated Tower on Epsom Creek.]
-
-A few miles farther up the Epsom Valley, the ruins of quite a town
-were discovered. “It lay upon both sides of a small, dry ravine, some
-twenty or thirty rods back from the bed of the creek, and consisted
-of a main rectangular mass sixty by one hundred feet, occupying quite
-an elevation, dominating all the others. Just below it and close
-upon the edge of the ravine, was a round tower, twenty-five feet in
-diameter; and seventy-five below that, and also close to the ravine,
-was a square building, twenty-feet across, nearly obscured by a
-thicket of piñon-trees, growing about it. On the opposite bank were
-two small round towers, each fifteen feet in diameter, with two oblong
-structures between, twelve by fifteen feet square; at right angles to
-these four, which were arranged in a straight line, another square
-building occurred, the same size as the one just opposite on the other
-bank.” The surroundings of this ancient village are described as truly
-picturesque and the valley fertile, contrasting considerably with
-the Chelly Cañon. The exploring party followed the Epsom to a point
-thirty miles above the San Juan, and in the head cañons between it and
-the Montezuma found themselves in the midst of ruins which mark the
-former presence of a dense population. No ruins were found near the
-Sierra Abajo nor in the great basin lying between it and the Sierra
-La Sal. In the deep cañon of the Montezuma (fifteen hundred feet
-deep), cliff-dwellings and other remains were found in great numbers.
-Cave-shelters, with the orifice of the oval and circular crevices
-in the rocks walled up with neat masonry and accessible by means of
-niche-steps for the hands and feet, leading up the perpendicular cliff
-to the little nest-like houses above, were especially numerous. In one
-of these a skeleton was found, but examination proved it to be that of
-a Navajo, and quite certainly not that of one of the ancient residents.
-At different points midway down the cañon, narrow promontories jut out
-into the valley a hundred yards or more, ranging from twenty to one
-hundred feet in height. Within a distance of sixteen miles, eighteen
-of these were observed, covered with ruins of massive stone-built
-structures. They were rectangular in form, ranging from one hundred
-by two hundred feet, down to thirty by forty feet in size. We cannot
-devote further attention to the vast number of ruins found by Mr.
-Jackson and party in the Montezuma Valley, except to note the curious
-little house shown in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: Cave-Dwelling in the Montezuma Valley.]
-
-Among a colony of these cave-dwellings, occurring at the first bend
-of the West Montezuma, a dozen miles above its junction with the
-east fork, this one commands attention as much for the neatness and
-perfection of its masonry as for the snug little cave in which its
-architect lodged it. A block of sandstone resting on the edge of the
-mesa bench fifty feet above the valley, had a deep oval hole worn in it
-by the winds and sands. This was occupied by the little house, ten feet
-long, six feet high and five feet deep; a space, however, was reserved
-at one end to serve as a platform from which to enter.
-
-In addition to the explorations of Mr. Jackson and party, Mr. W. H.
-Holmes of the Geological and Geographical Survey, was also assigned
-the duty of examining ancient remains in the valley of the Upper San
-Juan, during the summer of 1875.[479] Mr. Holmes and party examined
-an area of nearly six thousand square miles, chiefly in Colorado on
-the San Juan and its tributaries. Most of the ruins met with were of
-the same general character and description as those examined by Mr.
-Jackson, and to repeat in detail the majority of descriptions contained
-in Mr. Holmes’ memoir, would be to weary the reader with repetitions
-without affording additional advantage. However, a few remarkable ruins
-described by Mr. Holmes command our attention. The first of these which
-may be pronounced unique in this section of the country, and quite
-unlike anything met with thus far in the exploration, is situated on
-the Rio La Plata, about twenty-five miles above its junction with
-the San Juan. The remains of an extensive village with structures of
-various forms, are scattered upon a terrace some twenty feet above
-the river-bed. The distribution of the works viewed in connection
-with plans upon which they were constructed are suggestive of the
-remains of the mound-builders of the Ohio valley. The forms are chiefly
-rectangular and circular, one or two seem to have been elliptical while
-a number have consisted of irregular groups of apartments. All now
-lie in ruins with their outlines marked by ridges of débris composed
-of earth, water-worn pebbles, and small fragments of sandstone. The
-walls of the main structure are still prominently defined, while those
-of a circular enclosure, used probably as an estufa, are standing to
-the height of four feet. Three hundred feet directly north of this
-enclosure is a truncated rectangular mound nine feet high, measuring
-fifty by eighty feet. In one of the angles of the east end are the
-remains of what may have been a tower rising above the platform of the
-mound. One hundred feet north of this mound is a rectangular enclosure
-measuring sixty by one hundred feet. Its wall ranges from four to six
-feet in height. The ruins of a wall extending between the mound and the
-enclosure, indicate that they were once connected. A system of works
-joined these to a range of low hills, lying to the north. Southward
-from the large central circle are earthworks and ruins covering an
-area of fifteen thousand square feet. A large number of small circles
-and mounds occupy the southern extremity of the terrace. It is
-impossible to account for the sudden change in the plan of works so
-contiguous to those of a well-marked pueblo origin. On the San Juan
-River, thirty-five miles below the mouth of the La Plata and ten miles
-above the Mancos, Mr. Holmes observed an interesting combination of
-cave-shelters and towers united in a system for giving signals upon the
-approach of the enemy. In the face of a vertical bluff thirty-five feet
-high and about half way from the trail below, caves had been quarried
-or weathered in considerable numbers in the shales which constitute one
-of the strata in the bluff. A hard platform of rock formed the floor,
-and afforded sufficient protection for a narrow platform in front of
-these openings. Immediately above these caves upon the summit of the
-bluffs, a system of ruined circular towers, enclosed by semicircular
-walls with the open side of the semicircle facing the precipice, was
-observed. The caves were accessible from the valley below only by means
-of ladders, and the towers in turn only by ladders from the caves
-through the open side of their semicircular enclosures. The walls of
-these enclosures presented no openings to the plateau above, and it is
-inferred that the towers which they enclosed served as outlooks from
-which the sentinel could signal the people who were engaged in tilling
-the valley below to flee to their cave-shelters at the approach of the
-enemy, and when too closely pressed by an enemy upon the plateau the
-sentinel himself could make his retreat by means of his ladder to the
-caves beneath.
-
-The most remarkable cliff-dwellings, discovered by Mr. Holmes, are
-shown in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: Cave-Fortresses of the Rio Mancos.]
-
-These extraordinary fortresses, lodged in caves eight hundred feet
-above the level of the valley, are situated in the cañon of the Mancos,
-a few miles from its mouth. The first five hundred feet of the ascent
-from the level of the stream, is over a rough cliff-broken slope, the
-remainder of massive sandstone, full of niches and caves. The upper
-house is situated in a deep cavern with overhanging roof about one
-hundred feet from the cliff’s top. The front wall of the house is
-built upon the very edge of the giddy precipice. The larger house is
-lodged in a niche or cave thirty feet below. The lower house was easily
-accessible. The wall was built flush with the precipice and remained
-standing to a height of fourteen feet at the highest point, though
-other portions had crumbled away considerably. The house occupied the
-entire floor of the niche, which measures sixty feet long by fifteen
-feet wide. Mr. Holmes described these structures as follows; of the
-first he says:
-
-“The arrangement of the apartments is quite complicated and curious,
-and will be more readily understood by a reference to the ground-plan
-(figure 1). The precipice line or front edge of the niche-floor,
-extends from _a_ to _b_. From this the broken cliffs and slopes reach
-down to the trail and river, as shown in the accompanying profile
-(figure 3). The line _b c d_ represents the deepest part of the recess,
-against which the walls are built. To the right of _b_, the shelf
-ceases, and the vertical face of rock is unbroken. At the left, beyond
-_a_, the edge is not so abrupt, and the cliffs below are so broken that
-one can ascend with ease. Above, the roof comes forward and curves
-upward, as seen in the profile.
-
-[Illustration:
-  _FIG. 1._
-  _FIG. 3._]
-
-“The most striking feature of this structure is the _round-room_,
-which occurs about the middle of the ruin and inside of a large
-rectangular apartment. * * * Its walls are not high and not entirely
-regular, and the inside is curiously fashioned with offsets and
-box-like projections. It is plastered smoothly, and bears considerable
-evidence of having been used, although I observed no traces of fire.
-The entrance to this chamber is rather extraordinary, and further
-attests the peculiar importance attached to it by the builders, and
-their evident desire to secure it from all possibility of intrusion. A
-walled and covered passage-way, _f_, _f_, of solid masonry, ten feet
-of which is still intact, leads from an outer chamber through the
-small intervening apartments into the circular one. It is possible
-that this originally extended to the outer wall, and was entered from
-the outside. If so, the person desiring to visit the estufa would have
-to enter an aperture about twenty-two inches high by thirty wide,
-and crawl, in the most abject manner possible, through a tube-like
-passage-way nearly twenty-feet in length. My first impression was that
-this peculiarly-constructed doorway was a precaution against enemies,
-and that it was probably the only means of entrance to the interior of
-the house; but I am now inclined to think this hardly probable, and
-conclude that it was rather designed to render a sacred chamber as
-free as possible from profane intrusion. The apartments _l_, _k_, _m_,
-_n_, do not require any especial description, as they are quite plain
-and almost empty. The partition walls have never been built up to the
-ceiling of the niche, and the inmates, in passing from one apartment
-to another, have climbed over. The row of apertures indicated in the
-main front wall are about five feet from the floor, and were doubtless
-entered for the insertion of beams, although there is no evidence that
-a second floor has at any time existed. In that part of the ruin about
-the covered passage-way, the walls are complicated, and the plan can
-hardly be made out, while the curved wall enclosing the apartment _e_
-is totally overthrown. * * * * The rock-face between this ruin and
-the one above is smooth and vertical, but by passing along the ledge
-a few yards to the left a sloping face was found, up which a stairway
-of small niches had been cut; by means of these, an active person,
-unincumbered, could ascend with safety. On reaching the top, one finds
-himself in the very doorway of the upper house (_a_, figure 2) without
-standing-room outside of the wall, and one can imagine that an enemy
-would stand but little chance of reaching and entering such a fortress
-if defended, even by women and children alone. The position of this
-ruin is one of unparalleled security, both from enemies and from the
-elements. The almost vertical cliff descends abruptly from the front
-wall, and the immense arched roof of solid stone projects forward
-fifteen or twenty feet beyond the house (see section, figure 3). At the
-right the ledge ceases, and at the left stops short against a massive
-vertical wall. The niche-stairway affords the only possible means of
-approach.
-
-“The house occupies the entire floor of the niche, which is about one
-hundred and twenty feet long by ten in depth at the deepest part. The
-front wall to the right and left of the doorway is quite low, portions
-having doubtless fallen off. The higher wall _f g_ is about thirty feet
-long, and from ten to twelve feet high, while a very low rude wall
-extends along the more inaccessible part of the ledge, and terminates
-at the extreme right in a small enclosure, as seen in the plan at _c_.
-
-“In the first apartment entered, there were evidences of fire, the
-walls and ceiling being blackened with smoke. In the second, a member
-of the party, by digging in the rubbish, obtained a quantity of beans,
-and in the third a number of grains of corn; hence the names given.
-There are two small windows in the front wall, and doorways communicate
-between rooms separated by high partitions.
-
-“The walls of these houses are built in the usual manner, and average
-about a foot in thickness.
-
-“The upper house seems to be in a rather unfinished state, looking as
-if stone and mortar had run short. And when one considers that these
-materials must have been brought from far below by means of ropes, or
-carried in small quantities up the dangerous stairway, the only wonder
-is that it was ever brought to its present degree of finish.”
-
-[Illustration: Triple-Walled Tower on the McElmo.]
-
-The ruins of a triple-walled tower with fourteen sectional apartments
-between the outer and second walls were examined near the McElmo. One
-of these sectional apartments was still standing to the height of
-twelve feet.
-
-We have already referred to the group of ruins at Aztec Springs near
-the divide between the McElmo and the lower Mancos tributaries. “These
-ruins,” says Mr. Holmes, “form the most imposing pile of masonry yet
-found in Colorado. The whole group covers an area of about four hundred
-and eighty thousand square feet, and has an average depth of from
-three to four feet.” The accompanying plan, with the measurements and
-dimensions indicated upon it, precludes the necessity of a detailed
-description.
-
-[Illustration:
-         RUINS
-          at
-     AZTEC SPRING
-  SOUTH WEST COLORADO
-    _W. H. Holmes_]
-
-The walls are twenty-six inches thick, and in some cases are built
-double. The whole resembles in plan one of the ruined pueblos of the
-Chaco, with the addition that it was designed to be an impregnable
-fortress.
-
-The plate from Mr. Jackson’s memoir shows specimens of pottery
-collected during his explorations among the cliff-dwellings. The pieces
-_a_ and _b_ are of modern make, and were obtained among the Moquis of
-Tegua. The ware and finish of both these vessels are far inferior as
-compared with the ancient fragments.
-
-We have quoted on a previous page Mr. Ingersoll’s rendering of the
-romantic legend which tells in few words the sad history of the ancient
-architects of these aërial abodes. We have observed that, according to
-this account, the remnant of this people who escaped the destruction
-visited upon the cliff-dwellers by the warlike Utes fled to the
-South—to the deserts of Arizona—and built the present Moqui towns. We
-have already stated that Mr. Jackson’s party found it necessary to
-travel forty miles due southward from the ruins of the Chaco Cañon in
-order to reach Tegua, the nearest of the Moqui settlements.
-
-It may be a matter of some interest to the reader, after having studied
-the cliff architecture, to be introduced into one of the habitations
-now occupied by the descendants of that remarkable people. Lieutenant
-Ives, who visited the Moqui towns in 1858, has furnished an interesting
-account of their general characteristics, from which we take condensed
-extracts: “As the sun went down,” says Lieutenant Ives, “and the
-confused glare and mirage disappeared, I discovered with the spy-glass
-two of the Moqui towns eight or ten miles distant, upon the edge of a
-high bluff overhanging the opposite side of the valley. They were built
-close to the edge of the precipice. The outlines of the closely-packed
-structures looked in the distance like the towers and battlements of a
-castle, and their commanding position enhanced the picturesque effect.”
-“The face of the bluff, on the summit of which the town was perched,
-was cut up and irregular. We were led through a passage that wound
-among some low hillocks of sand and rock that extended half-way to the
-top. It did not seem possible, while ascending through the sand-hills,
-that a spring could be found in such a dry-looking place; but presently
-a crowd was seen collecting upon a mound before a small plateau, in
-the centre of which was a circular reservoir fifty feet in diameter,
-lined with masonry and filled with pure cold water. The basin was fed
-by a pipe connecting with some source of supply upon the summit of the
-mesa. Continuing to ascend, we came to another reservoir, smaller, but
-of more elaborate construction and finish. From this the guide said
-they got their drinking water, the other reservoir being intended for
-animals. Between the two the face of the bluff had been ingeniously
-converted into terraces. These were faced with neat masonry, and
-contained gardens, each surrounded with a raised edge so as to retain
-water upon the surface. Pipes from the reservoir permitted them at any
-time to be irrigated. Peach trees were growing upon the terraces and in
-the hollow below. A long flight of stone steps with sharp turns that
-could be easily defended was built into the face of the precipice,
-and led from the upper reservoir to the foot of the town. The scene,
-rendered animated by the throngs of Indians in their gayly-colored
-dresses, was one of the most remarkable I had ever witnessed.” “Without
-giving us time to admire the scene, the Indians led us to a ladder
-planted against the centre of the front face of the pueblo. The town is
-nearly square and surrounded by a stone wall fifteen feet high, the top
-of which forms a landing extending around the whole. Flights of stone
-steps led from the first to a second landing, upon which the doors of
-the houses open. Mounting the stairway opposite to the ladder, the
-chief crossed to the nearest door and ushered us into a low apartment,
-from which two or three others opened towards the interior of the
-dwelling.” “The room was fifteen feet by ten; the walls were made of
-adobes; the partitions of substantial beams, the floor laid with clay.
-In one corner were a fireplace and a chimney. Everything was clean and
-tidy. Skins, bows and arrows, quivers, antlers, blankets, articles of
-clothing and ornament, were hanging from the walls or arranged upon
-shelves. Vases, flat dishes, and gourds filled with meal or water,
-were standing along on one side of the room. At the other end was a
-trough divided into compartments, in each of which was a sloping stone
-slab two or three feet square, for grinding corn upon. In a recess of
-an inner room was piled a goodly store of corn in the ear. I noticed,
-among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell-shaped end
-like a clarionet and a pair of painted drum-sticks tipped with gaudy
-feathers.”
-
-[Illustration: Cliff and Moqui Pottery.]
-
-“We learned that there were seven towns; that the name of that which
-we were visiting was Mooshahneh. A second smaller town was half a mile
-distant; two miles distant was a third. * * * Five or six miles to the
-north-east a bluff was pointed out as the location of three others; and
-we were informed that the last of the seven, Oraybe, was still further
-distant on the trail towards the great river.”
-
-[Illustration: Moqui (Wolpi), one of the Seven Pueblos.
-
-  (From a photo taken by the U. S. exploring party in 1875.)]
-
-“Each pueblo is built around a rectangular court, in which we suppose
-are the springs that furnish the supply to the reservoirs. The exterior
-walls, which are of stone, have no openings, and would have to be
-scaled or battered down before access could be gained to the interior.
-The successive stories are set back one behind the other. The lower
-ones are reached through trap-doors from the first landing. The houses
-are three rooms deep, and open upon the interior court. The arrangement
-is as strong and compact as well could be devised, but as the court is
-common and the landings are separated by no partitions, it involves a
-certain community of residence.”
-
-In describing the gardens of Oraybe, distant eight or nine miles, he
-remarks:
-
-  “At the foot [of the bluff] was a reservoir and a broad road
-  winding up the steep ascent. On either side the bluffs were cut
-  into terraces, and laid out into gardens similar to those seen at
-  Mooshahneh, and like them irrigated from an upper reservoir. The
-  whole reflected great credit upon Moqui ingenuity and skill in the
-  department of engineering. The walls of the terraces and reservoirs
-  were of partly-dressed stone, well and strongly built, and the
-  irrigating pipes conveniently arranged. The little gardens were
-  neatly laid out. * * * The walls of the terraces and the gardens
-  themselves are kept in good order and preservation. The stone and
-  earth for construction and repairs they carry in blankets upon
-  their shoulders from the valley below.”[480]
-
-Mr. Bancroft has furnished the reader descriptions of several of the
-New Mexican group of pueblos, which he has extracted from the reports
-of various travelers. We do not consider it necessary to repeat
-accounts so generally accessible.[481] The New Mexican group, situated
-on the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries, is the most numerous
-in inhabited pueblos, but as they differ little if at all from those
-of the Moquis, further treatment of them is unnecessary. The pueblos
-which are and have been inhabited during the nineteenth century number
-about twenty, some of which are well known to have been occupied by
-the ancestors of their present inhabitants when first visited by the
-Spaniards. The best specimen of inhabited pueblos is that of Taos,
-situated on one of the northern forks of the river which gives it its
-name. There are two large houses, each between three and four hundred
-feet long by one hundred and fifty wide, situated on opposite sides of
-a small creek, and tradition states that formerly they were connected
-by a bridge. They are five and six stories high.
-
-Besides the inhabited towns there are a number now unoccupied and fast
-going to decay. The names of these are given with slight variations
-by different writers; the following, however, are generally agreed
-upon: Pecos, Quivira, Valverda, San Lázaro, San Marcos, San Cristóbal,
-Socorro, Senacu, Abó, Quarra, Rita, Poblazon, old San Filipe, and old
-Zuñi.[482] The most important of all these ruins is Pecos, one of the
-sacred cities of the pueblos. Here the everlasting fire dedicated to
-their god Montezuma was kept burning from time immemorial down to the
-abandonment of the town, which occurred some time during the second
-quarter of the present century. The reader will remember, however,
-that the culture-god of the Pueblos and the Aztec monarch are in no
-sense to be associated with each other, since it is quite certain that
-they were not confounded in the mythology of the worshippers of the
-deity. Whether the Pueblos, Cliff-dwellers, etc., were ever in any way
-related to the Aztecs or any Nahua people is difficult to determine.
-Certainly there is no architectural nor traditional evidence that they
-were. When the Spaniards under Coronado traversed the region in 1540 A.
-D., no reports of inter-communication between the two peoples seem to
-have been current. Father Escalante, who in 1776 visited many of the
-pueblos, and mentions many ruins not since located, as well as many
-inhabited towns now in ruins, found nothing to really substantiate the
-“Aztec theory.”[483] On the contrary, substantial arguments can be
-presented for the intimate relationship of the Nahuas and some of the
-Pueblos.
-
-In the tenth chapter of this work will be found the basis of linguistic
-affinities between the Nahua and Moqui languages, though none is
-claimed between the Nahua and New Mexican Pueblos. Mr. Becker, in his
-memoir addressed to the _Congrès des Américanistes_ at Luxembourg,
-refers to Camergo’s account of the migration of the Teo-Chichimecs,
-the allies of the Toltecs, and to his statement that they came from
-_Amaquetepic_ (“the mountains of the Amaques”), and expresses the
-belief that the words Amaques and Moquis are identical. Mr. Becker
-considers the “A” prefix of the former to be an abbreviation of the
-Nahua “atl” water, and Amaqui would mean the Maqui or Moqui living by
-the water, just as Acolhuas means Culhuas near the water and Anahuac,
-the Nahua land on the water. The tradition of the Moquis distinctly
-states that they formerly lived on the river at the north-east of
-their present home. The reader will remember that the Quichés called
-the Nahuas _Yaqui_, the name of a river of Sinaloa and Sonora where
-marked traces of the Nahua language are found, and the supposed
-locality of the first Toltec station. Is it not possible that _Yaqui_
-is a dialectic modification of Maqui or Moqui? It has been observed
-in the pages of this chapter that in more than one instance ruined
-pueblos were composed of either red adobe or had been painted, a
-circumstance which had won for them such a designation as “Red-house”
-or “Pueblo-pintado,” etc. Furthermore, the red glare of the desert
-north of the Moqui settlements has received the name of the “Painted
-desert.” The fact that Hue hue Tlapalan signifies “old red land” is
-suggestive that this locality may have been the mysterious rendezvous
-of the Toltecs. The Moquis like the Nahuas are sun-worshippers, though
-the ceremonial of both people differ considerably.
-
-Besides the mound-works observed on the upper San Juan by Mr. Holmes
-associated with the work of the Cliff-dwellers, recent exploration has
-shown that combinations of mound and pueblo features of architecture
-exist in Utah. Dr. C. C. Parry found in a mound on the St. Clara River
-in Southern Utah very fine specimens of Pueblo pottery, and other
-articles which clearly identify its architects with the people of the
-cliffs or with the village builders at the South.[484] The recent
-exploration of several mounds in southern Utah by Dr. Edward Palmer
-fully confirms this conclusion. In Kane County, Utah, the same explorer
-discovered among a number of articles of apparent Moqui make in a
-cave-shelter, a shovel of horn having a blade fourteen inches long by
-five inches wide. Among the articles was a pair of shoes made of the
-fibre of the _Yucca_, which in style, shape, manner of braiding, etc.,
-closely resemble shoes made of the leaves of the _Typa_ found by Prof.
-F. W. Putnam in a cave in Kentucky.[485]
-
-The mound examined by Mr. Barrand on the west fork of the Little Sioux
-of Dakota, and found to contain a large interior circular chamber,
-probably was the work of the ancestors of this western branch of the
-mound-building people.[486] The circular chamber was much like an
-estufa.
-
-The many-sided culture-hero of the Pueblos, Montezuma, is the centre of
-a group of the most poetic myths found in Ancient American Mythology.
-The Pueblos believed in a supreme being, a good spirit, so exalted
-and worthy of reverence that his name was considered too sacred to
-mention, as, with the ancient Hebrews, Jehovah’s was the “unmentionable
-name.” Nevertheless Montezuma was the equal of this great spirit, and
-was often considered identical with the sun. The variety of aspects
-in which Montezuma is presented to us is due to the fact that each
-tribe of Pueblos had its particular legends concerning his birth and
-achievements. Many places in New Mexico claim the honor of his nativity
-at a period long before those village builders were acquainted with the
-arts of architecture, which have since given them their distinguishing
-name. In fact, this culture-god was none other than the genius who
-introduced the knowledge of building among them.[487] Some traditions,
-however, make him the ancestor and even the creator of the race;
-others, its prophet, leader and lawgiver. Mr. Bancroft says, “Under
-restrictions, we may fairly regard him as the Melchizedek, the Moses,
-and the Messiah of these Pueblo-desert wanderers from an Egypt that
-history is ignorant of, and whose name even tradition whispers not. He
-taught his people how to build cities with tall houses, to construct
-_Estufas_, or semi-sacred sweat-houses, and to kindle and guard the
-sacred fire.” It has been aptly remarked by Mr. Tyler, that Montezuma
-was the great “somebody” of the tribe to whom the qualities and
-achievements of every other were attributed.
-
-Fremont gives an account of the birth of the hero, in which his mother
-is declared to have been a woman of exquisite beauty, admired and
-sought for by all men. She was the recipient of rich presents of corn
-and skins from her admirers, yet she refused the hands of all her
-suitors. A famine soon occurred, and great distress followed. Now the
-fastidious beauty showed herself to be a lady of charitable spirit
-and tender heart. She opened her granaries, in which all her presents
-had been stored, and out of their abundance relieved the wants of
-the poor. The offerings of love were made to perform their mission a
-second time. At last, when the pure and plenteous rains again brought
-fertility to the earth, the summer shower fell upon the Pueblo goddess,
-and she gave birth to a son, the immortal Montezuma. The intelligent
-chief of the Papagoes, whose people occupy the territory between the
-Santa Cruz River and the Gulf of California, related a legend of the
-origin and offices of Montezuma, which, while it surprises the reader
-with its close resemblances to some leading points in the Hebrew and
-Chaldean genesis and deluge accounts, still is conspicuous for its
-inconsistencies, and in its closing statements for the absence of any
-knowledge of time or order.[488]
-
-In substance it is as follows: The Great Spirit, having made all
-things—sky, earth, and the living creatures which inhabit it—descended
-into the earth for the purpose of creating man also. Digging in the
-earth, he found clay, such as a potter uses; this he carried back with
-him to his celestial abode, and dropped it again from the sky into the
-pit from which he had dug it. Instantly Montezuma, the genius of life,
-sprang from the pit, and became a partner in the creation of other men.
-The Apaches were the next formed, and were so wild that they severally
-ran away as fast as created. Those were golden days which followed the
-birth of the race; the sun was very much nearer the earth than now,
-and his grateful presence rendered clothing useless. A common language
-between all men, shared even by beasts, was one of the strongest
-possible bonds of peace.
-
-But at last this paradisiacal age was ended by a great deluge in
-which all men and living creatures perished. Only Montezuma and his
-friend, the coyote—a prairie-wolf—escaped. This wonderful animal, with
-semi-divine attributes, plays a remarkable part in the religion of many
-of the Pacific tribes, and furnishes us a parallel in our Occidental
-mythology with the half-human, half-brute combinations of Greco-Roman
-mythology. The coyote, gifted with prophetic powers, had foretold the
-approach of this great calamity, and Montezuma, heeding the warning,
-had built him a boat, which he kept in readiness on the summit of Santa
-Rosa. His sagacious friend, the coyote, also escaped in an ark made
-from a gigantic cane which grew by a river’s side; having gnawed it
-down and crawled into it, he stopped up the ends with gum, and escaped.
-When the waters subsided, the two met again on dry ground. Montezuma
-then employed the coyote on several wearisome excursions in order to
-discover the extent of the land, which developed the fact that upon the
-east and south and west the water yet remained. Only on the north was
-there land.
-
-The Great Spirit and Montezuma again created men and animals, and the
-former committed to his partner in the work the duties of governing
-the new race. These were, however, neglected by Montezuma, who became
-puffed up with pride, and permitted all manner of wickedness to
-prevail. The Great Spirit remonstrated with him, even descending
-to the earth for the purpose of moving his faithless and haughty
-vicegerent to restore order, but with no avail. Then, returning to
-his abode in heaven, he pushed the sun back to a remote part of the
-sky as a punishment on the race. At this, Montezuma became enraged,
-collected the tribes around him, and set about the construction of a
-house which should reach heaven. The builders had already completed
-several apartments, lined with gold and silver and precious stones,
-and progressed to a point which encouraged all to believe that their
-defiant purpose would be accomplished, when the Great Spirit smote it
-to the earth amid the crash of his thunder. Here the account becomes
-very confused—a great leap is made from Montezuma the culture-hero to
-Montezuma the emperor, and the two become confounded.
-
-The legend states that upon the defeat of his rebellious scheme,
-Montezuma still hardened his heart, and caused the sacred images to
-be dragged through the streets for the derision of the villagers; the
-temples were desecrated, and defiance to the Supreme declared. As a
-punishment, the Great Spirit caused an insect to fly toward the east to
-an unknown land, to bring the Spaniards, who utterly destroyed him.
-
-The post-diluvian part of this story presents the hero in quite another
-light than that generally accepted by most of the Pueblo tribes, in
-which he is represented as having been the very model of goodness and
-beneficence—the founder of their cities, of which Acoma was the first
-and Pecos the second. Before taking his departure from his people,
-he prophesied that they should suffer from drought and from the
-oppressions of a strange nation, but promised them to return as their
-deliverer. He then planted a tree upside down, and bade them preserve
-the sacred fire notwithstanding their misfortunes, until the tree fell,
-at which time he would return with a white race, who would destroy all
-their enemies and bring back the fertile showers.
-
-It is said that this tree fell from its place as the American army
-entered Santa Fé, in 1846. In the cramped, subterranean estufa, the
-Pueblo fed the sacred fire burning in the basin of a small altar. It
-was a warrior’s vigil, for by turns their heroes descended into its
-suffocating atmosphere, thick with smoke, and charged with carbonic
-acid, to wait often for two successive days and nights without
-refreshment, often even until death relieved the guard.[489]
-
-For generations these strange architects and faithful priests have
-waited for the return of their god—looked for him to come with the sun,
-and descend by the column of smoke which rose from the sacred fire. As
-of old the Israelitish watcher upon Mount Seir replied to the inquiry,
-“What of the night?” “The morning cometh,” so the Pueblo sentinel
-mounts the house-top at Pecos, and gazes wistfully into the east for
-the golden appearance, for the rapturous vision of his redeemer, for
-Montezuma’s return; and, though no ray of light meets his watching eye,
-his never-failing faith, with cruel deception, replies, “The morning
-cometh.”[490]
-
-       •       •       •       •       •
-
-  EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE PUEBLOS.—In the summer of 1879 the
-  Smithsonian Institution undertook a thorough and extensive
-  examination of the Pueblo civilization of New Mexico and Arizona.
-  Major Powell sent an expedition to New Mexico in charge of Mr.
-  James Stevenson, and a large collection illustrative of the
-  manners and customs of the Pueblos was made. Mr. F. H. Cushing was
-  especially fortunate in obtaining minute information concerning
-  their traditions, rites, and ceremonies. The work of investigation
-  is still in progress, and at this writing (September, 1881) an
-  expedition is in the field. A full report will ultimately be
-  published. During the latter half of the year 1880 Mr. Baudelier,
-  the eminent Mexican scholar, visited Taos, and prepared a paper
-  on that interesting locality for the Archæological Institute of
-  America, under whose patronage his exploration was conducted.
-  During a residence of two months in the Pueblo of Cochití, occupied
-  by a branch of the Queres tribe, Mr. Baudelier made a thorough
-  study of the institutions of that interesting people. See Second
-  _Ann. Report of Arch. Inst. of Amer._
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER VIII.
-
-         ANCIENT AMERICAN CIVILIZATION AND SUPPOSED OLD WORLD
-         ANALOGIES—ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE AND HIEROGLYPHICS.
-
-  Analogies, Real and Fancied — MAYA ARCHITECTURE — The American
-      Pyramid — The Palace of Palenque — The French Roof at Palenque
-      — The Trefoil Arch — Yucatanic Architecture — Uxmal — The Casa
-      de Monjas — Kabah — Casa Grande of Zayi — QUICHÉ ARCHITECTURE
-      — Copan — Circus of Copan — Description by Fuentes — Utatlan —
-      NAHUA ARCHITECTURE — Remains in Oajaca — Mitla — Grecques at
-      Mitla — Remains in the State of Vera Cruz — Cholula — Pyramid
-      of Xochicalco — The Temple of Mexico — Teotihuacan — Los
-      Edificios of Quemeda — Maya and Nahua Architecture Compared —
-      Old World Analogies — SCULPTURE — Of the Mounds — At Palenque
-      — At Uxmal — At Chichen-Itza — On the Isla Mujeres — Of the
-      Nahuas — Ancient American Art and its Old World Analogies —
-      Egyptian Tau at Palenqué — Serpent Sculpture — Nahua Symbolism
-      probably Asiatic — HIEROGLYPHICS — Maya MSS. and Books —
-      Landa’s Alphabet — The Attempts at the Interpretation of Maya
-      MSS. by Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny — Rosny’s Classification
-      of the Hieroglyphics — Hopes that a Key has been Discovered —
-      The Mexican Picture-writing — Aztec Migration Maps.
-
-
-Without pretending to furnish an exhaustive treatment of the subject
-proposed for this chapter, we desire to make observations on some
-phases of the development of American civilization in the Pre-Historic
-period. One of the most natural fruits of the study of the arts and
-customs of any people, is a disposition on the part of the investigator
-to institute a comparison with corresponding features of civilization
-in all parts of the world. Unfortunately this disposition has led many
-writers on America into wild and fanciful speculations, which tend only
-to deceive the reader and add nothing to true investigation. In a few
-instances pronounced old world analogies have been proven to exist in
-ancient American institutions and arts, but their number bears a small
-ratio to the multitude of fancied analogies which never existed, except
-in the imaginations of their discoverers. To discuss the subject in
-hand without transcending the limits of the period which is treated in
-previous chapters, namely, the Primitive period—that which antedates
-the era of the annals of those ancient peoples, is a somewhat difficult
-task, since the question of dates is a very uncertain one in the
-absence of any sufficient key to the hieroglyphic and picture records.
-The customs and political organization, together with the Aztec
-civilization, have been often treated, and by none better than our own
-Prescott and Bancroft. The repetition of their labors here would be
-highly superfluous. We shall, however, ask the attention of the reader
-to some considerations upon the following divisions of the subject:
-
-1. ARCHITECTURE. 2. SCULPTURE and HIEROGLYPHICS. 3. CHRONOLOGICAL and
-ASTRONOMICAL KNOWLEDGE. 4. RELIGIOUS ANALOGIES.
-
-_Architecture._—The works of the Mound-builders and Pueblos have
-already been described and their transitional forms or stages noted.
-To seek for parallelisms or analogies between the Mound-builders and
-the people of Asia because mounds are common to both continents, or
-to seek to identify them with the people of Northern Europe because
-the shell-heaps of our sea-board resemble those of Denmark, would
-certainly be an unjustifiable use of the imagination, in anything
-like a serious discussion of the question. We have no disposition
-to speculate on this subject, since such speculation cannot furnish
-any satisfactory results. Certain resemblances between American and
-Hindoo-mounds have been supposed to exist, but the resemblance, if
-any, proves nothing.[491] That more fruitful and wonderful field of
-ancient architecture in Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, furnishes
-abundant opportunity for the discussion of our subject. Detailed
-descriptions of the remains found in different localities have been
-given by travelers, artists and authors, the latter availing themselves
-of several accounts and instituting comparisons between the statements
-of different explorers. Such works, savoring somewhat of the critical,
-cannot be underrated, since their development of the true facts has
-contributed largely to our knowledge of the subject. It has been
-generally the rule for writers to undertake the description of remains
-in a particular locality and treat them in detail, thus presenting to
-the mind a pleasant picture of the whole, together with the relation
-of parts. This is certainly a satisfactory plan to many readers,
-but it seems to us that such a course is unnecessary, after it has
-been once pursued by the explorer. By repetitions nothing is gained,
-unless the work of classification (by which certain architectural
-forms and methods are woven into a style and their variations noted)
-receives attention. In preceding chapters we have treated of the Maya,
-the Quiché, and the Nahua peoples, and in this, it is our purpose
-to briefly note the main features of their styles of architecture,
-sculpture, etc., as indicated in the divisions above laid down.
-
-_Maya Architecture_ furnishes evidence of growth, and may be classified
-into the Chiapan or ancient and the Yucatanic or modified styles.
-The Chiapan or ancient style is exhibited in the imposing remains of
-Palenque, with which the reader is supposed to be already familiar,
-from the descriptions of several explorers.[492] Palenque is situated
-in the Usumacinta River region in Chiapas, on a small stream sometimes
-called the Otolum, a tributary of the Tulija, which is itself a branch
-of the Usumacinta. The ruins are situated in a small valley of the
-foothills, from which rise the high table-lands of the interior. They
-are known as the Palace, with a pyramidal base measuring two hundred
-and sixty by three hundred and ten feet and forty feet high; Temple of
-the three Tablets; Temple of the Beau Relief; Temple of the Cross, and
-Temple of the Sun. The most conspicuous feature of the architecture
-employed, and seen in most of the Central American structures, is the
-massive pyramidal foundation. The sides of the pyramid of the Palenque
-palace are faced with regular blocks of hewn stone, with extensive
-flights of stairs, upon the east and north leading to its summit.[493]
-Mr. Bancroft has analyzed the structure of the American pyramid in a
-philosophical way, and no doubt has in part explained its object. “I
-think,” he remarks, “that perhaps with a view to raise this place or
-temple above the waters of the stream, four thick walls, possibly more,
-were built up perpendicularly from the ground to the desired height;
-then, after the completion of the walls, to strengthen them, or during
-the progress of the work to facilitate the raising of the stones, the
-interior was filled with earth, and the exterior graded with the same
-material, the whole being subsequently faced with hewn stone.”[494]
-
-[Illustration: Mode of Constructing Pyramid.]
-
-In the above cut Mr. Bancroft illustrates his opinion. Stephens
-and Waldeck, who excavated from the summit downwards, imply that
-the interior D is of earth. Twenty years later Charnay found a
-perpendicular wall on the eastern side, quite contrary to the
-observations of all previous travelers. Mr. Bancroft accounts for this
-on the supposition that the stone facing, loosened by the growth of
-trees which covered it, had fallen from B to F, and that the earth
-which filled the sides at E E had been washed away by the rain and left
-the perpendicular wall exposed at B. Such a supposition we consider
-to be perfectly probable in view of the rapid dilapidation of the
-ruins since Dupaix’s visit in 1806. The ancient model thus established
-in the construction of this, perhaps oldest of existing American
-cities, may have determined the style of many similar edifices. A
-plan of the palace has been furnished by several authors.[495] The
-accompanying restoration from Armin’s _Das Heutige Mexiko_, employed
-by Mr. Bancroft, may serve to give an idea of the proportions of the
-structure. The edifice occupies the entire summit platform of the
-pyramid except a narrow passage-way around the edge, and measures 228
-feet by 182, and about 30 feet in height. The doorways, of which there
-are forty in the outer wall, are wider than the piers intervening
-between them, and were constructed originally with flat wooden lintels,
-all of which have disappeared. The main architectural features will be
-observed in the accompanying plate from Waldeck. The lower right-hand
-figure shows the angle of the foundations of one of the interior
-buildings and the manner in which the stones were laid. The left-hand
-figure affords a sectional view of the eastern stairway descending
-from the principal corridor into the grand court. It will be observed
-that the height of the steps considerably exceeds their width. Waldeck
-illustrates this singular disproportion by a diagram in which a native
-is represented as sitting upon the stairway. The perpendicular face
-of a step is shown to be considerably higher than the Indian’s knee,
-and must have measured two feet. The upper left-hand figures represent
-the forms of niches, which are of frequent occurrence. The T shaped
-niche is the representative of a numerous class so resembling the
-Egyptian _tau_ or cross as to excite no little interest in its origin.
-M. Waldeck found the marks of lamp-black upon the tops of some of
-them, and supposes them to have held torches which illuminated the
-corridors; others, which extend through the walls, may have served for
-the purposes of ventilation; while others perhaps contained idols.[496]
-The right-hand upper figures represent the highly artistic double
-cornices employed. Nothing of a definite nature is known of the style
-of roof with which the palace was covered, since every vestige of it
-has disappeared. Castañeda represents it as sloping and plastered,
-while Dupaix refers to it as consisting of large stone flags, carefully
-joined together.[497]
-
-[Illustration: The Palace Restored.]
-
-[Illustration: Architectural Features at Palenque.]
-
-The neighboring buildings, such as the Temple of the Three Tablets,
-the Temple of the Cross, and the Temple of the Sun, each have
-well-preserved roofs of masonry, which are quite remarkable. The first
-of these stands upon its lofty pyramidal base, measuring one hundred
-and ten feet on the slope, with continuous steps on all sides. The
-temple, which is thirty-five feet high, is crowned with a sloping
-ornamental roof of great beauty. Stephens illustrated the temple in
-several views, subsequently copied by Bancroft.[498] The roof is
-divided into three parts; the lower section recedes from the cornice
-with a gentle slope, and resembles the corresponding section of a
-French or Mansard roof. The stucco decorations of this lower section,
-which is also painted, add considerably to the general effect. Five
-solid square projections with perpendicular faces suggestive of the
-attic windows of a modern French roof are found on this section,
-corresponding to the several doors of the temple immediately below. The
-second section, which slopes back at a more acute angle, is of solid
-masonry. The crowning section seems to have been purely ornamental,
-consisting of a line of pillars of stone and mortar, eighteen inches
-high and twelve inches apart, surmounted by a layer of flat stones
-with projecting sides. The Temple of the Cross and Temple of the Sun
-both have roof-structures which may be described as resembling a
-lattice-work of stone.
-
-The most interesting feature of Palenque architecture is the arch, of
-which there are two styles, if one of them may be classed as an arch
-at all; of this we have doubts. The style to which we allude is that
-which has been designated as the Yucatan arch. A section of the double
-corridor of the palace furnishes an example as shown in the cut from
-Mr. Bancroft’s work.
-
-[Illustration: Section of Palace Corridor.]
-
-This so-called arch is nothing more than the approach of two walls
-toward each other in straight lines, nearly forming an acute angle at
-the top. These inclining walls are constructed of overlapping stones,
-with a small surface of exposed ceiling, produced by a lintel-like
-covering. The principal doorway, which is eighteen feet high, is
-constructed in the form of a trefoil arch, while niches or depressions
-of the same trefoil form are ranged along the inclined face of the
-gallery on each side of the entrance. This arch is suggestive of the
-Moorish pattern, though the latter probably is the more modern. The
-accompanying cut—a photographic reduction from Waldeck—will convey a
-clear idea of its form.
-
-The tower situated in the southern court is considered by Waldeck as
-the crowning work of all. The frontispiece is a photographic reduction
-from Waldeck’s drawing, and no doubt indicates the true number of its
-stories, as well as the remarkable growth of vegetation upon its roof.
-The descent of the little roots and tendrils of the trees above in
-quest of nourishment, furnish a striking illustration of the luxuriant
-vegetable growth which pervades the region. The very air is laden with
-life, though the remains of man’s handicraft and power are but the
-lifeless monuments of his vanished glory. The gentle evening breeze
-which plays upon the tendrils stretching themselves down the tower’s
-wall, produces a soft melodious sound, resembling that of the Æolian
-harp, and gives rise to the apprehension in the minds of the natives
-that the place is enchanted.[499]
-
-[Illustration: Trefoil Arch, Palenque.]
-
-The second division of Maya architecture, namely, the Yucatan or
-modified style, presents some variations from the ancient or Chiapan.
-Probably the most remarkable group of ruins in that richest of American
-architectural fields—Yucatan—is situated at Uxmal, in Lat. 20° 27′ 30″,
-thirty-five miles south of Merida. The reader is of course acquainted
-with the detail of the survey of this remarkable city of antiquity
-through the work of Stephens and Catherwood.[500] These indefatigable
-explorers examined about forty ruined cities, nearly all of which were
-previously unknown to others than the natives, and many of them were
-unknown at Merida, the capital of the country. While these travelers
-are pre-eminently the explorers of Yucatan, there are others whose
-services have been of great value in the same field.[501]
-
-Mr. Bancroft has divided the architectural remains in Yucatan into
-four groups, classifying them geographically. We do not consider
-it necessary to follow such a course, nor enter into the detailed
-description of any group, but will content ourselves by simply noting
-any variations from the Palenque models. At Uxmal our attention is at
-once arrested by the irregular pyramidal base of the building known
-as the Casa del Gobernador. The base of the pyramid is a figure of an
-irregular rectangular form. The northern and eastern sides of the base
-are equal, and measure about six hundred feet each; the southern and
-western are, however, irregular. As all the angles are right angles,
-and two contiguous sides are equal, it will be understood that the
-figure of the base would have been a square, but for the irregularity
-of the remaining two sides. These irregularities fall within the
-figure of the square. The pyramid is terraced, the first promenade
-when observed being but three feet from the ground. The second terrace
-rises from this to a height of twenty feet, and supports a platform
-with sides 545 feet in length. A trifle west of the centre of this
-platform rises the third terrace, nineteen feet high, and supporting
-the summit platform, measuring about 100 by 360 feet, with an
-elevation above the ground of upwards of forty feet.[502] The pyramid
-is composed of fragments of limestone thrown together, but with the
-terraces substantially faced with walls of regular and smoothly-hewn
-limestone-blocks, laid in mortar which has become intensely hard.
-The corners of the pyramid differ from those usually met with in that
-they are rounded. The terrace walls incline slightly toward the centre
-of the pyramid. The second platform was reached by a long inclined
-plain on the south side one hundred feet wide. A regular stairway with
-thirty-five steps, and one hundred and thirty feet wide, furnished the
-means of ascent from the second platform to the summit. The crowning
-feature of the structure is the Casa del Gobernador, a characteristic
-Yucatan building, measuring three hundred and twenty-two feet long
-but only thirty-nine feet wide. The Casa is surrounded by a promenade
-thirty feet wide, and in its interior contains two parallel rows of
-apartments (a plan of which is given by Mr. Stephens).[503] A sectional
-view of the Casa resembles the sectional view of the palace corridors
-at Palenque, except that in the arches conspicuous in the latter, the
-irregularities produced by the square overlapping stones (which are
-filled up to an even surface by mortar and plastering), are avoided in
-Yucatan, by the overlapping stones of the arch being dressed carefully
-to the angle of inclination of the wall or ceiling, thus presenting
-a smooth surface. The roof is formed by filling in the space between
-the tops of the arches and between the arches and the outer walls with
-stone, up to the desired level; after which a perfectly flat covering
-of well-cut stones is laid over the whole, having a neat though small
-projecting cornice, as will be observed in the accompanying cut from
-Bancroft’s work. The rear wall is about nine feet thick and perfectly
-solid. The comparative modernness of the building may be realized when
-we state that Mr. Stephens found the top of each doorway supported
-by a heavy beam of zapote-wood. One of these, which was elaborately
-and beautifully carved, and measuring ten feet long and ten by twenty
-inches wide, he brought to New York, where, unfortunately, it was
-destroyed by fire with the remainder of his collection. It is presumed
-that the zapote-wood was prized for its rarity, as it is not found at
-present near Uxmal. Inside of and above the doors of the Casa were
-stone rings, which occur frequently in Yucatec structures, and are
-supposed to have supported curtains for closing the doorways. Stephens
-presents in a cut (page 346) a view of the imposing and elegant front
-looking toward the south.[504]
-
-[Illustration: Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.]
-
-[Illustration: Section of Casa del Gobernador.]
-
-Of the several Uxmal edifices, one especially demands attention as
-representing the highest state of ancient architecture and sculpture
-in America. This is known as the Casa de Monjas, or Nunnery, and is
-situated nearly three hundred yards north of the Casa del Gobernador,
-on a pyramid with three terraces, and measuring three hundred and
-fifty feet square at its base. On the summit platform, only nineteen
-feet above the level of the ground, stand four of the characteristic
-Yucatan buildings upon four sides of a nearly square court. The
-northern building does not stand quite parallel to the building on the
-opposite side of the court. The plan from Stephens will present clearly
-the arrangement of the apartments, in which it will be observed that
-of the eighty-eight rooms contained in the Casa de Monjas, not more
-than two apartments open into each other, except in one instance,
-which occurs in the eastern front.[505] The court formed by these long
-narrow edifices measures 258 by 214 feet, and according to M. Waldeck
-was paved with 43,660 blocks of stone six inches square. In the centre
-stood the fragments of a rude column similar to others observed in the
-Casa del Gobernador.[506]
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Nunnery.]
-
-A cut of one of the beautifully sculptured façades of the Casa de
-Monjas will be found on a future page. Near the Casa de Monjas stands
-the pyramid and edifice generally known as the Casa del Adivino or
-Prophet’s house, and named by M. Waldeck the Pyramid de Kingsborough.
-The pyramid rises to a height of 80 feet from a base of 155 by 235
-feet. The corners are rounded, and the sides, which are carefully faced
-with cubical blocks of stone, rise so steep that the ascent and descent
-by the grand stairway on the eastern face is giddy and dangerous. The
-stairway measuring one hundred and two feet on the slope is inclined at
-an angle of eighty degrees.[507]
-
-About a dozen miles south-eastward from Uxmal are the remains of the
-ancient city known as Kabah, where ruins quite similar and nearly
-as extensive as those already described are found. However, new
-architectural features here meet the observer. In one instance the
-structure which surmounts a terraced pyramid is square, instead of
-long and narrow as at Uxmal. The inner rooms of the edifice have
-floors two feet higher than the floors of the outer rooms, and are
-entered by two stone steps. In one instance these were cut from a
-single block with the lower step in the form of a scroll. At Kabah
-we meet with an entirely new feature in Maya architecture, and the
-reader’s acquaintance with the terraced casas, of the New Mexican
-region, will supply the lack of an illustration at this point. In the
-style of building referred to, the pyramid instead of serving as a
-foundation for the building, serves as a central support around which
-the house with its receding stories, one above another, is built. The
-first story of the building referred to is built upon the ground, with
-the perpendicular sides of a mound for its rear wall. Just above,
-on a level with the roof of the first story on the platform of the
-first terrace of the mound, stands the second story, with the roof
-of the first serving as a promenade in front of it, while the third
-story rests upon the second platform of the mound. The platforms or
-roofs of the first and second stories are reached by means of a stone
-stairway supported upon a half arch. The first story is accessible
-from the ground by doorways. The interior apartments are constructed
-on the model of the Yucatec arch. Here, however, lintels of stone are
-met with, supported in the centre by rude stone columns surmounted by
-square capitals. These buildings are of large proportions, equalling
-any we have thus far described. The decorations of the edifices were
-considered by Mr. Stephens equal to those of any known era, even when
-tried by the severest rules of art.[508] At Zayi, one of the finest
-illustrations of this style of architecture is to be seen in what is
-known as the Casa Grande. The dimensions of the Casa Grande are as
-follows: lower story, 120 by 265 feet; the second story, 60 by 220
-feet; and the third, resting on the summit platform of the mound, 18
-by 150 feet; a stairway thirty-two feet wide furnishes a means of
-ascent to the third story on the front, while a narrow stairway leads
-to the second story at the rear. Round columns both in doorways and
-the façade constitute the chief variation from the styles already
-observed. An “elephant trunk” ornament protruding from the cornice
-(also found on Casa del Gobernador and the Casa de Monjas at Uxmal) is
-a marked feature of decoration. It is unnecessary for us to say that
-its presence has given rise to much speculation as to its origin. M.
-Waldeck has given the figure the name which we have applied to it, and
-perhaps with some reason.[509]
-
-At Labná ruins of a curious and extraordinary nature exist, though far
-gone in decay. The accompanying cut, employed in Stephens’, Baldwin’s
-and Bancroft’s works, will serve to show the extravagant decoration
-lavished upon the cornices of the edifices. At Chichen-Itza, the
-so-called “Nunnery” is supported by a solid mass of masonry, with
-perpendicular walls. The dimensions of this base are one hundred and
-twelve by one hundred and sixty feet and forty-two feet high. This was
-crowned by a building having two receding stories. The great pyramid
-of Chichen is celebrated for the solid stone balustrade which guards
-its northern stairway of ninety steps, forty-four feet wide. These
-balustrades terminate in colossal serpent heads, ten feet long.[510]
-Both at Chichen and at Mayapan circular structures are met with and
-are figured by Stephens.[511] The same author has described the
-rectangular watch-towers of Tuloom, which rise majestically amid the
-extensive ruins of the ancient city of the same name, situated upon the
-eastern coast in latitude 20° 10´. At Tuloom, Mr. Stephens (its only
-describer), found the first walled city in Yucatan. He believes it to
-have been occupied long after the conquest, and probably was one of the
-cities whose many towers met the gaze of the wondering Spaniards, who
-beheld them as they coasted along the shore.[512]
-
-[Illustration: Corner at Labná.]
-
-_Quiché Architecture._—The propriety of classifying the great ruins
-of Honduras and Guatemala as Quiché in their origin and style, may
-be questioned by some of our readers. It must be admitted that great
-contrasts in style are found in this region, which was occupied by
-the powerful kingdom of the Quichés and Cakchiquels, at the time of
-the conquest. However, it is probable that the ancient Quichés (who,
-as we have already seen, at an early day developed a religion and
-literature), were the authors of the more ancient cities, like Copan
-and Quirigua. The Quiché-Cakchiquels of more modern times were quite
-another people, whose institutions, language, and no doubt their
-architecture, had been largely influenced by Nahua people from the
-Mexican plateau. Utatlan, the magnificent capital of this modern and
-mixed people, was in the height of its glory just before the blighting
-power of the conquerors laid it in ruins. As ours is not an attempt at
-the history of discovery, we omit entirely that interesting feature
-in the treatment of antiquities, and call attention at once to the
-features conspicuous in Quiché architecture. The ancient city known as
-Copan, on the eastern bank of a river of the same name, in latitude
-14° 45´ and longitude 90° 52´ in Honduras, and four leagues from the
-Guatemala line, is interesting in furnishing material for study in this
-department. It is probably the most ancient city on the continent.
-Copan no doubt could successfully contend with Palenque for the palm of
-antiquity. It is again to the indefatigable Stephens and the skillful
-Catherwood that we are most indebted for our knowledge of these
-ruins.[513] The period of the abandonment of Copan is a question with
-reference to which we possess too few data to render an intelligent
-decision concerning it. Following the example of Stephens and Bancroft,
-we first introduce the account of Fuentes contained in Juarros.[514]
-“In the year 1700, the great circus of Copan still remained entire.
-This was a circular space, surrounded by stone pyramids about six
-yards high and very well constructed; at the base of these pyramids
-were figures, both male and female, of very excellent sculpture, which
-then retained the colors they had been enameled with; and what was
-not less remarkable, the whole of them were habited in the Castilian
-costume. In the middle of this area, elevated above a flight of steps,
-was the place of sacrifice. The same author (Fuentes) relates that,
-a short distance from the circus, there was a portal constructed of
-stone, on the columns of which were the figures of men, likewise
-represented in Spanish habits, with hose, ruff round the neck, sword,
-cap, and short cloak. On entering the gateway there are two fine
-stone pyramids, moderately large and lofty, from which is suspended
-a hammock that contains two human figures, one of each sex, clothed
-in the Indian style. Astonishment is forcibly excited in viewing this
-structure, because, large as it is, there is no appearance of the
-component parts being joined together; and although entirely of stone
-and of an enormous weight, it may be put in motion by the slightest
-impulse of the hand. Not far from this hammock is the cave of Tibulca;
-this appears like a temple of great size hollowed out of the base of a
-hill, and adorned with columns having bases, pedestals, capitals and
-crowns, all accurately adjusted according to architectural principles;
-at the sides are numerous windows faced with stone exquisitely wrought.
-All these circumstances lead to a belief that there must have been some
-intercourse between the inhabitants of the old and new world at very
-remote periods.” The swinging stone hammock is probably a work of the
-fancy rather than that of the artist’s hand, though the padre at Gualan
-told Stephens that he had seen it, and an Indian remembered to have
-heard his grandfather speak of it. None of these remarkable remains
-have been identified with certainty, though it is not improbable
-that they might be discovered if the heavy growth of vegetation were
-removed by a conflagration and explorers to extend their observations
-farther from the banks of the Rio Copan. According to Stephens’ survey,
-a wall encloses a rectangular area measuring about nine hundred by
-sixteen hundred feet. The principal group of buildings is designated
-as the temple. It is built of heavy blocks of cut stone, with walls
-of about twenty-five feet in thickness, and when examined they were
-between sixty and ninety feet high on the river’s bank. The temple
-measured six hundred and twenty-four feet north and south by eight
-hundred and nine feet east and west. The general feature of the ruin
-is that of an immense pyramidal terrace, with a platform elevated
-about seventy feet above the ground. The river side of the terrace
-is perpendicular, while the remaining sides are sloping; viewing the
-ruin from this general platform seventy feet high, depressions such
-as amphitheatre-like courts descend from it in some instances thirty
-or forty feet, or about half way to the level of the ground, while
-above the level of the general platform pyramidal structures rise to
-a considerable height, in one instance one hundred and twenty-two
-feet. It is difficult to conceive of what might have been the nature
-of the superstructure, if any surmounted the general platform. It is
-probable that for the purposes of assembly the amphitheatres with their
-sloping sides may have answered every purpose, while the pyramids
-may have been surmounted by temples now in ruins. Of the sculptured
-columns of this locality we will speak farther on. Utatlan, the former
-capital of the modern Quiché kingdom, would naturally be selected as
-a point at which to seek for remains of the newer Quiché styles of
-architecture. The conquerors, however, left little that can serve
-as the basis for architectural study. The city was surrounded by a
-deep ravine or barranca, which can be crossed at only one point, and
-there long lines of stone fortifications still guard the passage. A
-fortress, called El Resguardo, is among these works. It rises one
-hundred and twenty feet high in the form of a terraced pyramid, with
-a stone wall plastered with cement enclosing its summit platform,
-on which a circular tower provided with a stairway was built. Only
-fragmentary walls of the Quiché palaces remain; their dimensions were
-eleven hundred by twenty-two hundred feet, and nothing but their cement
-covered floors have survived the vandalism of the conquerors and the
-architects of the modern town; the latter having carried away the upper
-portions for building purposes. A pyramidal structure near by, known
-as El Sacrificatorio, presents no architectural contrasts to pyramids
-already described. Its stairway, composed of nineteen steps each eight
-inches broad and seventeen inches high, is characteristically Central
-American.[515] In the province of Vera Paz, especially in the Rabinal
-Valley, Brasseur de Bourbourg observed numbers of tumuli, resembling
-those of the Mississippi Valley both in material and structure. These
-were especially prevalent in the neighborhood of the villages, and
-sometimes were associated with pyramidal structures equal in finish to
-any we have described. The name _cakhay_, “red houses,” is generally
-applied to these tumuli.[516]
-
-_Nahua Architecture._—It would be quite impossible for us to devote
-that space to this subject which the number of remains would justify,
-and the presentation of the typal features of the architecture of that
-interesting family of nations will be all that we shall here attempt;
-of geographical and detailed treatments there are several on the
-different departments of the subject.[517] In the pages which follow we
-will select a few examples of Nahua architecture in order to illustrate
-our subject, but we would state that many equally important works,
-though perhaps presenting no new features, have been purposely passed
-by unnoticed. In a preceding chapter we referred to those intermediate
-nations which occupied the transition position between the Mayas and
-Nahuas. The Miztecs, Zapotecs and others, were probably a mixed people,
-related in different degrees to both of the great families on the
-north and south of them. Oajaca and Guerrero were the homes of these
-peoples, where they developed their own civilization and styles of art
-in channels distinct from those of their neighbors. The isthmus of
-Tehuantepec presents some interesting remains, chief among which we
-may cite two stone pyramids situated three leagues west of the city of
-Tehuantepec. One of these measures fifty-five by one hundred and twenty
-feet at the base and thirty by sixty-six feet on the summit. A grand
-stairway composed of forty steps and thirty feet in width leads up the
-western slope. The summit is also made accessible by smaller stairways
-on the north and south sides. The lower of the four terraces composing
-the structure, is perpendicular; the others have inclined walls. On the
-face of the second terrace were four ranges of flat stones, one above
-another, extending entirely around the pyramid and furnishing a series
-of shelves, devoted no doubt to some sacred or sacrificial use. The
-whole structure was plastered with a cement, colored brilliantly by red
-ochre. The adjoining pyramid presents an architectural novelty in its
-gracefully curved sides. Castañeda has sketched and Dupaix described
-it. The height of the pyramid is over fifty feet while its general
-dimensions are about the same as those of its neighbor. In close
-proximity to the pyramids, altar-like structures were observed, one of
-which was composed of eight circular stones, like mill-stones, placed
-one above another. The base measured ten and a half feet, but the
-summit only four and a half feet; the height measures twelve feet.[518]
-Numerous earthen tumuli resembling those of the Mississippi Valley were
-observed by the German traveler Müller, scattered over the region,
-especially to the south-east.[519] The most important group of ruins
-in Oajoca is that at Mitla, situated about thirty miles south-east of
-the capital of the State. This is probably the finest group of remains
-north of the isthmus of Tehauntepec. Still they are not purely Nahua in
-their style, being, according to tradition, the work of the Zapotecs.
-This group has been described several times by explorers, whose
-accounts have differed considerably in value. The most important of
-these are the descriptions and drawings by Dupaix and Castañeda, made
-in 1806, and the description and valuable photographs by Charnay, the
-latest explorer of this group, whose work was performed in 1859.[520]
-
-The mitla ruins are distributed into four groups of buildings
-(generally called palaces or temples) and two pyramids. The principal
-edifice is described as follows: three low oblong mounds only six or
-eight feet high but surmounted by stone buildings, enclose a court.
-The court measures 130 by 120 feet. The eastern and western buildings
-are in a fallen and ruined condition. The northern building, however,
-presents a singular example of ancient grandeur. The southern portion
-measures 36 by 130 feet, and the northern 61 feet square. The edifice
-is about eighteen feet high, having walls varying from four to nine
-feet in thickness. The accompanying cut, a photographic reduction of
-Charnay’s photograph, gives a correct idea of the western façade of the
-northern building.[521]
-
-The walls of this edifice are constructed in a somewhat novel manner,
-their interior portions being nothing more than clay intermixed with
-stones, thus furnishing a poor substitute for the cement and stone
-filling in the inner parts of Yucatanic walls. However, the exterior
-facing of the walls is of hewn stone blocks cut in different forms
-and sizes, and so set in relation to each other as to present examples
-of perhaps the finest variety of grecques found in any structure in
-the world.[522] Two layers of large stone blocks form the base of the
-palace, from which rises buttresses and a framework of stone, filled
-in with panels of mosaic, in patterns as described. We pronounce these
-grecque patterns mosaics, because of the manner of their structure.
-They are not of the nature of sculpture, since each pattern, with all
-its regularity, is composed of small brick-shaped blocks of stone built
-into the wall, mosaic-like, thus forming the graceful patterns shown in
-the cut. No trace of mortar has been found at Mitla. The inner surface
-of the wall in the northern building was smoothly plastered without any
-ornament. Six round stone columns standing in line occupy the centre
-of the apartment, and no doubt supported a roof of wood or stone, but
-more probably of the former.[523] The cut in Baldwin’s work, copied by
-Bancroft showing the interior of the apartment and the six columns,
-conveys an incorrect impression as to the form of the columns and the
-character of the walls, as is proven by Charnay’s photograph.[524]
-The façades of the inner court of the northern wing of the palace
-are finished with mosaics of great beauty. Four or five feet of the
-wall is plain at the bottom except that the plastering was evidently
-frescoed in various colors. The remainder of the wall is decorated with
-bands of mosaic grecques, as shown in the cut, which is a fac-simile
-of Charnay’s photograph engraven for Mr. Bancroft’s work. We should
-not fail to note the use of immense stones in the base, framework
-and lintels of the southern wing of the building. One of these is
-of granite, sixteen or nineteen feet long, with the pattern of the
-adjacent grecques sculptured on its face. None of the other buildings
-at Mitla present any architectural contrasts to the one already
-described, and require no special attention. Under a temple on the
-south-west side of the one we have just referred to, is a subterranean
-gallery, constructed in the form of a cross. The opening is at the
-base of the mound upon which the temple stands. The arms of the cross
-pointing toward the East, North and West, are each twelve feet long,
-five and a half feet wide, and six and a half feet high. The southern
-arm is, however, about twenty feet long, and not more than four feet
-high throughout most of its length. Near the centre of the cross (which
-lies directly under the centre of the temple above) a flight of four
-steps descends in the southern arm of the cross to a lower level, so
-that the southern arm of the passage is somewhat lower than the others.
-The entire subterranean chamber was roofed with large flat stones
-reaching from side to side. The walls, besides being painted red, were
-ornamented with panels of mosaic, but of a ruder style than that of the
-superstructure, which is suggestive of an earlier period in the growth
-of the art. A circular pillar resting on a square base, and called by
-the natives “the pillar of death,” because of the belief entertained
-among them that whoever embraced it would immediately die, supports
-the large flagstone which covers the intersection of the galleries. An
-immense fortification over a mile in circumference and with stone walls
-six feet thick and eighteen feet high crowns the summit of a hill,
-which stands three-fourths of a league south-west of Mitla. The place
-was inaccessible except on the side toward the village where the wall
-was double. Castañeda has delineated and Bancroft copied the plan of
-this fortress.[525]
-
-[Illustration: Western Façade of the Palace at Mitla.]
-
-[Illustration: Grecques of an Interior Room at Mitla.]
-
-Passing into the state of Vera Cruz, the attention of the observer
-is arrested by great numbers of mounds of all the varieties peculiar
-to the Mississippi Valley. Excavations have yielded pottery of burnt
-clay, idols, and flint and stone weapons, as well as implements of
-agriculture, but no trace of iron or copper is recorded. As the Nahuas
-are said by Duran and Sahagun to have landed on the Gulf coast not far
-north of this region, and to have traversed it in their wanderings
-southward, and since the tradition derives them from Florida, it is not
-improbable that here we see the continuation of the works of the lower
-Mississippi.[526]
-
-[Illustration: Pyramid near Puente Nacional.]
-
-Of several interesting specimens of ancient architecture in the state
-of Vera Cruz we have selected a few examples. At Puente Nacional the
-remarkable pyramid shown in the cut is situated. It was described by J.
-M. Esteva in the _Museo Mexicano_ in 1843. The pyramid is six stories
-high, and the eastern side is faced by a grand stairway in the form
-of a cross. Mr. Bancroft has described it, employing the accompanying
-cut. At Centla, twenty-five or thirty miles north of Cordova, a series
-of remarkable fortifications were discovered in 1821, which have been
-most thoroughly described by Sr. Sartorius, who visited the locality in
-1833, but whose account was not published until 1869.[527]
-
-The most notable fortification is situated at a narrow pass between
-two ravines, with perpendicular walls several hundred feet deep. The
-distance between the precipices at this point is only twenty-eight
-feet. The defensive works consist of several pyramidal structures built
-of stone and mortar. The largest of these has three terraces rising
-from the rear until they approach a perpendicular wall, fronting a
-narrow passage-way only three feet wide. This perpendicular wall is
-surmounted with parapets and loop-holes for defence. A pyramid on the
-opposite side of the passage-way, the platform of which is reached by
-a single flight of steps, is possessed of the same defensive features,
-with the addition of a ditch at its front eleven feet wide excavated
-in the solid rock to a depth of five and a half feet. The object of
-the fortress seems to have been the protection of an oval-shaped tract
-of fertile land containing about four hundred acres, lying between
-the barrancas. At the opposite end of the oval tract, the precipices
-approach so closely to each other as to leave a narrow passage of only
-three feet in width, which also is guarded by stone walls. Of numerous
-pyramids in the region, the one figured in the cut (from Bancroft’s
-work) is pronounced by Sr. Sartorius as typical of all of them.[528]
-
-[Illustration: Type of Pyramids at Centla.]
-
-Half a league below the town of Huatusco, Dupaix discovered a
-remarkable pyramid crowning a hill on a slope of which was also a group
-of ruins called the Pueblo Viejo. This structure known as El Castillo,
-measures sixty-six feet in height, though there is some uncertainty
-as to the size of the base.[529] Dupaix’s text states it to be two
-hundred and twenty-one feet square, but Mr. Bancroft calls attention
-to the fact that Castañeda’s drawing makes it about seventy-five feet
-square. The pyramid in three terraces measures thirty-seven feet
-high. The superstructure is in three stories, with a single doorway
-in the lowest. This seems to have been the only opening through the
-walls of the castle, which were eight feet thick; we presume, however,
-only at their base, as their exterior shows a sloping rather than a
-perpendicular surface. The lowest story forms a single apartment with
-three pillars in the centre supporting the beams of the floor above.
-Portions of the beams were visible when Dupaix visited the locality.
-The walls of the castle are of rubble made of stone and mortar, as
-in the Yucatan structures, having stone facings. The exterior of the
-castle proper was coated with polished plaster and ornamented with
-panels containing regular rows of round stones embedded in the coating.
-Some unimportant fragments of sculpture in stone and terra-cotta were
-found in the ruin. El Castillo is of special interest because of the
-well-preserved condition of its superstructure. About one hundred and
-fifty or sixty miles north-west of the city of Vera Cruz, the German
-artist Nebel found a group of ruins known as those of _Tusapan_, buried
-in a dense forest at the foot of the Cordillera. The only structure
-which remains standing closely resembles the pyramid above described,
-except that the walls of the pyramid are not terraced, and the tower
-surmounting the pyramid is built with a single story. The only opening
-in the tower is the doorway at the head of the stairway. The interior
-contains a single apartment twelve feet square. The ceiling is said
-to have been arched or pointed, but Herr Nebel has failed to furnish
-definite information as to whether the arch was of overlapping stones
-or not, an oversight of an unpardonable character, since it would be of
-greatest interest to know whether the Maya arch existed so far north.
-The pyramid is described as thirty feet square, and built of irregular
-blocks of limestone, which was probably covered with a coat of the
-plastering generally employed and so polished in its appearance.[530]
-One remaining structure in the State of Vera Cruz merits special
-attention, namely, the pyramid of Papantla. This pyramid, known as
-El Tajin, “the thunderbolt,” is situated in a dense forest near the
-modern town of Papantla, which lies about forty miles east of Tusapan.
-There is a wide divergence of expression as to the dimensions of the
-pyramid. Herr Nebel, however, makes the base something over ninety
-feet square and the height fifty-four feet. The pyramid is seven
-stories high and apparently solid, except the topmost story which
-contained interior departments. This crowning structure is now sadly
-dilapidated. Dupaix’s statement, copied by Humboldt, that the material
-of the pyramid is porphyry, cut in immense blocks, appears to be an
-error, since later exploration has revealed the fact that the pyramid
-was constructed of regularly cut blocks of sandstone laid in mortar,
-and coated with a hard, smooth cement, three inches thick. A stairway
-on the eastern front is divided as well as being guarded by solid stone
-balustrades.[531]
-
-For Nahua monuments of the purest type we naturally turn to Anahuac
-the home of Toltec and Aztec art during its most advanced period of
-development. But alas! the hand of the conqueror and the zeal of the
-fanatic have robbed irretrievably the antiquarian and the student
-of the history of architecture and art, of the best and noblest
-remains of that strangely interesting civilization. Our attention
-is naturally directed to the architecture of that ancient religious
-centre—Cholula—the origin of which, together with that of its great
-pyramid, we have described in a previous chapter. We have already
-seen that the prime object for erecting the immense pile, according
-to Duran, was the worship of the sun, and not to afford a refuge from
-a deluge as has been generally supposed. The pyramid of Cholula is
-situated in the eastern portion of a village to which it has given its
-name, and is reached by a ride of about ten miles westward from the
-city of Puebla de los Angelos. The magnificent temple upon its summit
-dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, fell a prey to the destroying vengeance
-of Cortez, who no doubt was enraged at the stubborn resistance with
-which he was met by the devoted natives, in a hard-fought battle at
-the foot and upon the slopes of the pyramid. Of the large number of
-descriptions, either made from personal observation or written from a
-comparison of accounts, none surpass that of Humboldt, which was the
-result of a careful survey, performed in 1803. Humboldt’s drawing,
-however, was a restoration and not a picture of the condition of
-the shrub-grown hill as he saw it.[532] The pyramid, according to
-Humboldt, measures at the base six hundred and thirty-nine metres or
-a trifle more than fourteen hundred and twenty-eight feet square; in
-other words, about forty-four acres. The base is shown by Humboldt to
-be more than twice as large as that of Cheops. Humboldt and Dupaix
-give its height as fifty-four metres or one hundred and seventy-seven
-feet; Mayer says it is two hundred and four feet; Tylor, two hundred
-and five feet, and Heller[533] states that its summit platform covers
-an area of 13,285 square feet. Its height is somewhat greater than
-that of the pyramid of Mycerinus. Humboldt compares it to a mass of
-brick, covering a square four times as large as the Place Vendôme and
-twice the height of the Louvre. He considers it of the same type as
-the temple of Jupiter Bélus—the pyramids of Meïdoùn Dahchoùr, and the
-group of Sakharah in Egypt. This great monument was constructed in four
-equal terraces of small sun-dried bricks, laid in a mortar which has
-been pronounced by some a mixture of clay with fragments of stones and
-pottery, by others a cement intermixed with small pieces of porphyry
-and limestone. Herr Heller discovered that the entire structure had
-been covered with a coating of cement composed of lime, sand and
-mortar.[534] The present appearance of the pyramid is sufficient to
-induce the opinion that it was originally a natural eminence faced up
-with adobes in terraces, in accordance with the architectural idea, but
-its position in the centre of a plain, together with the revelations
-as to its contents, disclosed by the construction of the Pueblo road
-through one corner of its base, furnish partial if not conclusive
-proof that it was entirely of artificial construction. The excavation
-revealed the perfect regularity with which the bricks were laid in
-the interior, and brought to light a tomb containing two skeletons,
-two basalt figures, a collection of pottery and other articles not
-described. Humboldt has fully described this chamber, which was
-constructed with stone walls supported by cypress timbers. No doorway
-could be found opening into the tomb.
-
-At Xochicalco, the “hill” or “castle of flowers,” situated seventy-five
-miles south-west from the city of Mexico and distant from Cuernavaca
-fifteen miles in nearly the same direction, are found the most
-remarkable specimens of ancient Mexican architecture north of the
-isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most important descriptions of the ruins
-are by Alzate y Ramirez,[535] Humboldt,[536] Dupaix and Castañeda,[537]
-Nebel,[538] and one prepared by the authority of the Mexican
-government.[539]
-
-These ruins are both beneath and upon a natural hill of oval form
-measuring about two miles in circumference and from three hundred to
-four hundred feet in height, authorities differing considerably on this
-point. At the foot of the hill on its northern side, are the entrances
-of two tunnels, one of which extends to a point eighty-two feet from
-the edge of the hill, where it terminates abruptly. The second tunnel
-penetrates the solid limestone of the hill in the form of a square
-gallery nine and a half feet high and broad, extending inward for
-several hundred feet and branching into several auxiliary galleries,
-which terminate in some instances abruptly. The floors are paved with
-small blocks of stone, to a thickness of a foot and a half; masonry
-in some places support the sides, and all the interior surface shows
-traces of red paint upon the polished cement coating with which it was
-finished. The principal gallery, after turning a right angle toward the
-left and extending some hundred feet in a straight line, enlarges into
-a subterranean chamber eighty feet long by about sixty feet in width.
-Two circular columns of living rock were left in making the excavation
-as supports for the roof. The most singular feature connected with the
-chamber is the perfectly circular excavation found at its south-east
-angle, or that corner of the room diagonally opposite to the corner at
-which the passage-way enters it. This circular apartment is only about
-six feet in diameter, and while it is no deeper than the adjoining
-chamber, rises above its ceiling in a dome-shaped roof, lined with
-stones hewn in curved blocks. The curve of this dome-like ceiling
-corresponds with that of a well-proportioned Gothic arch. At the apex
-of the dome, a round hole ten inches in diameter extends vertically
-upwards; some suppose to the pyramid above, but a moment’s calculation
-suffices to show that in view of the considerable diameter of the hill
-and the comparatively short distance from the chamber to its exterior
-slope, such is impossible. The exterior of the hill presents a most
-wonderful display of masonry. Its entire circuit is compassed with
-five terraces of well-laid stone and mortar, faced with perpendicular
-walls. Each terrace of masonry is about seventy feet in height, and
-is constructed in an irregular line, forming sharp angles, like the
-bastions of a fortress; each wall supporting the terraces rises above
-the level of their respective platforms in parapets, evidently for
-defence. The pavements of the platforms are of stone and inclined
-slightly toward the south-west, with a view to draining off the
-rainfall. Dupaix is the only explorer who mentions the means of ascent,
-which he describes as a roadway eight feet wide, leading to the summit.
-The summit platform measures 285 by 328 feet, and is surrounded by a
-wall which is perpendicular on the inside, and on the outside conforms
-to the slope of the terrace wall of which it is an extension. This
-parapet, built of stones without mortar, rises five and a half feet
-above the plaza, and is two feet and nine inches thick, we presume at
-its top, since the outer slope of the terrace would make a difference
-between the top and bottom. Near the centre of the plaza stands
-the base of a pyramid which presents some remarkable architectural
-contrasts from anything we have thus far described. Its sides face
-the cardinal points, and measure sixty-five feet from east to west,
-and fifty-eight feet from north to south. One of the façades, the
-northern, according to Nebel, and the western, according to the Mexican
-Government Survey in the _Revista_, is cut in two in the centre by an
-opening twenty feet wide, where it is supposed a stairway formerly
-led to the superstructure. The cut from Nebel, and reproduced by Mr.
-Bancroft, shows the façade to the left of the opening, as the observer
-faces the pyramid.
-
-[Illustration: Pyramid at Xochicalco.]
-
-The great granite or porphyritic stones which constitute the facing
-of the pyramid, some of them eleven feet in length and three feet in
-height, must have been brought to the summit of the hill at the expense
-of great labor, especially since they must have been transported from a
-considerable distance, no such material being found within a circuit of
-many leagues. The stones were laid without mortar, and so nicely that
-it is said the joints are scarcely perceptible. Fragments of a ruined
-superstructure surmount the pyramid. The foundation walls of the second
-story were two feet and three inches from the edge of the cornice below
-it, except on the west where the space was four and a half feet wide.
-In 1755, so say the inhabitants of the vicinity, the structure was yet
-complete, having five receding stories like the first, and probably
-reaching a height of sixty-five feet. On its crowning summit, on the
-eastern side, stood a large throne-like block of stone, ornamented
-with elaborate sculptures. The second story foundations indicate the
-position of three doorways at the head of the grand stairway, and
-the account in the _Revista_ describes an apartment twenty-two feet
-square observable at the summit of the first story, but now filled with
-fragments of stone. Mr. Bancroft suggests that from this apartment
-there may have been some means of communication with the subterranean
-galleries already described. The colossal sculpture on the face of the
-pyramid will receive our attention on a future page.[540]
-
-The general description given above, together with the reported
-character of the superstructure of this magnificent monument, calls to
-mind the main features of the great teocalli dedicated to the bloody
-god Huitzilopochtli in the Aztec capital called Tenochtitlan or Mexico.
-This blood-stained temple upon whose altars smoked the hearts of
-countless human victims, is supposed to have occupied the site of the
-cathedral fronting the Plaza Mayor of the modern city of Mexico. Not a
-vestige of that terraced pyramid has survived the destructive hand of
-fanaticism and the transforming work of man and nature which have been
-going on ever since upon the old site of the capital of the Montezumas.
-It is said to have been built in five stories, with flights of steps
-affording access to the summit; but each flight was so constructed with
-reference to the platform at its top, as to require almost a complete
-circuit of the building before the next flight could be reached. It was
-necessary, therefore, in order to reach the summit platform, to pass
-four times around the pyramid. It is supposed that this was intended
-to display to better advantage the solemn processions of the priests
-as their long train mounted gradually the sides of the edifice. The
-specialist is already familiar with the descriptions by Bernal Diaz,
-whose particular extravagance of statement renders his work altogether
-unreliable. Also with the accounts by Torquemada, Gomera, Cortez and
-Clavigero. The reader has no doubt acquainted himself with the main
-facts in the writings of the graceful and imaginative Prescott, whose
-seeming romance, _The History of the Conquest of Mexico_, has been
-proven by recent and reliable investigation to have approached much
-nearer to fact than to fiction. Mr. Tylor, after careful exploration,
-has expressed in his “Anahuac” his surprise and satisfaction at what
-he considers to be the proof of Mr. Prescott’s general correctness
-of statement as to the extent of the Aztec capital and the probable
-character of its edifices.[541]
-
-For a description of the palaces of Mexico and Chapultepec, the
-museums, mansions of the nobles, the pavements and aqueducts of that
-buried city, we refer the reader who has not access to the sources, to
-the admirable account by Prescott, especially since it more properly
-belongs to the province of history (now that all traces of them have
-disappeared) than to that of archæology.[542]
-
-Of many interesting localities where architectural remains still exist,
-we select one more in the Central region, to illustrate our subject.
-The ancient religious city of the early Nahuas, Teotihuacan, with
-its famous pyramids—the traditional origin of which we have already
-noted[543]—deserves our attention. The city of the gods has had
-many describers, from the illustrious Humboldt to the observant and
-philosophical Mr. Tylor. The most complete description, however, is
-that given in the report of a scientific commission appointed by the
-Mexican government in 1864, containing accurate plans and views.[544]
-Sr. Antonio Garcia y Cubas, a member of the commission, subsequently
-published a most interesting memoir on the pyramids of Teotihuacan,
-entitled _Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo entre las Pirámides Egípcias
-y Mexicanas_ (Mexico, 1871). The analogies between Teotihuacan and
-Egyptian pyramids receive the greater share of attention, though some
-valuable facts not mentioned in the report of the commission are here
-made known. Mr. Bancroft has reproduced the main features of the report
-of the Mexican Commission and compared it with previous researches,
-thus presenting the reader with probably the best critical version of
-the exploration of Teotihuacan, to be found in any language.[545] The
-cut reduced from Almaraz for Mr. Bancroft’s work shows the plan of the
-Teotihuacan monuments on a scale of about twenty-five hundred and fifty
-feet to an inch.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Teotihuacan.]
-
-The pyramid marked A in the plan is known as Metztli Itzacual, which
-is interpreted “House of the Moon.” It measures 156 metres or 512
-feet from east to west by 130 metres or 426 feet from north to south.
-According to Almarez, its height is 42 metres or 137 feet, but Sr.
-Garcia y Cubas, who took his measurement on the opposite side of the
-pyramid from that measured by Almaraz, says that it is 46 metres or
-150 feet high. The summit platform, according to Garcia y Cubas, is
-six metres or nineteen and a half feet square; quite a discrepancy
-is here observable between the estimated area given by Beaufoy and
-copied by Mr. Bancroft as thirty-six by sixty feet, and this actual
-measurement. The sides of the pyramid nearly face the cardinal points.
-The eastern slope is 31° 30′, while the southern is somewhat steeper,
-being 36°. The slope on the east seems to have been unbroken except
-by a zigzag roadway, leading to the summit. The remaining sides
-are plainly marked by the remains of three terraces, one of which
-is still about three feet wide. Humboldt and Tylor both speak of
-remains of stairways of which no mention is made by the Government
-Commission. Most observers have described the pyramids as faced with
-hewn stone, but the commissioners on the contrary found them coated
-with successive layers of different conglomerates as follows: “1st,
-small stones from eight to twelve inches in diameter, with mud forming
-a layer of about thirty-two inches; 2d, fragments of volcanic tufa,
-as large as a man’s fist, also in mud, to the thickness of sixteen
-inches; 3d, small grains of tetzontli (a porous volcanic rock) of
-the size of peas, with mud, twenty-eight inches thick; 4th, a very
-thin and smooth coat of pure lime mortar. These layers are repeated
-in the same order nine times and are parallel to the slopes of the
-pyramid, which would make the thickness of the superficial facing
-about sixty feet.”[546] On the southern slope, sixty-nine feet from
-the base, according to Almarez, a gallery large enough to admit a
-man crawling on hands and knees, extends inward on an incline, a
-distance of twenty-five feet, and terminates in two square wells or
-chambers, each five feet square, and one of them fifteen feet deep.
-Mr. Löwenstern, according to Mr. Bancroft, states that “the gallery
-is a hundred and fifty-seven feet long, increasing in height to over
-six feet and a half, as it penetrates the pyramid; that the well is
-over six feet square, extending apparently down to the base and up to
-the summit; and that other cross galleries are blocked up by débris!”
-It is probable that these remarkable galleries never existed, except
-in Mr. Löwenstern’s imagination, since Sr. Almarez in the report of
-the official survey pronounces the tunnel already described as simply
-excavations by treasure-hunters. The pyramid B of the plan, situated
-five hundred and seventy-five yards south of the House of the Moon, is
-called Tonatiuh Itzacual, or “House of the Sun.” This pyramid requires
-no description, except to give its dimensions, since in all other
-respects it is precisely similar to the House of the Moon. The House
-of the Sun, according to the measurement of Sr. Garcia y Cubas, which
-is the most recent, is at the base 232 metres or 761 feet by 220 metres
-or 722 feet. Its height is 66 metres or 216 feet, while the summit
-platform measures 18 by 32 metres or 59 by 105 feet. Both this pyramid
-and the preceding have each a small mound on one of their sides near
-their base. In the latter instance this mound seems connected with an
-avenue of mounds just west of it. An embankment marked _a_, _b_, _c_,
-_d_, one hundred and thirty feet wide on the summit and twenty feet
-high, widening out at the extremities into platforms, extends around
-three sides of the “House of the Sun.” Across the Rio San Juan, and at
-the distance of twelve hundred and fifty yards southward of the “House
-of the Sun,” stands the Texcalpa or “citadel.” This is a quadrangular
-enclosure, measuring on its exterior twelve hundred and forty-six by
-thirteen hundred and thirty-eight feet. The embankments are of enormous
-strength, being two hundred and sixty-two feet thick by thirty-three
-feet high, except on the western side, which is but sixteen feet high.
-The enclosure is divided unequally by a wall as strong as that upon
-the sides. On the centre of this wall stands a pyramid ninety-two feet
-high. At its base are two small mounds besides one in the western
-enclosure, while fourteen others averaging twenty feet in height are
-arranged with regularity upon the summit of the enclosing wall. An
-avenue two hundred and fifty feet wide formed by mounds and measuring
-two hundred and fifty rods in length, extends from a point south of
-the “House of the Moon” to the river, as is shown from C to D, in the
-plan. The avenue is cut up into compartments by six cross embankments,
-a rather strange feature for which no explanation has been afforded.
-These mounds are mostly conical, built of fragments of stone and clay,
-and some of them reach a height of thirty feet. The native traditions
-call it Micaotli, which may indicate that they were designed for the
-purposes of sepulture. Almaraz, who excavated one of the multitude of
-mounds or _tlalteles_ in the vicinity, found four walls meeting at
-right angles, though a little inclined and forming a small square.
-Connected with this were steps, at the top of which four other walls
-enclosed a little room, supposed to have been a tomb. The natives
-describe the discovery of a stone box in one of the mounds containing
-a skull, with about such a collection of trinkets as is commonly met
-with in the stone graves of Tennessee. Mayer describes a massive stone
-column, ten feet long and four feet square, cut from a single block.
-This resembles the elaborate capitol of a column resting on a base with
-scarcely a shaft intervening. It is called the fainting stone by the
-natives, who believe that whoever sits on it is sure to faint instantly.
-
-One additional group of ruins, as yet unclassified with any of the
-types we have described, merits our attention. This group is known
-as Los Edificios of Quemada, situated in southern Zacatecas north of
-the Central plateau and probably the home of the Chichimecs.[547] Mr.
-Bancroft has attempted to reconstruct the unsatisfactory accounts of
-the several explorers of Quemada, but with little success. We therefore
-decline adding another comparative failure to the list of literature
-on these ruins. Some general observations, however, may not be out of
-place. The Cerro de los Edificios is a natural eminence about half a
-mile long and between one hundred and two hundred yards wide, except at
-its southern extremity where it increases to a width of five hundred
-yards. The authorities differ as to its height, one saying from two
-to three hundred feet, and another eight to nine hundred feet above
-the plain. Ancient roads well paved radiate in various directions from
-the hill, some of them extending a distance of five or six miles. The
-northern brow of the hill, where the descent is not so precipitous
-as at the other points, is guarded by a stone wall, as are all other
-points where the precipitous sides do not offer a sufficient barrier
-to an intruder from without. The surface of the hill is quite uneven,
-and these irregularities have been formed into terraces supported by
-stone walls. Foundations have thus been secured for a multitude of
-structures, some of them perfectly pyramidal and others consisting
-of quadrangular enclosures or squares, terraced and having steps
-descending to the court within, where pyramidal structures of stone are
-found. On the eastern terrace of the Cerro, a round pillar, eighteen
-feet high and nineteen feet in circumference, stands in proximity to a
-wall of as great height as the pillar. Traces of nine similar pillars
-are visible, and the probability is that they formed part of a balcony
-or perhaps a portico. Adjoining this wall is an enclosure measuring 138
-by 100 feet, in which are eleven pillars in line, each seventeen feet
-in circumference and as high as an adjacent wall, namely eighteen feet.
-The distance from the wall is twenty-three feet, and the presumption is
-that the pillars supported a roof. There are no doorways, properly so
-called, since the doorways are large quadrangular openings extending to
-the full height of the halls. No windows were discovered anywhere. The
-material is gray porphyry from hills across an intervening valley, and
-the mortar is reddish clay, mixed with straw, and is of poor quality.
-Sculpture, hieroglyphics, pottery, human remains, idols, arrow-heads,
-and obsidian fragments are totally wanting, thus presenting a strange
-contrast with all other Mexican ruins. Nevertheless, the massiveness
-of the fortifications, the height and great thickness of the walls,
-none of which are less than eight feet thick and in one instance over
-twenty, the extensive system of paved roads, besides great elevated
-stone causeways running through the city, the size of the enclosed
-squares, one of which contains six acres, all indicate that this
-might have been the capital city of a powerful people, a people whose
-architectural affinities with all others that we are acquainted with
-are very few, and whose contrasts are numerous. Certainly the type and
-execution of the masonry, though massive, is more primitive than found
-elsewhere in Mexico. We do not mean that it is more ancient, for such
-cannot be true, but inferior to that in other parts of Mexico and the
-Central American region. The arch of overlapping stones is entirely
-wanting, and but for the round columns without either base or capitol,
-the steps toward advancement in the art would only be those common to
-that generally vigorous and warlike period which, in the history of
-every people, has preceded a higher civilization. Mr. Bancroft has
-published Burghes’ plan of Quemada but to little purpose, since the
-descriptive matter available does not contain a reference to more than
-one-fourth of the many structures indicated.
-
-In the course of the chapter, we have indicated the principal
-resemblances and contrasts between the various styles treated. The
-pyramidal structure we have found employed by both Mayas and Nahuas,
-with certain modifications and with such resemblances as would seem to
-indicate that both peoples had been originally, or at an early day,
-near neighbors, and that the younger people, at least the more recent
-in their occupancy of Mexico and Central America, the Nahuas, may
-have copied the pyramid in its perfected form from the Mayas. We have
-noted some difference between the ancient and modern Maya styles. In
-the ancient or Chiapan, the irregularities in the face of the pyramid
-caused by constructing it of tiers of rectangular stones were filled
-with mortar, and an even surface produced. In the modern or Yucatec
-style the blocks of stone-facing are bevelled to the angle of the
-slope. Furthermore, in some instances the corners of the pyramids were
-rounded. At Palenque the superstructures were of only one story, while
-Yucatec structures were often formed of three receding stories. Of the
-Copan ruins little can be said intelligently, except that the pyramid
-combined with the terrace is all-pervading, but still is not unlike the
-Palenque style in its main features. The Nahua architecture offers a
-great variety of styles, but at the same time the pyramidal structure
-is the fundamental feature of all kinds of structures. Mitla offers an
-exception to this rule, but there are doubts as to whether Mitla may be
-classified as a Nahua ruin at all. The early writers devoted much of
-their attention to seeming old world resemblances in ancient American
-architecture, but their speculations in most cases were puerile and
-trivial. Mr. Stephens, with the experience which the careful study
-and observation of old world monuments afforded him, strongly denies
-that any such analogies are to be found among the Maya groups.[548] M.
-Viollet-le-Duc considers the monuments of Mexico, especially those of
-Maya origin, to have been influenced by white and yellow races, the
-former of the Aryan from the north-east, the latter the Turanian from
-the north-west. He seems to find some analogy between ancient Japanese
-temples (and quotes a description from Charlevoix, _Histoire du Japan_,
-ed. 1754, tom. i, chap. x, p. 171) and those of ancient America. He
-thinks that the style of architecture at Uxmal indicates clearly that
-the first structures were of wood and resembled the style prevalent in
-Japan. However, the wooden structures more properly originated with
-the white races, while the use of stucco is characteristic of the
-Turanian or Yellow races of the north-west. He thinks it certain that
-Mitla and Palenque were influenced by a white race.[549] Señor Garcia
-y Cubas has attempted to prove in a careful argument that the pyramids
-of Teotihuacan were built for the same purposes as were the pyramids
-of Egypt. He considers the analogy established in eleven particulars,
-as follows: the site chosen is the same; the structures are oriented
-with slight variation, the line through the centres of the pyramids
-is in the astronomical meridian; the construction in grades and steps
-is the same; in both cases the larger pyramids are dedicated to the
-sun; the Nile has a “valley of the dead,” as in Teotihuacan there is
-a “street of the dead;” some monuments of each class have the nature
-of fortifications; the smaller mounds are of the same nature and for
-the same purpose; both pyramids have a small mound joined to one of
-their faces; the openings discovered in the Pyramid of the Moon are
-also found in some Egyptian pyramids; the interior arrangement of the
-pyramids is analogous.[550] Mr. Delafield by a less systematic argument
-advocates the same theory. However, his capability to discern analogies
-is not confined to a single structure, since in the pyramid of Cholula
-and the teocalli of the city of Mexico he finds a counterpart to the
-temple of Belus at Babylon, as described by Herodotus. The walls
-around the hill at Xochicalco explain the use of similar embankments
-at Circleville and Marietta in Ohio, while the order of the apartments
-at Mitla bears a striking analogy to the arrangements of apartments
-in the temples of upper Egypt. This and much more Mr. Delafield has
-been able to discover, but unfortunately only with certainty to
-his own mind.[551] Löwenstern is equally certain that the American
-monuments were not constructed by a nation analogous to that which
-built the pyramids of Egypt.[552] Ranking, on the other hand, finds
-that Teotihuacan was named after the illustrious dead buried beneath
-its pyramids, as was the custom in Egypt, but in this instance the
-name is analogous to that of Thiautcan or Khan, the name of the grand
-Khan of the Monguls and Tartars who occupied the throne of China at
-the time of Sir John Mandeville’s visit to Pekin in the fourteenth
-century; and as at Teotihuacan and among the Monguls the sun and moon
-were worshipped, so, according to Ranking, those American monuments
-are attributable to Mongul architects.[553] It would be easy for us to
-continue the citation of these fancied analogies, but it is no doubt
-already apparent to the reader that they are generally of too trivial a
-character to serve the ends of science, and we therefore dismiss their
-further consideration.[554]
-
-[Illustration: Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.
-
-  Fig. 1.]
-
-_Sculpture and Hieroglyphics._—The mound sculpture, as has been
-observed in the cuts illustrating a previous chapter of this work,
-though comparatively rude in most cases, still, in a few instances,
-is quite remarkable as affording true representations of animals
-and possibly of the human face. Considerable progress in the art of
-ornamentation in terra-cotta is displayed on many of the vases and
-burial urns exhumed from the mounds. Many of the lines, figures and
-borders traced in relief and sometimes in taglio on those vessels
-indicate not only that a sense of the beautiful was present, but that
-it had been cultivated to a considerable extent. The same remarks apply
-to the pottery of the Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers. At Palenque, however,
-the student of art meets with no mean attempts at delineating the
-human form—in fact, the success obtained in this difficult field alone
-characterized the work of the Palenque artists. It is presumed that
-nearly all of the piers separating the doorways in the eastern wall of
-the palace were ornamented with stucco bas-reliefs. Two out of six of
-the best preserved are shown in the following cuts. The most remarkable
-feature of the first (Fig. 1, reduced from Waldeck for Bancroft’s
-work) is the cranial type, deformed to a shocking degree, probably by
-artificial pressure, so generally employed by the ancient American
-races. Possibly it is but a caricature.
-
-[Illustration: Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.
-
-  Fig. 2.]
-
-Fig. 2 (a photographic reduction from Waldeck) presents us with a
-subject which has called forth no little discussion. The “elephant’s
-trunk” which protrudes from the elaborate head-dress of the priest has
-been thought to indicate an Asiatic influence.[555] We have already
-referred to the frequent occurrence of the “elephant trunk” ornament in
-Yucatan. The hieroglyphic signs at the top and on the faces of these
-reliefs no doubt hold locked up in their mysterious symbols the history
-of the scene.
-
-In all of these reliefs the flattened cranial type is present, and
-no doubt represents the ideal of beauty among those ancient people.
-The stuccoes appear to have been moulded upon the undercoating of
-cement after it had become hard. The brush of the painter was then
-employed in its final embellishment.[556] Adjacent to the eastern
-stairway leading downward into the main court of the palace are great
-stone slabs, forming a surface on each side of the steps fifty feet
-long by eleven feet high. Waldeck, Stephens and Bancroft furnish
-views of gigantic human figures sculptured in low relief upon these
-surfaces. Both the attitudes and expressions portrayed indicate that
-the groups represented are either captives or possibly victims for
-sacrifice.[557] On the opposite side of the court, and on the stone
-face of the balustrade of a stairway, two figures, male and female, are
-sculptured, which, according to Waldeck, are of the Caucasian type. The
-same artist has shown the beautiful grecques which adorn the panels of
-the cornice.[558] Waldeck and Bancroft have figured a remarkable stone
-tablet of elliptical form, in which a princely personage is represented
-as sitting cross-legged on a chair formed of a double-headed animal,
-pronounced by Stephens to resemble a leopard. Catherword’s plate, in
-Morelet’s _Travels_, shows an ornament suspended from the neck of
-the chief figure resembling an effigy of the sun, while in Waldeck’s
-drawing the Egyptian Tau is graven upon the ornament.[559] The
-accompanying cut shows Waldeck’s drawing (employed by Mr. Bancroft).
-
-[Illustration: Sculptured Tablet in the Palace.]
-
-Four hundred yards south of the palace stands the ruins of a pyramid
-and temple, which, at the time of Dupaix’s and of Waldeck’s visits
-were in a good state of preservation, but quite dilapidated when seen
-by Charnay. The temple faces the east, and on the western wall of its
-inner apartment, itself facing the eastern light, is found (or rather
-was, for it has now entirely disappeared) the most beautiful specimen
-of stucco relief in America. M. Waldeck, with the critical insight
-of an experienced artist, declares it “worthy to be compared to the
-most beautiful works of the age of Augustus.” He therefore named the
-temple the Beau Relief. The above cut is a reduction from Waldeck’s
-drawing used in Mr. Bancroft’s work, and is very accurate. However,
-the peculiar beauty of Waldeck’s drawing is such that it must be seen
-in order to be fully appreciated.
-
-[Illustration: Beau Relief in Stucco.]
-
-It is scarcely necessary for us to call the reader’s attention to the
-details of this picture, in which correctness of design and graceful
-outlines predominate to such an extent that we may safely pronounce
-the beautiful youth who sits enthroned on his elaborate and artistic
-throne, the American Apollo. In the original drawing the grace of the
-arms and wrists is truly matchless, and the chest muscles are displayed
-in the most perfect manner. The embroidered girdle and folded drapery
-of the figure, as well as the drapery around the leopards’ necks, are
-arranged with taste. The head-dress is not unlike a Roman helmet in
-form, with the addition of numerous plumes. The sandals of the feet are
-secured by a cord and rosette, while ornaments on the animals’ ankles
-seem secured by leather straps. The engraving does not do justice to
-the face-like ornament suspended by the string of pearls upon the
-youth’s breast. In the original drawing it is quite beautiful, and of a
-female cast.[560]
-
-The next subject of interest to the student of sculpture is found in
-the Temple of the Cross, in the inmost sanctuary of all, and is known
-as the Tablet of the Cross. Three stones cover most of the surface of
-the rear wall of the sanctum sanctorum, and present an area six feet
-four inches high by ten feet eight inches wide. The central of the
-three stones bears the celebrated sculpture of the cross which has
-excited so much interest and comment, to say nothing of speculation
-as to its origin. The cut is a photographic reduction from Waldeck’s
-drawing. A priest and priestess appear to be offering an infant to an
-ugly bird which stands perched upon the cross. The infant’s face is
-completely hid by a fantastic mask or cap. The expression of pain on
-the faces of the officiating personages is very marked. The symmetry
-of proportion employed in the sculpture is conceded by all observers.
-The two lateral stones (the left-hand one being shown in our cut) are
-covered with hieroglyphics, which begin at the left-hand upper corner
-with a large capital letter. Some one had removed the central stone
-from its position prior to Waldeck’s visit, and conveyed it to a point
-in the forest not far distant. Stephens also found it in the same
-locality. By referring to the hieroglyphic tablet at the left of the
-cross it will be observed that just below the large initial letter or
-word is a threefold hieroglyphic, while seven others in the same column
-are double. This would indicate, we should think, that the characters
-were read from the top downwards, though it is possible that the lines
-were read horizontally, each line beginning with a capital as in
-poetry.[561]
-
-[Illustration: Tablet of the Cross.]
-
-[Illustration: Palenque Statue.]
-
-On either side of the doorway opening to the inner sanctuary of the
-Cross, were originally two male figures sculptured in low-relief on
-stone; one of them, which appears to represent an aged royal person,
-is beautifully clad in a leopard’s skin, while the opposite figure,
-designed probably to represent youthful manhood, is arrayed in what
-may be an elaborate military dress and plumed crest of magnificent
-character. He wears what appears to be a cuirass about his shoulders
-and chest. These tablets were removed to the village of Santo Domingo
-years ago and set up in a modern house, where they were offered to
-M. Waldeck on the sole condition that he should marry one of the
-proprietresses, though he at the time was more than sixty-four years of
-age. Stephens could have obtained them by purchasing the house in which
-they had been placed, but did not.[562] On the slope of the pyramid of
-the Cross, M. Waldeck found two statues just alike, one of which was
-unfortunately broken; the other, subsequently sketched by Catherwood,
-is shown in the cut, a photographic reduction from Waldeck. These
-statues were ten and a half feet high, though two and a half feet of
-their length, not shown in the cut, formed a tenon by which they were
-embedded in the floor of the pyramidal surface, where Waldeck supposes
-they stood supporting a platform about twenty feet square, in front of
-the central doorway. These are the only statues ever found at Palenque;
-but it is doubted whether they can be technically called statues, since
-the back is of rough stone, and unsculptured. They probably rested
-against a wall and served as supports for an upper roof or floor, as
-indicated by Waldeck. The head-dress has been pronounced Egyptian by
-all who have seen it.[563]
-
-In the temple of the Sun, in a position precisely corresponding to
-that occupied by the tablet of the cross, stands a somewhat similar
-tablet cut in low-relief on three slabs covering an area of eight by
-nine feet. The figure of the cross in this instance is displaced by
-a hideous face or mask supposed to represent the sun, supported by a
-framework resting on the shoulders of crouching men. The priest and
-priestess occupy the same positions as occupied by them in the tablet
-of the cross. Each is in the act of presenting a child with masked face
-to the sun, and each is standing upon the back of a kneeling slave.
-The lateral tablets are covered with columns or rows of hieroglyphics,
-as in the tablet of the cross.[564] The stuccoed roofs and piers of
-both the temples—Cross and Sun—may be truly pronounced works of art
-of a high order. On the former, Stephens observed busts and heads
-approaching the Greek models in symmetry of contour and perfectness
-of proportion. M. Waldeck has preserved in his magnificent drawings
-some of these figures, which are certainly sufficient to prove
-beyond controversy, that the ancient Palenqueans were a cultivated
-and artistic people. In passing to Uxmal the transition is from
-delineations of the human figure to the elegant and superabundant
-exterior ornamentation of edifices, and from stucco to stone as the
-material employed. The human figure, however, when it is represented,
-is in statuary of a high order. The artists of Uxmal did not improve
-upon the Palenque models so much in the design as in the execution
-of their subjects. Uxmal statuary approximates more closely to what
-properly may be called statuary, being cut more nearly “in the round”
-and having less unfinished back surface than the Palenque statue. The
-elegant square panels of grecques and frets which compose the cornice
-of the Casa del Gobernador, delineated in the works of Stephens,
-Baldwin and Bancroft, are a marvel of beauty, which must excite the
-admiration of the most indifferent student of this subject. The
-ornamentation of this great cornice, equal to one-third the height of
-the building, is cut on blocks of stone and inserted in the wall with
-the utmost precision, so that every line matches, and the graceful
-arabesques and bas-reliefs, which sometimes cover several blocks with a
-single figure, are unbroken by apparent joints. The grandest specimens
-of American ornamental sculpture are, however, to be seen on the inner
-fronts of the four buildings of the Casa de Monjas, a plan of which is
-given on page 351 of this work. It will be remembered that these fronts
-face the court around which the buildings were constructed. The court
-front of the eastern building is probably one of the most tasteful and
-interesting specimens of sculpture to be met with in America.[565] M.
-Waldeck considers that it presents an appearance of grandeur of which
-it would be difficult to give an idea, while Stephens considers its
-chasteness of design a great relief from the gorgeous masses of other
-façades. The cornice over the central doorway and the corners of the
-eastern court façade are ornamented with ugly masks and “elephant
-trunks” protruding from them, as in the Governor’s home.[566] If the
-preceding façade is the most generally admired of those at Uxmal, “the
-most magnificent and beautiful front in America” is that of the Serpent
-Temple, or western court façade of the Nunnery, as is shown in the
-accompanying engraving, which is a photographic reduction of Waldeck’s
-drawing employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work.
-
-[Illustration: Western Court Façade—Casa de Monjas.]
-
-[Illustration: Sun Symbol.]
-
-The marked feature of the sculpture is the formation of square panels
-by the intertwined bodies of two huge stone serpents with monster
-heads, surmounted by plumes and enclosing between the jaws of each a
-human face. A head and tail as shown above occupy opposite extremes of
-the front. This may be a representation of the plumed serpent of the
-Central American mythology. The stone lattice-work (a feature of Uxmal
-sculpture) underlying the serpents and covering the panels formed
-by their folds, is more complicated and beautiful than any other in
-America. At regular intervals large grecques or arabesques, with their
-connecting bars lengthened to the width of the entire sculptured
-portion of the façade, are distributed. Several panels are ornamented
-with life-sized human figures, while each panel contains a human
-face, some of which are as beautiful as the Greek models. The upper
-cornice is ornamented, as are all the other cornices of the Nunnery,
-with what are supposed to be Sun symbols, one of which is shown in the
-cut, reduced photographically from Waldeck’s drawing. The appended
-“feathers” are almost Assyrian in their type, while the double triangle
-within the circle is certainly an ancient symbol in the old world.
-
-[Illustration: “Elephant Trunk.”]
-
-The “elephant trunks” and rude masks employed as ornaments above
-the doorways of the other fronts, are also numerous here. Since
-M. Waldeck’s visit portions of this wonderful example of ancient
-decorative art have fallen.[567] The northern building of the court
-offers no sculptured contrasts with the other buildings, except that
-above the upper cornice, thirteen turrets, each seventeen feet high
-and ten feet wide, are distributed at regular intervals, and are
-also covered with sculpture resembling the grecques of the Serpent
-temple. Most of the sculptures at Uxmal were probably painted, as
-traces of various colors were observed in sheltered localities. The
-rich sculptures of the prophet’s house were painted blue, red, yellow
-and white, according to M. Waldeck. The Mayas no doubt employed the
-brush freely, and in some instances with skill. In the gymnasium at
-Chichen-Itza, Stephens grew enthusiastic over the exceedingly fine
-series of paintings in bright colors, which cover the walls of one
-of the chambers. Many of the pictures have been destroyed by the
-falling of the plaster upon which they were painted. In this series of
-pictures, battles, processions, houses, trees and a variety of objects
-are represented—blue, red, yellow and green are the colors employed,
-though the human figures are painted reddish brown.[568] At Chichen, as
-elsewhere, the favorite subject for the Maya sculpture was the serpent.
-A colossal serpent balustrade is one of the wonders of this interesting
-place.
-
-Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon, during the last quarter of the year 1875,
-made an extensive exploration of Chichen-Itza. The reports of his
-discoveries seem at first well-nigh fabulous, though their authenticity
-is so well attested as to leave no room for doubt. Mr. Stephen
-Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Massachusetts, has in several memoirs
-of intense interest and unusual scientific value, communicated the
-progress and results of Dr. Le Plongeon’s exploration in Yucatan to
-the American Antiquarian Society. Mr. Salisbury has also presented
-the explorer’s original memoirs, accompanied by photographs made at
-Chichen-Itza and on the Islands of Cozumel and Mugeres. These valuable
-documents have reached the public in Mr. Salisbury’s publications
-entitled, (1.) _The Mayas, the Sources of their History_ (Worcester,
-1877, with heliotype reproductions of the photos); (2.) _Maya
-Archæology_ (Worcester, 1879, with heliotype reproductions of photos
-and drawings).[569] In these pages we are impressed with the fact that
-the darkness which has so long enveloped the antiquity of Yucatan is
-soon to be displaced by the noon-day of scientific investigation. Still
-we cannot refrain from expressing the regret that Dr. Le Plongeon’s
-enthusiasm is so apparent in his reports. A judicial frame of mind,
-as well as the calmness which accompanies it, are requisites both for
-scientific work and the inspiration of confidence in the reader.
-Notwithstanding this, our views have been most happily expressed by the
-committee of the American Antiquarian Society, to whom was entrusted
-the publication of Dr. Le Plongeon’s memoirs. Their statement is as
-follows: “The successes of Du Chaillu, Schliemann, and of Stanley, are
-remarkable instances of triumphant results in cases where enthusiasm
-had been supposed to lack the guidance of wisdom. If earnest men are
-willing to take the risks of personal research in hazardous regions,
-or exercise their ingenuity and their scholarship in attempting to
-solve historical or archæological problems, we may accept thankfully
-the information they give, without first demanding in all cases
-unquestionable evidence or absolute demonstration.”
-
-Dr. Le Plongeon says of the columns at Chichen, “the base is formed by
-the head of Cukulcan, the shaft by the body of the serpent, with its
-feathers beautifully carved to the very chapter. On the chapters of
-the columns that support the portico, at the entrance of the castle
-in Chichen-Itza, may be seen the carved figures of long bearded men,
-with upraised hands, in the act of worshipping sacred trees. They
-forcibly recall to mind the same worship in Assyria.” In consequence
-of the successful interpretation of certain hieroglyphic inscriptions
-at Chichen, the explorer and his wife (who accompanied him in his
-perilous enterprise), learned that the statue of Chaac Mol, or Balam,
-(the tiger king), the greatest of the Itza monarchs, had been buried
-below the surface of the ground at a certain point, distant four
-hundred yards from the palace. The first result of excavation in
-the locality indicated was the discovery of a sculptured tiger of
-colossal size, having a human head, which, unfortunately, was broken
-off. Several slabs bearing sculptures of tigers and birds of prey in
-relief were unearthed. A pedestal supporting the sculptured tiger
-apparently had once occupied the spot, and its destruction had left a
-mound of débris. Seven metres below the surface of this mound a rough
-stone urn containing a little dust was secured, and upon it an earthen
-cover. This was near the head of the statue of Chaac Mol, which was
-next disclosed. The statue is of a white calcareous stone, one metre
-fifty-five centimetres long, one metre fifteen centimetres in height,
-and eighty centimetres wide, and weighed fifty kilos. The statue
-represents the reclining figure of a man, who is naked except that he
-is adorned with a head-dress, with bracelets, garters of feathers,
-and sandals similar to those found upon the mummies of the ancient
-Guanchies of the Canary Islands.
-
-[Illustration: Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.]
-
-The statue of Chaac Mol was seized by Mexican officials and sent to the
-capital. Our friend, the Rev. John W. Butler, of the city of Mexico,
-writes to us (letter received October 10, 1878) concerning the statue:
-“It is just as represented. It may be seen in the National Museum, just
-opposite its exact duplicate, which was found under the Plaza of the
-city of Mexico, some years ago. What is the meaning of this? The tribe
-whose king (or god) it was, must have _migrated southward_, for the one
-excavated in Mexico shows _greater age_ than the one from Yucatan.” In
-reply we would say that the evidences are sufficient that the Maya
-civilization once extended farther north than the city of Mexico, but
-the conquests of the Nahuas drove that ancient people no doubt to
-abandon their northern territory and to confine themselves to their
-lands farther south.
-
-[Illustration: Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.]
-
-[Illustration: Statue of Chaac Mol.]
-
-Dr. Le Plongeon, in speaking of the historical value of the statue,
-says Chaac Mol was one of the three brothers whom tradition declares
-were the co-rulers of Yucatan at a very ancient period. Chaac Mol and
-his beautiful queen Kinich-Kakmó were the powerful sovereigns of the
-kingdom of Chichen-Itza. Aac, one of the brothers, becoming enamored of
-his sister-in-law Kinich-Kakmó, slew Chaac Mol that he might make her
-his wife. The funeral-chamber, the mural paintings, the statues, and
-the monument of the murdered king found by the explorer, were memorials
-of the sad event which the faithful queen caused to be executed by the
-artisans and artists of the royal city. Dr. Le Plongeon remarks: “In
-the funeral-chamber, the terrible altercation between Aac and Chaac
-Mol, which had its termination in the murder of the latter by his
-brother, is represented by large figures, three-fourths life size.
-There Aac is painted holding three spears in his hands, typical of the
-three wounds he inflicted on the back of his brother. These wounds are
-indicated on the statue of the dying tiger (symbol of Chaac Mol) by two
-holes near the lumbar region, and one under the left scapula, proving
-that the blow was aimed at the heart from behind. The two wounds are
-also marked by two holes near each other in the lumbar region, on the
-_bas-relief_ of the tiger eating a human heart that adorned the Chaac
-Mol mausoleum (see sculptured slab on page 398).”[570]
-
-Mr. Stephen Salisbury, Jr., in his _Maya Archæology_, has reproduced
-one of Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon’s tracings of a mural painting in the
-funeral-chamber of the Chaac Mol monument at Chichen-Itza. Through the
-courtesy of Mr. Salisbury we have been permitted to copy it for this
-work. The Doctor interprets it as representing the queen Kinich-Kakmó
-when a child consulting an _H-Men_, one of the Maya wise men or
-astrologers, in order to know her destiny. The prediction is based upon
-the lines produced by fire on the shell of an armadillo or turtle, and
-is expressed in the colors of the elaborate scroll proceeding from the
-throat of the _H-Men_. Referring to his tracings of mural paintings
-at Chichen-Itza, Dr. Le Plongeon says “they represent war scenes
-with javelins flying in all directions, warriors fighting, shouting,
-assuming all sorts of athletic positions, scenes from domestic life,
-marriage ceremonies, temples with complete domes, proving that the Itza
-architects were acquainted with the circular arch, but made use of the
-triangular probably because it was the custom and style of architecture
-of the time and country.”[571] Besides the sculptures of long-bearded
-men seen by the explorer at Chichen-Itza mentioned on a preceding
-page, were tall figures of people with small heads, thick lips, and
-curly short hair or wool, regarded as negroes. “We always see them as
-standard or parasol bearers, but never engaged in actual warfare.”[572]
-He pronounces the features of the long-bearded men pictured on the
-walls of the queen’s chambers to be Assyrian in their type. On the Isla
-Mugeres (in the latter part of the year 1876), Dr. Le Plongeon exhumed
-portions of a female figure in terra-cotta, which indicate an advanced
-state of art among the ancient Mayas. The fragments of the statue,
-consisting of the head and feet, were probably attached to the front
-of a brasero or incense-burner used at the shrine of the Maya Venus,
-located on the southern extremity of the island. It was immediately
-in front of this shrine, visited by Cordova in 1516,[573] that the
-remains of the statue were found buried in the sand. The expression of
-the face is cruel and savage, the nostrils are perforated and also the
-pupils of the eyes. The teeth are filed as those of the statue Chaac
-Mol are said to be. The head is surmounted by a head-dress eight inches
-high. The fragments of this statue are now in the possession of Mr.
-Salisbury.[574]
-
-[Illustration: Mural Painting from Chaac Mol Monument
-  Chichen-Itza.—(From a copy by Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon.)]
-
-[Illustration: Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres.]
-
-Through the courtesy of the owner we are enabled to present a
-photographic reduction of the relics in the preceding cut.
-
-[Illustration: The Cara Gigantesca.]
-
-At Izamel, the burial-place of the culture-hero Zamna, a remarkable
-example of aboriginal sculpture is found upon the side of a mound now
-enclosed in a private court-yard. This specimen of art, known as the
-Cara gigantesca, or gigantic face, measures seven feet in width and
-seven feet eight inches in height. “The features were first rudely
-formed by small rough stones, fixed in the side of the mound by means
-of mortar, and afterwards perfected with a stucco so hard that it has
-successfully resisted for centuries the action of air and water.”
-The accompanying cut from Mr. Bancroft’s work will show the type of
-features.
-
-The subject of Maya sculpture is almost a limitless one, but we trust
-that the above-cited examples may give the reader a comprehensive
-acquaintance with the existing types. The sculpture of Copan is no
-less remarkable than its architecture. In fact, every object bore the
-skillful marks of the graver’s chisel. The great number of sculptured
-obelisks, pillars and idols have been the wonder of every reader of Mr.
-Stephens’ description. Since his work is so generally known, we refrain
-from presenting more than one example of Copan art. In the accompanying
-cut employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work the elaborateness of the sculpture
-will be observed, and may well be pronounced a marvel of aboriginal art.
-
-[Illustration: Copan Statue.]
-
-But for the perfectly horizontal position of the eyes, the aspect of
-some of the faces represented by Stephens would strike us as having
-a Mongolian cast. The magnificently sculptured hieroglyphics which
-cover the sides and backs of these huge idols, no doubt could tell
-the sealed story of Copan’s greatness and the attributes of its many
-gods, were the key once discovered. Everything is covered with these
-significant symbols, differing slightly from those at Palenque; but who
-will read them? In the court of the temple, a solid block of stone six
-feet square and four feet high, resting on four globular stones was
-sketched by Catherwood, and pronounced an altar by Stephens. Sixteen
-figures in profile, with turbaned heads, breast-plates, and each
-seated cross-legged on hieroglyphic-like cushions, are sculptured in
-low-relief, four figures being on each side of the block. The top of
-the altar is covered with thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics, shown
-in a cut on a future page. Besides numbers of masks, effigies and rows
-of death’s heads at Copan, there are sculptures of the face which we
-may believe to have been portraits. The Copan sculpture is generally
-admitted to be of a high order, and Stephens thinks it unsurpassed in
-Egypt. The receding forehead of most of the portraits have excited
-general interest, and are believed to be delineations of the priestly
-or aristocratic type. No weapons are sculptured at Copan, but on the
-contrary altars abound in considerable numbers, especially in front
-of the sculptured obelisks or idols. The presumption is therefore
-strong that this was a religious centre, unmolested by any enemy, and
-undisturbed by the alarm of war.[575]
-
-[Illustration: Figure from Monte Alban.]
-
-_Nahua Sculpture._—The Nahua sculpture is not of as high an order nor
-of as frequent occurrence as that of the Mayas. At Monte Alban in
-Oajaca, in a gallery within a mound, Castañeda sketched the sculptured
-profile shown in the accompanying cut, employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work.
-It is cut upon the face of a granite block about three feet square, and
-is interesting because of the Chinese-like queue which hangs from the
-figure’s head. At Mitla the grecques and arabesques which cover the
-façades of the several edifices are not sculptured, except in cases
-where large stones serve as lintels over doorways. On them the running
-borders are sculptured in low-relief, while the remainder of the
-profuse ornamentation is of the nature of mosaic work, being built into
-the wall.
-
-Several minor objects of sculpture found in the States of Oajaca and
-Vera Cruz might be cited, but their interest for the reader would be
-too insignificant to justify a description.[576] One of the principal
-objects of this class and much superior to any of the others is a
-grotesque fountain cut in the living rock at Tusapan. The statue is
-that of a woman in a kneeling posture, and measures nineteen feet in
-height. The waters of a neighboring spring formerly ran into a basin
-formed among the plumes of the female’s head-dress, from which it found
-its way through the entire length of the figure, and flowed forth from
-beneath her skirts.[577] At Panuco the traditional point of the arrival
-of the Nahuas, several rude limestone statues were found, some of which
-have been figured in the _Journal of the London Geographical Society_,
-by Mr. Vetch, one of which is copied by Mr. Bancroft.[578] The marked
-features of these statues is the elaborateness of the style of
-head-dress worn. We cannot see that they are far removed in their style
-from similar statues dug from mounds in the Mississippi Valley. In the
-State of Puebla, at various points, especially at Tepexe el Viejo, at
-Tepeaca, and at Quanhquelchula, minor sculptures of animals, birds,
-reptiles, monsters, etc., were observed by Dupaix.[579] Rattlesnakes
-were found plentiful both in sculptures and in a state of nature.
-At Cuernavaca, in the State of Mexico, numerous boulder-sculptures,
-finely executed in low-relief, exist. Dupaix has figured and Bancroft
-copied one in particular, showing a beautiful coat-of-arms, sculptured
-on the smooth face of a huge boulder. A circle of arrows and Maltese
-cross which compose them, are all symbolical of power.[580] Similar
-coats-of-arms were observed in the State of Puebla. Probably the most
-remarkable sculpture found in the country occupied by the Nahuas, is
-that upon the walls of the pyramid of Xochicalco, illustrated on a
-preceding page.[581] Most of the sculptures are of colossal dragons’
-heads, which occur at each of the corners. Human figures, seated
-cross-legged and holding something like the Assyrian sun symbol in the
-left are found on the frieze, though some observers have considered
-this figure to be that of a curved cross-hilted sword, a weapon never
-employed by the Nahuas. The elaborate head-dresses and strings of
-enormous pearls worn by the seated figures bear a striking resemblance
-to the stuccoes of Palenque. At Xochimilco on the western shore of
-Lake Chalco, Dupaix found several interesting specimens of ancient
-sculpture.[582] The most celebrated article of Aztec sculpture,
-unquestionably, is the calendar-stone, which, together with the
-so-called sacrificial stone and the idol Teoyaomiqui, was in December,
-1790, dug up in the Plaza Mayor, in the city of Mexico, on the
-supposed site of the great teocalli, destroyed by the conquerors. The
-calendar-stone, now built into the wall of the cathedral, where it can
-be seen by all passers-by, is a rectangular block of porphyry, thirteen
-feet one inch square and three feet three inches thick, and of the
-enormous estimated weight of twenty-four tons. The sculptured portion
-of the block, on the exposed face, is contained in a circle, eleven
-feet one inch and four-fifths of an inch in diameter. The regularity
-and geometrical precision with which the figures are executed called
-forth enthusiastic admiration from Humboldt, and has been the source
-of equal wonderment to many later observers. Our cut is a reproduction
-of Charnay’s photograph, by means of the photo-engraving process, and
-may be relied upon as absolutely correct. Prescott considers that the
-original weight of the block before it was mutilated must have been
-nearly fifty tons; and as no similar stone is found within a radius
-of twenty-five miles of Mexico, that it must have been brought from
-the mountains beyond Lake Chalco.[583] Some remarks upon the Aztec
-calendar will be found in the following chapter. The sacrificial stone
-is a cylindrical block of porphyry, nine feet ten inches in diameter
-and three feet seven inches thick, and is now lying in the courtyard
-of the University of Mexico. If the reader will imagine the border
-of the calendar-stone outside of the eight triangular points removed
-entirely, will substitute a concave basin in the place of the central
-face or sun, also instead of all the calendar signs intervening between
-the face and the circle, upon which the base of the four principal
-triangular figures rest, will imagine the existence of several
-concentric circles not unlike strings of beads, he will have a general
-idea of the top of the stone. We should not omit to state that a groove
-or channel leads from the central basin to the outer circumference. The
-use of the stone is a matter of controversy, Humboldt considering it
-the gladiatorial stone, Gama a calendar-stone, and Tylor that it was
-an altar on which animals were sacrificed. Fifteen groups of two human
-figures, each dressed in the insignia of royalty, are sculptured around
-its circumference. Bancroft, as well as several others, give cuts of
-the stone and sculptures. The horrid monster Teoyaomiqui—goddess of
-death—is sculptured in high-relief on a block of porphyry ten feet
-high and six feet wide and thick. Probably no mythology nor all the
-mythologies of the world besides could produce so hideous and unsightly
-a combination of reptile, human and infernal forms, as make up the
-three sides of this idol.[584] Mr. Bancroft first figured the beautiful
-earthen burial vase dug up in the Plaza Tlatelulco and sketched by Col.
-Mayer. It is twenty-two inches high and fifteen and a half inches in
-diameter; a closely fitting lid most chastely sculptured covered it, as
-will be seen in the accompanying cut.
-
-[Illustration: Aztec Calendar Stone in its Present Condition.]
-
-[Illustration: Burial Urn from Mexico.]
-
-Among the elegant sculptures upon one of its sides is a comely face
-surmounted by a crown, from each side of which project wings of
-the same character as were employed to symbolize the sun among the
-Assyrians.[585] The original is pronounced one of the finest relics
-preserved in the Mexican Museum. M. Waldeck has figured many beautiful
-examples of Mexican ceramic art preserved in the above collection as
-well as in others. The finest specimens of ancient terra-cotta work of
-which we have any knowledge are shown in the cut, photographically
-reduced from Waldeck’s plate.[586]
-
-[Illustration: Vases from Waldeck.]
-
-No description can convey any idea of their beauty. The upper left-hand
-vase, it will be observed, is supported on three feet, each perforated
-by a perfect Maltese Cross. The central lower vase, of remarkable
-symmetry, is distinguished by the perfect _crux ansata_ which adorns
-its side. The lower right and left hand figures are different views of
-a swinging lamp. These vases cannot but command the admiration of all
-who see them. M. Waldeck has delineated with remarkable artistic skill
-three specimens of Mexican mosaic work now in the Christy collection in
-London. One of these beautiful relics is shown in the cut, reduced from
-Waldeck’s colored plate for Mr. Bancroft’s work.
-
-[Illustration: Mosaic Knife—Christy Collection.]
-
-However, the cut conveys but a faint idea of its beauty, especially
-of the handle. The blade is of semi-translucent chalcedony from the
-volcanic regions of Mexico, while the handle is a most artistic mosaic
-of bright green turquoise, malachite, and white and red shells. The
-blade is of a light straw-colored tint, and is mortised in the handle,
-which is wrapped nearest to the blade with what appears to be a golden
-braid. Mr. Bancroft remarks “it is certainly most extraordinary to
-find a people still in the stone age, as is proved by the blade, able
-to execute so perfect a piece of work as the handle exhibits.”[587]
-Among the few relics recovered at Tula, the ancient Toltec capital
-Tollan, the column shown in the cut (from Mr. Bancroft’s work) is very
-interesting, both for its sculpture and for the exhibition it affords
-of the manner in which the Toltecs formed their columns, namely, by
-fastening the sections together by means of circular tenons. The
-largest block measures four feet long by two and a half in diameter.
-
-[Illustration: A Column from Tula.]
-
-Our National Museum at Washington contains numerous fine specimens of
-Mexican terra-cotta ware, some of which have been figured recently
-in Dr. Charles Rau’s “Archæological Collection of the U. S. National
-Museum.”[588] Two large vases in particular demand attention. These
-were brought to the United States by General Alfred Gibbs at the close
-of the Mexican war, and are shown in the cut.
-
-The upper vase, which is thirteen and a half inches high, is very
-elaborately wrought, being surrounded with ten female figures in
-relief, each alternate figure bearing a child on the left arm. It is
-noticeable that the head-dresses of the figures holding the children
-are more elaborate than those of the remaining figures. The second or
-lower vase, Dr. Rau considers equal to many Etruscan or Greek vases
-in gracefulness of outline. “The vessel may be compared to a pitcher
-with two handles, standing opposite each other, and with two mouths
-projecting between them.” Among the terra-cotta images of Mexican
-origin in the National Museum the two shown in the cut are of interest.
-The left-hand figure is that of a woman pressing her hands upon her
-ears. The face represents an aged individual. The Museum possesses
-almost an exact duplicate of this image. The right-hand figure is
-much smaller and is hollow, enclosing a clay ball, and was probably
-used as a rattle. It is scarcely necessary for us to remark that the
-seeming analogies between the Maya (Central American) sculpture and
-that of Egypt have often been noted. Juarros, in speaking of Palenque
-art, says: “The hieroglyphics, symbols and emblems which have been
-discovered in the temples, bear so strong a resemblance to those of
-the Egyptians, as to encourage the supposition that a colony of that
-nation may have founded the city of Palenque or Culhuacan.”[589]
-Giordan found, as he thought, the most striking analogies between the
-Central American remains, as well as those of Mexico, and those of
-the Egyptians. The idols and monuments he considers of the same form
-in both countries, while the hieroglyphics of Palenque do not differ
-from those of ancient Thebes.[590] Señor Melgar, in a communication
-to the Mexican Geographical Society, has called attention to the
-frequent occurrence of the (Τ) _tau_ at Palenque, and has more
-studiously advocated the early relationship of the Palenqueans to
-Egypt than any other reliable writer.[591] He cites Dupaix’s _Third
-Expedition_, page 77 and plates 26 and 27, where in the first figure
-is a goddess with a necklace supporting a _tau_ like medallion to
-which the explorer adds the remark that such is “the symbol in Egypt
-of reproduction or abundance.” In the second plate he finds an altar
-dedicated expressly to the _tau_. He considers that the cultus of this,
-the symbol of the active principle in nature, prevailed in Mexico in
-many places. Señor Melgar also refers to two idols found south of the
-city of Mexico, “in one of which two symbols were united, namely, the
-Cosmogonic egg, symbolical of creation, and two faces, symbols of the
-generative principle. The other symbolized creation in the bursting
-forth of an egg. These symbols are not found in the Aztec mythology,
-but belong to the Indian, Egyptian, Greek, Persian, Japanese and other
-cosmogonies.” This, the Señor considers proof that these peoples were
-the primitive colonists of that region, and seeks to sustain his views
-by references to the Dharma Sastra of Manou and the Zend Avesta. The
-reader has no doubt been surprised at the frequent occurrence of the
-[Τ]-shaped niches in the Palenque palace, and has observed the same
-symbol employed on some of the hieroglyphics of the Tablet of the
-Cross. The Egyptian tau, one of the members of the _Crux ansata_, is
-certainly present at Palenque, but whether it was derived from any one
-of the Mediterranean peoples who employed it, cannot be ascertained.
-Among the Egyptians it signified “life,” as is shown by the best
-Egyptologists.[592] The tau was usually surmounted by a roundlet,
-though such was not always the case. On a stele from Korasabad, an
-eagle-headed man is depicted as holding the oval in one hand and the
-cross in the other.[593] M. Mariette recently, while exploring the
-ancient temple of Denderah, discovered the sacred symbol in a niche of
-the holy of holies. It is probable that this emblem was the central
-object of interest in these inner precincts of the temple, as it was
-preserved with scrupulous care as the hidden wisdom.[594] Macrobius
-tells us that the _crux ansata_ was the hieroglyphic sign of Osiris
-or the Sun,[595] but other writers inform us that it was an ancient
-symbol of majesty and divinity, and so employed in a modified form in
-the hands of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.[596] The associations of the
-tau in Central America are such as to lead us to believe that it may
-have had a significance analogous to that which it possessed on the
-shores of the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Ganges. The Palenque
-Cross tablet is a most singular work of American antiquity, and though
-Mr. Stephens attempted to prove that no analogy exists between it and
-Egyptian sculptures, still Mr. Bancroft has shown that the former was
-unfortunate in his selection of Egyptian specimens for the purpose of
-comparison, since marked analogies between the sculpture of the Vocal
-Memnon of Thebes and the top of the fallen obelisk at Carnac and the
-Palenque Tablets exist.[597]
-
-[Illustration: Mexican Vases in the National Museum.]
-
-[Illustration: Statuettes in the National Museum.]
-
-It has been argued that the Egyptian and Palenque sculpture resemble
-each other in that both are generally in profile; but the trivialness
-of the reasoning will be at once apparent. On the contrary, Mr.
-Bancroft remarks, “Sculpture in Egypt is for the most part in intaglio,
-in America it is usually in relief.” Notwithstanding the oft-repeated
-assertion that a resemblance between Egyptian and Maya hieroglyphics
-exist, no one of the Egyptologists so successful in their chosen field
-have been able to decipher the Maya writing. It is not improbable
-that the Palenque and Copan civilization received its first impulse
-from some of the peoples of the southern or eastern shores of the
-Mediterranean, but from which it would be impossible to say even if we
-were certain that such was the case. Whatever of a foreign character
-it may have had at first has been mostly lost in the independent
-development of new and original characteristics, the natural outgrowth
-of new wants and new conditions, arising through the lapse of many
-centuries. The latter remark we think may be applied with even more
-certainty to the Nahua civilization as displayed in its sculpture. All
-through Mexico the favorite subject for the Toltec or Aztec sculptor
-was the serpent, generally the rattlesnake. Mr. Bancroft in his fourth
-volume has given numerous examples of this fact. Serpent sculpture
-was also common among the Mayas, but to a less extent, and it is not
-improbable that the symbol entered into their art through the Quichés—a
-mixed people composed of Mayas and Nahuas. We have already observed the
-same disposition to sculpture the rattlesnake among the Mound-builders.
-In the great serpent upwards of a thousand feet in length on Brush
-Creek, Adams County, Ohio, we find a striking analogy to the tendency
-of Mexican art. Furthermore, the great serpent grasps in its jaws
-(if they may be so called) an immense oval figure of precisely the
-shape of an egg, and “the combined figure is regarded as a symbolical
-illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the serpent and the
-egg.” We have seen in the remarks of Señor Melgar that two examples of
-the egg possessing precisely the same significance which is attached to
-it in Eastern Asia were found near the City of Mexico. The part which
-the serpent symbol plays in the south and east Asiatic sculpture and
-mythology is probably well known to the reader; and if not, a perusal
-of Maurace’s _Indian Antiquities_ or Moor’s _Hindu Pantheon_ will
-satisfy him that it occupied a place equally important among Nahuas and
-Hindoos. The great serpent in Ohio may be a connecting link between
-the art of both Mexicans and Asiatics. In the course of independent
-development which the Nahuas underwent during thousands of years, the
-cosmological symbol of the egg may have been lost and supplanted by
-that of the serpent alone, the emblem of the life principle in both
-America and Asia. However, we may safely close these speculations
-with the conclusion that though the Mayas and Nahuas were probably
-descendants of foreign stock, their civilization, so far as we are able
-to judge from their arts, was indigenous—developed upon our soil, and
-offering but few analogies to any other.
-
-_Hieroglyphics._—No well authenticated Mound-builder hieroglyphics
-have as yet come to light. The Grave Creek Mound tablet we believe is
-now shown unquestionably to be an archæological fraud. The Cincinnati
-tablet figured in our first chapter seems to bear some symbolic signs
-upon its face, but no resemblance can be traced between them and any
-other known hieroglyphic signs. The Davenport tablet if genuine is
-of great interest in that it abounds in hieroglyphics, some of which
-are not unlike some of the signs employed by the Aztecs; besides, the
-element of picture-writing so common to that people plays a prominent
-part on both sides of that mysterious stone. Col. Charles Whittlesey,
-in the second chapter of his _Report to the Centennial Commission of
-Ohio_ (already cited), has figured and described rock sculpture near
-Barnesville, Newark, Independence, Amherst and Wellsville, most of
-which are of the lowest grade of savage art, and we think can only be
-attributed to the red Indian.
-
-Mr. W. H. Holmes has furnished specimens of picture-writing of a
-rude character found engraven in the rocks of the cañon of the Rio
-Mancos and San Juan, but there is no evidence that they are or are not
-the work of the Cliff-dwellers whose works abound upon neighboring
-rocks.[598] We have already called attention to the tablets of
-hieroglyphics at Palenque, Copan and in Yucatan, a specimen of which is
-shown in a cut on page 390. The accompanying cut, employed by Stevens,
-Baldwin and Bancroft, show the thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics
-engraven upon the top of a Copan altar.
-
-In addition to these stone and stucco records, the Mayas had books,
-which Bishop Landa describes as written on a large leaf doubled in
-folds and enclosed between two boards which they ornamented; they
-wrote on both sides of the paper, in columns accommodated to the
-folds; the paper they made from the roots of trees, and coated it
-with a white varnish on which one could write well. These books were
-called _Analtees_, a word which, according to Villagutierre, signifies
-the same as history.[599] Bishop Landa confesses to having burned
-a great number of the Maya books because they contained nothing in
-which were not superstitions and falsities of the devil.[600] Bancroft
-has quoted from Peter Martyr a description of these books, which
-conveys the additional information that they were written on many
-leaves joined together but folded so that when opened two pages are
-presented to view.[601] Three of the Maya manuscripts are known to
-have escaped the vandalism of the early Fathers. These are, first, the
-Mexican MS. No. 2 of the Imperial Library at Paris, called by Rosny
-the _Codex Peresianus_, which has been photographed by order of the
-French government, but we believe is still unedited. The second, the
-_Dresden Codex_, in the Royal Library at Dresden, a complete copy of
-which was published by Lord Kingsborough. It is a Maya, and not an
-Aztec MS., as is proven by its marked resemblance to the tablets of
-Palenque and Copan, a fact pointed out by Mr. Stephens, though at
-the date of his exploration everything was pronounced Aztec.[602] The
-third, the _Manuscript Troano_, found by Brasseur de Bourbourg at
-Madrid in 1865 in the possession of Señor Tro y Ortolano, from whom
-it derives its name, is a Maya MS. of unknown origin and history. The
-French government and the Commission Scientifique du Mexique reproduced
-it in fac-simile by means of chromo-lithography, and Brasseur, with
-the expenditure of great labor, attempted to translate part of it,
-which he has published; but in a subsequent work he confesses that
-he began his reading at the wrong end of the manuscript, which, as
-Mr. Bancroft humorously remarks, was a “trifling error perhaps in the
-opinion of the enthusiastic Abbé, but a somewhat serious one as it
-appears to scientific men.”[603] Mr. Bancroft has reproduced a page
-of the MS. Troano in his work, and accompanied it with a condensed
-account from the Abbé’s description as follows: “The original is
-written on a strip of maguey paper about fourteen feet long and nine
-inches wide, the surface of which is covered with a whitish varnish,
-on which the figures are painted in black, red, blue and brown. It is
-folded fan-like in thirty-five folds, presenting when shut much the
-appearance of a modern large octavo volume. The hieroglyphics cover
-both sides of the paper, and the writing is consequently divided into
-seventy pages, each about five by nine inches, having been apparently
-executed after the paper was folded, so that the folding does not
-interfere with the written matter. * * * The regular lines of written
-characters are uniformly in black, while the pictorial portions, of
-what may perhaps be considered representative signs, are in red and
-brown, chiefly the former, and the blue appears for the most part as
-a background in some of the pages.”[604] Notwithstanding the bigoted
-spirit exhibited by Bishop Landa in his destruction of the native Maya
-books in the presence of their sorrowful and helpless owners, he did
-one act of service for the antiquarian, which will ever entitle him to
-the gratitude of every student of ancient American civilization. That
-act was the record which he made of the Maya hieroglyphic alphabet. The
-Bishop has left us scarcely two and a half octavo pages (of his work as
-edited by Brasseur de Bourbourg) upon this important subject, yet it is
-the only known key to the mysteries of Palenque, Copan and the numerous
-inscriptions found in Yucatan. His explanation of the manner in which
-letters are combined into words is not clear, and though Mr. Bancroft
-has translated it literally and introduced parenthetic explanations,
-still the sense is not very apparent. Brasseur de Bourbourg in his
-French translation has not succeeded much better, and complains of
-Landa’s style as being untranslatable. One important fact, however,
-is deducible from the Bishop’s remarks and example, namely, that the
-Maya letters were formed into words in much the same order as in the
-English and other languages which read from the left to the right.[605]
-Landa’s alphabet is given in the accompanying cut which is an exact
-photographic reproduction of the original.
-
-[Illustration: Hieroglyphics on the Copan Altar.]
-
-Landa adds nothing after this table except the remark: “Of the letters
-which here fail, this language is wanting and has others added of
-ours, for other things of which they have need, and already they do
-not use these characters of theirs, especially the young people who
-have learned ours.”[606] Landa has left us other hieroglyphic signs,
-relating to the Maya months and days, which will be given in the
-next chapter. Many of the hieroglyphics in his alphabet are plainly
-recognizable in the three Maya MSS. which we have named, though it is
-quite certain that other signs, which are wanting in his list, are
-found not only in the MSS. but also among the inscriptions of the
-several localities we have already described. Besides the attempts
-made by Brasseur de Bourbourg to decipher the Maya writing, three
-Américanistes in particular have bestowed labor upon the subject. These
-are Mr. Wm. Bollaert,[607] M. Hyacinthe de Charencey,[608] and M. Leon
-de Rosny,[609] the latter of whom is the honorable president of the
-Société Américaine de France.
-
-[Illustration: Landa’s Alphabet.]
-
-By means of Landa’s key, Mr. Bollaert obtained encouraging results
-from hieroglyphics figured in Stephens’ works. In that author’s
-_Yucatan_, vol. ii, page 292, is seen a sculptured figure with
-hieroglyphics represented on the upper part of the door called Akatzeeb
-at Chichen-Itza. This tablet is examined by Mr. Bollaert with the
-following result: “The figure (male) is nude; the cap is like those on
-the figures at Kabab, and has an ornament round the neck; the large
-crucible-form before him contains fire, in which some small animal is
-being burnt or sacrificed. Comparing the hieroglyphs on either side
-of the figure with the Maya key, I get the following words: _Ahau_,
-‘king’; _oc_, ‘leg’; _Muluc_, ‘to unite’; _ik_, ‘courage’; _cib_,
-‘copal’; _eznab_, ‘magician’; _no_, ‘frog’; which may mean that the
-magician has in the crucible a frog to be sacrificed, in which copal
-as incense is used. The two lines of hieroglyphs give something like
-the following: Kings must die—they have courage, and after death are
-united to those who went before them. The king is with his fathers;
-the chief and his family burn copal and mourn for his death.”[610]
-On the tablet of the cross at Palenque, Mr. Bollaert found in squares
-_eznab_, “magician”; _dz_, “a hand”; the “aspiration sign” ⋃; and a
-part of _zip_, “tree.” Among the hieroglyphs he traced _ahau_, “king”;
-_zip_, “tree”; _akbal_, “a plant”; _pax_, “a musical instrument.” Mr.
-Bollaert has attempted to read several other inscriptions with no more
-satisfactory results.[611] One or two of the same scholar’s attempts
-with the _Dresden Codex_ yield the following: _We come to thy presence
-to implore. The young female implores before the deity, she weeps
-but has courage._ In a group representing a king and a young female,
-he reads: _She has made a vow about the king to the magician, the
-king is happy._ Again: _The sacred bird chel is sacrificed, there is
-weeping; the bride weeps for the bird, she makes a vow or prays for
-the king, she offers a tortoise, a great feast is given._[612] M. de
-Charencey translates the hieroglyph found just above the child which
-is being offered to the bird on the tablet of the cross at Palenque,
-by the word _Hunabku_, “the only holy one.” He also finds the name of
-_Kukulcan_ and _eznab_, “magician,” the name of a month.[613] M. de
-Rosny in his able essay on the decipherment of the hieratic writings
-of Central America has undertaken the solution of this interesting and
-perplexing problem in a scientific manner, and we have the fullest
-confidence that his system constructed on Landa’s key will open to
-us the books and inscriptions of the Mayas. But two of the four
-parts which constitute the work have been published, still we think
-sufficient data has been placed at the hands of scholars by M. de Rosny
-to justify the opinion that if the remainder of his essay should never
-appear, the work of interpreting some of the Maya writings might be
-carried on with reasonable certainty. Landa’s key contains seventy-one
-signs (twenty for the days, eighteen for the months, and thirty-three
-in the alphabet.) M. de Rosny, by a careful examination of all the
-hieratic texts of the Mayas which are known, has discovered more than
-seven hundred different signs. Of this number he has deciphered and
-classified four hundred and thirty-nine as follows: Alphabetic signs,
-including Landa’s (of which all the others are but varieties), two
-hundred and sixty-two; signs of the days, one hundred and fifty-nine;
-and the eighteen signs of the months given by Landa. All these signs
-are classified in a double folio plate (Pl. XIII) which we believe
-deserves to be regarded as the larger portion of the much-sought-for
-Maya Rosetta stone. Considerable difference of opinion has existed as
-to the direction in which the hieroglyphics should be read. Brasseur
-held the view that the proper order was from right to left, and that
-the beginning of a book was where our books end. This mistake brought
-down the ridicule of scholars upon the Abbé’s head, when it was
-discovered that he had begun at the wrong end to translate the _Troano
-MS._ Mr. Bollaert says, “I have read from the bottom upwards and from
-right to left.”[614] Dr. Brinton[615] has suggested some such order as
-the following arrangement of the word _marvellous_:
-
-                               o  ll  m
-                               u   e  a
-                               s   v  r
-
-M. de Rosny has shown that the statement of Landa and the fact that the
-human faces shown in the hieroglyphs look toward the left, indicate
-that the signs should be read from left to right.[616] In rare cases
-this order is reversed, as is seen on a couple of leaves of the _Codex
-Peresianus_. There are, no doubt, numerous instances in which the
-signs are arranged in perpendicular columns, and the order in which
-such columns are to be read is not the same in all manuscripts. In the
-Maya inscriptions and manuscripts, the “illustrations” or pictorial
-figures are interwoven with the alphabetic signs forming an important
-part of the writing. In many cases a page of MS. (as shown in Rosny’s
-plates) is divided into sections or squares, in which the hieroglyphics
-are inseparably connected with grotesque figures which accompany
-them and form a part of the writing. M. de Rosny has undertaken the
-classification and interpretation of all these figures which are found
-in the existing Maya MSS. This doubtless will prove an important
-auxiliary to the table of signs already alluded to. We may reasonably
-expect that since M. de Rosny has shown the extensive character of the
-Maya phonetic and symbolic alphabet, he will furnish us examples of its
-application in the practical interpretation of the hieroglyphics, in
-the latter part of his work. Recently Dr. Ph. Valentini has pronounced
-the Landa alphabet a Spanish fabrication, of later date than the
-conquest. See _Proceedings of Amer. Antiquarian Soc._ for April, 1880.
-
-We do not deem it necessary to assure the reader that while the Aztec
-picture-writing was not as far advanced in the scale of graphic
-development as the system employed by the Mayas, still it was an
-accurate means of communication and of recording events. The “scribes”
-of the Mexicans were an educated class of men, who with strictest
-accuracy painted in hieroglyphic symbols the record of national,
-historic and traditional affairs, as well as the tribute rolls, the
-calendar with its feast days, the stated services of the gods, the
-genealogical tables of noble and royal personages, and even the
-customs of the humble classes. No doubt many educated persons who did
-not belong to the priestly and lettered class, were acquainted with
-the system employed, and many others understood it sufficiently to
-recognize calendar and feast signs. The Aztec books were painted mostly
-on cotton cloth, prepared skins and maguey paper, and when not rolled
-were folded fan-like and bound with thin wooden covers, like the Maya
-books. The priests who accompanied the conquerors and immediately
-followed them, mistook the pictured figures painted in these books to
-be representations of heathen deities, and consequently inaugurated a
-system of wholesale destruction of all the picture-writing. Las Casas
-informs us that they were actuated by the fear that in matters of
-religion the existence of these books would be injurious. The infamous
-crime committed against the cause of knowledge and the irreparable
-injury done to the natives, their successors, and to students of
-history for all time, by the destruction of those valuable MSS., must
-ever remain an unerasable blot upon the name of the early church in
-Mexico, and must be ranked with the worst deeds of Goths and Vandals.
-Juan de Zumárraga, the chief of these sacrilegious destroyers who
-committed the annals of the Mexican States publicly to the flames
-in his tour of the principal cities of the country, will ever be
-remembered with proper contempt. Fortunately, many of the MSS. were
-hidden by their owners and have since come to light; the greater
-number of these, however, were tribute rolls, which, down to the last
-century, played an important part in the Mexican courts of justice.
-Prescott informs us that “until late in the last century, there was
-a professor in the University of Mexico especially devoted to the
-study of the national picture-writing. But as this was with a view to
-legal proceedings, his information probably was limited to deciphering
-titles.” In the course of time the priests became acquainted with the
-harmless nature of the hieroglyphics, through their use by the natives
-in their making confessions and in recording the Lord’s prayer. Many
-documents written since the conquest were provided by their authors
-with a Spanish translation or with an explanation in Aztec written
-with Spanish letters. Many of these are in existence, and with a few
-authentic documents, written previous to the conquest, are preserved
-in public and private libraries of Europe and this country, the finest
-collection of which is that of the National Museum of the University
-of Mexico. The reader is no doubt already familiar with the splendid
-fac-similes of several Mexican MSS. published in Lord Kingsborough’s
-work. Mr. Bancroft has concisely narrated the events and vicissitudes
-which have attended the transmission of some of these documents through
-the hands of successive owners to their present depositories.[617]
-Several writers on hieroglyphic systems, and the above author among
-them, have classified the progressive steps of picture-writing into
-_representative_, _symbolic_, and _phonetic_. Of these, the first
-is by far the simplest, and has invariably preceded the others in
-the development of the graphic art. It was natural for the savage to
-represent an object by a picture, in which that object was surrounded
-with certain conditions; at first the entire object was pictured, but
-subsequently only a portion of the object, as in the case of a bird,
-the head or foot or wing in the more advanced stages of art, would be
-substituted for the object itself. In symbolic picture-writing, we find
-an attempt at representing abstract ideas and actions. Some quality
-or attribute of a person is portrayed by means of the representative
-process, by symbols which would naturally seem to suggest the
-distinguishing characteristic of the person or occasion. A certain
-Aztec festival might be symbolized by the conventional calendar sign,
-an altar, a flint knife held by a human hand, and a smoking human
-heart. Phonetic picture-writing is, of course, dependent upon the
-sounds of the language for which it is designed. Its province is to
-represent those sounds by pictures of objects in whose names the sounds
-occur. Words, syllables and elementary sounds which are represented by
-alphabets, are thus gradually evolved in the progression which follows.
-Mr. Bancroft, by a most ingenious example, has illustrated this
-principle as applied to our own language. “According to this system,”
-he says, “the [left hand pointing up] signifies successively the word
-‘hand,’ the syllable ‘hand’ in handsome, the sound ‘ha’ in happy, the
-aspiration ‘h’ in head, and finally, by simplifying its form or writing
-it rapidly, the [left hand pointing up] becomes [left hand pointing
-up outline] and then the ‘h’ of the alphabet.”[618] The Aztecs never
-reached the last stage of phonetic development, namely, the alphabet.
-They, however, employed the system in the syllabic formation of words
-to a very considerable extent. The priests soon found the natives
-applying their art of writing to the record of the standard expressions
-employed in teaching the new faith. Amen was expressed by the sign
-of water, _atl_ associated with a maguey plant, _metl_ which united
-gave the word _atl-metl_, or after the ever present Aztec termination
-_tl_ is stricken off, we have _a-me_, an approximation to our word
-Amen. Mr. Bancroft gives also the following example of the manner in
-which the name Teocaltitlan was expressed by this syllabic-phonetic
-writing: “It is written in one of the manuscripts of the Boturini
-collection by a pictured pair of lips, _tentli_, for the syllable _te_;
-footsteps, symbolic of a road, _otli_ for _o_; a house, _calli_ for
-_cal_; and teeth, _tlantli_ for _tlanti_, being a common connective
-syllable.” We think the reader will find a clearer illustration in the
-word Chapultepec, which literally means “hill of the grasshopper.”
-By reference to the Aztec migration map which has been published by
-several authors[619] (the most correct copy accessible to the general
-reader is that by Bancroft).[620] A hill surmounted by a grasshopper
-will be observed among the figures. The same representation in
-different form will be seen in Boturini’s picture-map of the migration.
-Chapultepec is well known as the royal hill, a short distance west of
-the city of Mexico, celebrated as the country residence of Montezuma.
-Numerous similar examples might be selected from the migration maps
-of this combination of the three methods employed. Proper names were
-always expressed in a similar manner. An example of the representative
-and symbolic stages of the picture-writing of the Aztecs has been
-given by Mr. Bancroft from the _Codex Mendoza_ in Kingsborough.[621]
-We here reproduce the plate used in the _Native Races_. It describes
-four steps or periods in the education of children; each period is
-supposed to refer to a particular year. In the upper left-hand group
-we see a father (fig. 3) punishing his son by holding him over the
-fumes of burning chile (fig. 5); in the right-hand group the mother
-threatens her daughter with similar punishment. In the second group
-(figs. 12–13), a father punishes his son by exposing him bound hand
-and foot on the damp ground. A bad boy twelve years of age, according
-to Aztec custom was always punished in this way, and his punishment
-lasted during an entire day. A disobedient girl of the same age was
-obliged to rise in the night and sweep the whole house, as is shown
-in the right-hand group, or, as no tear is seen in her eye, she may
-be learning. At the age of eight years children were only shown the
-instrument of punishment; at ten they were pricked with maguey thorns,
-or if still unruly, were whipped. The above groups show the methods
-employed during the eleventh and twelfth years, after which age a child
-was supposed to be pretty well disciplined. In the third group a father
-directs his boys (fig. 21) how to transport wood, both upon the back
-and in the canoe, while the mother teaches the daughter (fig. 23) to
-make tortillas and use the mealing stone and other utensils (figs. 25,
-26, 28); the tortillas are also represented (fig. 27). In the fourth
-group the son learns the use of the fish-net and the daughter that of
-the loom. The allowance of tortillas apportioned to the children at the
-ages represented are shown in figs. 2, 8, 11, 16, 20, 24, 30 and 34.
-The remaining figures are not representative, but symbolic. The small
-circles (figs. 1, 10, 19, 29) are numerals indicating that the child
-was successively eleven, twelve, thirteen and fourteen years of age. A
-circle or dot was always used for a unit. The comma-like figure issuing
-from the mouth of the parent is the symbol of speech. The tears in the
-children’s eyes need no explanation. The singular figure (17) above
-the girl in the second group is said to be symbolical of night, and to
-indicate that the sweeping was required in the night.
-
-[Illustration: Education of Children according to the Codex Mendoza.]
-
-For most interesting specimens of Aztec picture-writing as well as
-their supposed explanation, we refer the reader to the Gemelli Carreri
-and Boturini Migration maps in the Atlas of Garcia y Cubas, or in the
-second volume of Mr. Bancroft’s work, which are the only places where
-they are to be found correctly reproduced. Mr. Delafield sought to
-find an analogy between the Aztec and Egyptian hieroglyphic systems
-on no other ground than that both were representative, symbolic and
-phonetic, a most wonderful discovery indeed.[622] Notwithstanding this
-fact, and many similar efforts, no marked analogy between the Aztec
-picture-writing and the hieroglyphic systems of any other peoples has
-yet been pointed out.[623]
-
-                   •       •       •       •       •
-
-  MAP OF YUCATAN.—We have found it impossible in this chapter to
-  convey any adequate idea of the number and extent of the ruins
-  scattered over Central America and Mexico. Only by reference to
-  an accurately prepared map, having distinctness and detail, can a
-  proper understanding of this interesting field be reached. Maps of
-  Northern and Central Mexico alone, meeting the requirements, have
-  for some time been accessible, but a reliable map of Yucatan and
-  of neighboring States has long been a desideratum. This great want
-  has recently been supplied by the publication in New York of a rare
-  specimen of cartography, bearing the title, _Mapa de la Peninsula
-  de Yucatan, compilado por Joaquin Hübbe y Andres Azuar Perez y
-  revisado y aumentado con datos importantes por C. Hermann Berendt_,
-  1878—size, 28 × 36 inches. Stephens, in his work on _Yucatan_,
-  indicated the sites of many remains discovered by him; but Señor
-  Perez has for the first time brought before us a view of the whole
-  field, including Yucatan and Campeachy, together with the greater
-  part of Tabasco and Belize, and portions of Guatemala and Chiapas,
-  showing, by means of appropriate symbols, the great number of known
-  ruins. The map has met with merited approval from the American
-  Antiquarian Society, and has been reproduced in _Dr. A. Petermann’s
-  Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes Geographische Anstalt, Gotha, Band
-  25_, No. VI, 1879.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IX
-
-         CHRONOLOGY, CALENDAR SYSTEMS AND RELIGIOUS ANALOGIES.
-
-  No Mound-builder Chronology known — Maya Calendar — Landa on
-      the Calendar — Maya Days — Maya Months — The Katun — The
-      Ahau Katun or Great Cycle — The Maya System Adjusted to our
-      Chronology — The Adjustment by Perez — Intercalary Days — The
-      Nahua Calendar — The Sources — Divisions of Mexican Calendar
-      — The Aztec Year — The Nemontemi — Aztec Months — Aztec Days
-      — Nahua Ritual Calendar — Mexican Calendar Stone — Sources
-      of Interpretation — History of the Stone — Interpretation of
-      the Stone — Date of the Origin of the Calendar Stone — Date
-      of the Nahua Migration — Analogies with the Nahua Calendar —
-      Religious Analogies — Jewish Analogies — Deluge Traditions —
-      Supposed Parallels in Jewish and Mexican History — Analogies of
-      Doctrine — Analogies of Ceremonial Law — Yucatanic Trinity Myth
-      — Mexican and Asiatic Analogies — Buddhism in the New World —
-      Scandinavian Analogies — Mexican and Greek Analogies — Brasseur
-      de Bourbourg’s Comparisons.
-
-
-_Chronology and Calendar Systems._—No tablet or relic of Mound-builder
-origin has yet been discovered, which can be said to give any clue to
-the system of chronology employed by that people. Several supposed
-calendar stones have been found, such, for instance, as the Cincinnati
-Tablet referred to in Chapter I, and the Tablet from Mississippi in
-the possession of Wm. Marshall Anderson, Esq., of Circleville, Ohio.
-However, their character is only a matter of conjecture, since no
-progress whatever has been made toward evolving any system from them.
-Farther south, on the soil where a higher civilization flourished, we
-meet with two calendar systems, which, while they have several points
-of resemblance, are quite distinct from each other.
-
-The first of these, the Maya, is probably the most ancient. Bishop
-Landa is our chief authority in this field, though Don Juan Pio Perez,
-a more recent writer, also familiar with the Maya language, has
-furnished us some material.[624] Bishop Landa informs us that the Mayas
-had a year of 365 days and 6 hours divided into months (a month being
-called a _U_) in two ways, first into months of thirty days each, and
-second, into eighteen months of twenty days each. As the Bishop makes
-no explanation of the former statement, we are unable to determine
-whether the months of thirty days each were employed in Yucatan prior
-to the conquest, or not, but we are rather inclined to the opinion that
-they were not.
-
-[Illustration: The Maya Days.]
-
-The month of twenty days was called the _Uinal-Hun-ekeh_, and might
-commence on any of the days represented by the hieroglyphics in the
-left-hand column of the table of days. These months were eighteen in
-number, thus making a year of 360 days. The Mayas, however, corrected
-the error by adding five intercalary days and six hours to the 360
-days; and once every four years, Landa informs us, they counted 366
-days a year. The five supplementary days were considered unlucky, and
-were known as the “nameless days” because they were never called by
-any particular designation. The accompanying cut is a photographic
-reproduction of Landa’s plate, and shows accurately the Maya days in
-their proper order.[625] (Page 436.)
-
-[Illustration: The Maya Months.]
-
-Though the intercalary days were “nameless” and characterized as
-the “bed or chamber of the year,” “the mother of the year,” “bed of
-creation,” “travail of the year,” “lying days,” or “bad days,” etc.,
-still five of the above twenty were reckoned for them in regular order.
-
-The year began on a day corresponding to our 16th of July—“a date,” as
-Mr. Bancroft observes, “which varies only forty-four hours from the
-time when the sun passes the zenith—an approximation as accurate as
-could be expected from observation made without instruments.”[626]
-
-The Maya months as figured in Landa’s work are shown in the
-accompanying photo-engraving. (Page 437.)
-
-The translation of the names of the days and months is somewhat
-uncertain. The following equivalents are the same as those given by
-Señor Perez, except in a few instances where Brasseur and Rosny have
-made corrections.
-
-                       TRANSLATION OF THE DAYS.
-
-   1. _Kan_, “string of twisted hemp” (yellow).
-   2. _Chicchan_, signification unknown.
-   3. _Cimi_, preterit of _cimil_, to kill = “dead.”
-   4. _Manik_, “wind that passes” (??)
-   5. _Lamat_, signification unknown.
-   6. _Muluc_, “reunion” (??)
-   7. _Oc_, “that which may be held in the palm of the hand.”
-   8. _Chuen_, “board” (??)
-   9. _Eb_, “ladder.”
-  10. _Ben_, “to distribute with economy” (??)
-  11. _Ix_, “fish-skin” (Rosny), “witch, witchcraft” (Brasseur),
-          “roughness” (Perez).
-  12. _Men_, “builder.”
-  13. _Cib_, “gum copal.”
-  14. _Caban_, “heaped up” (Brasseur).
-  15. _Ezanab_, “flint” (Brasseur).
-  16. _Cauac_, signification unknown.
-  17. _Ahau_, “king, or period of twenty-four years.”
-  18. _Ymix_, signification unknown. “Corn” (??)
-  19. _Ik_, “wind,” “spirit,” according to Rosny, one of the symbols of
-          Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl.
-  20. _Akbal_, “approach of night” (Brasseur).
-
-                      TRANSLATION OF THE MONTHS.
-
-   1. _Pop_, “mat of cane.”
-   2. _Uo_, “frog.”
-   3. _Zip_, “a tree” (Perez), “fault, error” (Brasseur).
-   4. _Tzoz_, “a bat.”
-   5. _Tzec_, signification unknown.
-   6. _Xul_, “end or conclusion.”
-   7. _Yaxkin_, signification unknown. “Summer” (??)
-   8. _Mol_, “to re-unite, to recover.”
-   9. _Chen_, “a well.”
-  10. _Yax_, “first,” or _Yaax_, “blue.”
-  11. _Zac_, “white.”
-  12. _Ceh_, “a deer.”
-  13. _Mac_, “a lid or cover.”
-  14. _Kankin_, “yellow sun,” “because in this month of April the
-          atmosphere is charged with smoke,” owing to the work of
-          clearing the soil.
-  15. _Muan_, “cloudy weather” (Brasseur).
-  16. _Pax_, “musical instrument.”
-  17. _Kayab_, “singing.”
-  18. _Cumhu_, “thunder-clap,” “detonation.”[627]
-
-Though these translations may seem uninteresting by themselves, they
-are of great value when taken in connection with Landa’s alphabet and
-M. de Rosny’s interpretations. They must ever be important factors in
-attempts to translate the inscriptions and codices.
-
-Another division of time among the Mayas of a complicated character
-was the Katun or Cycle of 52 years. The Katun was composed of four
-periods (indictions or weeks) of 13 years each, enumerated by a system
-of reckoning kept simultaneously with the current reckoning of days,
-months and years. The mode of computing the Katunes was, according
-to Landa and Perez, briefly as follows:[628] The year was divided
-into twenty-eight periods of thirteen days each. These periods for
-convenience have been called weeks, and the number of days of which
-each is composed may have been suggested by the number of days embraced
-in the moon’s _increase_, and _decrease_, twenty-six days constituting
-about the actual time in which the moon is seen above the horizon
-during each lunation.[629] The weeks were divided off by counting
-thirteen days from the beginning of the list of days shown on page
-436, Kan constituting the first day of the first week and according to
-usage applying its name to the weeks. The week was consequently called
-by the name of the day on which it began. Caban being the fourteenth
-day of the current month, became the first day of another week; but
-as not enough days remain to complete it, the enumeration is begun
-again and continued down to Muluc, the sixth day of the next month.
-Oc, the seventh day, then becomes the starting point for another week,
-which assumes its name, and thus the computation is carried on _ad
-infinitum_. A numeral preceded each day designating its position in
-the week. The people of Yucatan painted a small circle in which they
-placed the four hieroglyphics of the initial days which constitute
-the left-hand column of signs given on page 436. Kan was placed in
-the east, Muluc in the north, Ix in the west and Cauac in the south.
-These signs were termed the “carriers of the years” because no month or
-year could begin on any of the twenty days, but on one of these. Since
-twenty days constitute a current month, it is apparent that every month
-in a given year must begin with the same day. However, the introduction
-of the five intercalary days at the end of the year, changed the
-initial day on which the months of the different years began. In
-reckoning the Katun it is further observed that the numeral which
-indicates the day of the week (of thirteen days) which falls upon the
-first of a given month, varies. Supposing the month to begin on Kan and
-the numeral of the first day to be 1, the numerals indicative of the
-days of the week (composed of thirteen days) falling on Kan throughout
-the eighteen months, would be, 8, 9, 3, 10, 4, 11, 5, 12, 6, 13, 7, 1,
-8, 2, 9, 3.
-
-The Katun year consisted, as we have seen, of twenty-eight weeks of
-thirteen days each, and _one additional day_, making in all 365 days.
-If the year commenced with number one of the week, the additional day
-(the 365th) caused it to end on the same number. The ensuing year would
-then begin with number two, and so on through the thirteen numbers of
-the week, as follows: 1. Kan, 2. Muluc, 3. Ix, 4. Cauac, 5. Kan, 6.
-Muluc, 7. Ix, 8. Cauac, 9. Kan, 10. Muluc, 11. Ix, 12. Cauac, 13. Kan,
-thus completing an indiction or week of years. The same combination
-of names and numerals can only occur after the lapse of the Katun or
-cycle comprising four of these indictions or fifty-two years. Not only
-the years of the week, but also the indictions themselves were named
-by the four initial symbols. The first indiction of each Katun being
-named Kan, the second Muluc, the third Ix, and the fourth Cauac. The
-completion of a Katun or fifty-two years was celebrated with feasts
-and rejoicings as an event of great moment. A monument was reared as a
-memorial of the event. It is not impossible that the great number of
-pillars, observed by Stephens at Chichen-Itza were of this character,
-serving as landmarks to Maya chronology.[630]
-
-A third division of time employed by the Mayas was the great cycle of
-312 years, composed, according to Señor Perez,[631] of thirteen periods
-of time, each embracing twenty-four years. Each of these thirteen
-periods was called an Ahau Katun, and was divided into two parts.
-The first part, embracing twenty years, was enclosed in a square and
-called _Amaytum lamayte_, or _lamaytum_; and the other part of four
-years, which formed as it were a pedestal for the first, was called
-_Chek oc Katun_, or _lath oc Katun_, meaning “stool” or “pedestal.” He
-affirms that the latter were intercalated, therefore believed to be
-unfortunate as were the five supplementary days of the year. This may
-account for their not being reckoned with the Ahau Katun by any other
-writer. Just here lies the discrepancy which has created most of the
-confusion in the investigation of this subject. However, if we accept
-the statement of Señor Perez, that the Ahau Katun embraced twenty-four
-years instead of the testimony of every other writer that it included
-but twenty years, we shall have moderately fair sailing until we split
-upon the rock of his inaccuracies as to dates. He tells us that these
-periods took their name from Ahau, the second of those years that began
-in Cauac, and from the order of the numerals accompanying those days
-would succeed each other according to the numbers 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3,
-1, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2. The Indians established the number 13 Ahau as
-the first, because some great event happened in that year. If the 13
-Ahau Katun began on a second day of the year, it must have been the
-year which began on 12 Cauac, and the 12th of the indiction. The next
-or the 11 Ahau would commence in the year 10 Cauac, which combination
-in its rotation would happen after a lapse of twenty-four years. The
-third or 9 Ahau would begin in 8 Cauac twenty-four years later, in
-illustration of which we follow out the rotation of the four names of
-the years, Kan, Muluc, Ix and Cauac, through the indictions of thirteen
-years each, until we have noted the numerals accompanying them during
-twenty-four years. Our starting point will be the commencement of the
-second Ahau Katun on the second day of 10 Cauac.
-
-  +-----------+---------------+--------------+
-  | _Year of  |               |  _Year of    |
-  |  13 Year  |_Name of Year._|  Period of   |
-  |Indiction._|               |  24 Years._  |
-  +-----------+---------------+--------------+
-  |    10     | Cauac         |       1      |
-  |    11     | Kan           |       2      |
-  |    12     | Muluc         |       3      |
-  |    13     | Ix            |       4      |
-  |     1     | Cauac         |       5      |
-  |     2     | Kan           |       6      |
-  |     3     | Muluc         |       7      |
-  |     4     | Ix            |       8      |
-  |     5     | Cauac         |       9      |
-  |     6     | Kan           |      10      |
-  |     7     | Muluc         |      11      |
-  |     8     | Ix            |      12      |
-  |     9     | Cauac         |      13      |
-  |    10     | Kan           |      14      |
-  |    11     | Muluc         |      15      |
-  |    12     | Ix            |      16      |
-  |    13     | Cauac         |      17      |
-  |     1     | Kan           |      18      |
-  |     2     | Muluc         |      19      |
-  |     3     | Ix            |      20      |
-  |     4     | Cauac         |      21      |
-  |     5     | Kan           |      22      |
-  |     6     | Muluc         |      23      |
-  |     7     | Ix            |      24      |
-  |     8     | Cauac         | 1st of a new |
-  |           |               |   period.    |
-  +-----------+---------------+--------------+
-
-As above stated the new Ahau Katun begins in the year 8 Cauac, and as
-it invariably began on the second day of the year, that day would be
-9 Ahau, as Ahau is the next letter in the alphabet after Cauac. An
-extension of the table will show that the next period will begin in 6
-Cauac on 7 Ahau, and so on in the order of the numerals given above.
-Thirteen Ahau Katunes, as previously stated, constituted a great cycle
-of three hundred and twelve years. Sr. Perez states that according to
-all sources of information, confirmed by the testimony of Don Cosme
-de Burgos, one of the conquerors and a writer (but whose observations
-have been lost), the year 1392 A. D. corresponded to the Maya year 7
-Cauac, and as the second day of that year was the beginning of an era
-of twenty-four years, it must have been 8 Ahau Katun. By dividing off
-the time between that date and the beginning of the present century
-into periods of twenty-four years each, and extending a table of the
-rotation of the four names of the years, the reader will observe
-that 13 Ahau will fall in the year 1800; 11 Ahau in 1824; 9 Ahau in
-1848; 7 Ahau in 1872, and 5 Ahau in 1896, three hundred and twelve
-years intervening before this, and any similar combination of Ahau
-Katunes either have occurred or can be repeated. This would be highly
-satisfactory if Sr. Perez could be relied upon in this particular,
-which is doubtful. We are sorry to say that he is certainly chargeable
-with inaccuracies, which impair the value of his whole system. Most
-conspicuous of these is one pointed out by Mr. Bancroft, to which we
-refer the reader below. Señor Perez sets about the verification of his
-system by citing the death of a notable personage named Ahpula. He
-states that Ahpula died in the sixth year of 13 Ahau, when the first
-day of the year was 4 Kan, on the day 9 Imix, the eighteenth of the
-month Zip. It is seen that 13 Ahau is the second day of the year 12
-Cauac which falls in the year 1488, also that the year 1493 is the
-sixth from the beginning of 13 Ahau, and that its first day is 4 Kan,
-which is the title of the year. The day is the eighteenth of the month
-Zip, corresponding to the eleventh of September. The statement is also
-made that this date fell on 9 Imix. This is tested as follows: The
-first month of that year commenced on 4 Kan, which combination names
-the year. The number (of the week of thirteen days) is found by adding
-seven to the number of the first day of each month successively. The
-number of the first day of the first month, Pop, in this case being 4,
-the number of the first day of the second month (Uo) would be 4 + 7
-= 11, and that of the first day of the third month (Zip) would be 11
-+ 7 = 18, but as the week consists of but thirteen days, that number
-must be substracted, leaving 5 Kan as the first day of Zip. If Zip
-begins on the twenty-fifth of August, the day 9 Imix will be found
-to correspond both with the eighteenth of Zip and the eleventh of
-September, if the Katun week of thirteen days is counted off regularly,
-beginning with 5 Kan. Sr. Perez is correct enough in his calculations,
-but unfortunately his system of twenty-four years to the Ahau Katun
-or his informant as to the correspondence of the Ahau Katunes with
-our chronology (no doubt the latter) is incorrect, since the Maya
-manuscript furnished and translated by Perez and published in the works
-of Stephens and Landa, states explicitly that Ahpula died in A. D.
-1536, instead of 1493 (incorrectly printed 1403 in Bancroft’s work),
-a date which is irreconcilable with the system of twenty-four years
-to the Ahau, reckoned from 1392 as a starting point. Neither will the
-statement of Landa that the year 1541 corresponded with the beginning
-of 11 Ahau relieve the difficulty, but rather increases it, since it
-will neither harmonize with the date of Ahpula’s death given in the
-MS. nor with the system by Perez. Furthermore, while Landa gives the
-same succession of numerals for the recurrence of the Ahaus, he states
-that they embraced but twenty years each, thus making it impossible
-for the combinations of names and numerals to correspond to the order
-which he lays down for their succession. Landa is no doubt incorrect
-in his statement. Sr. Perez is at least consistent in his adaptation
-of the length of the Ahau Katun to the order of numerals given by
-Landa and others. Recently, M. Delaporte, a member of the Société
-Américaine de France, has, by a series of extended calculations,
-vindicated the correctness of the statement of Sr. Perez, that the
-Ahau Katun embraced twenty-four years. M. de Rosny agrees with M.
-Delaporte in his conclusions. The fault of Perez, probably, lies in
-his adaptation of the Ahaus to our chronology, and in carelessness.
-Amidst these discrepancies it is impossible to fix accurately the
-dates of the Maya history, though they can be approximated.[632] Señor
-Perez cites Boturini as stating that the day introduced every four
-years to compensate for the annual loss of six hours, was observed by
-counting the symbol for the three hundred and sixty-fifth day twice,
-as the Romans did with their bissextile days, thus leaving the order
-undisturbed.[633]
-
-_The Nahua Calendar_ system closely resembles that of the Mayas, a fact
-which adds to the abundant proof that both civilizations had grown up
-under nearly the same influences, and that they had largely affected
-each other. If the trifling differences of a few writers concerning
-some of the details of the Aztec calendar be overlooked, and the best
-authorities (together with a little exercise of judgment) be followed,
-the system becomes comparatively simple. Sahagun, Leon y Gama,
-Humboldt, Veytia, Galatin, McCulloch, Müller, Bancroft, Chavero, and
-Prof. Valentini, are the authorities to whom we refer the reader.[634]
-
-_The Mexican Calendar_ contains divisions as follows: The age, called
-_huehuetiliztli_, embraced two cycles of fifty-two years each, thus
-equalizing one hundred and four years. The cycle of fifty-two years was
-named _xiuhmolpilli_, _xiuhmolpia_, and _xiuhtlalpilli_, signifying the
-“binding up of the years” and consisted of four periods of thirteen
-years each. These periods or indictions were called “knots,” while the
-single years were called _xihuitl_ or “new grass,” because anciently,
-before the invention of the calendar, the Nahuas were only able to
-distinguish the revolution of the years by the annual appearance of
-fresh vegetation and new grass. The age was but little used, the
-cycle being the common measure for long periods. The years in a given
-cycle were designated as among the Mayas, by means of the consecutive
-rotation of four signs, each accompanied with a numeral. The signs were
-_tochtli_, “rabbit”; _acatl_, “cane”; _tecpatl_, “flint,” and _calli_,
-“house.” The following table illustrates the rotation occurring in one
-cycle:
-
-  -------------------------------+-------------------------------+
-           1ST TLALPILLI.        |         2D TLALPILLI.         |
-  ------------------+------------+------------------+------------+
-                    | _Names of  |                  | _Names of  |
-      _Names of     |   Years    |    _Names of     |   Years    |
-       Years._      |Translated._|     Years._      |Translated._|
-  ------------------+------------+------------------+------------+
-   Ce Tochtli       | 1. Rabbit. | Ce Acatl         | 1. Cane.   |
-   Ome Acatl        | 2. Cane.   | Ome Tecpatl      | 2. Flint.  |
-   Yey Tecpatl      | 3. Flint.  | Yey Calli        | 3. House.  |
-   Nahui Calli      | 4. House.  | Nahui Tochtli    | 4. Rabbit. |
-   Macuilli}        | 5. Rabbit. | Macuilli}        | 5. Cane.   |
-    Tochtli}        |            |  Acatl  }        |            |
-   Chicoace}        | 6. Cane.   | Chicoace}        | 6. Flint.  |
-    Acatl  }        |            |  Tecpatl}        |            |
-   Chicome }        | 7. Flint.  | Chicome }        | 7. House.  |
-    Tecpatl}        |            |  Calli  }        |            |
-   Chico y Calli    | 8. House.  | Chico y Tochtli  | 8. Rabbit. |
-   Chico Nahui}     | 9. Rabbit. | Chico Nahui}     | 9. Cane.   |
-    Tochtli   }     |            |  Acatl     }     |            |
-   Matlactli}       |10. Cane.   | Matlactli}       |10. Flint.  |
-    Acatl   }       |            |  Tecpatl }       |            |
-   Matlactli    }   |11. Flint.  | Matlactli occe } |11. House.  |
-    occe Tecpatl}   |            |  Calli         } |            |
-   Matlactli    }   |12. House.  | Matlactli omome} |12. Rabbit. |
-    omome Calli }   |            |  Tochtli       } |            |
-   Matlactli    }   |13. Rabbit. | Matlactli omey } |13. Cane.   |
-    omey Tochtli}   |            |  Acatl         } |            |
-  ------------------+------------+------------------+------------+
-
-  -------------------------------+-------------------------------
-           3D TLALPILLI.         |        4TH TLALPILLI.
-  ------------------+------------+------------------+------------
-                    | _Names of  |                  | _Names of
-      _Names of     |   Years    |    _Names of     |   Years
-       Years._      |Translated._|     Years._      |Translated._
-  ------------------+------------+------------------+------------
-   Ce Tecpatl       | 1. Flint.  | Ce Calli         | 1. House.
-   Ome Calli        | 2. House.  | Ome Tochtli      | 2. Rabbit
-   Yey Tochtli      | 3. Rabbit. | Yey Acatl        | 3. Cane.
-   Nahui Acatl      | 4. Cane.   | Nahui Tecpatl    | 4. Flint.
-   Macuilli}        | 5. Flint.  | Macuilli}        | 5. House.
-    Tecpatl}        |            |  Calli  }        |
-   Chicoace}        | 6. House   | Chicoace}        | 6. Rabbit.
-    Calli  }        |            |  Tochtli}        |
-   Chicome }        | 7. Rabbit. | Chicome }        | 7. Cane.
-    Tochtli}        |            |  Acatl  }        |
-   Chico y Acatl    | 8. Cane.   | Chico y Tecpatl  | 8. Flint.
-   Chico Nahui}     | 9. Flint.  | Chico Nahui}     | 9. House.
-    Tecpatl   }     |            |  Calli     }     |
-   Matlactli}       |10. House.  | Matlactli}       |10. Rabbit.
-    Calli   }       |            |  Tochtli }       |
-   Matlactli occe}  |11. Rabbit. | Matlactli     }  |11. Cane.
-    Tochtli      }  |            |  occe Acatl   }  |
-   Matlactli omome} |12. Cane.   | Matlactli     }  |12. Flint.
-    Acatl         } |            |  omome Tecpatl}  |
-   Matlactli omey } |13. Flint.  | Matlactli     }  |13. House.
-    Tecpatl       } |            |  omey Calli   }  |
-   -----------------+------------+------------------+----------
-
-As in the Maya rotation of years no confusion could occur, so with the
-Mexican, as the same combination could be made only once in fifty-two
-years. The cycles themselves were distinguished by numbers. Confusion
-is liable to arise in studying the early writers, since the Toltecs and
-Aztecs began their reckoning on different signs, the former on Tecpatl,
-and the latter on Tochtli. The year consisted of eighteen months of
-twenty days each, to which were added five days called _nemontemi_ or
-“unlucky days.” Every superstition seemed to centre in the _nemontemi_,
-for no business of importance nor enterprise of the most insignificant
-character would be undertaken upon these days. Both the names of the
-months and the particular month which served to begin the year, as well
-as the date of the first day of the year, have been fruitful subjects
-of controversy between authors. Mr. Bancroft has tabulated the names
-given by twenty-one writers, and shown the disagreements existing
-between them.[635] The dates for the first day of the year range
-between the ninth of January and the tenth of April. Gama, Humboldt and
-Gallatin, by careful calculations, have shown that the first year of a
-Nahua cycle commenced on the thirty-first day of December, old style,
-or on the ninth day of January, new style, with the month Titill and
-the day Cipactli.[636]
-
-The names and order of the months, together with their etymologies,
-as adopted by Mr. Bancroft, are as follows: 1. Titill, meaning “our
-mother,” according to Boturini, or “fire,” according to Cabrera; 2.
-Itzcalli, translated “regeneration” by Boturini, “skill” by the Codex
-Vaticanus, and the “sprouting of the grass” by Veytia; 3. Atlcahualco,
-meaning the “abating of the waters.” Another name (Quahuillehua)
-applied to this month signified “burning of the mountains,” referring
-to the forests; 4. Tlacaxipehualiztli, is translated “the flaying of
-the people.” Another name applied to this month, Cohuailhuitl, means
-the “feast of the snake”; 5. Tozoztontli is rendered “small fast”
-or “penance”; 6. Hueytozoztli, means “great fast” or “penance”; 7.
-Toxcatl, a “necklace”; 8. Etzalqualiztli, “bean stew” or “maize gruel”;
-9. Tecuilhuitzintli, “small feast of the Lord”; 10. Hueytecuilhuitl,
-“great feast of the Lord”; 11. Miccailhuitzintli, translated “small
-feast of the dead”; 12. Hueymiccailhuitl, “great feast of the
-dead”; 13. Ochpaniztli, “cleaning of the streets”; 14. Teotleco,
-“arrival of the gods.” The names Pachtli, “moss hanging from trees,”
-and Pachtontli, “humiliation,” were often applied to this month;
-15. Hueypachtli, “great feast of humiliation,” sometimes called
-Tepeilhuitl, “feast of the mountains”; 16. Quecholli, “peacock”; 17.
-Panquetzuliztli, “the raising of flags and banners”; 18. Atemoztli,
-means the “drying up of the waters.”
-
-The month, consisting of twenty days, was divided into four weeks
-of five days each. Mr. Bancroft states that each of the weeks began
-with one of the four signs—Tochtli, Calli, Tecpatl or Acatl, used
-to designate the years; but his own engraving of the Aztec month,
-and the order of the days on the Calendar-Stone, contradict this
-statement.[637] The following are the days in their proper order, with
-their translations affixed: 1. Cipactli, “sea-animal,” “sword-fish,”
-or “serpent with harpoons.” 2. Ehacatl, “wind.” 3. Calli, “house.” 4.
-Cuetzpalin, “lizard.” 5. Coatl, “snake.” 6. Miquiztli, “death.” 7.
-Mazatl, “deer.” 8. Tochtli, “rabbit.” 9. Atl, “water.” 10. Itzcuintli,
-“dog.” 11. Ozomatli, “monkey.” 12. Mollinalli, “brushwood” or “tangled
-grass.” 13. Acatl, “cane.” 14. Ocelotl, “tiger.” 15. Quanhtli, “eagle.”
-16. Cozcaquauhtli, “vulture.” 17. Ollin, “movement.” 18. Tecpatl,
-“flint.” 19. Quahuitl, “rain.” 20. Xochitl, “flower.”
-
-The day was divided into sixteen hours.[638] Sahagun and several
-authors state that the loss of six hours in each Aztec year was
-counterbalanced by the addition of a day every four years. Gama
-demonstrates this to be a mistake, and states that they added twelve
-and a half days at the close of every cycle of fifty-two years. Mr.
-Bancroft cites this fact, and states the time added to have been
-thirteen days.[639]
-
-The Nahuas had also a ritual calendar, for the purpose of reckoning
-their religious feasts, which was altogether different from the civil
-system, except that it employed the twenty days, the year of 365 days,
-and at the end of a cycle added the thirteen days to compensate for the
-time lost during that period.[640] The year consisted of two parts, the
-first composed of twenty weeks of thirteen days each (for there were no
-months in the ritual year) making 260 altogether. This portion of the
-year was called _Meztli pohualli_ or the “lunar computation,” from the
-fact that half of the time during which the moon is visible is thirteen
-days. The smaller part, composed of 105 days reckoned by a continuation
-of the periods of thirteen days, was called _Toualpohualli_ or “solar
-computation.”[641] The days were numbered from one up to thirteen, the
-fourteenth day of the first solar month being counted the first of
-another lunar week, and thus the reckoning continued. However, it will
-be observed that the same number would fall twice on one name in the
-course of a year; accordingly accompanying signs were provided for the
-regular names of days. The duplication could not occur if the second
-division embraced 104 days instead of 105.
-
-The distinguishing signs were nine in number, called _quecholli_,
-“lords of the night.” They were as follows: Tletl, “fire”; Tecpatl,
-“flint”; Xochitl, “flower”; Centeotl, “goddess of maize”; Miquiztli,
-“death”; Atl, “water”; Tlazolteotl, “goddess of love”; Tepeyollotli, “a
-mountain deity”; Quiahuitl, “rain,” the god Tlaloc. The lords of the
-night, though reckoned from the first of the year, were not mentioned
-except in connection with the 105 days of the second division.
-
-The reader will more clearly understand the relation of the two
-systems to each other by constructing a table of four parallel columns.
-In the left-hand column place the months of one year, numbering the
-days of each month in order, but beginning on the ninth day of January.
-In the second column place the names of the Mexican months, numbering
-the days of each month from one to twenty in regular order. In the
-third column place the _names_ of the Mexican days, twenty in number,
-repeating them in their regular rotation throughout the year, but
-in addition prefix to the names such numerals as will fall opposite
-to each in the process of dividing them off into thirteens. These
-divisions into thirteens represent the ritual weeks. Acatl being the
-13th day of the month will end the first week of the year, and Ocelotl
-being the 14th day of the month will constitute the 1st day of the
-second week. In the fourth column place the nine signs of the “lords
-of the night” in regular order. Divide the year into periods of nines,
-and it will be found that the same combination of days of the month
-(twenty days), of days of the week (thirteen days), and the “lords of
-the night,” will not recur for a considerable period.
-
-The most remarkable embodiment of this complex system is found in the
-symbols and concentric zones graven upon the face of the Calendar
-Stone, described in the last chapter. The interpretation of its
-mysterious disk was partly accomplished by the learned antiquarian
-Leon y Gama; Gallatin, and after him Bancroft presented those
-investigations to the public. In 1875 (Nov.), Don Alfredo Chevero, of
-the Liceo Hidalgo of Mexico, published his _Calendario Azteca_, in
-which it was shown that many of Gama’s interpretations would have to be
-abandoned. It was proven that the “Calendar Stone” was a sun-disk or
-stone of sacrifice, and that Gama had pursued his investigations with
-a mistaken view of its character. Chevero’s account of the history of
-the stone is full and satisfactory, Duran being the authority cited. An
-interpretation of some of the concentric zones, two in particular, is
-attempted with a result somewhat different from that obtained by any
-other investigator. Recently, Prof. Ph. Valentini, by the light of his
-extensive researches into Nahua literature, has compelled the sun-disk
-to give up its secrets. The illustration on the preceding page is a
-reproduction of a pen-and-ink drawing made by the Professor from the
-most recent and correct photograph which has been made of the Calendar
-Stone. It was kindly furnished for this work. The same conclusion
-concerning the character of the stone was reached independently by
-both Chevero and Valentini. The latter’s account of the stone and
-its history is drawn from Tezozomoc, and though agreeing in the main
-facts with Duran’s account as rendered by Chevero, bears the evidence
-upon its face of independent research.[642] The originality of Prof.
-Valentini is vindicated in his masterly interpretation of all the zones
-of the Calendar Stone. Whether the interpretation will ever give way to
-some other is a question of the future, though it is probable that it
-will not.
-
-[Illustration: The Mexican Calendar Stone.]
-
-We are indebted to Professor Valentini for a communication on the
-History of the Calendar Stone, condensed from his unpublished MS.
-_Description and Interpretation of the Mexican Calendar Stone_. An
-extract from the communication is as follows: “King Axayacatl of
-Mexico, 1466–1480, the builder of the large pyramid, at the approach of
-the last year of the national cycle (1479), ordered the altar standing
-on the platform of the pyramid to be covered with a stone disk, the
-surface of which was to be sculptured with the image of the Sun-god,
-and, as the text says, ‘to be surrounded by all the national deities’
-(see Alvaro de Tezozomoc, 1598, _Chronica Mexicana_, Ternaux-Compans,
-vol. i, chap. xlvii, pp. 249 _et seq._). A large slab, carried for the
-purpose from the quarries of Cuyoacan, when rolled over the bridge
-of Xoloc, crushed this structure, fell to the bottom of the lake and
-remained there. Another slab was broken and a new bridge built, and
-50,000 Indians succeeded in transporting the slab to the foot of the
-pyramid, where the sculptor accomplished his task to the satisfaction
-of the king. The cyclical festival of the sun (1479) was celebrated,
-and on the disk which now had been inserted into the surface of the
-sacrificial altar, thousands of captives were slaughtered. The king is
-said to have overworked himself, slaying one hundred of the victims,
-and feasting upon their flesh and blood—that very soon after he died
-in consequence of these exertions. In the year 1512, Montezuma II, for
-reasons unknown, expressed the wish to replace the altar cover, which
-his father had consecrated, by a new and still larger one. The people,
-horrified and out of patience with the bloody proceedings connected
-with these consecration festivals of sacrificial disks, contrived to
-let the slab, brought expressly for the purpose, fall into the lake
-again, pretending as an excuse, that the stone had spoken and said
-that it was to go back to the quarry. Montezuma, superstitious as
-he was, took the accident for a bad augury, desisted from his plan,
-and left the stone in its place. We may thus infer that it was _our_
-disk on which, in the year 1520, those Spaniards of Cortes’ troops
-which were made captives had been immolated, and the screams and
-cries of whom reached the ears of their comrades, and as Bernal Diaz
-narrates, ‘filled their hearts with the most awful forebodings.’
-Cortez demolished the pyramid, and with its débris filled the canals
-of the city. The disk was preserved, for we know from Duran, who
-wrote a _Historia de la N. España_, 1588, that he and many of his
-fellow-citizens had often been standing before this disk admiring it,
-until the Archbishop Montufar, scandalized by the existence of such a
-barbarous relic, caused it to be buried in the immediate neighborhood
-of the Metropolitan cathedral in the year 1551. This procedure was
-forgotten; so much so, that when this disk was disinterred in the year
-1790, even Gama the archæologist and its later interpreter, had not the
-remotest idea what purpose it could have served, for the manuscript
-chronicles of Duran and Tezozomoc still slumbered in the dust of the
-archives. The viceroy, Reviellagigedo, ordered the disk to be fitted
-into the outer wall of one of the towers of the cathedral. There it is
-to this day.”
-
-We now ask your attention to the stone itself. The central circle
-contains the face of the Sun-god bedecked with ornaments, earrings,
-and jeweled lip. In the next zone we observe four large parallelograms
-containing hieroglyphic signs: Nahui Ocelotl, Nahui Ehecatl, Nahui
-Quahuitl and Nahui Atl. Between the upper and lower enclosures on both
-sides of the central disk are circular figures containing hieroglyphics
-resembling claws, said to represent two ancient astrologers, man and
-wife, who, according to the early writers, invented the calendar.
-These four signs are identical with the days on which, according to
-the traditions, the world was destroyed at four different times.
-These destructions mark four ages represented by the signs of the day
-on which they occurred. These ages were also called suns. The first
-destruction occurred in Ce Acatl, and is represented by the sign
-Nahui Ocelotl, or 4 Tigre, seen in the upper right-hand tablet. The
-small figure above and towards the left is the sign for 1. Tecpatl, a
-feast-day kept by the Aztecs in memory of the first destruction. The
-second tablet bears the symbol for Ehecatl or Wind, in memory of the
-destruction of the world by hurricane, which occurred in the year Ce
-Tecpatl or Nahui (4) Ehecatl. Between the tablet and the triangular
-figure to the right is a sculpture in which a broken wall with
-towers appears. The sign 1. Calli is associated with it, indicating
-a ritualistic feast-day kept on that sign. The third tablet bears
-the symbol of the rain-god Tlaloc, in memory of the destruction of
-the world from frequent rains. The last tablet represents the fourth
-destruction by a flood on Nahui Atl in the year Ce Calli.
-
-The faces of Cox-Cox, the Mexican Noah, and his wife are delineated in
-the picture. The symbol for water is seen immediately below the faces.
-Between the two lower tablets, two small quadrilateral enclosures
-will be observed, each containing five round points, supposed to mean
-10 Ollin (the sun being called _ollin tonatiuh_). Below the lower
-tablets and almost in contact with the next concentric circle are the
-hieroglyphics 1. Quiahuitl and 2. Ozomatli. The first, namely 10 Ollin,
-corresponds with our twenty-second of September in the first year of
-a cycle, and its hieroglyphic on this astronomical disk represents
-the autumnal equinox. At the extreme top of the Calendar Stone is a
-central figure, well known to be the hieroglyphic for 13 Acatl. This
-fact known, the interpretation of the two remaining symbols is easy.
-In the year 13 Acatl, the day 1. Quiahuitl would correspond to our
-twenty-second of March, and represent the vernal equinox. In the same
-year 2. Ozomatli would correspond with our twenty-second of June, or
-summer solstice. Thus it is that the stone speaks and testifies to
-the astronomical knowledge of the Aztecs, the accuracy of which casts
-into the shade the imperfect Julian Calendar in use by Europeans at
-the time of the conquest. In the next zone, encircling that which
-contains the tablets of the cosmological ages, are twenty enclosures,
-containing the symbols of the twenty days. The triangular pointer
-which extends upwards from the crest of the sun-face indicates the
-dividing line between the first and last days of the month. Cipactli,
-whose hieroglyphic stands at the left of the pointer is unquestionably
-distinguished as the first day of the month. The second symbol to the
-left is that of the second day Ehecatl, wind, the third Calli, house,
-the fourth Cuetzpalin, lizard, the fifth snake, and so on to the end
-of the list. In the next zone we find a succession of small squares,
-each enclosing five round points. The circle is divided into four parts
-by four large triangular pointers or gnomons. In each division of the
-zone are ten squares containing five points each, or in the four,
-we have 200 points. Gama states that the space for sixty additional
-points is occupied by the feet or curves of the large indices. By
-experiment it is found that the mean of the space occupied by the
-feet of the pointers is equal to the width of one and a half of the
-square enclosures. Eight times this space gives us twelve squares with
-sixty points. Thus we have the ritualistic division or lunar reckoning
-(Metzli pohualli) of 260 days. In the next zone the symbols of the
-remaining 105 days or solar reckoning of the ritualistic year is found.
-Eight pointers divide the circle; the six upper divisions of which
-contain each ten figures resembling a grain of maize, while the two
-lower divisions have but five figures in each. This gives us seventy
-figures. Under each limb of the pointers is space for one and a half of
-the figures, giving twenty-four more or ninety-four in all. The space
-of ten additional figures is occupied by the helm-plumes of the heads
-which are figured at the lower margin of the stone. This gives us 104
-figures, or one less than the required number. It will be remembered
-that the five intercalary days called the nemontemi, or unlucky
-days, though reckoned in regular order at the close of each year,
-were considered separate and apart from it. The artist who executed
-the Calendar Stone has carried out this custom in placing the figures
-of the nemontemi between the tablets of the two last destructions of
-nature, where they will be found by themselves. It will be observed
-that four of the signs correspond to those wanting under the lower
-pointer and the adjacent plumes, with this further departure from the
-general plan of the design, that the central figure or maize grain
-corresponds to the space between the limbs of the great pointer below.
-Here, then, we have the missing symbol, and are able to find the 105
-hieroglyphics of days for the lesser division of the year. The two
-zones consequently represent the complete year of 365 days.
-
-The most conspicuous of the remaining zones is the outer, and last of
-all. The attention is asked to one of the twenty-four quadrangular
-figures composing it. The Mexican Codices in the Kingsborough
-collection furnish similar symbols for the cycle of 52 years.[643] The
-ancient Mexicans had a superstition that in the last night of the 52d
-year of their cycle the sun would destroy the world. Consequently, at
-every recurrence of the eventful night, all fires were extinguished,
-the people clothed themselves in mourning, and forming a long
-procession, repaired to a neighboring mountain, where at midnight a
-priest sacrificed a man in their presence. A second priest placed a
-round block of dry wood over the ghastly wound from which the heart
-had been torn; while a third, kneeling over the corpse, rested a hard
-shaft or stick upon the block, revolving it between his two hands
-with pressure until the friction produced fire. This was considered
-a promise from the god that the destruction of the world would be
-postponed until another cycle had elapsed.[644] A moment’s observation
-will disclose the fire symbol in the hieroglyphics for the cycle
-as delineated on the stone; the perpendicular shaft with handles,
-surrounded by flames and smoke, rising from a hole below. In the same
-zone, above, we have two groups of pleats or bow-like figures, which
-are clearly proven to be the symbol for the binding of two 52-year
-cycles into an age.[645]
-
-The zone immediately within the one we have been considering, contains
-the symbols of the rain-god Tlaloc. No writer has as yet given a
-satisfactory explanation of the plumed head at the bottom of the stone.
-It will be readily seen that the two serpent heads, plumed, and with
-extended jaws, armed above and below with great fangs, enclose two
-human faces. These are but the heads of the serpents whose bodies
-constitute the outer zone of the disk and terminate in the triangular
-points above.
-
-If the reader will but turn to our cut of the serpent temple at Uxmal
-(p. 394), the same symbol of Cukulcan or Quetzalcoatl, the feathered
-serpent, will be seen. Dr. Le Plongeon, in his recent researches, is
-convinced that Uxmal was built, or more properly rebuilt, by Nahua
-invaders, who afterwards became amalgamated with the Mayas.[646] Most
-of the Mexican historians represent Quetzalcoatl as the founder of
-the Nahua civilization. Torquemada states that he was their leader
-when they first arrived in Mexico.[647] If the “Feathered Serpent”
-was the founder of their institutions, it was not inappropriate for
-the Aztec artist to place the hero’s face at the bottom of the stone,
-and represent the symbols of the cycles as huge scales upon his body,
-since the influence of the civilization which he established had been
-felt throughout their entire history. To return to Prof. Valentini’s
-investigations, it will be observed that there are twenty-four of the
-cycle symbols, two of which are nearly hidden under the helm-plumes.
-The product of 24 and 52 gives us a period of 1248 years. But what have
-we to do with this result? The triangular-shaped figures which point to
-the central tablet cut at the top of the stone, indicate that we must
-make a calculation, and it remains for us to interpret that symbol. It
-is recognizable as the sign Acatl accompanied by the number thirteen; a
-year which, according to the authentic tables of reduction, corresponds
-to the year 1479 A. D.; a date which is confirmed as being the year in
-which the Calendar Stone was finished and set up in the great pyramid
-of Mexico by the statement of the native writer Tezozomoc, that its
-author, King Axayacatl, became ill from his exertions at the tragic
-celebrations of the completion of the temple and lived scarcely a year,
-at the same time fixing the date of his death in 1480. If we subtract
-1248 years from the known date 1479 A. D., we have the year 231 A. D.;
-a date which no doubt marks the beginning of the national era of the
-Nahuas, and probably designates the year of their arrival in Mexico
-by the ports of Tampico, Xicalanco and Bacalar. Thus it is that the
-uncertainty of the traditions relating to the obscure events of early
-Nahua history is removed, and we are enabled to settle upon the third
-century of our era as the period when the great migration took place.
-We will say more than Professor Valentini or his predecessor; we
-believe this to be the date of the migration from Hue hue Tlapalan, the
-country of the Mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, and we further
-think we are sustained in this view both by the early writers and by
-the condition of the mounds and shell-heaps of the United States. At
-first thought, it would seem that the year 231 might be the date in
-which the astrologers assembled in Hue hue Tlapalan for the correction
-of the calendar (a fact to which we have previously referred), but it
-is distinctly stated that the assembly convened in the year 1 Tecpatl;
-a date which, according to the received reduction tables, corresponds
-to the year 29 B. C.
-
-Humboldt by an elaborate discussion has satisfactorily shown the
-relative likeness of the Nahua Calendar to that of Asia. He cites the
-fact that the Chinese, Japanese, Calmouks, Mongols, Mantchoux and
-other hordes of Tartars have cycles of sixty years duration, divided
-into five brief periods of twelve years each. The method of citing
-a date by means of signs and numbers is quite similar with Asiatics
-and Mexicans.[648] He further shows satisfactorily that the majority
-of the names of the twenty days employed by the Aztecs are those of
-a zodiac used since the most remote antiquity among the peoples of
-Eastern Asia.[649] Cabrera thinks he finds analogies between the
-Mexican and Egyptian calendars. Adopting the view of several writers
-(Acosta, Clavigero and others) that the Mexican year began on the 26th
-of February, he finds the date to correspond to the beginning of the
-Egyptian year. He also observes that both peoples intercalated five
-days at the close of their year.[650] M. Jomard, quoted by Delafield,
-denies that the Egyptians intercalated, but believes sufficient
-analogies exist to prove a common origin for the Theban and Mexican
-calendars;[651] his argument, however, is worthless, as are many others
-of a similar character.
-
-_Religious Analogies._—In contrast with the obscure subject of the
-calendar requiring such close attention, we present to the reader
-a few of the analogies supposed to exist between Mexican and other
-religious systems. The majority of our references will be made more
-with a view to satisfying curiosity than for the establishment of
-a theory. Argument from analogy is at best unscientific—it proves
-nothing. It is a matter of surprise how much has been written to
-establish the theory that the Mexicans were descendants of the Jews
-both in race and religion. Mr. Bancroft has collected many of Lord
-Kingsborough’s arguments in proof of the theory to which he devoted
-his fortune and sacrificed his life. We have done a similar work with
-a somewhat different arrangement, and call the attention of the reader
-to some of the fanciful and we must add mirth-provoking analogies to
-which the great Americanist attached so much importance. “The Mexicans
-spoke of their god as the _invisible and incorporeal Unity_, and they
-furthermore believed man to be created in his image.”[652] He states
-further that the doctrine of the trinity was also held by them.[653] He
-considers that Eden and the temptation were portrayed by the American
-artists. “The Toltecs had paintings of a garden with a single tree
-standing in the midst, one especially drawn on coarse paper of the
-Aloe, round the root of which tree is entwined a serpent, whose head
-appearing above the foliage displays the features and countenance of a
-woman. * * * Torquemada admits the existence of this tradition amongst
-them, and agrees with the Indian historians who affirm this was the
-first woman in the world who had children, and from whom all mankind
-are descended.”[654]
-
-Lord Kingsborough is no doubt warranted in holding that the Nahuas
-were of old world origin at a very remote period prior to their having
-developed any special tribal characteristics, because of their singular
-and we think certain knowledge of the Mosaic deluge; but he is not
-justified in claiming for them any particular relationship to the
-Jewish or any Shemitic people.[655]
-
-In a preceding chapter we have given the deluge tradition from
-Ixtlilxochitl, who states that the waters rose _fifteen cubits_
-(caxtolmoletltli) above the highest mountains, and that a few escaped
-in a close chest (toptlipetlacali), and after men had multiplied, they
-erected a very high _zacuali_ or tower, in order to take refuge in it
-should the world be again destroyed. He further states that then their
-speech was confused, so that they could not understand each other, and
-that they dispersed to different parts of the earth.[656] Whether the
-native historian of Tezcuco who gives us this account, so remarkable
-for its similarity to the Mosaic, was influenced by Spanish priests
-and warped from the truth, we are not prepared to affirm at this
-distant day, since such an assumption would strike the very keystone
-from the arch upon which all historical evidence rests. Much of the
-aversion to the view that the Mexican deluge legends are authentic
-and of old world origin, has been generated by the unscientific and
-presumptuous style of most of its advocates. Lord Kingsborough himself
-is ever ready to catch at a straw, and out of customs the most remote
-to evolve an analogy. Nevertheless, we are not at liberty to reject
-the Mexican deluge legend as a fable without assuming the burden of
-proof.[657] Remarkable parallels (?) in the history of both Jews and
-Mexicans are thought to be discovered by the sanguine Kingsborough.
-Of a number, two or three specimens will suffice. Hue hue Tlapalan is
-claimed to have been situated on the Californian coast since the Gulf
-of California until a late period was called the _red river_ or _gulf_,
-a name they brought with them.[658] Again: “As the Israelites were
-conducted from Egypt by Moses and Aaron who were accompanied by their
-sister Miriam, so the Aztecs departed from Aztlan under the guidance
-of Huitziton and Tecpalzin, the former of whom is named by Acosta and
-Herrera, Mixi, attended likewise by their sister Quilaztli, or as she
-is otherwise named Chimalman or Malinatli, both of which names have
-some resemblance to Miriam as Mixi has to Moses.”[659] “The destruction
-of the rebellious Kohra (Gen. xvi) is repeated after the arrival of
-the Mexicans at Tulan, who, enchanted with the land, were unwilling
-to go further in search of their promised land. They murmured at
-Huitzilopochtli, and suffered a dreadful punishment at his hands that
-night by the death of every one who had rebelled against his will.”[660]
-
-Lord Kingsborough discovers in a Mexican painting in the Bodleian
-library, a symbol resembling the jaw-bone of an ass, from the side
-of which water flows forth. This, of course, commemorated the story
-of Sampson.[661] Among the conspicuous doctrines held by both Jews
-and Mexicans, we note that the latter believed their children to be
-the gift of Tezcatlipoca as the former ascribed them to the favor
-of Jehovah.[662] The doctrine of sin and atonement was held by
-the Mexicans. Confession and sacrifice of atonement were common,
-for “half the offerings represented in the Mexican paintings were
-trespass-offerings, or sacrifices for the commission of sins.”[663]
-“The Mexicans, like the Jews, were accustomed to do penance by sitting
-on the ground, in which posture their priests are often represented
-in the Mexican paintings.”[664] “The Mexicans were as punctilious
-about washings and ablutions as the Jews.”[665] Baptism was considered
-the means of regeneration in Yucatan,[666] and was practised by the
-Mexicans as a religious ceremony.[667] Both peoples had devils and the
-leprosy,[668] both considered women who died in child-bed as worthy
-of honor as soldiers who fall in battle.[669] The doctrine of hell,
-according to the most orthodox theology, was held by the Mexicans.[670]
-Both Jews and Mexicans believed in the resurrection of the body and the
-immortality of the soul.[671] The latter people sprinkled the face of
-a corpse with water as a baptism after death.[672] Numerous analogies
-are found to exist between the Mosaic and the religious code of the
-Mexicans, as in profanity, sabbath-keeping, disobedience to parents,
-the smiting of a servant to death, and in the punishment by stoning of
-persons guilty of fornication and adultery.[673] Kingsborough maintains
-that circumcision was performed on the eighth day, declaring it to
-have “prevailed thousands of leagues along the coast of the Atlantic,
-amongst nations very remote from each other, and who spoke very
-different languages.”[674] Both peoples had a mutual disgust for swine
-flesh, and refused to eat the blood of any animal.[675] The latter
-statement is altogether unwarranted in fact. The ceremonial of both
-peoples have many features in common. As the Jews killed the paschal
-lamb in the evening, so the Mexicans offered up their sacrifices at
-night.[676] The Jews in Mexico substituted llamas for sheep in their
-sacrifices.[677] Both Jews and Mexicans worshipped toward the east,
-or toward their chief temples, and both called the _south_ by the
-designation of “right-hand of the world.”[678] Both burned incense
-toward the four corners of the earth.[679] As David leaped and danced
-before the ark of the Lord, so did the Mexican monarchs before their
-idols.[680] Both peoples had an ark, and Duran states that in the ark
-of the Aztecs which figured so prominently in their migration, was
-the image of their invisible god.[681] Numerous analogies relating
-to astrology, omens, witchcraft, dreams, etc., are recorded.[682]
-References to prophecy are not wanting: Quetzalcoatl predicted the
-destruction of the temple of Cholula, furnishing a parallel to Christ’s
-prophecy of the destruction of the temple.[683] In the Mexican
-mythology, by means of an active imagination, he finds an allusion to
-the “stone which was carved without hands.”[684] A tiger represented
-in the Bologna MS. he supposes to be the lion of the tribe of Juda—the
-Jews of the New World having metamorphosed it into a tiger.[685]
-Kingsborough supposes that the crosses found in Mexico may have been
-carried there by Irish monks, “especially,” he adds, “as M. de Humboldt
-informs us that the first Spanish monks and missionaries gravely
-discussed the question of whether Quetzalcoatl was an Irishman.”[686]
-The fanaticism of the eminent Americanist, however, reaches its
-culmination in his supposed discovery of analogies to Christ in Mexican
-mythology. The story of the virgin, the annunciation, and the identity
-of Christ and Quetzalcoatl, are clearly discernible to his practised
-eye.[687] Christ stilled the tempest, and, like Quetzalcoatl, was god
-of the air.[688] In Yucatan, in the priestly fable of Bacab, he finds a
-complete and true account of the trinity.[689] It is hardly necessary
-for us to remark that these ingenious comparisons, tinged with a
-coloring of fanaticism and yet so full of interest, are useless to the
-cause of science and prove nothing. With the single exception of the
-remarkable tradition of the deluge and its literal correspondence in
-detail to the Mosaic account, we must dismiss the multitude of supposed
-analogies between Mexican and Hebrew traditions, customs and religion,
-which Kingsborough and others have discovered, as either imaginary or
-accidental.[690]
-
-The hypothesis that the Nahua religion may have received some of its
-characteristics from India is altogether plausible and not without
-support in resemblances. The cosmological conception of the egg and
-serpent is found, as previously stated, on Brush Creek, in Adams
-County, Ohio. It certainly comes to us from Asiatic India. Serpent
-worship, not only among the people of the mounds but especially of
-Mexico, is the most patent fact revealed to us in ancient American
-sculpture. “Humboldt thinks he sees in the snake cut in pieces, the
-famous serpent Kaliya or Kalinaga, conquered by Vishnu, when he took
-the form of Krishna, and in the Mexican Toua-tiuh, the Hindu Krushna,
-sung of in the Bhagavata-Purana.”[691] Count Stolberg and Tschudi have
-both made arguments in favor of this view.[692] Humboldt characterizes
-Quetzalcoatl as the Buddha of the Mexicans, the founder of the monastic
-establishments resembling those of Thibet and Western Asia.[693] He
-further considers the flood of which they speak, identical with that
-of which traditions are preserved by the Hindoos, the Chinese, and the
-Shemitic peoples.
-
-Advocates of Scandinavian analogies in religion are not wanting.
-Although Viollet-le-Duc finds parallels existing between the
-Brahmanistic ideas of divinity and passages of the _Popol Vuh_, still
-he is of the opinion that the strongest resemblances have been found
-to exist between the religious customs of the Scandinavians and those
-recorded in the _Popol Vuh_.[694] Humboldt remarks, “we have fixed the
-special attention of our readers upon this Votan or Wodan, an American
-who appears of the same family with the Wods or Odins of the Goths
-and of the peoples of Celtic origin. Since, according to the learned
-researches of Sir William Jones, Odin and Buddha are probably the same
-person, it is curious to see the names of _Bondvar_, _Wodansdag_ and
-_Votan_ designating in India, Scandinavia, and in Mexico, the day of a
-brief period.”[695]
-
-Lafitau, in his _Mœurs des Sauvages_, is as enthusiastic in his
-advocacy of the theory that the ancient Americans derived their
-religion from the Greeks, as Kingsborough is certain that it was of
-Jewish origin. He devotes his fourth chapter, and furnishes numerous
-illustrations, in support of his view.[696] Our limited space precludes
-the possibility of presenting in full the analogies discovered
-by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg between the Mexican deities and
-those of Greece and Egypt. If we hesitate sometimes in accepting his
-conclusions, we cannot but wonder at his erudition and his zeal in
-research. He calls attention to the fact that the cult of Pan and
-Hermes were identical in Greece, and refers to Maia, a personification
-of the earth, and the mother of the Hermes having been the consort
-of Zeus or Pan himself. So in Mexico he finds Pan in the person of
-_Cipactoual_, who, under the name of _Cuextecatl_, has for his consort
-_Maia_ or _Maiaoel_. This god was adored in all parts of Mexico and
-Central America, and at _Panuco_ or _Panco_, literally _Panopolis_, the
-Spaniards found upon their entrance into Mexico, superb temples and
-images of Pan.[697] The names of both Pan and Maia enter extensively
-into the Maya vocabulary, _Maia_ being the same as _Maya_, the
-principal name of the peninsula, and _pan_, making Mayapan, the ancient
-capital. In the Nahua language _pan_ or _pani_ signifies “equality to
-that which is above,” and _Pantecatl_ was the progenitor of all beings.
-The Abbé has little difficulty in proving the identity of Zamna,
-Hunab-ku and other Maya deities, with the gods of Greece.[698] In the
-name of the Egyptian god Horus, he finds the significance of hurricane,
-or in the dialects of the Antilles, _huracan_ or _urogan_, the god
-Hurakan of the Quichés. Also in the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol which
-Salvolini found equivalent to the phonetic K, namely, the singular
-reptile _Uraeus_, which resembles a serpent in an erect position
-with an enlarged body, and employed extensively as a decoration in
-hair of the Egyptian deities and the Pharaohs; he sees the emblem of
-Quetzalcoatl (Ketzalcohuatl) the feathered-serpent, called Gukumatz
-in Quiché, and Kukulcan in Maya. The same symbol is represented on
-the Egyptian monuments with a feather rising from the serpent’s
-crest.[699] It would be easy to pursue these ingenious comparisons
-through a number of pages, but we question their value in throwing any
-light on the subject in hand. The reader will find them scattered in
-profusion through the voluminous writings of the learned Abbé. It is
-sufficient to say that most of the seeming analogies between the new
-and old world religions cannot be other than accidental, since it is
-probable that the aborigines entered our continent at a very remote
-antiquity, long before the religions with which theirs have been so
-persistently compared, took on their distinctive features. If after
-they were separated from the rest of the world by seas and mountains,
-the Americans developed religious systems presenting analogies to
-those of other lands, it furnishes us but another proof of the common
-parentage and brotherhood of the race, of the universal outgoing of the
-human mind after the deity, and the sameness of mental operations and
-processes under the same given conditions.[700]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER X.
-
-        LANGUAGE AND ITS RELATION TO NORTH AMERICAN MIGRATIONS.
-
-  Diversity of Languages in America — Causes of Diversity — Richness
-      of American Languages — Polysynthesis — Grimm’s Law — The
-      Maya-Quiché Languages — Stability of the Maya — Oldest American
-      Language — The Maya compared to the Greek, the Hebrew, the
-      North European, the Basque, West African, and the Quichua
-      Languages — Epitome of Maya Grammar — The Mizteco-Zapotec
-      Languages — The Nahua or Aztec — The Classic Tongue — Ancient
-      and Modern Nahua — Epitome of Aztec Grammar — Geographical
-      Extension of the Aztec — In the South — In the North-west —
-      Buschmann’s Researches — Sonora Family — Opata-Tarahumar-Pima
-      Family — Moqui and Aztec Elements — Aztec in the Shoshone and
-      in the Languages of Oregon and the Columbian Region — Line
-      of Aztec Elements — The Nahua probably the Language of the
-      Mound-builders — The Otomi — Supposed Chinese Analogies —
-      Japanese Analogies — Geographical Names.
-
-
-Language in aboriginal America may be pronounced a mystery of mysteries
-and a Babel of Babels. Mr. Bancroft has catalogued nearly six hundred
-distinct languages, existing between northern Alaska and the Isthmus
-of Panama. Many of these, however, scarcely deserve to be called more
-than dialects; while each has its individuality, it is true that all
-have certain characteristics in common, a fact which by some has been
-considered sufficient ground for belief in the unity of the American
-race, a hypothesis which is by no means tenable. The geographical
-division and intermixture of languages, for instance, in California,
-is without a parallel elsewhere in the world. By the accidents
-attendant upon savage life, resulting from ceaseless hostilities and
-the frequent inroads of tribes upon their neighbors, a nation has often
-been scattered in fragments, and its refugees, separated into small
-bands, have taken up their residence in the midst of other tribes at
-localities far removed from their central home. In a generation or
-two a modification of the parent speech has been brought about by the
-surrounding influences, all of which vary in the several localities in
-which the refugees have found their new homes. New tribes thus formed,
-soon become unintelligible to their brothers, who have developed a
-dialect under different influences from theirs. When we consider that
-for thousands of years this wholesale division and subdivision of
-tribes and languages has been going on, as the result of ceaseless
-hostilities, we can easily account for the multitude of languages
-and dialects on the one hand, and the existence of a thread of unity
-or similarity on the other, said to run through them all. Supposing
-the continent to have received its population from several different
-quarters, the natural expectation would be that in the course of time
-this process of general intermixture would result in developing in
-each language much that was common to the others—hence the foundation
-for the hypothesis of their unity of origin. In the study of American
-languages it has often been a matter of surprise that their structure
-and expressiveness indicates a degree of perfection far in advance of
-the civilization out of which they had sprung. This superiority, we
-think, can be accounted for on the principle, first, that the evolution
-of languages on this continent has been more active and constant
-here than elsewhere, though unfortunately not always operating under
-favorable conditions; and second, that in the frequent catastrophes
-which have resulted from inter-tribal warfare, even in language, the
-law of the survival of the fittest is apparent, in the preservation
-of those etymological forms and principles of structure which are
-most useful. We by no means agree with the eminent philologist Dr.
-W. Farrar, F.R.S., chaplain to the Queen, and others who, taking
-but a partial and second-hand view of American languages, pronounce
-their elaborateness a childish excess, and their vaunted wealth a
-concealment of their poverty.[701] An examination of the poems of
-Nezahualcoyotl, king of Tezcuco, recorded by Ixtlilxochitl, will
-afford sufficient proof of the expressiveness and richness of the
-Aztec language.[702] The song on the “Mutability of Life” and the ode
-on the tyrant Tezozomoc have often been translated and admired.[703]
-One of the leading characteristics of American language, it has been
-said, is “_agglutination_,” but we must add that the term employed is
-not sufficiently comprehensive. “Agglutination,” says Farrar, “may be
-described as that principle of linguistic structure which consists
-in the mere placing of unaltered roots side by side; as when to
-express ‘discipline’ the Chinese say ‘law-soldier,’ or for ‘elders’
-‘father-mother,’ or for ‘enjoyment’ ‘luxury-play-food-clothes.’”[704]
-
-The term _polysynthesis_, the synthesis of many words into one, with a
-little explanation will describe the characteristic, so prominent, to
-which we allude. In their polysynthesis, the syllables or words which
-are compressed into one long word, no longer retain their individual
-forms, but are clipped and altered so as to be scarcely recognizable.
-A sentence by this process of fusion is compressed into a single
-long word. Dr. Farrar cites the following example from the Aztec:
-_achichillacachocan_, means “the place where people weep because the
-water is red.” The component parts are: _atl_ “water,” _chichiltic_
-“red,” _tlacatl_ “man,” _chorea_ “weep,” all of which have nearly lost
-their identity in the inflection and contraction necessary in the
-synthesis.[705] As in the Aryan and other families, Grimm’s system of
-_Lautverschiebung_—sound changing, or shunting—better known by Prof.
-Max Müller’s designation as “Grimm’s law” prevails, so there are groups
-or families in northern Mexico pointed out by Buschmann to which
-this law is clearly applicable. No doubt the number of relationships
-already established between aboriginal languages, as the result of
-classification, will be greatly augmented when, if ever, the subject
-receives special attention.[706] Mr. Bancroft classifies the languages
-in his catalogue under three great families, namely, the Tinneh, Aztec
-and Maya. The first, which covers the territory around the northern
-extremity of the Rocky Mountains, and sends its offshoots as far south
-as northern Mexico, only concerns us incidentally in treating the
-ancient languages of North America.[707] The two families (and their
-far-reaching branches) in which we are interested, are the Maya and the
-Aztec, the latter the survivor of the speech of the Nahuas.
-
-To the Maya, or rather, the Maya-Quiché stock, no doubt belongs the
-greatest antiquity assignable to any language or languages on the
-continent. The mother tongue, the Maya, prevails throughout all of
-Yucatan, and together with its dialects extends itself over Tabasco,
-Chiapas and Guatemala, and is even present in the states of Tamaulipas
-and Vera Cruz, in the Huastic and Totonac languages. Numerous
-catalogues of the branches of this family have been made, but the most
-recent, and we think the most complete, is one constructed in 1876 on
-Señor Pimentel’s classification by the Mexican scholar, Señor Garcia y
-Cubas. It is as follows: 1. Yucateco or Maya; 2. Punctunc; 3. Lacandon
-or Xochinel; 4. Peten or Itzae; 5. Chañabal, Comiteco, Jocolobal; 6.
-Chol or Mopan; 7. Chorti or Chorte. 8. Cakchi, Caichi, Cachi or Cakgi;
-9. Ixil, Izil; 10. Coxoh; 11. Quiché, Utlatec; 12. Zutuhil, Zutugil,
-Atiteca, Zacapula; 13. Cachiquel, Cachiquil; 14. Tzotzil, Zotzil,
-Tzinanteco, Cinanteco; 15. Tzendal, Zendal; 16. Mame, Mem, Zaklohpakap;
-17. Poconchi, Pocoman; 18. Atche, Atchi; 19. Huastic, and probably
-20. the Haytian, Quizqueja or Itis, with their affinities, the Cuban,
-Boriguan and Jamaican languages.[708]
-
-The author of the above list has compensated us for its length by
-giving each of the names with its variation in orthography according
-to different writers. The classification is altogether superior to any
-other. The Maya is of peculiar interest to us, especially since within
-the territory over which it extends are found the most celebrated
-architectural remains known to Central American archæology. The
-majority of the sculptured tablets which are preserved are no doubt
-in the Maya or some of its dialects. What is most satisfactory to us,
-is the probability that the language is spoken to-day by the mass of
-the native population of Yucatan as it was anciently, for says Señor
-Pimentel, “the Indians have preserved this idiom with such tenacity
-that to this day they will speak no other,” and he adds that it is
-necessary for the whites to address them in their own tongue in order
-to communicate with them.[709]
-
-Señor Orozco y Berra furnishes us evidence that little change has
-taken place in the language since the earliest times, in the statement
-that all the geographical names of the peninsula are Maya, which
-is considered proof in his judgment that the Mayas were the first
-occupants of the country.[710] It is but a reasonable expectation,
-therefore, that at no distant day, by the aid of Landa’s alphabet, the
-inscriptions will be compelled to reveal their mysterious contents.
-The Tzendal, the language in which Votan is said to have written a
-history of the foundation of his city, and still spoken near the ruins
-of Palenque, is said to have been the oldest of American languages,
-but linguistic investigations have proven that it is an offshoot from
-the Maya, the mother tongue.[711] It is probable that the Maya was
-first planted at some point in the territory which it now occupies, and
-gradually extended its domain until its colonies reached northern Vera
-Cruz and southern Nicaragua. Whether at any time it was the language
-of a people inhabiting central and southern Mexico at a date anterior
-to the arrival of the Nahuas, is unknown though probable. Señor Orozco
-y Berra has shown by linguistic studies that probably the Mayas
-occupied the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, having in their
-migration passed from the Floridian peninsula to Cuba and thence to the
-other Caribbean isles, and to Yucatan. He states that the Mayas possess
-traditions of a northern home from which they passed by means of the
-islands of the Gulf to Yucatan. Both he and Señor Pimentel agree that
-the languages of the West Indies belong to the Maya family.[712]
-
-The characteristics of the Maya-Quiché languages are; flexibility,
-expressiveness, vigor, approximating harshness, yet on the contrary
-rich and musical in sound. The Maya itself has more than once been
-compared to the Greek, and even said to be derived from it. Dr. Le
-Plongeon, who for four years has been exploring the ruins of Yucatan
-and especially of Chichen-Itza, writes thus in connection with the
-discovery of a well-sculptured bear’s head at Uxmal: “When did bears
-inhabit the peninsula? Strange to say, the Maya does not furnish the
-name for bear. Yet one-third of this tongue is pure Greek. Who brought
-the dialect of Homer to America? Or who took to Greece that of the
-Mayas? Greek is the offspring of the Sanscrit. Is Maya? Or are they
-coeval? A clue for ethnologists to follow the migrations of the human
-family on this old continent. Did the bearded men whose portraits
-are carved on the massive pillars of the fortress at Chichen-Itza,
-belong to the Mayan nations? The Maya is not devoid of words from the
-Assyrian.”[713] He does not hesitate to say that “the Maya, containing
-words from almost every language, ancient or modern, is well worth
-the attention of philologists,” a statement which might with but
-little breach of propriety be made as well concerning almost any
-other language. In referring to its antiquity, the writer says, “I
-must speak of that language which has survived unaltered through the
-vicissitudes of the nations that spoke it thousands of years ago, and
-is yet the general tongue in Yucatan—the Maya. There can be no doubt
-that this is one of the most ancient languages on earth. It was used by
-a people that lived at least 6000 years ago, as proved by the Katuns,
-to record the history of their rulers, the dogmas of their religion, on
-the walls of their palaces, on the façades of their temples.”[714] The
-Mexican scholar, Señor Melgar, is convinced that he sees resemblances
-between the names employed by the Chiapenecs in their calendar, and
-the Hebrew, and furnishes comparative lists to sustain his hopeless
-theory.[715]
-
-The speculations of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg are none the
-less remarkable and about equally as plausible as those of Dr. Le
-Plongeon or Señor Melgar. The Abbé after years of study among the
-peoples of Central America, was convinced beyond a doubt that a marked
-relationship existed between the Quiché-Cakchiquel and Zutugil and the
-languages of the north of Europe. He considers the evidence sufficient
-that peoples speaking the Germanic and Scandinavian languages migrated
-to Central America and infused their idioms into the Maya.[716]
-
-With Mr. Bancroft we agree that no value can be attached to these
-speculations, until impartial comparisons are made by scholars who
-have no theories to substantiate. It is worthy of note that several
-eminent scholars have observed the remarkable similarity of grammatical
-structure between the Central American and certain transatlantic
-languages, especially the Basque[717] and some of the languages of
-Western Africa.[718] Dr. Le Plongeon, after several years spent amid
-the antiquities of Peru and in the study of the Quichua language,
-says, “The Quichua contains many words that seem closely allied to the
-dialects spoken by the nations inhabiting the regions called to-day
-Central America, and the Maya tongue.” In referring to the mural
-paintings at Chichen-Itza, he further remarks, “By comparing them with
-those of the Quichuas, I cannot but believe that Manco’s ancestors
-emigrated from Xilbalba or Mayapan, carrying with them the notions of
-the northern country.”[719] Interesting as these speculations are, they
-must be received with allowance and viewed with doubt, until thorough
-linguistic researches test their value.
-
-The most important features of Maya grammar are as follows: The letters
-of the alphabet are, a b c ɔ e, ch, c_h_, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, _p_,
-ó, pp, t, th, tz, u, x, y, _y_, z. The letter ɔ is pronounced like the
-English _dj_, _h_ is not aspirated, _th_ is hard, and the _k_ guttural.
-Much of the beauty of the pronunciation depends on the elision of
-certain vowels and consonants, as for instance instead of _ma in kati_
-they say _min kati_, or instead of _ti ca otoch_ they would say _ti c
-otoch_. The plural is distinguished from the singular by the addition
-of _ob_ (those). Verbs ending in _an_ take _tac_ in the plural. The
-masculine of rational beings is denoted by the prefix _ab_, the
-feminine by _ix_. The words _xibil_ and _chupul_, signifying male and
-female respectively, are used to express the gender of animals. The
-case of nouns is determined by their position in the sentence and
-their relation to the prepositions, the most frequent of the latter
-being _ti_, which has various significations. Adjectives accompanying
-substantives always precede them, but the number is only expressed
-by the substantive. The comparative is formed by adding _l_ to the
-adjective, sometimes _il_, and prefixing _u_ or _y_ the pronoun of the
-third person. The superlative is formed by prefixing _hach_ to the
-positive.
-
-The Maya pronouns are as follows:
-
-----------------------------+------------------------+------------------
-    _Personal Pronouns._    |     _Possessives._     |  _Reciprocals._
-----------------------------+------------------------+------------------
-Ten, en,        I           |In, u,     Mine.        |Inba,  Myself.
-Tech, ech,      Thou.       |A, au,     Thine.       |Aba,   Thyself.
-Lay, laylo, lo, He, that.   |U, i,      His, of that.|Uba,   Himself.
-Toon, on,       We.         |Ca,        Ours.        |Caba,  Ourselves.
-Teex, ex,       You.        |Aex, auex, Yours.       |Abaex, Yourselves.
-Loob, ob,       They, those.|Uob, yob,  Of those.    |Ubaob, Themselves.
-----------------------------+------------------------+------------------
-
-The verb has four conjugations and that of the auxiliary _teni_, to
-be, the present tense of which is the same as the personal pronouns
-given in the left hand column, _Ten_, _Tech_, etc. The other cases are
-as follows: Imperfect, _Ten cuchi_; Perfect, _Ten hi_; Pluperfect,
-_Ten hi-ilicuchi_; Future, _Bin ten-ac_; Future perfect, _Ten hi-ili
-coshom_; Imperative, _Ten-ac_; Subjunctive present, _Ten-ac en_;
-Imperfect, _Hi ten-ac_.
-
-The verb _Nacal_, to ascend, of the first conjugation, is inflected as
-follows:
-
-                          PRESENT INDICATIVE.
-
-Singular, 1st per., _Nacal in cah_; 2d per., _Nacal a cah_; 3d per.,
-_Nacal u cah_.
-
-Plural, 1st per., _Nacal ca cah_; 2d per., _Nacal a-cah-ex_; 3d per.,
-_Nacal-u-cah-ob_.
-
-The Imperfect, _Nacal in cah-cuchi_; Perfect, _Nac-en_; Pluperfect,
-_Nacen ili cuchi_; Future, _Bin nacac-en_; Future perfect, _Nacen
-ili-cuchom_; Imperative, _Nacen_.
-
-
-                      THE LORD’S PRAYER IN MAYA.
-
-    Cayum     ianeeh   ti  càannob cilichthantabac  akaba;     tac a
-  Our Father  who art  in  Heaven    blessed be   Thy name;  it may come
-
-    ahaulil    c’  okol.  Mencahac   a    nolah uai ti  luum   bai ti  caanè.
-  Thy kingdom  us  over.  Be done  Thine  will  as  on  earth  as  in  heaven.
-
-  Zanzamal uah   ca  azotoon heleae   caazaatez   c’  ziipil  he bik  c’
-   Daily  bread  us   give   to-day  us forgive  our   sins    as     we
-
-  zaatzic   uziipil ahziipiloobtoone, ma  ix  appatic c’ lubul ti   tuntah
-  forgive  their sins  to sinners,   not also  let    us  fall in temptation
-
-  caatocoon    ti   lob.[720]
-  us deliver  from  evil.
-
-In the state of Oajaca and occupying the western portion of the Isthmus
-of Tehuantepec, in a position intermediate between the Maya on the
-one hand and the Nahua on the other, is found the ancient family of
-languages known as the Mizteco-Zapotec, the various dialects of which
-are spoken to this day by the natives occupying those regions. No
-tradition throws any light on the origin of this group, nor do any
-affiliations in vocabulary or grammmatical structure seem to exist
-between them and any other family, American or foreign. The Miztec
-language is exceedingly difficult to acquire, being characterized by
-words of extraordinary length. The Zapotec on the contrary, with its
-several dialects, is elegant, sonorous, and _less_ difficult.[721]
-
-The language pre-eminent above all others in Mexico for its territorial
-extent, for the refinement and civilization which it represented, and
-its own inherent beauty and elegance, is known as the Nahua or Aztec,
-or more modernly the Mexican. It was the language of the Toltecs and
-of their advanced civilization, and after them of the seven tribes of
-_Nahuatlacas_, that in the year 1196 established themselves in the
-Mexican plateau. The Aztecs, one of these tribes, in the course of
-events gaining the ascendency, gave their name to the language which
-their conquests speedily extended over a territory four hundred leagues
-in length, and in width from the Gulf to the Pacific, in the latitude
-of the capital. The Aztec tongue prevailed continuously from a point
-on the Gulf of California, under the twenty-sixth parallel of latitude
-south-easterly to Rios Goatzacoalco and Tobasco; and southward to the
-fifteenth parallel, extending along the coast of San Salvador and
-appearing in the interior of Nicaragua. Its dialectical extension north
-of Mexico we will consider on a future page. Twenty languages besides
-the Aztec are said to have been spoken throughout Montezuma’s empire,
-but the Aztec alone was recognized as the official and classic tongue.
-The Chichimecs are said to have spoken a language of their own, until
-the ruler Techotlalatzin commanded them to learn the Mexican.[722] Mr.
-Bancroft is of the opinion that the Nahua was the original language of
-the Chichimecs, and consequently does not agree with Señor Pimentel
-who advocates the opposite view, and, we think, sustains it.[723] The
-copiousness and grace of the Aztec has furnished a theme for many
-Spanish writers whose praises have found an echo in the works of our
-most able scholars and historians. If the Maya has been compared to the
-Greek, the Aztec has often been likened to the Latin, not in structure
-or vocabulary, but in its relation to ancient American civilization,
-in its expressiveness, politeness, its capacity for the sublime, and
-for the romantic coloring with which it is able to clothe that which is
-humble and even insignificant. “It was the court language,” says Mr.
-Bancroft, “of American civilization, the Latin of medieval and the
-French of modern times.”[724]
-
-The Nahua attained its highest development during the century preceding
-the conquest in the schools of oratory, poetry and history, established
-at Tezcuco, to which the sons of nobles were sent, as much to acquire
-the purity of the idiom as the science which they taught.[725] Señor
-Orozco y Berra says that the difference existing between the ancient
-Nahua and the modern, may be compared to that difference observed
-between the Castilian of the Romance of the Cid and that of the present
-day.[726]
-
-The outlines of the Aztec grammar are briefly as follows: The alphabet
-contains the letters a, ch, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, tl, tz, u, v,
-x, y, z, but lacks our consonants b, d, f, r, g, s. No word commences
-with l. The _a_ is clear; _ch_ before a vowel is pronounced as in
-Spanish, but before a consonant or when final it differs somewhat; _e_
-is clear; _h_ is moderately aspirated and soft, but strong when it
-precedes _u_; _t_ is omitted except when it comes between two _l’s_.
-The _tl_ in the middle of a word is soft as in Spanish, but at the end
-is pronounced _tle_, the _e_ being half mute. The pronunciation of _tz_
-is similar to the Spanish _s_, but stronger. The _v_ is pronounced
-by the women as in Spanish and French, but by the men like _hu_ in
-Spanish; _x_, soft like the English _sh_, and _z_ like the Spanish _s_,
-but not quite so hissing.[727]
-
-By composition, words containing sixteen syllables are formed, though
-many simple words are quite long. We have already explained the process
-of polysynthesis or compounding by means of clipping the syllables
-and words with a view to brevity and euphony. The following example
-furnished by Pimentel and copied by Mr. Bancroft, further illustrates
-the principle: _tlazotli_, esteemed or loved; _maviztik_, honored
-or reverenced; _teopixki_, priest; _tatli_, father, and _no_, mine,
-furnishes as a result: _notlazomaviztcopixkatatzin_, “my esteemed
-father and reverend priest.” An example of the termination _tzin_,
-signifying respect, is presented in this word. Several illustrations of
-the same principle are furnished by Señor Pimentel, showing that often
-a sentence is compounded into a single word. Indeed a great many of the
-component parts of these long words, though words in themselves, are
-incapable of being used separately. In composition the verb succeeds
-the nominative and is placed at the end of the sentence. The adverb
-precedes the verb, as does the adjective the substantive.
-
-The Aztec is rich in terminations for the formation of the plural.
-Generally no change is required for inanimate objects, as multiplicity
-is expressed by means of numerals or the adverb _miek_ (much), e. g.,
-_ze tetl_, one stone; _yei tetl_, three stones; _miek tetl_, many
-stones, though often the terminations used for the plural of persons is
-applied to inanimate objects, particularly when they are connected with
-persons, as _zoquitl_, mud; _tizoquime_, we are earth; however, there
-are exceptions to the rule, as in the Aztec words for the heavens,
-the mountains and the stars. Furthermore, the first syllable is often
-doubled in order to form the plural of inanimate things. Señor Pimentel
-has embraced the entire subject of the formation of the plural in six
-rules.
-
-1. Primitive words form their plural in _me tin_ or _ke_, as _ichkatl_,
-a ewe, a sheep; _ichkame_, sheep; _zolin_, a quail; _zoltin_, quail;
-_kokoxki_, sick; _kokoxke_, sick (plural).
-
-2. Derivatives form their plural as follows: the so-called
-“reverentials” in _tzintli_, have the plural in _tzitzintin_; the
-diminutives in _tontli_ form the plural _totontin_, and the diminutives
-in _ton_ and _pil_, augmentatives in _pol_ and reverentials in
-_tzin_ double the final syllable; as, _tlakatzintli_, person;
-_tlakatzitzintin_, persons, etc.
-
-3. Words either primitive or derived into which the possessive pronouns
-enter, form the plural in _van_ (_huan_ according to the common
-orthography); as, _noichkavan_, my sheep, _noichkatotonvan_, my little
-sheep.
-
-4. The words _tlakatl_, person; _zivatl_, woman; terms of gentilitious
-character or expressive of office and profession, form their plural by
-the omission of the final letters, as _Mexicatl_, a Mexican; _Mexika_,
-Mexicans; in which case the final vowel is accented.
-
-5. Some words form the plural by omitting the terminals and by doubling
-the first syllable, while others double the first syllable without
-omitting the terminal; as, _teotl_, god; _teteo_, gods; _zolin_, quail;
-_zozoltin_, quails; _telpochtli_ and _ichpochtli_, double the syllable
-_po_.
-
-6. Some adjectives have various plurals, as _miek_, much; whose plural
-is _miektin_, _miekintin_ or _miekin_.
-
-In most cases the adjective and its substantive agree in number. The
-only means of expressing gender is by adding the words _okichtli_,
-male, and _zivatl_, female.
-
-In the absence of a regular declension the cases are formed as
-follows: The genitive is indicated by the possessive pronoun or by
-the juxtaposition of the words, the dative by means of verbs called
-applicatives, the accusative by certain particles accompanying the verb
-or by juxtaposition, the vocative by adding e to the nominative or by
-the change of _i_ into _e_ in words ending in _tli_ or _li_ and the
-_in_ into _e_ in words ending in _tzin_.
-
-The ablative is indicated by various particles and prepositions. The
-language surpasses the Italian in the number of its augmentatives and
-diminutives. The former take the syllable _pol_, the latter _tontli_
-and _ton_. The Aztec is richer in verbal nouns than any other language.
-Those derived from active, neuter, passive, reflective and impersonal
-verbs, terminate in _ni_, _oni_, _ya_, _ia_, _yan_, _kan_ or _ian_,
-_tli_, _li_, _liztli_, _oka_, _ka_, _ki_, _k_, _i_, _o_, _tl_.
-
-                          TABLE OF PRONOUNS.
-
-                  PERSONALS.                |      POSSESSIVES.
-                                            |
-  _Nevatl_, _neva_, _ne_,  I.               | _No_,         Mine.
-  _Tevatl_, _teva_, _te_,  Thou.            | _Mo_,         Thine.
-  _Yevatl_, _yeva_, _ye_,  He, or somebody. | _I_,          His.
-  _Tevantin_, _teva_,      We.              | _To_,         Ours.
-  _Amevantin_, _amevan_,   You.             | _Amo_,        Yours.
-  _Yevantin_, _yevan_,     They.            | _In_ or _im_, Theirs.
-                                            | _Te_,         Of or belonging
-                                                              to others.
-
-“The possessives,” says Pimentel, “are always used in composition, and
-change the final syllable of the word to which they are joined; as,
-_teotl_, God, _noteuh_, my God,” etc.[728]
-
-The modes of the verb are: the indicative, imperative, optative
-and subjunctive. The indicative has the following tenses: present,
-imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future. The subjunctive has one tense
-which is translated by the imperfect.
-
-The following example of the conjugation is given from Pimentel:
-
-                              INDICATIVE.
-
-                              _Present._
-          _Ni-chiva_,  I make.       _Ti-chivâ_,  We make.
-          _Ti-chiva_,  Thou makest.  _An-chivâ_,  You make.
-          _Chiva_,     He makes.     _Chivâ_,     They make.
-
-                             _Imperfect._
-                      _Ni-chiva-ya_,  I made.
-
-                              _Perfect._
-                      _Oni-chi-uh_,  I have made.
-
-                             _Pluperfect._
-                      _Oni-chi-uhka_,  I had made.
-
-                               _Future._
-                      _Ni-chiva-z_,  I shall make.
-
-
-                              IMPERATIVE.
-          _Present_: _Ma xi-chiva_,    Make thou.
-          _Future_:  _Ma ti-chiva-z_,  Make thou presently.
-
-
-                               OPTATIVE.
-        _Imperfect_:  _Ma ni-chiva-ni_, Would that I should make.
-        _Perfect_:    _Ma oni-chi-uh_,  Would that I have made.
-
-
-                             SUBJUNCTIVE.
-         _Imperfect_:  _Ni-chiva-zkia_, or } That I should make.
-                       _Ni-chiva-zkiayo_,  }
-
-There is no infinitive in the conjugation, it being expressed by the
-future indicative. Only verbs in _liztli_ have this mode. The passive
-voice, save in a few exceptional cases, is formed as follows: _lo_ is
-added to the present indicative of the active voice. In the perfect
-tense, _k_ is added to the previously affixed _o_ in the singular and
-_ke_ in the plural. The other modes and tenses form their passive
-voice by adding to the present indicative passive their own final
-termination, as, for instance, we have _nichiva_, I make, _nichivalo_,
-I am made, _onichivalok_, I was made, _onichivaloka_, that I should be
-made, etc. The Aztec contains only six irregular verbs.
-
-                      THE LORD’S PRAYER IN AZTEC.
-
-       Totatzine       in    ilvikak  timoyetztika ma yektenevalo in
-  Our reverend Father  who  heaven in      art      be praised    ()
-
-  motokatzin  mavallauh in motlatokayotzin  ma chivalo in tlaltikpak  in
-   thy name   may come  ()   thy kingdom      be done  () earth above ()
-
-  motlanekilitzin in  yuh chivalo in  ilvikak.  In  totlaxkal   mo   moztlae
-     thy will     ()  as  is done () heaven in. ()  our bread  every  day
-
-  totech    moneki     ma axkan xitechmomakili, ivan ma xitechmopopolvili in
-  to us  is necessary   to-day     give us      and       forgive us      ()
-
-  totlatlakol in yuh  tikintlapopolvia intechtlatlakalvia  ivan  makamo
-   our sins   () as      we forgive   those who us offend  and    not
-
-  xitechmomakavili inik  amo ipan tivetzizke in teneyeyekoltiliztli, zanye ma
-    lead thou us   that  not  in   we fall   ()     temptation,       but
-
-  xitechmomakixtili in  ivikpa  in amo kualli.[729]
-     deliver us     ()  against () not  good.
-
-Language has ever been an important factor in determining the original
-home and the migrations of peoples. With this view the Aztec has
-received the attention of some of the best scholars of both continents.
-The most prominent results merit attention. The Nahua language is
-unquestionably spoken far to the south, in Guatemala, Honduras and
-Nicaragua, and this fact has been persistently cited as conclusive
-proof of the southern origin of the Nahuas; but even Mr. Bancroft, the
-most eminent of the advocates of this hypothesis, admits that there
-“it is dialectic rather than aboriginal in appearance, so that the
-testimony of language is all in favor of the plateau of Anahuac having
-been the primal centre of the Aztec tongue.”[730]
-
-The reports of several of the adventurers into the unexplored north,
-were to the effect that the aborigines whom they encountered spoke
-Aztec. Father Roque of Oñate’s expedition into New Mexico at the close
-of the sixteenth century, and Father Gerónimo de Zárate subsequently
-at the Rio del Tizon, are authority for the most positive statements
-that the Mexican was encountered. Mr. Anderson, a companion of Captain
-Cook in 1778, discovered the Aztec terminal _l_ _tl_ or _z_ of frequent
-occurrence among the Nootkas of the North-west coast. With this data
-and the traditions of the Aztecs, which all point to the north as their
-ancient home, sufficient basis was found for a general belief that the
-Mexican peoples had migrated down the coast of California and left an
-unbroken linguistic line along the entire route of their wanderings.
-At the beginning of the present century, the great German philologist,
-Vater, sought to establish this line by his extensive investigations,
-published in his _Mithridates_.[731] Unfortunately for his labors,
-later researches have shown his generalizations too sweeping. Wilhelm
-von Humboldt considered the Cora, under the twenty-second degree of
-latitude on the Rio de Santiago, to be a mixture of Aztec and some
-older and rougher language.[732] In 1855–59, Dr. Buschmann of Berlin
-issued two celebrated works,[733] in which the subject was critically
-examined, and as far as possible, with the data at hand, the true
-proportion of Aztec elements entering into all the languages spoken
-north of the Mexican plateau, was indicated. The researches were
-systematically made, beginning with the North Mexican, languages and
-proceeding northward in the supposed line of the Aztec migration. In
-four languages of North-western Mexico in particular, did Dr. Buschmann
-find the conspicuous presence of Aztec elements. These are the Cora
-of Jalisco, referred to above; the Tepehuana of northern Sinaloa,
-Durango and southern Chihuahua, spoken between the twenty-third and
-twenty-seventh parallels, in a crescent-shaped territory the points
-of which touch the Aztec on the west, intervening between it and the
-Gulf of California; the Tarahumara, spoken in the Sierra Madre, of
-the State of Chihuahua and Sonora, and fourthly, the Cahita occupying
-the east coast of the Gulf of California between the twenty-sixth and
-twenty-eighth parallels. By a liberty in classification, Buschmann
-calls this group the Sonora family, although the languages are entirely
-different from each other, with the exception that they are all
-pervaded by the Aztec element. This is their only bond of union. They
-contain about two hundred Aztec words, and about eight hundred words
-derived from the Aztec in the several idioms.[734] “The Aztec _tl_,
-and _tli_ in the Cora, are found changed in _ti_, _te_ and _t_; in
-the Tepehuana into _de_, _re_ and _sci_; in the Tarahumara into _ki_,
-_ke_, _ca_ and _la_, and in the Cahita, into _ri_. In all four of
-the languages substantive endings are dropped, first, in composition
-when the substantive is united with the possessive pronoun; secondly,
-before an affix; thirdly, in the Cora alone, before the ending of the
-plural and before affixes in the formation of words.”[735] North-east
-of the Tarahumara and reaching to the Rio Grande is the Cnocho, and
-directly to the east of the Cnocho, is the territory of the Toboso,
-also bounded on the north by the Rio Grande. It is uncertain whether
-the Aztec was ever the language of these large districts, though
-testimony is not wanting that it was understood by both peoples.[736]
-In fact throughout all northern Mexico, the Aztec was understood,
-and, in some instances, entered prominently into the languages of the
-north-western tribes. Grimm’s law of _Lautveränderung_, sound changing
-or shifting, is as conspicuous in its application to the Aztec-Sonora
-family of Buschmann as it is to the members of the Aryan family, and
-often far more so. Occupying the north-western extremity of Mexico
-are the Pima-Alto and Bajo, and the Opata, the principal dialect of
-the latter being the Eudeve. Here again the Aztec appears both in the
-identity of words and the similarity of grammatical structure. These
-languages are recognized as branches of the Aztec-Sonora family, so
-much so that Orozco y Berra has classified them together under the name
-of the Opata-Tarahumar-Pima. He accounts for the presence of the Aztec
-element upon the supposition that the language and civilization of
-Mexico once extended over this region, but were subverted and displaced
-by the incursions of northern peoples toward the close of the twelfth
-century.[737] Not only is this probable, but, on the other hand, it
-would be a matter of surprise if traces of the Aztec were not found
-in languages bordering upon so vast and powerful an empire as that of
-Montezuma. Still this fact alone is scarcely sufficient to account for
-the prominence of the Aztec element in the northern languages, while it
-is almost totally wanting in others more central and southern. Crossing
-into the United States territory, we first encounter the Moqui of the
-pueblo towns of Arizona; to the west in south-eastern California, we
-meet the Cahuillo, Chemehuevi, Kizh, Netela and Kechi; at the other
-extreme on the east, we have the Comanche of New Mexico and Texas,
-while to the north, in Utah, Nevada, Idaho and Oregon, we have the
-great Shoshone and Utah families. But why group these languages in
-such a wholesale manner? Is it because of inter-linguistic affinities?
-No. Simply because of the Aztec element (though insignificant it is
-true), which unquestionably pervades them all.[738] Six of the Moqui
-towns speak the language which bears their name. But, strange to say,
-Harno the Seventh uses the Tequa, a language of one of the New Mexican
-Pueblos. The Moqui language contains much that is Aztec, and because
-of its substantive endings in _pe_ and _be_, etc., is considered by
-Buschmann a branch of his Shoshone-Comanche family of the Sonora
-idiom.[739] Coupling this fact with the traditions of the Moquis (see
-pages 302–304) descriptive of their migrations from the North under the
-pressure of the hordes of savages who deprived them of their cultivated
-lands and slaughtered their families, we are at a loss to account for
-this infusion of Aztec elements, except on the hypothesis that at a
-remote day large numbers of Nahuas came in contact with the ancestors
-of this people in their ancient home. Equally conspicuous is the Aztec
-element in south-east California languages and the great Shoshone and
-Utah families, which occupy the great central basin and stretch away
-into Idaho and Oregon. Grimm’s law of sound-shifting is seen in their
-adjective and substantive endings, _p_, _pa_, _pe_, _pi_, _be_, _wa_,
-_ph_, _pee_, _rp_, and _rpe_. The Shoshone and Utah still retain _ts_,
-_tse_, and _tsi_, all of which are but variations of the Aztec _tl_,
-_tli_, according to the law above-named. Buschmann pronounces this
-group the capstone of his Sonora edifice.[740] In Western Oregon, from
-the source to the mouth of the Willamette River, the Yamkally and
-Calapooya languages preserve traces of the Aztec both in words and
-terminal sounds.[741] The same is even more evident concerning the
-Chinook, of the lower Columbia River, in which the Aztec _thl_ and _tl_
-is a regular termination.[742] Throughout the entire region drained
-by the Columbia and its tributaries, Dr. Buschmann found well-marked
-Aztec elements. The Clallum and Lummi languages of the great Salish or
-Flathead family, which touches the coast opposite Vancouver’s Island
-and extends into the interior, have the _tl_ termination and other
-phonetic resemblances to the Aztec.[743] Furthermore, Mr. Gibbs has
-discovered that the cardinals employed by the Clallam and Lummi in
-their system of enumeration are of a threefold character, and, as Mr.
-Gallatin has shown, are similar to those of the Mexicans and Mayas.[744]
-
-Whether the Aztec is represented in the language of the Nootkas
-on Vancouver’s Island is uncertain. Certainly strong marks of
-similarity are observable. Buschmann, while admitting the existence
-of resemblances, thinks that hardly enough of them exist to warrant
-relationship.[745] The inquiry naturally arises, how came this Aztec
-element which, three and a half centuries after the overthrow of the
-Aztec empire, we observe in faint, though unbroken lines running from
-the centre of Mexico to the vicinity of Vancouver’s Island to find its
-way into a multitude of languages, some of which are separated from
-others by a vast region more than two thousand miles in width? How
-did it come to be the only bond of union between so many languages
-in all other respects so dissimilar? It has been suggested that this
-wide-spread dissemination of the Aztec is owing to the trade probably
-carried on between Mexico and the North. However, this is merely
-conjecture and is incapable of proof. It will be observed that the
-linguistic line is faintest in the central basin among the Shoshones
-and Utahs, where the relationship is established mainly by the
-sound-shifting of the terminals according to Grimm’s law, but in the
-languages of the Columbia River and its tributaries, and especially of
-the Salish or Flathead family bordering on the strait of Juan de Fuca,
-the Aztec terminal is actually present and in constant use. The most
-critical researches have established this as an incontestable fact. In
-this connection it is worthy of note (as shown in our first chapter)
-that the works of the Mound-builders abound in this region in great
-numbers, extending into the interior, appearing upon the upper Missouri
-and its tributaries, and continuing to the Mississippi Valley and
-thence into Mexico instead of following the coast or the central basin
-at the west. Whether the Nahua was the language of the Mound-builders
-of the United States, we are unable to determine, but the probabilities
-that it was are considerable; because (1) the people of the mounds
-built structures similar to those which prevail all over Mexico,
-though in a less degree of perfection; (2) they carried obsidian
-from Mexico to the North Mississippi Valley, showing both regions
-to have enjoyed intimate commercial relations. This is no evidence
-that the Mound-builders were colonists sent out from Mexico, since it
-is improbable that colonists would have penetrated into the extreme
-North-west by way of the Missouri River. Furthermore we have the
-valuable argument of Baron von Hellwald made at the Luxembourg session
-of the Congrès International des Américanistes in favor of a migration
-from north to south, in his reply to Mr. Robert S. Robertson’s paper
-on “the Mound-builders,” namely, that no evidence exists of the
-Mexicans or Central Americans having worked copper mines anterior to
-the conquest; hence it follows that since copper was employed by both
-Mexicans and Mound-builders, it must have been carried southward by the
-latter.[746] (3) We have testimony of the early writers that the Nahuas
-came from the North-east; Sahagun says from the direction of Florida,
-which then embraced the Mississippi Valley. (4) We have the statements
-of Acosta and Sahagun that the Apalaches occupying the region east of
-the Mississippi extended their colonies far into Mexico. According to
-Acosta the Mexicans called them Apalaches, Tlautuics or Mountaineers.
-“Sahagun speaking of them says: ‘They are Nahuas and speak the Mexican
-language.’ This is by no means improbable, as the Aztec is found
-eastward in the present states of Tamaulipas and Coahuila, and thence
-the distance to the Mississippi is not so far.”[747] In their search
-for the Aztec element in the North, every investigator—Buschmann
-among the rest—has made a great oversight. They have expected to
-find resemblances to the Aztec as it was spoken at the time of the
-conquest after centuries of culture had been bestowed upon it in the
-schools of Mexico and Tezcuco. It appears never to have occurred to
-these scholars, that if Mexican similarities exist at the North they
-are with the ancient form of the Nahua, which Orozco y Berra tells us
-“differs as much from the modern Nahua or Aztec as the Spanish of the
-Romance of the Cid from the Spanish of to-day,” or coming nearer home,
-we may say that it probably differed as much as the Anglo-Saxon of
-King Alfred and the English of the present. The linguistic researches
-referred to have certainly been made over a wide chasm of time and
-change, as viewed in this light, and when we consider the instability
-of language in America, the wonder is that any Nahua traces exist
-at the North-west at this late date.[748] This phenomenon can only
-be accounted for on the supposition that, at a remote period, large
-numbers of Nahua-speaking people resided for a considerable length of
-time in those regions. The presence of the mounds in such numbers in
-Washington and the British possessions north of it, leads to this view,
-provided it can be established that the Mound-builders were Nahuas.
-The fact that the line of mounds is toward the interior precludes the
-expectation that the Nahua is to be found prominently present west of
-the Rocky Mountains. It is plausible to consider the Moquis a branch
-from the Nahuas, separating from them at an early day and establishing
-themselves in Southern Oregon and Utah, whence, according to their
-tradition, they were driven by the Utes. In the course of time, their
-language, which contains a Nahua element, may have become changed and
-lost much of its original character. To their residence, migration, and
-the possible captivity of many of their number, the traces of Aztec
-found in the Shoshone and Utah tongues may be due.
-
-Analogies between the Nahua and all the other languages of the world
-have been assiduously sought for, and supposed affiliations advocated
-by theorists, but in the present unsatisfactory state of philological
-science it would be presumptuous for us to pretend that any claim for
-linguistic analogies with the old world could be sustained. There is no
-doubt that strong analogies are observable between the Otomi and the
-Chinese. Señor Najera, to whom the former is vernacular, has appended
-to his excellent grammar of the Otomi a comparative table of Chinese
-and Otomi words, which while it shows strong resemblances, is not
-sufficient in itself to establish relationship.[749]
-
-Warden has treated the grammatical resemblances, which in many respects
-are striking.[750] It is one of the most singular phenomena met with
-in the whole range of ethnography and philology, that a monosyllabic
-language should be found in the very heart of Mexico surrounded by
-the most remarkable poly-syllabism in the world, touching the capital
-on the south-east and extending north-west into San Luis Potosi and
-over portions of Queretaro and Guanajuato. It is no doubt a language
-of great antiquity, and whether Chinese in origin is not fully
-determined.[751] Numerous claims have been set forth that some of the
-Californian languages bear a striking resemblance to the Chinese, and
-that Indians and Chinese in some cases have found so much in common in
-their respective languages as to be able to hold conversations with
-each other. These claims have in most instances been supported by
-persons having little knowledge of the principles of philology, and
-who are scarcely aware of the difficulty of comparing two monosyllabic
-languages in which the finest shade of pronunciation carries with
-it the greatest significance.[752] Japanese claims have been urged
-with some reason by ethnologists no less eminent than Latham, who is
-confident that the “Kamskadale, Koriak, Aino-Japanese and the Korean
-are the Asiatic languages most like those of America.”[753]
-
-Comparisons of the Indian languages with those of the old world
-have often been made, most frequently in a haphazard manner and
-to little purpose. Recently, however, Herr Forchhammer of Leipzig
-published a truly scientific comparison of the grammatical structure
-of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Muskogee and Seminole languages, with the
-Ural-Altaic tongues, in which he has developed many interesting points
-of resemblance.[754] Prof. Valentini has called attention to the fact
-that Ptolemy (Geography, Asia Minor, Chapter X, Armenia Major) gives in
-his list of cities belonging to the Roman province in his time (A. D.
-140), the names of five cities situated in the region of the historic
-Ararat, which have nearly their counterpart in five proper names
-applied to localities in Mexico by its ancient colonists. The cities
-of Armenia Major, according to Ptolemy, are: Chol, Colua, Zuivana,
-Cholima, Zalissa. “The first name _Chol_ is contained in _Cholula_;
-the second, _Colua_, in _Coluacan_; the third, _Zu vana_, in _Zuivan_,
-which is the ancient name of the Yucatanic province of Bacalab (see
-Perez in Stephens’ _Yucatan_, Appendix, vol. ii, _Chronology of
-Yucatan_). _Cholima_ is to-day written _Colima_, _Zalissa_ is contained
-in _Xalisco_, the Spanish _x_ sounding in the Nahua language like the
-English _sh_.”[755] Generally we have been disposed to pronounce all
-such coincidences accidental, as most of them certainly are. In this
-case we leave the decision to the reader. In this chapter we have
-noticed two prominent families of languages, (1) the Maya-Quiché,
-having such transatlantic affinities as to furnish presumptive evidence
-that if it did not originate from, it was at least influenced by the
-West European or African languages. (2) The great Nahua family, which
-linguistic researches, together with the circumstantial evidence
-furnished by architectural remains, commercial intercourse and the
-testimony of early writers, assign to at least a temporary occupancy of
-the Columbian region on the North-west coast. Concede this fact, and
-you must look elsewhere, possibly to the opposite continent, for the
-early beginnings of a language so ancient and polished.
-
-While the proof is not conclusive, yet we think it is presumptive that
-both of these families, as well as some other American languages, are
-of old world origin.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER XI.
-
-    THE PROBABILITIES THAT AMERICA WAS PEOPLED FROM THE OLD WORLD,
-               CONSIDERED GEOGRAPHICALLY AND PHYSICALLY.
-
-  Legends of Atlantis — Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory — The Subject
-      Examined Scientifically — Retzius’ View — Le Plongeon’s
-      Observations — Identity of European and American Plant Types
-      — Revelations of the _Dolphin_ and _Challenger_ Expeditions —
-      The Atlantic Floor — Challenger and Dolphin Ridges — Challenger
-      Plateau probably once Dry Land — Identity of European and South
-      American Fauna — Elevation and Depression of Coast Level of
-      Greenland, United States, and South America — Gulf Stream —
-      Equatorial Current — The Trade-Winds — Accidental Discovery of
-      Brazil — America Probably Reached by Ancient Navigators — The
-      Caras — Atolls of the Pacific Ocean — A Pacific Continent —
-      Contiguity of the Continents at the North — Aleutian Islands
-      — Kuro-Suvo — Behring’s Straits — Inviting Appearance of the
-      American Shore — Remoteness of the Migration — Prof. Grote’s
-      View — Prof. Asa Gray’s Observations — Conditions Favorable to
-      a Migration — John H. Becker’s Observations.
-
-
-We have observed that traditional and linguistic evidence seems to
-point to a trans-Atlantic origin for some of the American peoples.
-In a preceding chapter (iii), we quoted the story of the Platonic
-Atlantis, as recorded in the _Critias_, and alluded to the advocacy by
-the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg of the hypothesis that the submerged
-continent of Egyptian tradition was a reality. In support of this
-view, the Abbé has cited the opinions of geologists and the remarkable
-traditions preserved by the Central Americans, the Mexicans, and the
-Haytians, concerning the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which
-submerged beneath the ocean a continent, of which the Antilles are but
-its mountain summits. Attach as little importance as we may to these
-ancient legends, which no doubt refer to some extraordinary cataclysm,
-the memory of which was preserved for ages by periodic feasts and
-religious celebrations,[756] in which the gods were besought by princes
-and people for security against a similar calamity, still our minds
-naturally associate them with the story of the Platonic Atlantis.[757]
-
-Until recently the mere expression of belief in the former existence
-of an Atlantic continent has been the signal for criticism, and has
-called forth the smile of pity, if not of contempt. Such, however, is
-no longer true, since scientific investigation, consisting chiefly in
-deep-sea soundings and the study of the fauna and flora of the opposite
-shores of the Atlantic, call for the respectful attention of all who
-are interested in the ancient history of this continent. Prominent
-among the men of science who have expressed confidence in this
-hypothesis is Prof. Andres Retzius of Stockholm, who was convinced from
-a study of comparative craniology, that the primitive dolichocephalic
-skulls of America, especially of the ancient Caribs of the Antilles,
-were nearly related to the _Guanches_ of the Canary Islands.[758]
-
-Dr. Le Plongeon observed that the sandals upon the feet of the statue
-of Chaacmol, discovered at Chichen-Itza, and of the statue of a
-priestess found on the island of Mugeres, “are exact representations
-of those found on the feet of the _Guanches_, the early inhabitants of
-the Canary Islands, whose mummies are yet occasionally met with in the
-caves of Teneriffe and the other isles of the group.”[759] The great
-number of American plant-types in the Miocene flora of Switzerland,
-led Prof. Unger to espouse the view that a continent formerly existed
-in the present Atlantic ocean.[760] Professor Heer, the celebrated
-botanist of Zurich, for the same reasons promulgated this hypothesis,
-and in his _Flora Tertiaria Helvetiæ_, defines the location of the
-continent, which he believes to have been as wide as Europe.[761] In
-opposition to this view, it is urged by Professors Oliver and Asa Gray,
-that the flora of America and Europe are united by means of a former
-overland communication at Behring’s Straits.[762] The conformation
-of the ocean-bed is the next matter of importance in examining the
-subject. The deep-sea soundings taken for the submarine cable between
-Newfoundland and Ireland, led to the impression that the Atlantic
-floor was comparatively a level, forming but one great trough between
-the continents. The United States exploring ship _Dolphin_, however,
-subsequently dispelled this illusion, by revealing the fact that a
-great submarine plateau or mountain chain which has been denominated
-the “Dolphin Rise,” divided the North Atlantic into two longitudinal
-troughs running north and south. This is described as a seal-shaped
-ridge with its tail joining a connecting ridge at the south in 15°
-North Lat. and 45° West Long., while its body widens as it runs towards
-the north, reaching its maximum width under the forty-fifth parallel,
-and finally tapering to a narrow isthmus at 52° North Lat. and 30° West
-Long., which connects the ridge with the great northern submarine
-table-land.[763]
-
-This work was prosecuted further by the German frigate _Gazelle_,
-and by H. M. ships _Lightning_ and _Porcupine_, with confirmatory
-results.[764] The most thorough and satisfactory work of this
-character, however, was performed during the cruise of H. M. ship
-_Challenger_, from December 30, 1872, until May 24, 1876, inclusive.
-Sir C. Wyville Thomson, the director of the expedition, in his
-excellent work, _The Atlantic_, has contributed much exact information
-relative to the contour of the sea-bed. The frontispiece to his second
-volume is a chart illustrative of the relative depths of different
-localities in the Atlantic ocean. Almost its entire length from north
-to south, the great chain whose loftiest summits tower above the sea
-in the Azores Islands, St. Paul’s Rocks, Ascension and St. Helena
-Islands, is indicated by a white irregular belt representing a depth
-of one thousand fathoms, but shading off into the blue, indicative
-of the depths on either hand. Professor Thomson says, “Combining our
-own observations with reliable data which have been previously or
-subsequently acquired, we find the mean depth of the Atlantic is a
-little over 2000 fathoms. An elevated ridge rising to an average height
-of about 1900 fathoms below the surface, traverses the basin of the
-North and South Atlantic, in a meridional direction from Cape Farewell,
-probably as far south, at least, as Gough Island, following roughly
-the outlines of the coasts of the old and new worlds. A branch of this
-elevation strikes off to the south-westward, about the parallel of 10°
-North, and connects it with the coast of South America at Cape Orange;
-and another branch across the eastern trough, joining the continent of
-Africa, probably about the parallel of 25° South.”[765]
-
-The width of the great land ridge as well as its relation to the
-North Atlantic islands is indicated in the following: “One of the
-most remarkable differences between the Azores and Bermuda is, that
-while Bermuda springs up an isolated peak from a great depth, the
-Azores seem to be simply the highest points of a great plateau-like
-elevation, which extends for upwards of a thousand miles from west
-to east, and appears to be continuous with a belt of shallow water
-stretching to Iceland in the north and connected probably with the
-‘Dolphin Rise’ to the southward, a plateau which in fact divides the
-North Atlantic longitudinally into two great valleys, an eastern and
-a western.”[766] A member of the _Challenger_ staff, in a lecture
-delivered in London soon after the termination of the expedition,
-expressed the fullest confidence that the great submarine plateau is
-the remains of the “lost Atlantis,” citing as proof the fact that the
-inequalities, the mountains and valleys of its surface, could never
-have been produced in accordance with any laws for the deposition of
-sediment nor by submarine elevation, but, on the contrary, must have
-been carved by agencies acting above the water level.[767] The volcanic
-character of the Azores and Philippines, together with the prevalence
-of volcanic deposits found upon the entire ridge by the officers of the
-_Challenger_, lend probability to the Egyptian and American legends of
-a tremendous catastrophe in which a continent was submerged beneath the
-waves.[768]
-
-Sir C. Wyville Thomson found that the fauna of the coast of Brazil
-brought up in his dredging machine, were similar to that of the western
-coast of South Europe.[769] This is of particular interest, since
-at a short distance north of the Amazon an arm of the central ridge
-connects the sunken plateau with the coast of South America. Mr. J.
-Starke Gardner, the eminent English geologist, is of the opinion that
-in the Eocene period a great extension of land existed to the west of
-Cornwall. The extraordinary mingling of American, Asiatic, Australian
-and African genera in all European floras of the Tertiary period leads
-him to the conviction that at a remote time they were all connected.
-Referring to the locations of the _Dolphin_ and _Challenger_ ridges,
-he asserts that a great tract of land formerly existed where the sea
-now is, and that Cornwall, the Scilly and Channel islands, Ireland and
-Brittany are the remains of its highest summits.[770] The question at
-once arises, “What ground have we for believing that the great Atlantic
-ridges ever occupied a higher altitude than at present?” The answer is
-found in the comparison of facts with the following theory set forth by
-Prof. Joseph Le Conte: “Any increase in the height and extent of the
-whole amount of land on the globe must be attended with a corresponding
-depression of the sea-bottoms, and therefore an actual subsidence
-of the sea-level everywhere. Hence if it be true, as is generally
-believed, that the continents have been, on the whole, increasing in
-extent and in height, in the course of geological history, then it is
-true also that the seas have been subsiding, and that therefore the
-relative changes are the sum of the two.”[771] It cannot be denied that
-the processes of elevation and depression are now actively going on
-along the eastern coast of both the Americas. The coast of Greenland
-is sinking along a distance of 600 miles so markedly that ancient
-buildings on low rock-islands are now submerged, and the Greenlander
-has learned by experience never to build near the water’s edge.[772]
-The subsidence along our Atlantic seaboard is slowly going on, being
-most marked on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, while on the
-other hand the elevation of the eastern coast of South America has
-been accomplished by the hidden forces, volcanic or otherwise, on a
-stupendous scale. “Raised beaches” have been traced 1180 miles down
-the eastern shore and 2075 miles along the western, ranging from
-100 to 1300 feet above the sea, and Alexander Agassiz has recently
-identified them at a height of 3000 feet above the present sea-level
-by means of corals found adhering to the rocks.[773] In view of these
-facts, so familiar to any student of geology, it is not difficult to
-conceive of the former existence of Atlantis where the _Dolphin_ and
-_Challenger_ locate the mid-Atlantic ridge, described as 1000 miles
-in width in the latitude of the Azores. Supposing the existence of an
-Atlantic continent in the Tertiary period conceded, we have no means at
-present of determining the approximate time of its subsidence, unless
-we associate it with the dim and uncertain legends of the Egyptian
-priests and the ancient Americans. Whether the Atlantidæ who threatened
-to overthrow the earliest Greek and Egyptian states, but who were
-swallowed up by the sea in the engulfment of their island continent,
-were the inhabitants of the _Dolphin_ and _Challenger_ ridges and the
-colonists of Eastern America, must for the present at least remain in
-doubt, though strong probabilities point to the conclusion that they
-were.[774]
-
-The colonization of America by transatlantic peoples, it seems to us,
-did not depend upon the existence of a land bridge at a remote period,
-but could have been accomplished without the aid of the compass, either
-intentionally or accidentally, through the agency of the equatorial
-current and the trade-winds, two mighty forces perpetually tending
-toward the shores of the new world. The return current of the Gulf
-Stream which describes a semicircle in the east Atlantic washes in
-its sweep the Azores, the Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verde Islands,
-approaching in its southern course the shores of Portugal, Morocco, and
-the Sahara Desert, and finally uniting with the stronger equatorial
-current which rushes up the coast of Africa, crosses the Atlantic under
-the equator, and skirts the coast of South America until it reaches the
-Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.[775] The north-east trade-winds
-blowing perpetually from the coast of Europe in a belt from eighteen to
-twenty degrees in width (or from 1245 to 1275 miles) reach the coasts
-of the American continent over an area which extends from the mouth of
-the Amazon to the northern boundary of Florida. Through the agency
-of these mild but almost unvarying forces Columbus was steadily borne
-on to the accomplishment of the greatest event of modern history. The
-companions of the Admiral were dismayed by the persistency with which
-they were wafted beyond the bounds of the known world, and ascribed the
-unceasing east wind, which they supposed offered them no hope of return
-to their homes, to a device of the devil. In one of the houses on the
-island of Guadaloupe Columbus on his second voyage saw the stern-post
-of a vessel, supposed to have been the fragment of some ship that had
-drifted across the Atlantic and been cast, together with the crew, upon
-unknown shores. How often and how long this same process had operated
-it is impossible to conjecture.[776] The accidental discovery of Brazil
-by Cabral furnishes an additional reason for believing that anciently
-vessels may have reached the new world. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral was
-dispatched by the Portuguese on the 9th of March 1500, with a fleet of
-thirteen vessels on a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope, to Calicut.
-After passing the Cape Verde Islands he bore away to the west, in
-order to avoid the calms prevailing on the Guinea coast. On the 25th
-of April, to his surprise he discovered what proved to be the South
-American continent, at a point which he named Porto Securo.[777] When
-we consider that the distance from the coast of Africa to Cape Frio,
-Brazil, is but 1530 miles, and realize that twelve centuries B. C. the
-Phœnicians and probably other maritime peoples of the Mediterranean
-visited Britain at the north and coasted Africa to the south, the
-probabilities are strong that, through the natural agency of the
-Atlantic currents and the trade-winds, some ancient mariners reached
-the American coast.[778]
-
-Brasseur de Bourbourg, on the authority of Baron de Eckstein and
-his own researches, points to the fact that the Barbarians who are
-alluded to by Homer and Thucydides, are a race of ancient navigators
-and pirates called _Cares_ or _Carians_, who occupied the islands of
-Greece and a part of the coast of the Peloponnesus, Arcanania and
-Illyria, before the Pelasgi. They ruled in Phrygia and other states
-of Asia Minor, antedating the Phœnicians in their sovereignty of the
-sea and the Indo-European peoples in their domination of the land. The
-same people extended their borders into Nubia and Libya and became
-the ancestors of the nations of the Barbary States. The Abbé, to all
-appearances, easily identifies them with _Caracars_ or _Caribs_ of
-the Antilles, the _Caras_ or _Cariari_ of Honduras, and even with the
-_Gurani_ of South America. We submit the question for the investigation
-of the student, rather than with our endorsement.[779] Whether a great
-continent ever existed in the Pacific Ocean since man’s appearance
-on the earth, or whether the great area occupied by Oceanica and
-the Coral Islands of the Central Pacific was once a continent, are
-questions which cannot now be determined. It is certain, however, as
-Professor Dana has shown in his study of the atolls and barriers of
-the Pacific, that if not a continent, at least a great archipelago
-measuring 6000 miles in length by from 1000 to 2000 miles in breadth,
-has subsided to a depth ranging from 3000 to 6000 feet. Professor Dana
-states that two hundred islands have thus been lost.[780] Professor Le
-Conte estimates the loss of land to equal 20,000,000 square miles, and
-defines its boundaries by the Hawaiian and Feejee groups, north and
-south, and the Paumotu group and Pelews, east and west. He fixes the
-extreme subsidence at 1000 feet, since the average height of the high
-islands of the Pacific at present is not less than 9000 feet above the
-sea level, while some of them reach 14000 feet.[781] Professor Dana is
-of the opinion that this vast area has subsided since the _Tertiary
-age_. Whether such is the case or not is a matter of conjecture, but
-it is certain that much of it has been accomplished within the human
-era. That a higher civilization once prevailed throughout Polynesia
-we need only cite the remains found on Easter Island by Captain Cook,
-and refer to the Appendix of Mr. Baldwin’s work, where ruins of a high
-order are named as existing on Ascension, Marshall, Gilbert, Kingsmill,
-Ladrones, Swallow, Strong’s, Navigators and Hawaiian Islands. A
-quadrangular tower forty feet high and several stone-lined canals are
-to be seen at the harbor at Strong’s Island. On the adjoining isle
-of Lele, cyclopian walls forming large enclosures are overgrown by
-forests. “These walls are twelve feet thick, and within are vaults,
-artificial caverns, and secret passages.” “Not more than five hundred
-people now inhabit these islands; their tradition is that an ancient
-city formerly stood around this harbor, mostly on Lele, occupied by a
-powerful people whom they called ‘Anut,’ and who had large vessels, in
-which they made long voyages east and west, ‘many moons’ being required
-for these voyages.”[782] It is altogether probable that not only a
-higher civilization once prevailed in Polynesia, but that within the
-history of man, the greater extent of land, now submerged, made the
-passage to America comparatively easy. If we turn to the North Pacific,
-all doubts vanish in the presence of the most favorable conditions for
-a migration from our continent to the other. With Latham, we believe
-that if America had first been discovered from the west, and Alaska
-and the north-west coast been as well known as our Atlantic coast,
-North-eastern Asia would have naturally passed for the _fatherland_ of
-North-western America.[783] It is scarcely necessary to occupy space
-in pointing out the facilities which the Aleutian Islands offer for a
-migration even in inferior boats, and at all seasons of the year. The
-climate, though cool, is not severe, owing to the proximity of the warm
-current of the Kuro-suvo, and it only requires an inspection of the map
-to convince the most conservative. Col. Barclay Kennon, formerly of
-the United States North Pacific Surveying Expedition, after referring
-to the conspicuousness of the volcano Petropaulski on the shores of
-Kamtschatka, says: “Proceeding along this coast to Cape Kronotski,
-which lies north of Petropaulski, the distance to Behring’s Island is
-about one hundred and fifty miles—course east. Fifteen miles only from
-it is Copper Island, and about one hundred and fifty miles south-west
-of it is Attou Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian group, which
-is an almost unbroken chain, connecting the American continent to the
-peninsula of Alaska.”[784] It is evident that the voyage from the
-Asiatic to the American coast can be made as far south as the Aleutian
-Islands without losing sight of land but a few hours at a time—a matter
-of no consequence to the intrepid navigators found everywhere among
-the aborigines upon the islands and coast.[785] The Kuro-suvo or Japan
-current sweeps along the Asiatic coast, bears away to the east, and
-describing a semicircle, bends its course southward to the shores of
-California and Mexico, until it reaches about the tenth parallel of
-north latitude, when it returns to the Japanese coast.
-
-This Gulf Stream of the Pacific, which nearly every season casts
-wrecks of Japanese junks upon our shores, no doubt has been an
-active agent in giving character to our ancient population.[786]
-Added to these twofold facilities for communication—of currents and
-an almost continuous chain of islands—we have a third in the narrow
-channel at Behring’s Straits. These straits, according to Sir John F.
-Herschel, are now “only thirty miles broad where narrowest, and only
-twenty-five fathoms in their greatest depth.”[787] Sir Charles Lyell,
-in alluding to the above fact, remarks: “Behring’s Straits happen to
-agree singularly in width and depth with the Straits of Dover, the
-difference in depth not being more than three or four feet.”[788] With
-this statement before us while standing upon the deck of a vessel
-midway between Calais and Dover, with the shores of France and England
-in full view, we felt, as never before, how absurd is the opinion
-which has been advanced more than once, that no general migration
-was likely to take place across Behring’s Straits. As well say that
-no general migration was likely to take place across the Straits of
-Dover; yet we learn that Britain was known to be inhabited as early
-as the twelfth century B. C.[789] The weather at Behring’s Straits,
-though cold even in summer, is not nearly as cold as the winters of
-Japan.[790] In winter the waters of the straits are frozen over
-generally as late as April, furnishing a continuous connection between
-the continents, while in summer the communication at present between
-the aborigines inhabiting opposite shores is continuous.[791] Frederick
-von Hellwald furnishes an argument for the naturalness of a migration
-to the American shores the fact that, “while the Asiatic projection
-near Behring’s Straits is almost a sterile rocky waste, the opposite
-coast presents a much more inviting appearance, abounding in trees and
-shrubs. Moreover, the climate when we pass southward of the peninsula
-of Alaska, is of a genial character, the temperature continuing nearly
-the same as far down as Oregon.”[792] The difference in the two shores
-is owing to the fact that the cold current from the Arctic Ocean passes
-southward along the Asiatic coast, while a portion of the water of the
-warm current passes up the American shore.[793] It is impossible to
-approximate the period of the world’s history in which the migration
-must have taken place. No doubt it was in a remote age, before the
-old world peoples had developed their present or even historic
-peculiarities and types of civilization. If this be true, the futility
-of all old world comparisons, and the unceasing search for analogies
-which has been going on since the discovery of the continent, is at
-once apparent.[794]
-
-Prof. Grote thinks the first migration may have taken place in the
-Tertiary period in Pliocene time, and that the subsequent advent
-of the ice period cutting off all communication with the old world
-until recent times, produced a modification in the race, and that man
-retired with the glacier on its return to the north, where we see his
-descendants in the Eskimo.[795] If Prof. Croll’s theory of climatic
-change resulting from the maximum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit be
-true, or even if the ordinary time at which the American glacial period
-is supposed to have occurred be taken into consideration, we hardly
-think the evidences of man’s pre-glacial residence on this continent
-are sufficient on which to base a safe hypothesis.[796] Of course Prof.
-Grote would assign a comparatively recent migration to the civilized
-nations. Whether a continuous land communication ever existed between
-the continents at the Aleutian Islands[797] or at Behring’s Straits
-cannot be determined, though the probabilities seem to favor the view
-that they were once united.[798]
-
-Prof. Asa Gray has satisfactorily shown the intimate relationship
-between the North American and Asiatic vegetation, while many of our
-fauna are clearly of Asiatic origin.[799] However, it is of little
-moment in this discussion whether the land bridge ever existed; the
-conditions for migration from one continent to the other are now,
-and no doubt ever have been favorable, and that different peoples at
-different times have availed themselves of those conditions is equally
-certain. We have already alluded to the climatic conditions south of
-Alaska which would naturally allure a migrating tribe down the coast
-to Oregon and the Columbian region. Once there, however, a tribe of
-considerable numbers and enterprise would soon be stimulated to push
-farther, because of the demands for a more ample support than could be
-found on the Pacific coast in the region of the Columbia and Frazier
-Rivers. Still, progress to the south is practically cut off, since
-the dryness and sterility of the Californian coast, the ice-capped
-mountains intervening between the north and the Sacramento and San
-Joaquin rivers and the desert highlands which rise with bleak and
-forbidding aspect between the Sierra Nevada and the eastern Rocky
-Mountains, combine in forming a barrier sufficient to turn the course
-of a migration.[800] Add to this the fact that the country south
-of Oregon rises over 2000 feet above the head of the waters of the
-Columbia and Missouri rivers, and it is apparent that an outlet must be
-sought in another direction. Nature has provided the highway. Alluding
-to this fact and to the unbroken line of mounds from the north and west
-down the Missouri valley, Mr. Becker remarks: “On the head of (canoe)
-navigation we have what is known as ‘portages.’ These are depressions
-in the continuous range of the Rocky Mountains of such a nature that
-they fairly invite a travelling tribe to cross from the river system
-of the upper Columbia, emptying into the Pacific Ocean to that of the
-Missouri, on which a canoe need but be floated in order to arrive in
-the far distant Gulf of Mexico. Canoes can easily be carried from
-one river system to the other. Nothing like it exists in the whole
-mountain range southward, until we arrive at Nicaragua Lake in Central
-America.”[801] It will not require long for the matter of fact reader,
-who comprehends the well-nigh insurmountable difficulties which lie in
-the way of populating America in tropical or southern latitudes, and
-compares with them the facilities which the proximity of the continents
-and the topography of our country afford, to determine from what
-quarter America received the greater part of its inhabitants.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER XII.
-
-                              CONCLUSION.
-
-
-The dim uncertainty which envelopes the most ancient period of American
-antiquity, like that which obscures the beginnings of Egyptian,
-Assyrian and Trojan history, to say nothing of the origin of the
-venerable Asiatic civilizations, renders much of the effort in this
-field unsatisfactory. Still the results are of surpassing interest. A
-new cosmogony, mythology and traditional history full of weird poetic
-inspiration, an inspiration such as is begotten in contemplating the
-struggles of nature’s children after a higher development, is added to
-the fund of human knowledge. The poetry of the Quiché cosmogony must
-some day find expression in verse of Miltonic grandeur. The fall of
-Xibalba will no doubt afford the materials for a heroic poem which will
-stand in the same relation to America that the Iliad does to Greece.
-The doctrines of the benign and saintly Quetzalcoatl or Cukulcan
-must be classed among the great faiths of mankind, and their author,
-alone of all the great teachers of morals except Christ himself,
-inculcating a _positive_ morality, must be granted a precedence of
-most of the great teachers of Chinese and Hindoo antiquity. It is the
-custom of many Europeans to regard America as having no heroic or
-legendary period, no heroes like Achilles, Æneas, Sigfried, Beowolf,
-Arthur and the Cid; but who will review the romance of American
-antiquity and longer entertain this view? A few years ago, writers
-dated North American history from the discoveries made by Columbus
-and his immediate successors. Now they go back to the Northmen for a
-starting-point. May not the beginning be pushed even farther back,
-and the _ancient history of America_ receive the attention of the
-historiographer?
-
-The origin of the North American population cannot be positively
-settled at present, though the probabilities are that new facts will be
-brought to light establishing the relationship of the ancestors of the
-Nahuas with some ancient Asiatic race, as the Eskimo have clearly been
-proven to belong to the Arctic race which encircles the globe near the
-North pole.[802] We have seen that groups of facts unquestionably point
-to Northern Asia as the ancient home of a large share of the tribes of
-North America, civilized and savage. The autochthonic hypothesis which
-had its first great advocate in Dr. Morton, receives no support from
-his mistaken argument for the unity of the American race. We think
-we have shown, as did Prof. Wilson before us, that no such fact as
-ethnic unity exists in America. Dr. Morton’s own measurements of crania
-which we have classified, and the recent measurements of mound skulls,
-disprove the argument which he sought to establish. The autochthonic
-hypothesis owed much of its popularity to the support which it received
-from Prof. Agassiz’s doctrine of the separate creations of races of
-men, a hypothesis which has rapidly lost ground since the decease of
-its eminent advocate. It is impossible to determine whether the people
-of the mounds of the United States were preceded in this country by any
-other people. Certainly they had intercourse with some race having a
-cranial type quite different from their own, as several low-type skulls
-taken from the mounds testify. If the rude weapons found in New Jersey
-are as old as Dr. Abbott supposes[803]—belonging to the inter-glacial
-age—the question of man’s antiquity on this continent may have to
-be viewed in a different light from that in which it has hitherto
-appeared. It is conjectured that this supposed inter-glacial race were
-the ancestors of the Eskimo of to-day, and retired or were driven
-to the Arctic regions, where their racial characteristics became
-permanent. The traditional history of both Mayas and Nahuas seem to
-indicate an old world origin. The former people clearly claim an origin
-which, if their traditions are worth anything, must be assigned to some
-Mediterranean country. While, on the contrary, the Nahuas persistently
-state that they came from the north or north-west. It is certain that
-many of their cosmological traditions closely resemble those of Central
-and Western Asiatic peoples. Why should the traditions of the ancient
-Americans be less reliable than those of the most ancient Egyptians,
-Greeks, or Hindoos?[804]
-
-Tradition, language and architectural remains furnish us the data by
-which to trace the migrations of peoples. In addition to the testimony
-of tradition, the languages of the Mayas and Quichés present affinities
-to the west European and African languages; also to the languages
-of the West Indies and the Antilles. Whether the Quiché traditions
-concerning their ancient home have reference to the Atlantic coast of
-the United States is uncertain, though Señor Orozco y Berra believes
-their ancestors to have migrated from Florida to Cuba and thence
-to Yucatan. Linguistic and architectural evidences show that the
-Maya-Quiché family extended its civilization north as far as Panuco,
-and south as far as Honduras.
-
-The Nahua migrations are more numerous and their accounts somewhat
-obscure. It is not improbable that while few in number the Nahuas
-arrived on our north-western coast, where they found a home until they
-had become a tribe of considerable proportions. Crossing the watershed
-between the sources of the Columbia and Missouri Rivers, a large
-portion of the tribe probably found its way to the Mississippi and
-Ohio Valleys, where it laid the foundations of a wide-spread empire,
-and developed a civilization which reached a respectable degree of
-advancement.
-
-The remainder of the Nahuas, we think, instead of crossing the
-Rocky Mountains, migrated southward into Utah, and established a
-civilization the remains of which are seen in the cliff-dwellings
-of the San Juan Valley and such extensive ruins as exist at Aztec
-Springs. It must be conceded that this hypothesis rests on linguistic
-and traditional evidence, as no affinity between the architecture
-of the Cliff-dwellers and either the Mexicans or Mound-builders is
-traceable. We have in a preceding chapter summarized our reasons for
-considering the Mound-builders to have been Nahuas. The Olmecs, the
-first Nahuas to reach Mexico, came in ships from the direction of
-Florida, landed at Panuco, and journeyed southward until they came in
-contact with the advanced and already old civilization of the Mayas.
-The Toltecs came into Mexico by land from the North. The Chichimecs,
-their former neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan, whether Nahuas or not
-originally, followed them and adopted their language. The Nahuatlaca
-tribes, speaking the same language, arrived centuries afterward from
-the same quarter—the North. Finally the Aztecs, the last of the Nahuas,
-reached Anáhuac four centuries before the Spanish conquest. Mr. Becker
-has conjectured that Aztlan (land of whiteness) was the name applied
-to the southern Mississippi Valley and the region of the Gulf States;
-that Hue hue Tlapalan (old red land), the ancient empire of the Nahuas,
-was situated on the great plains of the west and in the region occupied
-by the Cliff-dwellers and Pueblos, and further, that the “seven caves”
-or “ravines,” the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, is the region of the
-Colorado River, the land of cañons.
-
-At best these can be but conjectures, yet the probabilities are
-that Hue hue Tlapalan bordered upon the great Mississippi Valley.
-Traditional and architectural evidence lead us to this conclusion. The
-linguistic argument is wanting, except the statement of the historians
-that the people of the Floridian region spoke Nahua. It remains for
-some one to compare the Aztec with the languages of the southern
-Indians before the investigation is complete. While the probability is
-pre-eminent that the ancient Americans are of old world origin and that
-the Mayas and Nahuas reached this continent from opposite directions,
-it is certain that the civilization developed by each people is
-indigenous—that it grew up on the soil where we find it, and was shaped
-by the wants of man as influenced and modified by the conditions of
-nature and physical surroundings. The most persistent investigation has
-failed to disclose any marked resemblance between the architecture,
-art, religion and customs of the North Americans considered as a whole
-and of any old world people. It is true that occasional analogies
-suggest intercourse and even relationship with particular races, as
-for instance the serpent and phallus worship common to the aboriginal
-Americans and the people of India. Sun-worship, so wide-spread, may
-also indicate an ancient community of residence for those peoples who
-practise it. The Calendar systems of Mayas and Nahuas present analogies
-to the systems employed by the Persians, Egyptians and certain
-Asiatic nations, and the presumption is very strong that the latter
-furnished the ground-plan upon which the Nahua system was constructed.
-The accuracy of the Aztec calendar must ever be a monument to their
-intellectual culture, and an undeniable proof of the advanced state of
-ancient Mexican civilization. The fact that Cortez found the Julian
-reckoning, employed by his own and every other European nation, to be
-more than ten days in error when tried by the Aztec system—a system
-the almost perfect accuracy of which was proven by the adjustments
-which took place under Gregory XIII in 1582 A.D.—excites our wonder
-and admiration. How the Nahuas, whether Toltec or Aztec we know not,
-were able to approximate the true length of the year within two
-minutes and nine seconds, thus almost rivalling the accuracy of the
-learned astronomers of the Caliph Almamon, is a mystery. The venerable
-civilization of the Mayas, whose forest-grown cities and crumbling
-temples hold entombed a history of vanished glory, no doubt belongs to
-the remotest period of North American antiquity. It was old when the
-Nahuas, then a comparatively rude people, first came in contact with
-it, adopted many of its features, and engrafted upon it new life. Like
-Rome, overwhelmed by the Teutons of the North, it no doubt succumbed
-to the vigorous aggressions of the invaders, and was compelled to
-resign the dominion of much of its northern territory. The powerful
-empire of the Quiché-Cakchiquels was the result of the union of the
-old and new races. The otherwise inviting picture of ancient American
-civilization is marred by the introduction of human sacrifices which
-in each instance occurred in the period of the political decadence
-of the people practising it, and no doubt was the most potent factor
-in the downfall of both Toltec and Aztec monarchies. Still, when we
-reflect upon the Druidical horrors of the Britons at the time of the
-Roman conquest, and realize that our Anglo-Saxon ancestors in the sixth
-century sold their relatives and even their own children into slavery,
-and were but slightly removed from the condition of cannibals if they
-were not actually such, the ancient American civilization with its many
-humane features and advanced culture rises up in splendor before us, in
-marked contrast with our barbarous origin. Although this civilization
-was indigenous and peculiar to itself, we find all of the American
-tribes possessed of certain arts and traditions which seem common to
-mankind in all parts of the world. The character of flint weapons and
-implements are the same among all primitive peoples. The modes of
-producing fire by friction and of grinding grain differ little, if
-any, in America, from those employed by ancient peoples elsewhere. The
-first efforts toward the development of the architectural idea all
-round the globe, seem to find expression in the rude mound and then in
-the more perfect pyramid. These and other considerations which have
-been noted in the preceding pages, lead us to the conclusion that at a
-remote period, before racial and national characteristics had been well
-defined, this continent received its population from the old world, at
-different times and from different quarters.
-
-The uniformity with which the human mind operates in all lands for the
-accomplishment of certain ends, has in many instances resulted in the
-independent development of institutions common to several peoples. This
-fact, together with the probability that occasionally foreigners were
-cast upon the American shores, will be sufficient to account for many
-features which have been discovered in Mexican and Central American
-architecture, art, and religion, presenting analogies with the old
-world. The fact that civilizations having such analogies are developed
-in isolated quarters of the globe, separated from each other by broad
-seas and lofty mountains, and thus indicating a uniformity of mental
-operation and a unity of mental inspiration, added to the fact that the
-evidence is of a preponderating character that the American continent
-received its population from the old world, leads us to the truth that
-God “hath made of one blood all nations of men.”
-
-
-
-
-                               APPENDIX.
-
-
-
-
-                                  A.
-
-                      MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS.
-
-
-Since the greater part of this work was put in type, the exploration
-of ancient mounds in several localities in the United States has
-yielded gratifying results. Most conspicuous for rich returns,
-both in pottery and human remains, are the researches which have
-recently been prosecuted with such rare intelligence and vigor by
-the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio, in the
-aboriginal burying-grounds and among the mound-works of the Little
-Miami Valley. Through the liberality of the society and the courtesy
-of its secretary, Mr. Frank W. Langdon, we are enabled to present
-an authorized account of the explorations. We take this opportunity
-of expressing our obligations to the society, and especially to Mr.
-Langdon, who has kindly prepared the following report:
-
-NOTICE OF SOME RECENT ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN THE LITTLE MIAMI
-  VALLEY. _By FRANK W. LANGDON, Secretary of the Literary and
-  Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio._
-
-The valley of the Little Miami River, in South-western Ohio, has long
-been noted for the number and extent of its pre-historic earthworks,
-which, distributed on either side of the river, from its confluence
-with the Ohio to the well-known Fort Ancient and beyond, form an almost
-continuous chain of mounds, forts, circles, and embankments, extending
-for more than fifty miles, and constituting an important division of
-the great earthworks system of the Mississippi Valley.
-
-Of the few publications relating more especially to the ancient works
-of this series, one of the most important, perhaps, is the paper by
-Dr. Charles L. Metz, entitled “The Prehistoric Monuments of the
-Little Miami Valley,”[805] accompanied by a chart showing the location
-and character of more than forty of these earthworks, situated in
-Columbia, Spencer and Anderson Townships of Hamilton County. The Hon.
-Joseph Cox, H. B. Whetsel, Esq., Mr. Charles F. Low, and the several
-other gentlemen composing the organization known as the Literary and
-Scientific Society of Madisonville, have also, at various times,
-given considerable attention to archæological investigations in this
-vicinity, and the valuable and interesting collections of objects
-of pre-historic art accumulated by these gentlemen afford abundant
-evidence of the long-continued occupation of this region by a numerous
-and somewhat intelligent people of whom we have no historic record.
-
-A renewed interest in the subject has been recently developed by the
-discovery, near Madisonville, of one of the cemeteries of this unknown
-people, and the explorations therein by the above-named society, are
-perhaps among the most interesting that have ever been conducted in the
-Mississippi Valley.
-
-This cemetery, which is distant about one and one-half miles south-east
-from Madisonville, occupies the western extremity of an elevated
-plateau overlooking the Little Miami River, and situated from eighty
-to one hundred feet above the water-line. It is bounded on the south
-by the river “bottom”; on the north and west by a deep ravine, through
-which flows a small stream known as Whisky Run; on the east the plateau
-slopes gradually up to the general level of the surrounding country,
-of which it is in fact a continuation or spur, its character of an
-isolated plateau being derived from its position between the eroded
-river valley and the deep ravine above referred to. The precipitous
-but well-wooded bluff which forms the southern limit of this plateau
-extends eastward, facing the river, for perhaps half a mile, and
-distributed along its edge are a number of mounds and other earthworks;
-at its base are the Cincinnati and Eastern and Little Miami Railways,
-the nearest station being Batavia Junction, distant about half a mile
-east of the cemetery.
-
-The original forest still covers the site of the cemetery, and
-measurements of some of the principal trees are recorded by Dr. Metz
-in his paper before mentioned, as follows: a walnut, 15½ feet in
-circumference; an oak, 12 feet; a maple, 9½ feet; an elm, 12 feet. The
-locality has long been known to local collectors and others interested
-in archæological matters, as the “Pottery Field,” so called on account
-of the numerous fragments of earthenware strewn over the surface; and
-it was until recently supposed to be a place where the manufacture of
-pottery had been carried on by the ancient inhabitants of the valley,
-the fragments found being considered the _debris_. A few scattered
-human remains had also been found in the adjoining ravines, but it was
-not until some time in March, 1879, that its true character and extent
-as a cemetery were brought to light.
-
-It then became apparent that some concerted action would be necessary,
-in order to secure the best scientific results from the discovery; and
-early in April excavations were begun under the auspices of the before
-mentioned organization, the proprietors of the premises, Messrs. A.
-J. and Charles K. Ferris, having kindly granted to it the exclusive
-privilege of making a thorough and systematic exploration of the
-ground. From that time until the present (July 19, 1879) excavations
-have been continued with a force varying from one to three men,
-assisted by members of the society, every foot of the ground gone over
-being thoroughly explored, and full notes taken as the work progressed.
-
-The following brief outline of the results, taken from the records of
-the society, will but serve to convey an idea of the general features
-of the discovery and of its importance to archæological science, time
-and space not permitting a detailed account in the present connection.
-
-Of the four or five acres of ground over which the cemetery is believed
-to extend, only a small segment of the south-western portion has been
-explored. The exploration, however, has been exceedingly thorough and
-comprises an extent of perhaps half an acre of ground, from which have
-been exhumed in all one hundred and eighty-five skeletons. Of these,
-however, but a small proportion are in a good or even tolerable state
-of preservation, as with the utmost care only about forty crania could
-be preserved sufficiently well for measurement. The preservation of
-even this number must probably be attributed to the favorable character
-of the soil, a compact gravelly drift, as the various surroundings,
-position of some skeletons under large trees, etc., all indicate for
-these interments a remote antiquity.
-
-With respect to the mode of burial, this is far from being uniform. A
-large majority of the skeletons are found at a depth of from two to
-three feet, in a horizontal position, face upwards; but exceptions
-to this rule are numerous, many interments being made in a sitting
-position, and some in groups of from three to six individuals
-irregularly disposed. There has been no attempt in any instance at
-the construction of a stone coffin, but in one case the skeleton was
-covered with a layer of small flat limestone from the adjacent stream.
-The heads of those in the horizontal position are generally directed to
-the east or south-east; but this rule is not constant, several being
-found at right angles to these. It is worthy of note, however, that,
-with scarcely an exception, those skeletons accompanied by the finer
-vases, pipes and other choice relics, have their heads directed east or
-south-east.
-
-During the progress of the work on April 12, a cranium, unaccompanied
-by other bones, was exhumed; in searching for the rest of the skeleton,
-a circular excavation, three and a half feet in diameter and four and a
-half feet in depth, was made, from which were taken bones sufficient to
-represent twenty-two skeletons. But two of the crania, both evidently
-those of females, could be preserved; they are remarkable for their
-whiteness and smooth texture as compared with the average crania
-from this cemetery. A sacrum taken from this pit has imbedded in its
-anterior surface, near the promontory, one of the small triangular
-flints known as “war arrows,” which had passed obliquely from above
-downwards, and to the right, necessarily penetrating the abdominal
-walls and viscera in order to reach its final lodging place. The bottom
-of the pit was paved with the common river mussel shells (_unios_), and
-there appeared to have been some attempt at a natural disposition of
-the bones, those of the lower extremities being placed at the bottom,
-the crania at the top.
-
-Among the human remains from this cemetery are many possessing features
-of surgical and anatomical interest, as, for instance, an adult male
-cranium in which complete anchylosis of the atlas to the condyles
-has occurred, the posterior arch remaining free. Other crania show
-evidences of severe injury with subsequent repair, and among the long
-bones are several showing characteristic lesions strongly indicative
-of rachitis and of syphilis, a fact of considerable interest in its
-relation to the geographical distribution of the latter disease, and
-also as bearing on the theory of its introduction into Southern Europe
-from America in the fifteenth century.
-
-Among the graves opened are several of children, who are usually buried
-in close proximity to adults, and with them are found various ornaments
-or toys of perforated shell, bone, etc., as well as small earthen
-vessels.
-
-[Illustration: Bowl from Ancient Cemetery, Little Miami Valley.
-
-  (Collection of W. C. Rogers, Madisonville, O.)]
-
-The pottery ware which accompanies the skeletons is usually situated
-near the head and presents many features of special interest. It is
-made of clay, finely tempered with pounded unio shells, and much care
-has evidently been bestowed upon its manufacture, some pieces being
-scarcely thicker than an ordinary teacup. Many specimens are in a
-perfect condition, or nearly so, and they usually contain a single
-unio shell when found, the shell being evidently intended for use as a
-spoon. The vessels range in capacity from a third of a pint, or even
-smaller, up to a gallon or more, the smaller ones, as before stated,
-being usually found in the graves of children. They are symmetrical
-in shape and varied in design, some being artistically ornamented
-with scroll work, handles representing lizards, human heads, etc.,
-and are almost invariably provided with four handles. Among the
-few exceptions to this latter rule is an eight-handled bowl (see
-cut), in the collection of W. C. Rogers, Esq., which is a two-story
-affair, apparently made by combining two distinct vessels, and then
-removing the bottom of the upper one. Vessels having but two handles
-occasionally occur, and others with holes in lieu of handles; but
-these are exceptions to the general rule as above noted.
-
-The total number of vessels taken from the cemetery to date is
-eighty-eight. There is good reason to believe, however, that each
-interment has been originally accompanied by a vessel, the present
-disparity between the number of vessels and the number of skeletons
-being accounted for by the fragments thickly strewn over the surface
-and intermingled with the surrounding soil, which have doubtless at one
-time constituted portions of the missing burial urns. To the growth
-of trees, action of frost and rooting of hogs, the destruction of so
-much of this valuable ware must be attributed, and to the latter cause,
-irregularities observed in the disposition of some of the skeletons are
-probably due.
-
-Among the other articles of utility or ornament found in the graves
-are twelve pipes, of various patterns, three of them being made from
-the Minnesota Catlinite or Red Pipestone; also stone disks, axes
-and chisels, flint knives and spear-heads, and many ornaments and
-implements of bone, such as beads, awls, needles, perforated teeth,
-etc., together with others of unknown uses. Two small cylinders of
-rolled copper, about two inches in length, and two flat pieces of the
-same metal an inch or more square, are among the collections, as are
-also two stones bearing inscriptions as follows: one, an irregular
-piece of sandstone, measuring about 3 × 2 × 1 inches, on the flat
-surface of which are cut two parallel figures made of straight lines
-and apparently intended to represent arrows; this specimen is now in
-the writer’s collection. The other stone, which is in the collection of
-E. A. Conkling, Esq., is a flattened dark-green boulder measuring about
-3½ × 2½ inches, one side of which is completely covered with a network
-of lines from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch apart and crossing each other at nearly
-right angles, thus forming quadrangular divisions of various sizes.
-
-An interesting feature of these excavations has been the discovery of
-what may be designated as “ashpits”; being circumscribed deposits of
-ashes, shells, sand, etc., from two to three feet in thickness, placed
-at varying distances below the surface. A perpendicular section made
-of one of these pits answers to the following description, which will
-serve to convey a fair idea of them all. Diameter of pit, three feet;
-the first eighteen inches consisted of leaf mold and sandy soil; then
-followed nine inches of clay, burnt earth and charcoal; next, ashes
-and charcoal, twelve inches; clay, three inches; white ashes, two
-inches; sand and unio shells, six inches; pure ashes, twelve inches;
-total depth, five feet two inches.
-
-Of these ashpits, more than fifty have been opened, situated in
-continuous rows near the edge of the bluff. They are quite uniform in
-size, measuring from three to four feet in diameter and from four to
-six feet in depth, and with one or two exceptions have not been found
-in any other than the above-mentioned situation. Intermingled with the
-ashes are pipes, implements of bone, shell, and stone, a mastodon’s
-tooth, bones of various wild animals, including birds and fishes, and
-in some of them large sherds of pottery-ware indicating vessels of from
-ten to twelve gallons capacity or even larger. With the exception of a
-single dorsal vertebra no human remains have yet been found in these
-pits, unless the ashes be so considered.
-
-From the uncharred condition of the above articles it is evident that
-the ashes have been placed in the pits _as ashes_, after having been
-burned elsewhere, as in no case do the relics or the walls of the pits
-show any traces of the action of fire.
-
-With respect to the length of time that has elapsed since these
-interments, mention has already been made of the situation of some of
-the skeletons under large trees, an instance of which may be cited: On
-Saturday, April 5, the ground was visited by Judge Cox and Mr. Low,
-in company with Dr. Metz, and in excavating beneath an oak tree, six
-feet two inches in circumference, a skeleton was discovered, its lower
-extremities extending under the tree; overlying the lower extremities
-of this skeleton was another, its body situated directly under the
-trunk of the tree and the skull so surrounded and penetrated by roots
-as to prevent its removal except in fragments. The bones of both
-skeletons were much decayed and exceedingly fragile.
-
-In forming an estimate as to the probable antiquity of these
-interments, the time that must necessarily have elapsed between the
-abandonment of the cemetery and the springing up of the forest; the age
-of the trees now present and of others that have fallen and decayed;
-the advanced state of decay in which the human remains are found; the
-character of the pottery-ware; and lastly, the total absence of any
-evidences of communication with civilization, in the shape of glass
-beads or other trinkets, must all be taken into account; and it does
-not appear at all unreasonable to conclude that the use of this ground
-as a cemetery probably antedates the discovery of America by Columbus.
-
-As regards the particular race to which this people belonged,—whether
-they were identical with, or related to, the celebrated “stone-grave
-people” of Tennessee,[806] as some of their pottery-ware and the shape
-and dimensions of their crania would seem to indicate; or whether they
-were the last remnants of the once powerful nation that erected Fort
-Ancient and other gigantic works in this region,—these and similar
-queries remain as yet unanswered. More extended investigations and a
-careful comparison of large amounts of material from this and other
-localities, may be expected to assist in the solution of these obscure
-but interesting problems.
-
-At the present writing excavations are still in progress, with new
-developments daily, and a publication of the entire results, with full
-details and illustrations, may be looked for in due season.
-
-  MADISONVILLE, Hamilton County, Ohio, _July_ 19, 1879.
-
-  NOTE.—An illustrated report of the continuation of the Madisonville
-  exploration, so remarkable in results, will be found in the
-  _Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History_, vol.
-  iii, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; also a sketch by F. W. Putnam in _Harvard
-  University Bulletin_ for June 1, 1881.
-
-
-
-
-                                  B.
-
-
-[Illustration: Elephant Pipe from Louisa Co., Iowa.]
-
-The question as to whether man and the mastodon were contemporaneous in
-America, has long been a matter of dispute as the reader is aware after
-the perusal of our second chapter and other sources. The “elephant
-pipe” figured in the accompanying cut has been the means of calling
-fresh attention to the subject. Dr. R. J. Farquharson, of the Davenport
-Academy of Sciences, who kindly furnished us the photo from which our
-illustration is a reduction, states that six or seven years ago Mr.
-Peter Mare, a farmer (whose estate was situated on both sides of the
-line dividing Muscatine and Louisa Counties, Iowa) found the elephant
-pipe while plowing corn on his land in Louisa County. The finder,
-who had no idea of its archæological value, kept it with a number of
-“Indian stones,” as he termed them, until last year (1878), when it
-became the property of the Davenport Academy. Dr. Farquharson says:
-“The ancient mounds were very abundant in that vicinity (Louisa Co.),
-and rich in relics which are deposited on the surface of the soil (not
-in excavations), as we found in exploring a number. In such a case
-it is not strange that a mound having been gradually removed by long
-cultivation, the relics so deposited should be reached and turned up
-by the plow.” * * * “The pipe, which is of a fragile sandstone, is of
-the ordinary Mound-builder’s type, and has every appearance of age and
-usage. Of its genuineness I have no doubt. Together with the ‘Elephant
-mound’ of Wisconsin, the elephant head of Palenque (depicted in Lord
-Kingsborough’s great work), our pipe completes the series of what the
-French would call ‘documents’ proving the fact of the contemporaneous
-existence on this continent of man and the mastodon.”[807] The above
-facts, as stated by Dr. Farquharson, were substantially embodied in a
-paper read by Mr. Pratt before the Davenport Academy, April 25, 1879.
-
-
-
-
-                                  C.
-
-                       THE CHARNAY EXPLORATION.
-
-
-The exploring expedition under French and American patronage, led by
-M. Désiré Charnay, began its labors in Mexico, May 1st, 1880, and
-continued them nearly a year. During this time a large number of ruins,
-scattered over the area extending from Teotihuacan and Tollan, on the
-north, and Palenque, on the south, are reported to have been examined.
-How thorough the examination was, or how scientifically accurate
-were the published reports, it would at present (September, 1881) be
-impossible to determine. Suffice it to say that they are generally
-viewed with distrust, partly on account of the disjointed, haphazard
-form in which they have appeared in the _North American Review_
-(September, 1880-June, 1881—doubtless without blame on the part of the
-editor), where the splendid heliotype illustrations have been rendered
-nearly valueless by the frequent omission, from the text and elsewhere,
-of descriptive reference; and partly on account of the over-confident
-style of the writer. It is to be hoped that the ground for criticism
-may be removed when M. Charnay shall formally publish his reports.
-
-It would be superfluous in this connection to summarize his work, since
-his papers are accessible to all.
-
-It is worthy of note, however, that he reports Teotihuacan, on the
-authority of several authors, to have contained twenty-seven thousand
-dwellings, besides its temples, and that the heaps of ruins which
-remain justify the statement. The whole area of five or six miles
-in diameter was found covered with heaps of ruins. Cement roadways,
-containing broken pottery, seemed to afford evidence of occupancy
-in even a more ancient epoch than that in which Teotihuacan was
-founded. Excavations revealed two halls of a supposed temple at the
-base of one of the pyramids. One of these halls is reported to be
-nearly fifty feet square, in the middle of which stood six pillars
-which had served to sustain the roof. At Tula, the ancient capital of
-Tollau, north-west of the city of Mexico, hitherto so fruitless of
-archæological, and especially of architectural remains, M. Charnay
-made remarkable discoveries of pyramids, and several Toltec houses of
-immense proportions, one of which contained forty-three apartments,
-besides corridors and a staircase. Sculptures were numerous, and bricks
-of burnt clay, twelve inches long by five inches wide, were found to
-have been used in constructing stairways.
-
-Near the village of Comalcalco, thirty-five or forty miles
-north-west of San Juan Bautista, the capital of Tabasco, vast ruins
-were discovered, particularly pyramids, towers, and edifices, all
-forest-grown, equalling and even surpassing in proportions those at
-Palenque. Upon a pyramid 115 feet high an edifice of brick and mortar
-234 feet in length was explored.
-
-At the village of Palenque, M. Charnay found the two bas-reliefs seen
-by Waldeck and Stephens a half century ago, now built into the outer
-wall of a church (see this work, p. 391).
-
-At the ancient city itself the explorer discovered the ruins to be
-more extensive than ever heretofore supposed, and estimates that it
-would require the labor of five hundred men for six months, under the
-direction of a corps of topographers, simply to determine the general
-plan of the city. Eight hundred and sixty-one square feet of casts of
-bas-reliefs were taken. It was ascertained at Palenque, by breaking off
-portions of the vesture upon the stucco reliefs, that the human body
-had in all cases been first carefully modeled, and that the drapery had
-subsequently been superposed. Whether this fact throws light simply
-upon the process employed, or indicates a reaction or evolution in art,
-is equally interesting and uncertain.
-
-
-
-
-                                  D.
-
-         HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS.
-
-
-Among the unsolved problems of American archæology is that of the
-use to which the extensive systems of embankments attributed to the
-Mound-builders were put. The Newark (Ohio) system of works, now
-covering two miles square, but formerly presenting twelve miles of
-embankment, reaching at some points a height of thirty-five feet,
-with sufficient width for a carriage-way on top, has been a veritable
-sphinx to all inquirers. Nor does it stand alone in an architectural
-aspect. Its square is precisely of the dimensions of a similar figure
-found at Hopetown, in the Scioto Valley. Its circles are connected
-with squares or octagons, a typical combination of features generally
-prevalent in mound structures. Furthermore, its trenches are all within
-the enclosures. The probability is that the clew to the solution of
-the problem has come to light. The discovery of what are pronounced
-to be mound-works, in connection with the Pueblo ruins of Colorado
-and New Mexico and Arizona, has given us the hint. Mr. Wm. H. Holmes
-in “A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western Colorado, examined
-during the Summer of 1875,”[808] shows us the Mound and Pueblo ruin in
-close proximity. In describing a ruined village on the Rio La Plata,
-he says: “North of this, about 300 feet, is a truncated rectangular
-mound, 9 or 10 feet in height and 50 feet in width by 80 in length.
-On the east end, near one of the angles, is a low, projecting pile
-of débris that may have been a tower. There is nothing whatever to
-indicate the use of this structure. Its flat top and height give it
-more the appearance of one of the sacrificial mounds of the Ohio Valley
-than any other observed in this part of the West. It may have been,
-however, only a raised foundation, designed to support a superstructure
-of wood or adobe.... South of this, and occupying the extreme southern
-end of the terrace, are a number of small circles and mounds, while
-an undetermined number of diminutive mounds are distributed among the
-other ruins.” Mr. W. H. Jackson, in the same document (p. 29) that
-contains Mr. Holmes’ report, mentions the remains of “many circular
-towns” on a high plateau between the Montezuma and the Hovenweep. The
-year following, the lamented scholar, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, acting on
-the suggestion or originating a hypothesis of his own, announced in the
-_North American Review_ for July, 1876, what has since been called his
-“Pueblo Theory.” A fuller exposition of his views were embodied in his
-paper “On Houses of the American Aborigines,” published in the _Report
-of the Archæological Institute of America for 1879–1880_. Mr. Morgan
-illustrates the prevalence of communal houses among the aborigines east
-of the Mississippi, citing the long houses of the Iroquois; and west
-of the river the communal lodges of the Minnitares and Mandans, and
-of Columbia River Indians seen by Lewis and Clark in 1805. The writer
-further illustrates the communal architecture of the aborigines by
-discussions relating to the joint tenement houses of the Pueblos of New
-Mexico and Arizona. Having thus laid his foundation, he applies the
-communal idea and its expression in the Mandan and Pueblo structures
-in a conjectural restoration of the mound villages. He supposes that,
-as adobe would not withstand the frosts and rains of the Ohio Valley,
-the Mound-builder people resorted to the structure of wooden edifices.
-He says: “They might have raised these embankments of earth, enclosing
-circular, rectangular, or square areas, and constructed their long
-houses upon them.” Mr. Morgan would build upon the squares and circles
-houses having a wooden framework, upon which turf and grass were placed
-both upon roof and sides. In order that this should be possible, the
-sides are supposed to have been inclined at the same angle with the
-embankment, the superstructure being a continuation of the earthern
-foundation so far as outline and geometrical figure is concerned. To
-preserve analogy with the closed, windowless ground-storey of New
-Mexico Pueblos, Mr. Morgan supposes that the outer side or sides of
-the edifice were closed, presenting only blank walls of heavy turf
-or gravel to view; while the walls facing within the enclosure were
-windowed, and pierced with doors. The entrances to the enclosures, he
-supposes, were guarded with palisades. There the defensive feature of
-the Pueblo house was preserved. In his elaborate work, the “Houses
-and House Life of the American Aborigines,”[809] that last touch of a
-vanished hand, the author has discussed at length the development of
-the joint tenement house among the Mound-builders. After illustrating
-the principle, as applied in the restoration of High Bank works
-(Ross County, Ohio), he adds: “These embankments, therefore, require
-triangular houses of the kind described, and long houses as well,
-covering their entire length. But the interior plan might have been
-different; for example, the passage-way might have a long exterior
-wall, and the stalls or apartments on the court side, and but half as
-many in number; and, instead of one continuous house, in the interior,
-450 feet in length, it might have been divided into several, separated
-from each other by cross partitions. The plan of life, however, which
-we are justified in ascribing to them, from known usages of Indian
-tribes in a similar condition of advancement, would lead us to expect
-large households formed on the basis of kin, with the practice of
-communism in living in each household, whether large or small.” The
-plausibility of Mr. Morgan’s hypothesis is, to say the least, striking.
-However, his supposition that the Mound-builders and Pueblos were of
-the same race, is not unattended with difficulties. Conspicuous among
-them is the marked dissimilarity of the ceramic ornament employed by
-the two peoples. Nothing is more stable than the art of a race or
-age. Nothing more truly reveals the inner life of a people than its
-pottery. The Mound-builders and Pueblos each had their ceramic types.
-But they were wholly unlike—apparently the work of unrelated races.
-Yet, community of burial, as well as community of residence, to which
-may be added similarity of cranial type, are facts that declare for Mr.
-Morgan’s hypothesis as to the relation of the peoples in question.[810]
-
-
-
-
-                                INDEX.
-
-
-  A.
-
-  Abbott, discoveries in New Jersey. 127–8;
-      view of Eskimo, 128.
-
-  Aboriginal painting of sun, 65;
-      trade, 98;
-      Rau on, 98.
-
-  Aborigines, American, 21.
-
-  Acolhuas, Nahua tribe, 256.
-
-  Agassiz on Floridian jaw-bone, 112;
-      on origin of nations, 158–9;
-      on physical life and nature, 158;
-      views of untenable, 159, 516.
-
-  Ages of stone and bronze in Mississippi valley, 27.
-
-  Age of trees on mounds, 104.
-
-  Agglutination in languages, 471.
-
-  Alabama mounds, 71–72.
-
-  Alaska, climate of, 511.
-
-  Aleutian islands, 509;
-      migration by, 509.
-
-  Alleghany Mts., boundary of Mound country, 58.
-
-  Alligator mound, 34.
-
-  Allighewi, 102.
-
-  Allouez, Father, on aboriginal copper, 92–3.
-
-  Al-Mamoun, state of learning during kalifate of, 132.
-
-  Altar mounds, 37;
-      Squier and Davis on, 83–87;
-      stratification of, 83–84;
-      Prof. Andrews on, 83, n. 1.
-
-  Alton, mounds at, 41.
-
-  Amaquemecan, Chichimec home, 248, 256.
-
-  American civilization (ancient) contrasted with that of Britons, 520.
-    “Bottom,” recent discoveries in, 43–44.
-    languages, number and variety of, 190;
-      instability of, 190.
-      race not unique, 165;
-      of old world origin, 201–2.
-
-  Anahuac, 249.
-
-  Analogies in geographical names, 497.
-    in religion, 459–68.
-    of ceremonial law, 463.
-    Scandanavian and Mexican, 464.
-    Hindoo and Mexican, 465.
-    Greek and Mexican, 466.
-    Egyptian and Mexican, 467.
-
-  Anchylosis (bony) observed in mound-builder remains, 184.
-
-  Ancient copper mines, 89–94.
-
-  Ancient forts of New York, 28;
-      of Lake Erie, 28;
-      Col. Whittlesey on, 28;
-      Dr. Foster on, 28.
-
-  Anderson’s, W. M., “Calendar Stone,” 70.
-
-  Andrews, E. B., explorations by, 55.
-
-  Antiquity of man, chap. ii;
-      testimony of geology, 102;
-      in Europe, 24, n. 1.
-
-  Antiquity of mounds, 101, 103, 104.
-    Red man, 22.
-
-  Antipodes, St. Augustine on, 132;
-      Aristarchus of Samos on, 132.
-
-  Apes, American group of, 194.
-
-  Ararat, Mt., 497.
-    the Mexican, 261–63.
-
-  Arch, pueblo, 292.
-
-  Architecture, analogies in, real and fancied, 339.
-    Maya, 340–55.
-    classification of styles, 340.
-    Palenque, 340;
-      Yucatan style, 346;
-      Uxmal, 347.
-    Kabah, 352;
-      Zayi, 353;
-      Labná, 354.
-    Quiché, 355–59.
-    Nahua, 359–83;
-      Mitla, 360–64.
-    Maya and Nahua compared, 381.
-
-  Architectural progress in mound works, 79–80.
-
-  Argyll, Duke of, on Negroid type, 197.
-
-  Art, unity of style in savage, 196.
-    high order at Palenque, 389, 392;
-      at Uxmal, 393, 395;
-      at Copan, 404.
-    Palenque and Egyptian compared, 418.
-
-  Astronomical knowledge of Aztecs, 455.
-    Mound-builders, 94–6.
-
-  Atlantic Ocean, floor of, 502, 505.
-    submerged land ridge of, 503.
-    mean depths of, 502.
-    sea-board, changes in level of, 504.
-    continent, 505.
-
-  Atlantis, Platonic, tradition of, 142, 498–505.
-    Brasseur de Bourbourg on, 498–500.
-    Legends of from _Popol Vuh_ and _Codex Chimalpopoca_, 499.
-    Retzius on, 500;
-      Unger, 501;
-    Heer, 501.
-
-  Atolls of the Pacific, 507;
-      Dana and Le Conte on, 507–8.
-
-  Atoyac, Mexican river, 234.
-
-  Autochthones, mound-builders not, 97.
-
-  Autochthon, the American an, 192.
-
-  Autochthonic origin of Americans, 155.
-
-  Axayacatl, Mexican king, 452.
-
-  Azores, volcanic character of, 503.
-
-  Aztec calendar, 446–59;
-      year, 447;
-      months, 447;
-      weeks and days, 448;
-      inter-calation, 448;
-      Ritual year, 449, 455;
-      Lords of night, 449.
-    Stone, 450;
-      lunar reckoning, 455.
-    chronology, 458.
-
-  Aztec language, richness of, 471, 480, 481;
-      extent of, 480, 492.
-    the classic tongue, 480;
-      ancient and modern, 481.
-    grammar, 481–85;
-      Lord’s prayer in, 485.
-    traces of north of Mexico, 486–90, 491.
-    elements in Nootka languages, 491.
-
-  Aztec picture-writing, 428–33.
-
-  Aztec springs, 300, 324–26;
-      Aztec-Sonora languages, 487–8.
-
-  “Aztec theory,” the, 331.
-
-  Aztecs, migrations of, 259–263;
-      date of, 259;
-      stations, 260–61;
-      southern origin of considered, 266, n. 1.
-
-  Aztlan, Nahua home, 257–9, 518;
-      location of, 257–9, 264–65.
-    description of by Duran, 258.
-
-  Aztlan, Wis., mound works at, 36.
-
-
-  B.
-
-  Babel myths, 140;
-      tower of, 205;
-      Cholula, 235–37.
-
-  Bacab myth, 465.
-
-  Balam-Agab, Quiché progenitor, 214.
-
-  Balam-Quitzé, Quiché progenitor, 214.
-
-  Baldwin, J. D., on mounds of North-west, 31, 32.
-
-  Bancroft, H. H., on Hue hue Tlapalan, 251–53.
-    resumé of Toltec annals by, 255.
-    observations on Cox-cox myth, 263.
-    on Maya chronology, 438.
-    on Aztec language, 476, n. 2.
-
-  Baptism, Mexican, 462.
-
-  Barber, E. A., 305.
-
-  Barrandt on Dakota mounds, 31.
-
-  Basque and Maya languages compared, 476;
-      Dr. Farrar on, 476, n. 2.
-
-  Bartlett’s exploration of Casas Grandes, 276–83.
-
-  Bayou St. John, earthworks on, 76.
-
-  Beard mound, 56.
-
-  Bearded men at Chichen-Itza, 401.
-
-  Beau Relief in Stucco, 388.
-
-  Becker, J. H., on traditions of Nahua Mound-builders, 102, n.;
-      on ancient home of Nahuas, 248;
-      on Toltec migration, 248–50.
-
-  Behring’s Straits, Bancroft’s remarks on, 147.
-    width and depth of, 510;
-      Lyell and Herschel on, 510;
-      Hellwald on migration by, 511;
-      Dall, W. H., on migration _via_, 512, n. 1.
-
-  Berthoud, E. L., stone implements collected by, 124.
-
-  Big Harpeth valley works, 60–65.
-
-  Blake, J. H., collection of Peruvian skulls by, 176–7.
-
-  Bollaert’s interpretation of hieroglyphics, 425.
-
-  Books used by Mayas, 420.
-    by Aztecs, 428.
-
-  Bourbeuse River, mastodon discovered at, 116.
-
-  Brasseur de Bourbourg, estimate of by Bancroft, 142, n. 1.
-    on the Platonic Atlantis, 142, 498–500;
-      on Igh and Imox, 205, n. 1;
-      on Maya hieroglyphics, 421–25;
-      on religious analogies, 467–8;
-      on Scandinavian and Maya languages, 476.
-
-  Brachycephalic crania classified, 162–3.
-
-  Brazil, accidental discovery of by Cabral, 506.
-
-  Brentwood, Tenn., stones graves at, 60.
-
-  Brick, sun-dried, from mounds, 72–75.
-
-  Brinton, Dr., phonetic alphabet, 427;
-      Buddha and Quetzalcoatl compared by, 466.
-
-  Brown, Thos., mounds of, 63–4.
-
-  Browne, Ross, explorations by, 282–3.
-
-  Buckle, on learning in Spain, 133, n. 2.
-
-  Buddhist missionaries in America, 148–50.
-
-  Burial, “intrusive” in mounds, 85;
-      ceremony, 40;
-      in stone coffins, 60;
-      vase from Mexico, 410.
-
-  Butler, J. W., on Chaac-Mol, 399.
-
-  Buschmann’s researches on American languages, 487–88.
-    Sonora family, 487;
-      on Aztec element in Nootka language, 491.
-
-
-  C.
-
-  Cabots, 22.
-
-  Cabral, discovery of Brazil by, 506.
-
-  Cabrera on the origin of the Votanites, 208–9;
-      on Votanic document, 207.
-
-  Cahita, language of New Mexico, 487.
-
-  Cahokia mound, 41.
-
-  Calapooya language, traces of Aztec in, 490.
-
-  Calaveras Co. (Cal.) cranium, 125;
-      views of Whitney, Wyman and others on, 125.
-
-  Calendar systems, mound-builder, 40.
-    Maya, 435–45;
-      days, 436;
-      months, 437;
-      the Katun, 439–40;
-      Ahau Katun, 441;
-      succession of, 442.
-    Nahua or Mexican, its construction, 243, 446–59;
-      perfection of, 519;
-      year, 447;
-      days and weeks, 448;
-      inter-calation, 448;
-      Ritual year, 449;
-      lords of night, 449;
-      Calendar Stone, 408–9;
-      interpreted by Gama, Chevero and Valentini, 450–58;
-      history, 452–3, 457.
-
-  California, traces of antiquity of man in, 125.
-
-  California languages and their affinities to Chinese, 495;
-      Japanese, 496.
-
-  Canals constructed by Mound-builders, 98–100.
-
-  Caras or Carians ancient navigators, 507;
-      Brasseur on, 507.
-
-  Carr’s Measurements of Crania, 173;
-      on low-type mound crania, 174.
-
-  Carter, 22;
-      Carter, Dr. J. Van A., on stone implements, 24, n. 1.
-
-  Carthaginian colonization of America, 145–6
-
-  Cara Gigantesca, 404.
-
-  Casa del Ecó, 312.
-    Gobernador (Uxmal), 347–50.
-    Grande of Zayi, 353.
-    de Monjas, sculptures of, 394.
-
-  Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, 276;
-      Aztec station at, 277.
-    of the Gila, 284.
-
-  Cataclysm, traditions of a, 499.
-
-  Cave explorations, 26.
-    dwellings, 292–311, 313.
-    village of Rio Chelley, 313.
-    shelters of San Juan, 319.
-    fortresses of Rio Mancos, 320.
-
-  Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king, 272.
-
-  Cemetery, aboriginal, 65.
-
-  Centennial Report of Ohio Arch. Asso., 82.
-
-  Centla, pyramid of, 365–6.
-
-  Cephalic index of crania, 160.
-
-  Ceremonial law, analysis of, 463.
-
-  Chaac-Mol, statue of, 397–400.
-
-  Chaco Valley, ruined pueblo in, 291;
-      peculiarity of architecture, 292.
-
-  Chalcas, Nahua tribe, 256.
-
-  Chalco, lake, 264.
-
-  Challenger, voyage of, 502;
-      “Challenger plateau,” 502–3.
-
-  Chalcatzin, Toltec chief, 244.
-
-  Chamber, interior in mound, 75.
-
-  Chanes, ancient races, 206.
-
-  Charencey, 425.
-
-  Chelly Cañon, antiquities of, 293;
-      cave-village of, 313–14;
-      house in, 315.
-
-  Chevero, interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone by, 450–2.
-
-  Chiapan architecture, 340.
-
-  Chiapas, ancient civilization of, 203.
-
-  Chichen-Itza, antiquities of, 353–5, 397–403;
-      mural paintings at, 401.
-
-  Chichilticale, “red house,” 281.
-
-  Chichimecs, Mexican nation, 243;
-      dynasty of, 254;
-      language of, 255, 480;
-      Pimentel on, 255–6.
-
-  Chicomoztoc (Chichimostoc) Nahua home, 256–7;
-      identical with “seven caves,” 261, n.; 264–66.
-
-  Chihuahua, Casas Grandes of, 275;
-      original descriptions of, 276;
-      material and dimensions of, 276–77.
-
-  Children’s graves in Tennessee, 66–8.
-
-  Chimalhuacan, Toltec station, 245.
-
-  Chinook language, traces of Aztec in, 490, n. 3.
-
-  Cholula pyramid, 235;
-      not related to a flood, 235, 237;
-      origin according to Duran, 236, 368–70.
-
-  Christ myth in Yucatan, 231, 464.
-
-  Christy collection, Mosaic knife from, 412.
-
-  Chinese colonization of America, 148.
-
-  Chronology, accepted faulty, 199, 200;
-      Duke of Argyll on, 200.
-    Maya, 435–45;
-      adjusted to ours, 443–45.
-
-  Cibola, seven cities of, 288.
-
-  Cincinnati mound-works. 44–6;
-      tablet, 44–6.
-
-  Circumcision, 463.
-
-  Cists, stone, 60.
-
-  Civilization, American contrasted with that of ancient Britons, 520.
-
-  Clallam and Lummi languages, Aztec element in, 490.
-
-  Clarke, Robert, on Cincinnati Tablet, 44–6.
-    on Morgan’s Pueblo theory, 55, n. 2.
-
-  Classification of crania, 160–3.
-    of mound-works by Squier and Davis, and Foster, 81.
-    of mound relics by Rau, 82, n. 1.
-
-  Clavigero, views on origin of Americans, 140, n. 1.
-    on first colonists of America, 204.
-
-  Cliff-dwellers, 293;
-      their traditional history, 302.
-
-  Cliff-dwellings of the Mancos Cañon, 298–99, 319.
-    McElmo Cañon, 302.
-    Hovenweep, 305–7.
-    San Juan, 307, 308, 319.
-    and Rock Shelters on San Juan, 309.
-    house of Chelly Cañon, 315.
-    in Montezuma Cañon, 316.
-
-  Cloth from mounds, 37, 43.
-
-  Coast level, elevation and depression of, 405.
-
-  Coffins, stone, 60.
-
-  Columbus, 22;
-      stern-post of ship seen by, 506.
-
-  Colonists, first in Mexico, 242.
-
-  Color, variety in human races, 197, 198;
-      Darwin on origin of, 199.
-
-  Color of ancient Americans, 189;
-      Pritchard on, 189, n. 2.
-
-  Colorado River, ruins in Grand Cañon of, 285.
-    Major Powell’s exploration, 285–87.
-
-  Colorado Chiquito, antiquities of, 287.
-
-  Columbia River languages, 492.
-
-  Conant, A. J., explorations by, 76, 77;
-      on ancient canals, 98, 100.
-
-  Conflict of science and dogmatism, 131.
-
-  Confusion of tongues, 238.
-
-  Connett mound, 56.
-
-  Conquest of Xibalba, 222–5.
-
-  Copan, 221;
-      ruins of, 356–59;
-      sculpture of, 404–5.
-
-  Copper in mounds, 85;
-      ancient mines of, 89–94;
-      theory of Mexican supply, 93, 493.
-    relics from Wisconsin, 99.
-
-  Cora language and its relation to Aztec, 486–7.
-
-  Cosmogonic egg, 416, 419, 465.
-
-  Coronado’s journey to New Mexico, 281, n. 1.
-
-  Cox, Prof., discoveries cited, 75.
-
-  Cox-cox, Mexican Noah, 262, n. 1.
-
-  Cox-cox, Bancroft’s observations on, 263, 454.
-
-  _Crania Americana_, measurements of, classified, 161–3.
-
-  Cranial measurements, 159–60.
-
-  Crania from mounds, testimony of, 105–6.
-    River Rogue, 167;
-      measurements by Gillman, 168.
-    Davenport, Farquharson’s measurements, 169–70;
-      from Ohio, 170;
-      from Kentucky, 171;
-      from Tennessee, 171;
-      comparison, 174;
-      compression of common, 178, 184;
-      among Chinooks, 182;
-      among other American tribes, 183.
-
-  Cranium, low type, discovered by Conant, 174.
-
-  Cremation probable, 85.
-
-  Cristone of McElmo Cañon, 301.
-
-  Cross, subterranean temple of, 363.
-    Tablet of, 390.
-
-  Cruciform works at Trenton, Wis., 35.
-
-  Crux Ansata at Palenque, 416–17.
-
-  Cukulcan culture hero, 230–31, 272, 394, 457.
-
-  Culhuacan, 226.
-
-  Culhuas (Nahuas) sometimes applied to Mayas, 209.
-
-  Curtiss, Ed., explorations by, 65.
-
-
-  D.
-
-  Dablon, Father, on aboriginal use of copper, 92–3.
-
-  Dakota mounds, 31, n. 2.
-
-  Dall, W. H., on migration by Behring’s Straits, 512, n. 1.
-
-  Dana, J. D., review of Dr. Koch’s discoveries, 120.
-
-  Darwin on old world origin of Americans, 194.
-
-  Davenport Academy, explorations conducted by, 37–40.
-
-  Davenport Tablet, 38, 40.
-
-  Davenport mound crania, 169–70.
-    elephant pipe, Appendix B.
-
-  Days, Maya, 436–38.
-
-  Deguignes, 148.
-
-  Deluge myths, Mexican, 262–3, notes.
-    Tezpi, 263, n.;
-      Analogies, 460.
-
-  Development of American Race (see Evolution).
-
-  Dickson, Dr., examination of “Mammoth Ravine” by, 113–14.
-
-  Diseases of Mound-builders, 184.
-
-  Dogmatism and science, 131.
-
-  Dolechocephalic crania classified, 161.
-
-  “Dolphin Rise,” the, 501.
-
-  Domenech, Abbé, note on works, 139, n. 4.
-
-  Dowler, Dr., skeleton discovered by, 123;
-      estimate of antiquity, 123.
-
-  Drake, account of works at Cincinnati by, 44.
-
-  Drift (modified), fossil from, 121.
-
-  Dwellings of Mound-builders, 67.
-
-
-  E.
-
-  Earth, globular form discovered, 133.
-
-  Echevarria y Veitia on the origin of the Americans, 138.
-
-  Eckstein, Baron de, on the Caras, 507.
-
-  Eden, Mexican analogies with, 460.
-
-  Edificios de Quemada, 379.
-
-  Education of Aztec children, 432.
-
-  Effigy mounds of Wisconsin, 33–36;
-      of Ohio, 34;
-      of Georgia, 35.
-
-  Egypt and Teotihuacan compared, 383.
-
-  Egyptian influence on American civilization, 147.
-
-  Egyptian painting, 197.
-
-  Egyptian Tau at Palenque, 416.
-
-  El Castillo, pyramid, 366.
-
-  Elephant mound. 35–6;
-      “Trunk,” 385, 395;
-      pipe, 530.
-
-  El Moro, ruins on, 290.
-
-  Elyria cave, Whittlesey on, 26.
-
-  Engleman, Dr. J. G., 43.
-
-  Enoch, H. R., discovery by, 44.
-
-  Epsom Creek, antiquities of, 315;
-      elevated tower on, 316.
-
-  Eric the Red, 153.
-
-  Ericson, 32.
-
-  Eskimo, the first occupants of America, 512.
-
-  Estufa (Pueblo sanctuary), 292;
-      entrance peculiar, 322.
-
-  Etowah valley mounds, 72.
-
-  Europe, antiquity of man in, 24, n. 1.
-
-  Evolution, origin of the Americans by, 191;
-      views of Hellwald on, 191;
-      regarded improbable by Hæckel and Darwin, 195.
-
-
-  F.
-
-  Fanaticism of early writers on America, 133.
-
-  Farquharson, Dr., reports by, 38.
-
-  Farrar, Dr. W., on American language, 470.
-
-  Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl, Gucumatz Cukulcan), 272, 394, 457.
-
-  Festival of the Mexican Cycle, 456.
-
-  Flood myths of the Mexicans, 262, n. 1, 499;
-      of Pueblos, 335–6.
-
-  Floors of burnt clay, 66.
-
-  Florida, ancient home of Mayas, 517.
-
-  Floridian jaw-bone, Agassiz and Pourtales on, 112–13.
-
-  Fontaine, Mr., on Tennessee valley mounds, 71.
-
-  Forchhammer on Indian languages, 496.
-
-  Forest growth on mounds, 104.
-
-  Forshey, Prof. C. G., on southern mounds, 77–79.
-
-  Fort Ancient, 51;
-      Judges Dunlevy and Force on, 51, 52.
-
-  Fortifications (ancient) in New York, on the Lakes, and in Butler
-        Co., Ohio, 50;
-      in Miami valley, 51, 75.
-
-  Foster’s _Pre-historic Races_, importance of, 100, n. 2.
-
-  Foster, Dr. J. W., on Cahokia mound, 42;
-      classification of mound-works by, 81;
-      on Indian traditions, 102;
-      on age of “New Orleans skeleton,” 124.
-
-  Fossil from drift, Jersey Co., Ill., 121;
-      Foster’s observations on, 121.
-
-  Fremont, Montezuma legend by, 334.
-
-  Frio, Cape, distance from Africa, 506.
-
-  Fuentes, description of Copan by, 356.
-
-  Funeral ceremony, 39, 40.
-
-  Fusang, 148–51;
-      views of Neuman on, 149;
-      Bretschneider, 150;
-      Klaproth, 150;
-      D’Eichthal, 151.
-
-
-  G.
-
-  Gama, Leon y, on Mexican Calendar Stone, 450–55.
-
-  Garcia on origin of Americans, 136–7.
-
-  Gardner, J. Starke, on Dolphin and Challenger ridges, 503.
-
-  Gass, Rev. J., discoveries of, 37, 40.
-
-  Gemelli Carreri, migration map of, 261–3.
-
-  Geometrical knowledge of Mound-builders, 49.
-
-  Geographical names, analogies in, 497.
-
-  Gest, Mr. E., 46.
-
-  Giants, race of, 232;
-      destruction of, 235.
-
-  Gila river, Casa Grande of, 279.
-    accounts of, 279;
-      ground plan of, 281.
-    view of, 283.
-
-  Gillman, Henry, explorations of, 29.
-    on crania from River Rogue, 167–8.
-    on crania from Chamber’s Island, 169.
-
-  Goazacoalco (various spellings) river and province, 251.
-
-  Gobernador, Casa del, 347–50.
-
-  Grammar of Maya language, 477–9.
-
-  Aztec language, 481–85.
-
-  Grave Creek mound, 87.
-
-  Gravier on Northmen, 153.
-
-  Gray, Asa, on American and European flora, 501;
-      on Asiatic flora, 513.
-
-  Graphic systems, see Hieroglyphics.
-
-  Great Serpent, mound-work, 34, 70.
-
-  Grecques at Mitla, 363.
-
-  Greek analogies of religion, 466.
-
-  Greek colonization of America, 146;
-      advocates of, 146.
-
-  Greek gods in Yucatan, 467.
-
-  Green County, Missouri, mound, 74.
-
-  Greenland, subsidence of coast, 504.
-
-  “Grimm’s Law,” 471–488.
-
-  Grote, Prof. A. R., observations on Eskimo, 128, 512.
-
-  Guatemalians, origin and flood myths of, 228–9.
-
-  Gucumatz, Quiché, deity, 213, 222, 226, 227.
-    search for maize by, 241, 272.
-
-  Gulf Stream, 505.
-
-
-  H.
-
-  Hacavitz, mountain and deity, 215–16.
-
-  Hæckel, on origin of Americans, 195.
-
-  Hair of ancient Americans, 186.
-
-  Hair-cloth from mounds, 43.
-
-  Hanno’s naval expeditions, 145.
-
-  Hands, prints of ancient cliff-dwellers, 312.
-
-  Haywood, mummies described by, 187.
-
-  Head-flattening, history of, 178–80;
-      practiced in America, 180–84;
-      Prof. Wilson on, 180;
-      among the Chinooks, 182;
-      among Mound-builders, 183.
-
-  Headlee, Dr., cited, 75, n.
-
-  Hearths (ancient) in Ohio valley, 122.
-
-  Helena, Missouri, sun-dried bricks at, 75.
-
-  Hellwald, F. von, and copper in Mexico, 93.
-
-  Herrera on origin of Americans, 137.
-
-  Heroic period of American history, 515.
-
-  Hieroglyphics, from the mounds, 419.
-    of cliff-dwellers, 420;
-      of Mayas, 420–28;
-      Landa’s key to, 223–25.
-    Mexican, 429–34.
-
-  Hill, S. W., on ancient copper mines, 91.
-
-  Hindoo and Mexican analogies, 465.
-
-  Hiram and Solomon’s fleet, 154.
-
-  Hitchcock, Prof. Ed., on age of Mississippi delta, 128.
-
-  Hivites, ancestors of Votanites, 208–9, n.
-
-  Hoei-Shin, report on Fusang, 148.
-
-  Holmes, W. H., explorations of, 297, 305, 317.
-    on Rio de la Plata, 318;
-      mound-works reported, 318;
-      discoveries on San Juan, 319.
-    in Mancos Cañon, 320–24.
-
-  Hooker, Sir Joseph, 43.
-
-  Hopetown works, 49.
-
-  Hosea, S. M., on sacrificial mounds, 74, n. 2.
-
-  Houses of Mound-builders, 67.
-
-  Hovenweep, ruined city of, 304;
-      niche stairway of, 306;
-      cliff-house of, 307.
-
-  Howland, H. R., discoveries by, in “American bottom,” 43–4.
-
-  Huastecs, Maya nation, 234.
-
-  Hueman (Huematzin), Toltec astrologer and leader, 245, 253.
-
-  Hue hue Tlapalan, ancient Nahua home, 238, 240, 248;
-      date of migration from, 240, 241, 244, 245, n., 458;
-      location of, 244, 518.
-    in Mississippi Valley, 253;
-      not in North-west, 253.
-
-  Huehuetan, in Chiapas. 206.
-
-  Huemac, Toltec king, 268.
-
-  Hueyxalan, Toltec station, 245.
-
-  Humboldt, William von, on Aztec language, 486.
-
-  Humphries and Abbott’s estimate of age of Mississippi delta, 124.
-
-  Hunahpu, Quiché, hero, 222;
-      exploits of, 222–3.
-
-  Hunab Ku (only god), 231.
-
-  Hunbatz, 223.
-
-  Hun Came, 222–24.
-
-  Hunchouen, 228.
-
-  Hunhunahpu, Quiché, chief, 222–3.
-
-  Hurakan, Quiché, deity, 212, 222, 226.
-
-
-  I.
-
-  Iaia, tradition of, 499, n.
-
-  Igh, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, 204.
-
-  Imox, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, 204.
-
-  Inca-bone, 173.
-
-  India and Mexico, religious analogies of, 465.
-
-  Indiana mounds, 57, n. 2.
-
-  Indigenous Americans, 155.
-    views of writers on, 156.
-
-  Infant burial in Tennessee, 60, 66.
-
-  Ingersoll, Mr., tradition of cliff-dwellers recorded by, 302–4.
-
-  Intercalary days, 445, 455.
-
-  Interglacial race, 512–516.
-    relics from Waynesville, Ohio, 126;
-      President Orton on, 126–7.
-
-  Interglacial man in New Jersey, 127–8.
-
-  Iqi-Balam, Quiché, deity, 214–15.
-
-  Irish colonists of America, 152.
-
-  Israel, lost tribes of in America, 135–6;
-      views of Duran on, 135;
-      Thorowgood, 136;
-      L’Estrange, 136;
-      Garcia, 137;
-      Pineda, 138;
-      Echevarria y Veitia and Kingsborough, 143.
-
-  Isle Royal, copper mines on, 91;
-      Henry Gillman 91, n. 1;
-      Foster on, 92–3;
-      Aboriginal use of copper, 92–3.
-
-  Issaquena County, Mississippi, mounds, 70;
-      Anderson’s Calendar Stone from, 70.
-
-  Ixtlilxochetl’s _Relaciones_, 240, 250.
-
-
-  J.
-
-  Jackson, W. H., discoveries by in the McElmo and Mancos cañons, 294.
-    in the Hovenweep, 305–7.
-
-  Janos river, antiquities of, 278.
-
-  Japanese and American affinities, 496.
-    colonization of America, 148.
-
-  Jaredites, colonists of America, 144.
-
-  Jaw-bone from Florida, Agassiz and Count Pourtales on, 112–13.
-
-  Jewish theory of colonization, 143.
-
-  Jewish and Mexican historical analogies, 461.
-
-  Jones, George, on Phœnician colonization of America, 146;
-      estimate of his work, 146, n. 2.
-
-  Jones, Prof. Joseph, Mound explorations in Tennessee, 171–3;
-      cranial measurements by, 172.
-
-
-  K.
-
-  Kabah, peculiarity of architecture at, 352.
-
-  Kamucu, Quiché national song, 217.
-
-  Kennebec valley mound, 28.
-
-  Kennon, Col., on Aleutian islands, 509.
-
-  Kentucky mound crania, 171.
-
-  Kinich-Kakmó, queen of Chichen-Itza, 400.
-
-  Kingsborough’s fancied analogies, 460–65.
-
-  Kitchens of the Mound-builders, 76.
-
-  Kitchen-middens, see _Shell-heaps_.
-
-  Knapp, S. O., discovery of ancient copper mines by, 89.
-
-  Koch, Dr., discoveries of, 116–121;
-      J. D. Dana on, 120–21;
-      Koch, valuable services of, 121, n. 2.
-
-  Kuro-suvo, or Japan current, 509.
-
-
-  L.
-
-  Labná, architecture of, 353.
-
-  Lake Superior copper mines, 90–92.
-
-  Lamnites, colonists of America, 144.
-
-  Landa’s Alphabet, 423–25.
-    Maya days and months, 436–7.
-
-  Languages (American), multiplicity of, 190, 469;
-      instability of, 493–4, n. 1.
-    survival of the fittest, 470.
-    the Maya-Quiché, 472;
-      classification of, 472;
-      stability of the Maya, 473.
-    the oldest American, 473;
-      Orozco y Berra on, 473, 493;
-      Maya-Quiché characteristics, 474;
-      Dr. Le Plongeon on, 474.
-    the Aztec, 479–90;
-      epitome of grammar, 481–85;
-      affinities to Asiatic, 495–96;
-      bearing on migrations, 486.
-
-  Lapham, Dr., survey of mound-works in Wisconsin, 34–5.
-
-  Lascarbot on origin of Americans, 137.
-
-  Las Casas, on origin of Guatemalians, 228.
-    on flood myth, 228;
-      on creation myth, 228, n.;
-      on Christ myth, 231.
-
-  Latham on Morton’s theories, 165, n.
-
-  Lautverschiebung, 471, 488.
-
-  Leather relic from mound, 56.
-
-  Le Conte, Prof., on changes of coast level, 504.
-
-  Legendary period of American history, level, 515.
-
-  Leidy, Prof. Joseph, on stone implements, 24.
-
-  L’Estrange on origin of Americans, 136.
-
-  Leroux, M., discoveries of, 284.
-
-  Le Plongeon, Dr., explorations in Yucatan, 396–403;
-      on Maya language, 474–77;
-      on analogies between Yucatan and Canary Islands, 500.
-
-  Liberty, Ohio, works at, 48.
-
-  Lief, Norse discoverer of America, 153.
-
-  Lord’s prayer in Maya, 479.
-    in Aztec, 485.
-
-  Louisiana mounds, 77–79.
-    Prof. C. G. Forshey on, 77;
-      pyramidal mounds, 78.
-
-  Low type crania from mounds, 174.
-
-  Lund, Dr., explorations by, 116.
-
-  Lyell, Sir Charles, on remains at Santos River, Brazil, 113;
-      observations on Natchez bone, 113–14;
-      on age of Mississippi delta, 123;
-      on New Orleans skeleton, 123.
-
-
-  M.
-
-  McElmo Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, 300, 302.
-    square tower in, 301;
-      triple-walled tower of, 224.
-
-  McGuire on antiquity of Red man, 27, n.
-
-  McKinley, William, mounds described by, 73.
-
-  Madisonville explorations, 523.
-
-  Mahucutah, Quiché progenitor, 214.
-
-  Maize, discovery of, 241.
-
-  Man, antiquity of in South America, 109–10, 129;
-      four creations of, 214.
-
-  Man’s influence on nature, 110–11;
-      measure of antiquity, 110;
-      Martius on, 111, n.;
-      Dr. Brinton on, 111;
-      Dr. Meigs on Santos River remains, 113.
-
-  Man of recent origin in America, 130;
-      Lubbock’s remarks on, 130;
-      Foster on, 130, n.
-
-  Manchester stone fort, 59.
-
-  Mancos Cañon, cliff-houses of, 294, 295, 298, 299;
-      watch-tower of, 296–97, 300;
-      cave-fortresses of, 320–24.
-
-  Manuscripts of Mayas, 421.
-    Troano MS, 422.
-    of Mexicans, 429;
-      Mendoza Codex, 431–33.
-
-  Maps, Aztec migration, 261–63.
-
-  Marietta mounds, 54.
-
-  Marsh, Prof. O. C., exploration by, 87–9.
-
-  Mastodon discovered by Dr. Koch, 116–18.
-
-  Mayas, traditional origin of, chap. v.;
-      earliest home, 210;
-      venerable civilization, 519;
-      architecture of, 340–55;
-      sculpture, 384–403;
-      compared to Egyptian, 415;
-      calendar of, 435–45;
-      Katun or Cycle, 439–40;
-      Ahau Katun, 442;
-      intercalary days, 445;
-      system adjusted to our chronology, 443–45;
-      observations of Landa, Perez, Bancroft and Delaport on, 443–45.
-
-  Maya-Quiché languages classified, 472;
-      stability of, 473;
-      antiquity of, 474–5.
-
-  Maya Grammar, 477–79;
-      Maya, Lord’s prayer in, 479.
-
-  Maya and Hebrew compared, 475.
-    compared to Scandinavian languages, 476.
-    compared to the Basque, 476;
-      to West African languages, 477.
-
-  Maya writing, see Hieroglyphics.
-
-  Mazatepec, Toltec station, 246.
-
-  Mecitl (or Mixi), Aztec leader, 259.
-
-  Meigs on mean of Indian cranium, 167.
-
-  Melgar on two idols near Mexico, 416;
-      on Maya language, 475.
-
-  Menominees, “White Indiana,” 189.
-
-  Mexican baptism, 462–3;
-    crania, 175.
-    Calendar, divisions of time, 446;
-      the Cycle, 446;
-      festival of, 456;
-      months, 447;
-      New Year, 447.
-    Calendar Stone, 450;
-      its interpreters, 450;
-      dates furnished by, 458;
-      Lunar reckoning, 455.
-
-  Mexican language, see Aztec language.
-
-  Mexico, pyramid of, 374;
-      sculpture from, 408–11;
-      vases from, 410;
-      vases in the United States National Museum, 413–415.
-
-  Miami Valley, aboriginal cemetery in, 523.
-
-  Miamisburgh mound, 52.
-
-  Mica, use of by Mound-builders, 98.
-
-  Michigan mounds, 29.
-
-  Migration, the first to America, 512.
-    conditions favorable in North-west, 513.
-    Becker on, 513–14.
-    of the Quichés, 215.
-    of the Tolteca, 244–251.
-    of the Aztecs, 259–63;
-      of Tarascos, 261.
-
-  Migration map of Boturini, 433.
-    of Gemelli Carreri, 261–63, 483.
-    Gemelli interpreted by Ramirez, 262.
-
-  Minas Geraes, caves of, 116.
-
-  Mississippi delta, age of, 122–24;
-      estimate by Lyell, 122;
-      by Dr. Dowler, 123;
-      by Dr. Hitchcock, 123;
-      by Humphries and Abbott, 123.
-
-  Mississippi mounds, 69–70, 71.
-
-  Mitchell, Dr. A., explorations cited, 73.
-
-  Mitla, antiquities of, 361–62.
-
-  Mizteco-Zapotec languages, 479.
-
-  Miztecs, Mexican tribe. 234.
-
-  Mongol colonization of America, 151.
-
-  Monjas, Casa de, 350.
-
-  Montezuma Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, 316.
-
-  Montezuma, culture-hero, 333;
-      legend of his birth, 334;
-      legend concerning by Papagoes chief, 334;
-      Montezuma II., Mexican emperor, 453;
-      languages of his empire, 480.
-
-  Months, Maya, 437–39.
-
-  Monosyllabism, 495.
-
-  Moqui towns, Becker on origin, 332;
-      name, 332;
-      Lieutenant Ives’ description of, 326–30;
-      pottery, 327;
-      interior of dwellings, 328.
-
-  Moqui language, Aztec traces in, 489.
-
-  Mooshahueh, Moqui town, 328.
-
-  Morgan, L. H., Pueblo theory of, 55;
-      Robert Clarke on, 53, n.
-
-  Mormon colonisation of America, 144;
-      Bancroft on, 144.
-
-  Morton, Dr., classification of American races by, 157–59;
-      table of cranial measurements by, 158, n. 1;
-      views untenable, 159–165, 516;
-      measurements of _Crania Americana_ classified, 161–63.
-
-  Moody, J., on Rockford Tablet, 44.
-
-  Moss, Captain, 302.
-
-  Mosaics at Mitla, 362–3.
-
-  Mosaic knife, 412.
-
-  Mosaic deluge, Mexican analogies with, 460.
-
-  Mound-builders, geographical distribution of works, 27;
-      Mica mines of, 28;
-      copper mines of, 92–94.
-    no tradition of, 102–3;
-      Mound-builders and Indians distinct, 65.
-    language of, 492;
-      diseases of, 184.
-
-  Mound-works at St. Clair river, 30;
-      in British Columbia, 30;
-      in Oregon, 31;
-      Bonhomme’s island, 31;
-      Missouri valley, 31, 33;
-      on Butte prairies, 31, n. 1;
-      in Dakota, 31, n. 2;
-      in Wisconsin, 33;
-      at Davenport, 37;
-      heart of country, 40;
-      St. Louis and American bottom, 41;
-      in Ohio, 48;
-      at Newark, 53–55;
-      in Wabash valley, 57, n. 2;
-      in Tennessee, 58–68;
-      in North and South Carolina, 67;
-      in Mississippi, 67;
-      in Alabama, 71;
-      in Georgia, 72, 73;
-      in Missouri, 74–77;
-      in Louisiana, 77–79;
-      in Texas, 78;
-      antiquity of, 101;
-      abandonment, 101–5, 458–9;
-      age of vegetation on, 104;
-      of Mancos Cañon, 294;
-      in Vera Paz, 359;
-      in Tehuantepec, 360;
-      in Vera Cruz, 364.
-
-  Mound crania, condition of a measure of antiquity, 105–6;
-      typical mound skull, 166.
-
-  Mound sculptures, 187–9.
-
-  Mugeres Isla, statue from, 403.
-
-  Müller, Max, 471.
-
-  Mummies from Peru, 186.
-    from Tennessee, 187.
-
-  Mural paintings at Chichen-Itza, 401.
-
-
-  N.
-
-  Nachan, “city of serpents,” 205.
-
-  Nahua architecture, 359–83.
-    sculpture, 406–15.
-
-  Nahua Calendar, 445–459.
-    writers on, 445, n. 3.
-    analogies with calendars of Asia and Egypt, 459.
-
-  Nahua language, see Aztec language.
-    ancient and modern, 480, 481, 486, 493–4, n. 1.
-    elements of in language of North-west, 491.
-    the probable language of Mound-builders, 492.
-    spoken in Florida, 493;
-      analogies to, 494.
-
-  Nahua nations, origin of, 232.
-    predecessors of in Mexico, 232.
-    chronology of according to _Codex Chimalpopoca_ and _Popol Vuh_,
-        241, 250.
-    their arrival at Panuco, 242.
-    extent of territory in Mexico, 248.
-    migrations of, 244, 251, 517.
-    southern origin considered, 252.
-
-  Nahuatlacas, seven Nahua tribes, 256–9.
-
-  Najera on the Otomi and the Chinese, 494–5.
-
-  Nashville, Tenn., mounds near, 62, 65, 67.
-
-  Natchez pelvic bone, discovered by Dr. Dickson, 113.
-    Lyell’s observations on, 113–14.
-    Foster’s observations on, 114, n. 4.
-
-  Negroid type, ancient, 197.
-
-  Nemontemi, Aztec intercalary days, 455.
-
-  Neolithic age in America, 23.
-
-  Nephites, colonists of America, 144.
-
-  Newark, Ohio, works at, 53–55.
-
-  New Jersey, traces of inter-glacial man in, 127–8.
-
-  New Madrid, Missouri, great mound near, 75–76.
-
-  New Orleans, ancient skeleton discovered at, 123.
-
-  New York, ancient forts of, 28.
-
-  Nezahualcoyoth, King of Tezcuco, poems of, 470.
-
-  Niche stairway, 315.
-
-  Nootkas, Aztec traces among, 486.
-
-  Norse discovery of America, 153.
-
-  North-west, antiquity of man in, 128–9.
-
-  Nott and Gliddon on the origin of nations, 159.
-
-
-  O.
-
-  Oajaca, antiquities of, 360–64.
-    languages of, 479.
-
-  Observations on places of sanctuary, 80.
-
-  Obsidian in mounds, 85.
-
-  Occupancy of Mississippi valley by Mound-builders, 106.
-
-  Ocean currents, 505.
-
-  Ococingo, ancient city in Chiapas, 211.
-    site of, 226.
-
-  Ohio Archæological Society report, 82, n. 1.
-
-  Ohio mound crania, 170–1.
-
-  Ohio mound-works, 47.
-    estimated number of, 48.
-
-  Ojo del Pescado, ruins at, 289.
-
-  Oldtown art, 64.
-
-  Oldtown, Tennessee, mounds, 61–3.
-
-  Olmecs, First Nahuas, 232–4, 518.
-    destroy the giants, 235.
-    build Chohila, 235, 248, 264.
-
-  Opata-Tarahumar-Pima family of languages, 488.
-
-  Ophir, 145.
-
-  Oraybe, Moqui town, 330.
-
-  Ordoñez, history of, 207.
-
-  Oregon, traces of Aztec in, 490.
-
-  Origin of the Americans, Autochthonic, 192 _et seq._
-
-  Origin of Americans reviewed, 516.
-
-  Origin of Ancient Americans, 134, 153.
-    views of Duran, 135;
-      L’Estrange, 136;
-      Thorowgood, 136;
-      Garcia, 136–7;
-      Herrera, 137;
-      Torquemada, 137;
-      Pineda, 138;
-      Echevarria y Veitia, 138;
-      Ulloa, 139;
-      Domenech, 139;
-      Clavigero, 139.
-      Bancroft’s summary of views cited, 139;
-      views of modern authors, 201–2, notes;
-      of old world origin, 202.
-
-  Origin of the Nahuas, according to Sahagun, 242.
-
-  Origin tradition of Mayas, 204.
-    of Quichés, 211–12.
-
-  Orton, President Edward, on inter-glacial relics in Ohio, 126–7.
-
-  Otomi language compared to Chinese, 494–5.
-
-  Oztotlan, home of Aztecs, 248.
-
-
-  P.
-
-  Pacific Continent, 508.
-
-  Page, J. R., explorations by, 67.
-
-  Painted desert, 332.
-
-  Painting practised by Mound-builders, 65.
-
-  Palæolithic age in America, 23.
-
-  Palenque art compared with Egyptian, 418.
-
-  Palenque, centre of the earliest American civilization, 204, 208–9.
-
-  Palenque, situation, 340;
-      antiquities, 340;
-      palace, 342;
-      architectural features of, 343;
-      Tau at, 343;
-      roofs, 344;
-      arch, 345–6;
-      tower, 345;
-      sculpture at, 384–92;
-      statue, 391.
-
-  Panuco (Panco, Panutla or Panoaia, Pantlan) Mexican port, 242.
-
-  Papantla, pyramid of, 367.
-
-  Patton, Dr., on Indiana mounds, 57, n. 2.
-
-  Pecos, New Mexico Pueblo, 331.
-
-  Pentateuch, true chronology of, 199.
-
-  _Peresianus Codex_, 427.
-
-  Peruvian crania, 175.
-
-  Petit Anse Island, remains from, 115.
-    Foster’s observations on, 115.
-    Hilgard and Fontaine’s report on, 115.
-
-  Physiognomy of ancient Americans, 186.
-
-  Phœnician colonization of America, 145–6.
-    George Jones on, 145–6.
-
-  Picture-writing of Aztecs, 428–33;
-      specimen from _Codex Mendoza_, 431–2.
-
-  Pimentel on Chichimec language, 255.
-
-  Pimentel’s classification of Maya languages, 472;
-      epitome of Aztec Grammar from, 482–83.
-
-  Pineda on origin of Americans, 138.
-
-  Plastered room in mound, 75
-
-  Platycnemism, 183;
-      Gillman’s discoveries of, 185, n. 2.
-
-  Plato’s Atlantis, tradition of, 142.
-
-  Polynesia, ancient empire of, 508.
-    Baldwin on, 508.
-
-  Polysynthesis, a law of American language, 471.
-
-  Pomme-de-Terre River, Dr. Koch’s discoveries at, 118–19.
-
-  Pontonchan, 234.
-
-  _Popol Vuh_ (national book of the Quichés), 212, n. 2.
-    second division of, 221.
-
-  Pottery from the cliff-houses, 327.
-
-  Powell, Major J. W., explorations, 285–287.
-
-  Pratt, W. H., explorations by, 42, n. 2.
-
-  Pre-Columbian colonization, views on, 141–154.
-
-  Progress, architectural, in mound-works, 79–80.
-
-  Prophecy, analogies of, 464.
-
-  Ptolemy cited, 497.
-
-  Pueblo civilization, extent of, 283.
-    architecture, chap. vii.
-    transition in style, 284.
-
-  Pueblos of New Mexico, 330–1.
-    in ruins, 331.
-
-  Pueblo Pintado, 291.
-
-  Pueblos, the, and Aztecs, 331;
-      and mound-builders, 332;
-      architecture and remains compared, 333;
-      creation and flood and Babel myths of, 335–6.
-
-  Puente Nacional, pyramid at, 365.
-
-  Putnam, F. W., explorations by, 57, 65, 67.
-    explorations in Tennessee, 173.
-
-  Pyramid, the American, 341.
-    structure according to Bancroft, 341.
-    of Tehuantepec, 360.
-    of Puento Nacional, 365.
-    of Centla, 366.
-    of El Castillo, 366.
-    of Tusipan, 367.
-    of Papantla, 367.
-    of Cholula, 368.
-    of Xochicalco, 370–73.
-    of Mexico, 374.
-    of Teotihuacan, 375–9.
-
-
-  Q.
-
-  Quemada, Los edificios of, 379–81.
-
-  Quiché architecture, 355–9.
-
-  Quiché-Cakchiquel languages, 476.
-
-  Quinames (Quinametin), 282;
-      first inhabitants of Mexico, 245;
-      their destruction, 233.
-
-  Quiché poetry, 515.
-
-  Quichés reputed to be Carthaginians, 226.
-
-  Quichés, Maya nation, 211;
-      origin tradition, 211–12;
-      creation myth, 213;
-      creations of men, 214;
-      migrations, 215;
-      deities of, turned to stone, 216;
-      heroic age of, 220.
-
-  Quetzalcoatl, culture hero, 219, 237;
-      traditions of, 267–71;
-      from Hue hue Tlapalan, 267;
-      priest and God of Toltecs, 268;
-      habits, 268;
-      author of letters and Mexican calendar, 268;
-      his enemy, 269;
-      departure from Tulla, 270;
-      reign at Cholula, 270;
-      departure to the East, 271;
-      expectation of his return, 271;
-      origin of legends concerning him, 272, 394, 457;
-      nationality, 464;
-      positive morality, 515;
-      discovery of maize, 242.
-
-  Quiyahuitztlan, Anahuac, Toltec station, 245.
-
-
-  R.
-
-  “Raised Beeches,” discovered by Alexander Agassiz, 504.
-
-  Ramirez, on Aztec migration map, 263.
-
-  Rau, Charles, on Mexican copper mining, 94, n. 2.
-    on aboriginal trade, 98.
-
-  Red Man, antiquity of, 22;
-      traditions, 22.
-
-  Read, M. C., on Grave Creek Tablet cited, 87, n.
-
-  Religious analogies, 459–68.
-
-  Religion of the Quichés, 212.
-    a war of, 226.
-
-  Remains at Santos River, Brazil, Lyell and Meigs on antiquity of, 113.
-
-  Reviellagigedo, viceroy to Mexico, 453.
-
-  Report of Ohio Archæological Society, 82, n. 1.
-
-  Retzius, on Morton’s measurements, 165.
-    on Mexican crania, 175, n.
-
-  River Rouge mound, 29.
-    crania from, 167–8.
-
-  River Terraces, mound-works on, 103.
-    Mr. Baldwin’s views, 103.
-    Foster’s view, 104. n. 1.
-
-  Rock shelters in San Juan Cañon, 309.
-    in Montezuma Cañon, 316.
-
-  “Rockford Tablet,” 44.
-
-  Room plastered in mound, 75.
-
-  Rosny, M. Leon de, essay by, 425–26.
-    key to hieratic writings of Mayas, 427.
-
-  Ross County (Ohio) works, 48.
-
-  Roque, Father, observations on Aztec, 486.
-
-  Russell, G. P., explorations by, 87–89.
-
-
-  S.
-
-  Sabine worship, 40–85.
-
-  Sacrifices, human, 273, 452–53.
-
-  Sacrificial mounds, 83–6;
-      stratified according to Squier and Davis, 84;
-      stratification denied by Prof. Andrews, 83.
-
-  Sacrifices, probably human, 39.
-
-  Sahagun’s account of the first Nahuas, 240–6.
-
-  Salado Rio, antiquities of, 283.
-
-  Salinas River, 283.
-
-  Sadelmair, discoveries of, 283.
-
-  Salisbury, Stephen, cited, 396–401.
-
-  Salish family of languages, Aztec element in, 492.
-
-  Sanctuary, places of, 80.
-
-  Sandals of Chaac-Mol, 398.
-
-  San Juan Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, 307.
-    Echo Cave in, 310–11.
-
-  San Miguel Valley, antiquities of, 275–7.
-
-  Savage Art, unity in style of, 196.
-
-  Scandinavian and Mexican analogies, 466.
-    discovery of America, 22, 153;
-      Prof. Rafn on, 153.
-
-  Schools of Tezcuco, 481.
-
-  Sculpture, from mounds, 382;
-      at Palenque, 384–92;
-      Uxmal, 393–95;
-      Chichen-Itza, 398–403;
-      Copan, 405;
-      Monte Alban, 406;
-      at Tusapan, 407;
-      Xochicalco, 408;
-      at Mexico, 409–10.
-
-  Sculptures from the mounds, 187–9.
-
-  Seltzertown pyramidal mound, 72.
-
-  Separate creation theory, Morton and Agassiz’s views of, 157–9;
-      groundless, 191.
-    Sepulture, mounds of, 86–88.
-
-  “Serpents,” kingdom of, 222.
-
-  Serpent Temple, 394;
-      symbol, 419, 272;
-      Serpent-work, Adams county, Ohio, 34.
-
-  “Seven Caves,” 215, 219, 248, 264–66.
-
-  Shaler, Prof., on Dr. Abbott’s discoveries, 128.
-
-  Shell-heaps on Atlantic sea-board, 28, 106–7.
-    fresh-water of, 107–9;
-      in Florida, 107.
-    Prof. Wyman on, 106–8;
-      Dr. Brinton on, 107;
-      on Pacific coast, 109;
-      examination by Paul Schumacher, 109.
-
-  Shoshone-Comanche languages, 489;
-      Aztec elements in, 492.
-
-  Signal Systems of the Mound-builders, 52.
-    on Great Miami River, 52.
-    Squier and Davis on, 53.
-
-  Skrellings, 22.
-
-  Sorcery practised upon Xibalban kings, 225.
-
-  Spain’s state of learning in 17th century, 133, n. 2.
-
-  Squier and Davis, estimate of number of mound-works in Ohio, 48;
-      classification of mound-works by, 81.
-
-  Squier on Newark works, 53.
-
-  Stations, of Toltec migration, 244–46;
-    of Aztec migration, according to Veytia, Tezozomoc and Clavigero,
-        260;
-      names interpreted by Humboldt, 261, n. 3.
-
-  Statuettes in National Museum, 415.
-
-  St. Clair River mounds, 30.
-
-  Stephens and Catherwood, explorations, chap. viii., _passim_.
-
-  Steinthal, Prof., classification of languages by, 471, n. 4.
-
-  Stevenson, M. F., description of mounds by, 72.
-
-  St. Francis Valley mounds, 74.
-
-  St. Louis, mound-works at, 40, 73.
-
-  Stone Age in New Jersey, 26;
-      Dr. Abbott on, 26.
-
-  Stone coffins, burial in, 60.
-
-  Stone graves in Tennessee, 60;
-      in Indiana, 57.
-
-  Stone implements from Bridger basin, Wyoming, 24, n. 1.
-
-  Stone tubes used by Mound-builders, 96.
-
-  St. Patrick in America, 152.
-
-  Stucco reliefs at Palenque, 384–88.
-
-  Sun-dried brick, 75;
-      wall of at Seltzertown, 72;
-      in Phillips County, Missouri, 75.
-
-  Sun, tablet of, 392.
-    symbol of, 395.
-
-  Sun worship, 40, 85.
-
-  Swallow, Prof., explorations by, 75.
-
-  Syphilis among Mound-builders, 184.
-
-
-  T.
-
-  Tabasco, ancient civilization of, 203.
-
-  Tablet of cross, 390;
-      of sun, 392;
-      at Chichen-Itza, 398.
-
-  Tablet, Rockford, 44; Cincinnati, 44.
-
-  Tablets at Palenque, 384–90.
-
-  Table Mountain, cranium from, 125.
-
-  Tamoanchan, city of Tobasco, 241, 243.
-
-  Tarahumara, language of North Mexico, 487.
-
-  Tarascos, migrations of, 261.
-
-  “Taylor mound,” the, 87–89.
-
-  Tehuantepec, antiquities of, 350–60;
-      language of, 479.
-
-  Tegua, Moqui pueblo, 326.
-
-  Temple base near Nashville, 62.
-
-  Temple of Mexico, 374.
-
-  Tennessee mound-works, 58;
-      explorations of Prof. Jones in, 58–65;
-      of Prof. Putnam, 65–67.
-
-  Tennessee mound crania, 171–4.
-
-  Tennessee Valley mounds, 71;
-      Mr. Fountain on, 71.
-
-  Teo-Culhuacan, 250–60, 265, 266.
-
-  Teotihuacan, pyramids of, 375–79;
-      compared with Egypt, 375, 382, 383.
-
-  Teotihuacan, sacred city of, 234, 343, 266.
-
-  Tepanecs, Nahua tribe, 256.
-
-  Tepetla, Toltec station, 246.
-
-  Tepehuana, language of North Mexico, 487.
-
-  Terra-Cotta, figure from Isla Mugeres, 403.
-
-  Terminos, Laguna de, 234.
-
-  Texas mounds, 78.
-
-  Tezcatlipoca, bloody god of the Nahuas, 269–70;
-      sorcery of, 269.
-
-  Tezcuco, schools of, 481.
-
-  Tezpi, flood myth, 263, n.
-
-  Tezquil nation, 208.
-
-  Theban calendar compared to the Aztec, 459.
-
-  Thomas, Dr., on Dakota mounds, 31–2.
-    Gen. H. W. on same, 32;
-      low type skull cited, 128, n. 5, 167.
-
-  Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, on Atlantic land ridge, 502–3.
-
-  Thompson, Dr. J. P., on Usher’s chronology, 201.
-
-  Thorowgood on origin of ancient Americans, 136.
-
-  Thorwald, Ericson, 22.
-
-  Tibiæ, flattened, 30.
-
-  Time, Absolute and Relative, 200.
-
-  Tlacamitzin, Toltec chief, 244.
-
-  Tlachicatzin, city in Hue hue Tlapalan, 245.
-
-  Tlahuicas, Nahua tribe, 256.
-
-  Tlaloc, Aztec rain-god, 457.
-
-  Tlapalans, four, 252;
-      Bancroft and Brasseur’s views upon, 251–2.
-
-  Tlapallan de Cortes, 251;
-      location of examined, 251.
-
-  Tlapallanconco, Toltec station, 245.
-
-  Tlascatecs, Nahua tribe, republic of, 257.
-
-  Tohil (Quiché deity), 215.
-
-  Tollan, Toltec capital, 218, 246.
-
-  Toltec migration, 244, 251;
-      migration according to Becker, 248–50;
-      according to Ixtlilxochitl, 244–46, 250;
-      account examined, 246.
-
-  Toltec flood myth, 238.
-
-  Toltecs, origin according to Ixtlilxochitl, 239.
-    southern origin considered, 252;
-      outlines of history, 254;
-      annals, Bancroft’s resumé of, 255.
-
-  Tomlinson’s report on Grave Creek mound, 87.
-
-  Tongues, confusion of, 238.
-
-  Totonacs, Mexican nation, 234.
-
-  Totzapan, 246.
-
-  Tower of Mancos Cañon, 297–300;
-      McElmo, 324;
-      at Chichen, Mayapan and Tuloom, 355.
-
-  Toxpan, Toltec station, 245.
-
-  Trade-winds, 508;
-      agents in the discovery of America, 506.
-
-  Tradition (Indian) valueless, 102.
-    Dr. Foster on, 102.
-    of Nahua Mound-builders, Becker on, 102–3, n.
-
-  Tradition and History and their scope, 109–10.
-
-  Tradition of uncertain value, 204.
-
-  Trinity myth in Yucatan, 231.
-
-  Troano MS, 422.
-
-  Tula (Tulha or Tulan), 211.
-    sculptured column from, 413.
-
-  Tulan, 215–16;
-      four in number, 217–18.
-
-  Tulancingo (Tollancingo), Mexican city, 246.
-
-  Tulan-Zuiva, 215, 264–66, 248.
-
-  Tumuli of Vera Paz, 359;
-      Tehuantepec, 360.
-    Vera Cruz, 364.
-
-  Tusapan, antiquities of, 367.
-
-  Typical mound skull, 166.
-
-  Tzendal, language of Chiapas, dialect of the Maya, 206.
-
-  Tzendel, a Maya dialect, the oldest American language, 473.
-
-
-  U.
-
-  _Uraeus_, Egyptian symbol, 467.
-
-  Ural-Altaic languages compared to Indian tongues, 496.
-
-  Usher, Bishop, chronology of faulty, 199.
-
-  Usumacinta Valley, the seat of most ancient American civilization,
-        208.
-
-  Utah languages, 489–90.
-
-  Utatlan, Quiché city, 227;
-      antiquities of, 358.
-
-  Utes, the enemies of the cliff-dwellers, 303.
-
-  Uxmal, architectural remains, 347–52.
-    arches and roofs, 349–50.
-    sculpture, 393;
-      Façades at, 394.
-    Le Plongeon’s observations on, 457.
-
-
-  V.
-
-  Valentini, Dr. Ph., interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone, 453–59;
-      on analogies in geographical names, 497.
-
-  Vancouver’s Island, Aztec termination used, 490;
-      elements in, 491.
-
-  Vases from Casas Grandes, 278;
-      burial from Mexico, 410;
-      after Waldeck, 410;
-      from National Museum, 414–15.
-
-  Vater, on the Aztec language, 480–90.
-
-  Vega, Bishop Nuñez de la, 200.
-
-  Vegetation, age of on mounds, 104;
-      relation between American and Asiatic, 513.
-
-  Vera Paz, mounds of, 359.
-
-  Verda Rio, antiquities of, 284.
-
-  Verrezano, 22.
-
-  Vespucius, 22.
-
-  Voc, mythical personage, 222.
-
-  Votan (culture hero), tradition of cited, 133–9, 145, 204.
-    document written by, 206–10.
-
-  Vucub-Cakix, Xilbalban monarch, 222.
-
-  Vucab-Came, 224.
-
-  Vukub-Hunapu, Quiché chief, 222.
-
-
-  W.
-
-  Wabash Valley, mounds in, 57, n. 2.
-
-  Watch-tower of the Mancos, 300.
-
-  Waterbury Mine, 91.
-
-  Waynesville, Ohio, inter-glacial relics from, 126.
-
-  Welsh discovery of America, 154.
-
-  Whipple, Lieut., explorations by, 284.
-
-  “White-man’s land,” 152.
-
-  Whittlesey, Col., on Shelter Caves, 26.
-    on ancient copper mines, 91, 94.
-
-  Wilson, Dr. Daniel, cranial measurements tabulated, 164;
-      observations by, on Morton’s theory, 165, n. 2;
-      examinations of Peruvian crania by, 176;
-      on head-flattening, 180–2;
-      on Cincinnati Tablet, 47.
-
-  Wisconsin mound-works, 33;
-      effigy and animal mounds of, 33.
-
-  Worship of sun, 40.
-
-  Writing, systems of, see Hieroglyphics.
-
-  Wyman, Jeffries, on shell-heaps of Florida, 155–8.
-
-
-  X.
-
-  Xalisco, Toltec station, 245.
-
-  Xan, Quiché messenger, 224.
-
-  Xbalanque, Quiché hero, 222–3.
-
-  Xelhua, builder of Cholula, 236.
-
-  Xibalba, kingdom of Votanites, tradition of fall, 220–26;
-      date of, 227;
-      fall of, a theme for poetry, 515;
-      hatred of, 221.
-
-  Xicalancas, 234;
-      origin of, 234.
-
-  Xicalanco, Mexican city, 234.
-
-  Xmucane, 222–3.
-
-  Xochicalco, pyramid of, 370–3.
-
-  Xochimilcos, Nahua tribe, 256.
-
-  Xpiyacoc, 222.
-
-  Xquiq, Xibalban princess, 223.
-
-
-  Y.
-
-  Yamkally language, traces of Aztec in, 490.
-
-  Yaqui, Mexican tribe, 219.
-
-  Yazoo Valley mounds, 71.
-
-  Yellowstone, mounds of, 31.
-
-  Yond Mountain, 73.
-
-  Yucatan, origin of population, 229–30;
-      Greek gods in, 467.
-
-  Yztachnexucha, 246.
-
-
-  Z.
-
-  Zacotlan, Toltec station, 246.
-
-  Zamna, Maya culture hero, 229–30.
-
-  Zapotecs, Mexican nation, 234;
-      antiquities of, 360–64.
-
-  Zárate, on the Aztec, 486.
-
-  Zayi, Casa Grande of, 353.
-
-  Zipacua, Xibalban warrior, 222.
-
-  Ziuhcohuatl, Toltec station, 246.
-
-  Zumárraga, destruction of Aztec MS. by, 429.
-
-  Zuñi, description of, 288–89;
-      Valley, Pueblos of, 288.
-
-  Zutugil, language, 476.
-
-
-                               THE END.
-
-
-
-
-                              FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] Las Casas: _Historia de Indias_, lib. I, cap. 40, tom. I, MS.
-Irving: _Columbus_, vol. I, p. 158 (N. Y., 1851 ed.). Navarrete:
-_Coleccion de los viajes_, tom. I, p. 176. Grynaeus: _Novus Orbis_,
-p. 66, Basil, 1555, fol. Herrera: _Historia General_, Dec. I, lib. I,
-cap’s ii et vi, Madrid, 1730.
-
-[2] Rafn: _Antiquitates Americanæ_, p. 45, note. Rafn: _Op. cit._, pp.
-xxx–xxxiii.
-
-[3] Rafn: _Historia Thorfinni Karlsefnii_ (in Ant. Am.), pp. 149,
-181; also, De Costa: _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America_, pp. xxxii,
-xxxiii, 21, 41, 57, 58, 69, 70, 73, 74, 110; Gravier: _Découverte de
-l’Amérique par les Normands au Xᵉ Siècle_, p. 83. Paris, 1874, 4to.
-
-[4] Prof. Jos. Leidy, in _Hayden’s 6th Ann. Report of the U. S.
-Geological Survey of the Territories_ (1872), pp. 652–3, describes
-the stone implements found in the Bridger basin in southern Wyoming.
-He remarks, “The question arises, who made the stone implements and
-when, and why should they occur in such great numbers in the particular
-localities indicated. My friend, Dr. J. Van A. Carter, residing at Fort
-Bridger, and well acquainted with the language, history, manners, and
-customs of the neighboring tribes of Indians, informs me that they know
-nothing about them. He reports that the Shoshones look upon them as the
-gift of God to their ancestors. They were no doubt made long ago, some
-probably at a comparatively late date, that is to say, just prior to
-communication of the Indians with the whites, but others probably date
-centuries back.”
-
-[5] It would be foreign to the object of this work to enter upon a
-discussion of the antiquity of man in Europe. Were we to follow the
-example of several writers on the antiquities of America, we might
-present a resumé of the splendid achievements of science in determining
-the approximate age of man, as an inhabitant of different portions of
-the old world, but such condensed accounts at best are unsatisfactory
-and often detrimental to science because of their very slenderness. The
-evidences of man’s antiquity being far more remote than the generally
-accepted historic period, antedating its beginning by several thousand
-years, no doubt exist. The discoveries in the Liége caverns, in the
-caves of Languedoc and in the cave of Engihoul in Belgium; in the
-Neanderthal and Engis caves; at Abbeville and Amians; the valley of the
-Somme; the basin of the Seine; of the Thames; and of the lake dwellers
-of Switzerland, as well as the shell-heaps of Denmark, point to an
-antiquity which half a century ago it would have been heresy to have
-dreamed of. We have but to refer to the admirable work of Sir Charles
-Lyell: _The Antiquity of Man_ (Phil., 1863), and to the well-known
-works of Lubbock, Tylor, Vogt, and others. A good treatment of the
-subject in brief will be found in Foster: _Pre-Historic Races of the
-U. S._ (1873), and a pointed and popular reference to it in Bryant’s
-_History of the U. S._, vol. I. N. Y., 1876.
-
-[6] _Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in the U. S._, by Col. Charles
-Whittlesey. A memoir of 20 pp. Perhaps the chief importance of the
-above-cited cave discoveries is derived from the eminence of the
-antiquarian who cites them, rather than in their real value to science.
-In the case of the Elyria cave—examined by Dr. E. W. Hubbard, Prof.
-J. Brainerd, and the author of the memoir—“the grindstone grit,”
-resting on shale, formed a grotto of considerable size. Four feet of
-the floor of the cave, consisting of charcoal, ashes and bones of the
-wolf, bear, deer, rabbit, squirrels, fishes, snakes and birds (“all
-of which existed in this region when it became known to the whites”),
-was removed and three human skeletons discovered. The author states
-that the three had been crushed by a large slab of the overhanging
-sandstone falling on them, but fails to state how much of the overlying
-material consisted of this sandstone slab. He remarks: “Judging from
-the appearance of the bones, and the depth of the accumulations over
-them, two thousand years may have elapsed since the human skeletons
-were laid on the floor of this cave.” The Louisville cave discovery
-is no more satisfactory than the above. It is scarcely necessary to
-remark that all the evidences are of a comparatively recent interment,
-and much less than two thousand years would have been sufficient to
-produce the conditions described. See also discoveries at High Rock
-Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., cited by Col. Whittlesey, p. 10, and more
-fully treated by Dr. McGuire in the “_Proceedings of the Boston Soc. of
-Nat. Hist._,” vol. xii, p. 398, May, 1839, in which the latter claims
-to find traces of the Red man 5470 years ago. It is not probable that
-Dr. McGuire’s _traces_ are those of the Indians, nor is it certain that
-they were left by human beings at all, since the pine tree (found at a
-considerable depth and worn as he supposes by the feet of Indians) was
-as liable to have been worn by the feet of animals as of men. See also
-Dr. Abbott, _The Stone Age in New Jersey_, Smithsonian Report, 1874, p.
-246 _et seq._ See this work, pp. 127–8.
-
-[7] _Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_,
-Washington, 1848, 4to, 1st vol. of Smithsonian Contributions; _Dr. J.
-A. Lapham: Antiquities of Wisconsin_, Smithsonian Contributions to
-Knowledge, 1855. More recently—_The Upper Mississippi_, by _George
-Gale_, Chicago, 1868; _The Mississippi Valley_, by _Dr. J. W. Foster_,
-Chicago, 1869, 8vo, and his _Pre-Historic Races of the U. S._, Chicago,
-1873, 8vo. We might add a list of names scarcely less eminent, of
-authors who have written upon special fields and examined particular
-works. A reliable bibliography of literature on the Mound-builders is
-a desideratum which we trust some enterprising Americanist may soon
-supply.
-
-[8] Described by Dr. Wm. Blanding in a letter to Dr. Morton, of
-Philadelphia. Foster: _Pre-Historic Races of the U. S._, p. 148, and
-_Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_, p. 105. Foster: p. 151.
-
-[9] Squier: _Antiquities of Western New York_, vol. ii, Smithsonian
-Contributions, 1851. See an interesting account of the _Antiquities of
-Orleans County, New York_, by F. H. Cushing, in _Smithsonian Report_
-for 1874, p. 375.
-
-[10] _Antiquity of Man in U. S._, p. 12; also, _Ancient Earth Forts of
-the Cuyahoga Valley, Ohio_, by _Col. Charles Whittlesey_, Cleveland,
-O., 1871, pp. 40 and plates.
-
-[11] _Pre-Historic Races of the U. S._, p. 145.
-
-[12] _Smithsonian Report_ for 1873, p. 364 _et seq._, from which we
-draw the above. _The Proceedings of the American Ass. for the Adv. of
-Science_ for 1875.
-
-[13] See Mr. Gillman’s in _Sixth Annual Report of the Trustees of
-the Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology_, p. 12 _et seq._,
-Cambridge, 1873, and _Am. Jour. of Arts and Sciences_, 3d ser., vol.
-vii, pp. 1–9, Jan., 1874.
-
-[14] _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 151. “There is a large mound,
-three hundred feet high and three hundred yards in diameter at the
-base, at the southern end of the prairie, about twenty-five miles from
-Olympia; and scattered over the prairie for a distance of fifteen miles
-are many smaller mounds, not more than four feet high and twenty or
-thirty in diameter. * * * A few days ago one of the engineers of the
-Northern Pacific Railroad opened one of them and found the remains
-of pottery; and a more thorough examination of others revealed other
-curious relics, evidently the work of human hands; in fact, in every
-mound that has yet been opened there is some relic of a long-forgotten
-race discovered.” In quoting the above, Dr. Foster remarks that the
-great mound was no doubt a natural eminence artificially rounded off.
-
-[15] _Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition during the Years
-1838–42._ Phila., 1844. Tom. IV, p. 334. “We soon reached the Butte
-prairies (on Columbia River) which were extensive, and covered with
-_tumuli_ or small mounds, at regular distances asunder. As far as I
-could learn there is no tradition among the natives relative to them.
-They are conical mounds thirty feet in diameter, about six to seven
-feet high above the level, and many thousands in number. Being anxious
-to ascertain if they contained any relics, I subsequently visited these
-prairies, and opened three of the mounds, _but found nothing_ in them
-but a pavement of round stones.”
-
-[16] _Baldwin_ (_Ancient America_, pp. 31–2) remarks: “Lewis and Clark
-reported seeing them on the Missouri River a thousand miles above its
-junction with the Mississippi River; but this report has not been
-satisfactorily verified.”
-
-[17] See Mr. A. Barrandt in _Smithsonian Report_, 1870, for an account
-of discoveries on Clark’s Creek in Dakota; on the Bighorn River; on the
-Yellowstone; on the Morean and the banks of the Great Cheyenne. See
-Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 153–4. The proof is conclusive that
-the head-waters of the Missouri was one of their ancient seats. The
-same gentleman (Mr. Barrandt) describes a remarkable mound in Lincoln
-County, Dakota, situated eighty-five miles north-west of Sioux City, on
-the west fork of the Little Sioux of Dakota or Turkey Creek. The mound
-is known as the “Hay Stack.” Its dimensions are 327 feet in length at
-the base on the north-west side, and 290 on the south-east side, and
-120 feet wide. It slopes at an angle of about 50°, is from thirty-four
-to forty feet in height, the north-east end being the higher. To the
-summit, which is from twenty-eight to thirty-three feet wide, there is
-a well-beaten path. The remarkable feature of the mound is the fact
-that part of the north-east side is walled up with soft sandstone and
-limestone, brought a distance of at least three miles from an ancient
-quarry. The remainder of the surface is pronounced to be of calcined
-clay. The mound contained a large interior circular chamber, in which
-the bones of animals, thirty-six pieces of pottery, and a mass of
-charcoal and ashes were found.—_Smithsonian Report_ for 1872, pp. 413
-_et seq._
-
-[18] Since this is a contested point, both as to the presence of the
-works of the Mound-builders in the North-west and as to their great
-antiquity, I subjoin a portion of a report on these mounds made by Gen.
-H. W. Thomas, U. S. A., to Dr. Thomas of the Surveying Expedition, in
-the _Sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey_ under Dr.
-Hayden in 1872, pp. 656–7:
-
-  “‘Lewis and Clarke reported seeing Indian mounds 1000 miles above
-  the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri, but this report
-  is not verified.’ So says Mr. John D. Baldwin, A. M., in his work
-  entitled ‘Ancient America.’
-
-  “I now and here propose to contribute my mite toward the
-  verification of the statement of Lewis and Clarke.
-
-  “The few men whom duty or wild inclination have from time to
-  time brought into this, for the most part, uninhabited region of
-  treeless prairie, have all known of the existence of thousands of
-  artificial mounds. What was in them they knew not, and but two or
-  three, to my knowledge, have ever been opened. On August 16, 1872,
-  I opened one on the high table-lands that spread out on both sides
-  of a little stream called the James. The point is about 47° north
-  latitude, and 98° 38´ longitude west from Greenwich. It is within
-  three miles of the line of the North Pacific Railroad. The mound is
-  circular in form, 30⁸⁄₁₀ feet in its shorter, and 35³⁄₁₀ feet in
-  its longer diameter, and five feet high. I opened four trenches,
-  three feet wide, from the outer edge, meeting in the centre,
-  forming a cross when finished. I then excavated the entire mound
-  from the centre outward, until there was nothing more to find.
-  For results I had several two-bushel bags full of bones, eight
-  skulls, many pieces of skulls too small to be of value (there must
-  have been at least twenty-five bodies buried there), a rough-hewn
-  stone ten inches high and five and a half inches in diameter, in
-  shape resembling closely a conical shell, a cutting half an inch
-  deep around the centre. (This was evidently tied with thongs to a
-  stout handle, and used in pulverizing their maize.) A portion of a
-  shell necklace, two flints, two heads of beaver, and some bones of
-  animals unknown, and a large quantity of bivalves, much like the
-  clam (_Mya oblongata_) of our Atlantic coast, but thicker, and the
-  interior surface much more pearly.
-
-  “The mounds and their contents are apparently of great antiquity.
-  They are, in every case, on the very highest point in their
-  immediate neighborhood, and perfectly drained. The climate is
-  excessively dry; so dry that the James River is entirely dry at
-  a point about 500 feet above the contemplated railroad-bridge
-  across the river. Notwithstanding this, many of the bones crumbled
-  into white dust on being brought to the air, like those found in
-  Herculaneum and Pompeii, and it was absolutely impossible to get
-  out a single one in anything like perfection. Around and over
-  these bodies stones and sticks were placed, doubtless to preserve
-  the remains from the coyote and the fox. The wood could be rubbed
-  into fine yellow-brown dust between the thumb and forefinger. Any
-  trace of excavation around the mound for dirt to heap it with had
-  been entirely obliterated. The upright position of the skulls also
-  indicated that the bodies were buried in a sitting posture. The
-  leg-bones, however, lay lower and horizontal.
-
-  “The number of mounds indicates a denser population than ever has
-  been known here, or than the natural resources of this region can
-  now support by the chase. At the same time the number of dry lakes
-  scattered all over would indicate that at some remote period the
-  country may have been a better one than now, and supported a larger
-  population.”
-
-
-[19] “_Antiquities of Wisconsin_,” _Smithsonian Contributions to
-Knowledge_, vol. vii, 1855.
-
-[20] _Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments_, pp. 97–99. Recent and
-possibly more exact surveys of the Alligator give the figures
-as somewhat less than the above. Isaac Smucker, a very reliable
-antiquarian of Licking Co., Ohio, in an address before the Ohio State
-Archæological Convention, held at Mansfield in September, 1875,
-corrects the figures in the following statement: “The Alligator mound
-is upon the summit of a hill or spur, which is nearly 200 feet high,
-six miles west of Newark, and near the village of Granville. The
-outlines of the Alligator (or Crocodile) are clearly defined. His
-entire length is 205 feet. The breadth of the body at the widest part,
-twenty feet, and the length of the body between the fore-legs and
-hind-legs is fifty feet. The legs are each about twenty feet long. The
-head, fore-shoulders and rump have an elevation varying from three to
-six feet, while the remainder of the body averages a foot or two less.”
-
-[21] _Lapham’s Antiquities of Wisconsin_, pp. 18, 20, 36, 37, 39, 52,
-54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 69.
-
-[22] _W. H. Canfield’s Sketches of Sauk County, Wisconsin_;
-_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 101. On the copper remains of the
-Mound-builders, see _Pre-Historic Wisconsin_, by _Prof. James D.
-Butler, LL.D._, annual address before the State Historical Society of
-Wisconsin, Feb. 18, 1876. Wisconsin Hist. Col., vol. vii. Privately
-printed.
-
-[23] _Smithsonian Report_ for 1872, figured and described on p. 416 by
-Jared Warner of Patch Grove, Wis. (Oct. 1872). A further description of
-mounds in the same locality, by Moses Strong, M. E., will be found in
-_Smithsonian Report_ for 1876, p. 424.
-
-[24] _Antiquities of Wisconsin_, pp. 42–5: “The main features of these
-remains is the enclosure or ridge of _earth_ (not brick, as has been
-erroneously stated), extending around three sides of an irregular
-parallelogram; the west branch of Rock River forming the fourth side on
-the east. The space thus enclosed is seventeen acres and two-thirds.
-The corners are not rectangular, and the embankment or ridge is not
-straight. The earth of which the ridge is made was evidently taken
-from the nearest ground, where there are numerous excavations of very
-irregular form and depth; precisely such as may be seen along our
-modern railroad and canal embankments. These excavations are not to be
-confounded with the hiding-places (caches) of the Indians, being larger
-and more irregular in outline. Much of the material of the embankment
-was doubtless taken from the surface without penetrating a sufficient
-depth to leave a trace at the present time. If we allow for difference
-of exposure of earth thrown up into a ridge and that lying on the
-original flat surface, we can perceive no difference between the soil
-composing the ridge and that found along its sides. Both consist of a
-light yellowish sandy loam. The ridge forming the enclosure is 631 feet
-long at the north end, 1419 feet long on the west side, and 700 feet
-on the south side; making a total length of wall 2750 feet. The ridge
-or wall is about twenty-two feet wide, and from one foot to five in
-height.” * * * After describing one of the mounds of this enclosure, he
-remarks: “The analogy between these elevations and the ‘temple mounds’
-of Ohio and the Southern States, will at once strike the reader who has
-seen the plans and descriptions. They have the same square or regular
-form, sloping or graded ascent, the terraced or step-like structure,
-and the same position in the interior of the enclosure. This kind of
-formation is known to increase in numbers and importance as we proceed
-to the south and south-west, until they are represented by the great
-structures of the same general character on the plains of Mexico.”
-
-[25] D. Gunn in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1867.
-
-[26] Dr. Farquharson in _Proceedings of Am. Ass. for the Adv. of
-Science_, vol. xxiv, p. 305.
-
-[27] Through the courtesy of Dr. R. J. Farquharson I am enabled to
-append the original report made by Mr. Gass to the Davenport Academy,
-Jan. 26, 1877. It is as follows:
-
-  “We broke the surface on the north-east slope of the mound about
-  ten or twelve feet from the opening on the west side made in
-  1874. The earth was frozen to a depth of about three and a half
-  feet. Five or six inches below the surface we came upon a layer
-  of shells one or two inches in thickness, which sloped downward
-  toward the south-east, reaching a depth of two feet or rather more
-  below the surface, and extending for a distance of ten or twelve
-  feet. Between the surface and this first layer of shells a number
-  of small fragments of human bones were found scattered through
-  the soil. Under this shell layer was a stratum of earth of from
-  twelve to fifteen inches in thickness, resting on a second layer of
-  shells, from three to four inches in thickness. Both shell layers
-  sloped downward nearly parallel with each other.
-
-  “Below the second shell layer the earth was of the nature of a
-  light mould, darker in color than the earth above and thickly
-  interspersed with fragments of human bones. These circumstances
-  arrested my attention and caused me to proceed from this time on
-  with the greatest caution. At a depth of about fifteen inches under
-  the lowest part of the shell layer exposed in this excavation—the
-  shell stratum at this point being five or six inches thick—the
-  inscribed slates were found. The slate is the same as that usually
-  found overlying coal beds in this vicinity, and is such as is
-  frequently seen cropping out from the hill-sides or in isolated
-  slabs in the beds of streams. Both plates lay close together on the
-  hard undisturbed clay bottom of the mound.
-
-  “The engraved side of the smaller tablet was upward, and also
-  that side of the larger one presenting the heavenly bodies,
-  hieroglyphics, etc. The larger plate being partially divided by
-  natural cleavage, its upper layer was unfortunately broken in
-  two by a slight stroke of the spade. The two plates were closely
-  encircled by a single row of weathered limestones. These stones are
-  irregular in shape, but almost of the same size, their dimensions
-  being about three by three by seven or eight inches, and the
-  diameter of the circle about two feet.
-
-  “In the immediate vicinity were found a number of fragments
-  of human bones, one being a portion of a skull saturated with
-  carbonate of copper. A small piece of copper was found; also many
-  fragments of slate and a piece of bone artificially wrought.”
-
-Also see _Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences_ for
-_Account of the Discovery of Inscribed Tablets_, by Rev. J. Gass, with
-_A Description_ by Dr. R. J. Farquharson. Davenport, Iowa, July, 1877.
-Cuts and views.
-
-[28] _Pre-Historic Paces of the U. S._, p. 107. See especially _12th
-Annual Report Peabody Museum_.
-
-[29] In a paper, _A Deposit of Agricultural Flint Implements Found in
-Southern Illinois_, _Smithsonian Report_, 1868, Dr. Chas. Rau treats
-the subject of Aboriginal Agriculture at considerable length. In
-the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1873, p. 413 _et seq._, Dr. A. Patton
-describes the exploration of several remarkable mounds in Lawrence
-Co., Illinois. In the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1874, p. 351, Taylor
-McWhorter describes a number of mounds in Mercer Co., Illinois. He
-estimates the number in the county at one thousand, mostly on the
-Mississippi River bank. _The Antiquities of Whiteside County, Ill._,
-by W. H. Pratt, of Davenport, Iowa, printed in the same Report, p. 354
-_et seq._, is a most valuable contribution to our knowledge of the
-mounds. The first mound examined yielded eight skulls, two of which
-were preserved. The third mound opened yielded the skeletons of four
-adults and several articles of interest, such as pieces of mica, a lump
-of galena and a dove-colored arrow-head. From the fifth mound opened,
-a remarkably well-preserved skeleton was recovered. Dr. Farquharson,
-of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, has contributed one of the most
-valuable tables of mound-cranial measurements ever published.
-
-[30] The best and most exhaustive treatment of the above is by _Mr.
-Robert Clarke: The Pre-Historic Remains which were Found on the Site
-of Cincinnati, Ohio, with a Vindication of the Cincinnati Tablet_.
-Cincinnati, 1876. 8vo, 34 pp. It is to be regretted that this
-valuable discussion of the genuineness of one of the most important
-Mound-builder relics is only “privately circulated.” Mr. Clarke has
-fully accomplished the design for which he wrote.
-
-[31] _Dr. Daniel Drake’s Picture of Cincinnati_, Cincinnati, 1815.
-_Squier and Davis in Ancient Monuments_. _Gen. Harrison: Ohio Hist. and
-Phil. Society Trans._, vol. i, and others.
-
-[32] _Dr. Daniel Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man_, 3d ed., 1876, vol. i,
-pp. 274–5. The following description is given in _Squier and Davis’s
-Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_: “The material is
-fine-grained, compact sandstone of a light-brown color. It measures
-five inches in length, three in breadth at the ends, and two and
-six-tenths at the middle, and is about half an inch in thickness. The
-sculptured face varies very slightly from a perfect plane. The figures
-are cut in low relief (the lines being not more than one-twentieth
-of an inch in depth), and occupy a rectangular space four inches
-and two-tenths long by two and one-tenth wide. The sides of the
-stone, it will be observed, are slightly concave. Right lines are
-drawn across the face near the ends, at right angles, and exterior
-to these are notches, twenty-five at one end and twenty-four at the
-other. The back of the stone has three deep longitudinal grooves, and
-several depressions, evidently caused by rubbing—probably produced by
-sharpening the instrument used in the sculpture.” [Mr. Gest, however,
-does not regard these as tool marks, but thinks they are of peculiar
-significance.] “Without discussing the singular resemblance which
-the relic bears to the Egyptian _Cartouch_, it will be sufficient to
-direct attention to the reduplication of the figures, those upon one
-side corresponding with those upon the other, and the two central ones
-being also alike. It will be observed that there are but three scrolls
-or figures—four of one and two of each of the others. Probably no
-serious discussion of the question whether or not these figures are
-hieroglyphical is needed. They more resemble the stalk and flowers of
-a plant than anything else in nature. What significance, if any, may
-attach to the peculiar markings or graduations at the end, it is not
-undertaken to say. The sum of the products of the longer and shorter
-lines (24 × 7 + 25 × 8) is 368, three more than the number of days in
-the year; from which circumstance the suggestion has been advanced that
-the tablet had an astronomical origin, and constituted some sort of
-a calendar.” We may here add that Col. Chas. Whittlesey published at
-Cleveland, Ohio, in _Historical and Archæological Tract No. 9_ (Feb.
-1872) of the Western Reserve Historical Society, a statement that the
-“Cincinnati Tablet” was a fraud. But we are informed that he is since
-convinced of its genuineness.
-
-[33] Judge M. F. Force: _Mound-Builders_. Cincinnati, 1872. Rev. S. D.
-Peet in the _American Antiquarian_ for April, 1878, refers to the visit
-of the Ohio Archæological and the National Anthropological Conventions
-to Fort Ancient in September, 1877, and states that during the visit
-the significance of the walls of the lower enclosure was discovered.
-“They bear a resemblance,” he remarks, “to the form of two massive
-serpents, which are apparently contending with one another. Their heads
-are the mounds, which are separated from the bodies by the opening
-which resembles a ring around the neck. They bend in and out and rise
-and fall, and appear like two massive green serpents rolling along
-the summit of this high hill. Their appearance under the overhanging
-forest trees is very impressive”—p. 50. See also Mr. Peet’s memoir on
-a Double-walled Earthwork in Ashtabula County, Ohio, in _Smithsonian
-Report_ for 1876, pp. 443–4.
-
-[34] Dr. Foster, _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 145, cites a letter from
-Prof. E. B. Andrews, of the Ohio Geological Survey, describing an
-earthwork discovered by him in Vinton County with the ditch _outside_
-the parapet. In his _Report of Explorations of Mounds in Southern
-Ohio_, published in _Tenth Ann. Report of the Peabody Museum of Am.
-Arch. and Eth._, p. 53 (Camb., 1877), the Professor remarks: “On a
-spur of a ridge about two miles east of Lancaster is an earth wall,
-evidently for defence. The ditch is on the outside of the wall, where
-it should be according to modern ideas of defence. In this particular
-the earthwork differs from all the circles and so-called ‘forts,’
-either circular or square, which I have seen, these having the ditch on
-the inside.”
-
-[35] _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 128: “No one, I think, can
-view the complicated system of works here displayed and stretching
-away for miles without arriving at the conclusion that they are the
-result of an infinite amount of toil expended under the direction of a
-governing mind, and having in view a definite aim. At this day, with
-our iron instruments, with our labor-saving machines, and the aid of
-horse-power, to accomplish such a task would require the labor of many
-thousand men continued for many months. These are the work of a people
-who had fixed habitations, and who, deriving their support in part at
-least from the soil, could devote their surplus labor to the rearing of
-such structures. A migratory people dependent upon the uncertainties of
-the chase for a living, would not have the time, nor would there be the
-motive, to engage in such a stupendous undertaking.”
-
-[36] _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 129.
-
-[37] _North American Review_, July, 1876.
-
-[38] Robert Clarke’s _Pre-Historic Remains at Cincinnati_, p. 18: “I
-believe I am correct in saying that there is no clay in Ohio which
-could be applied in this way and resist for any length of time the
-washing rains and sudden winter changes of temperature of our climate,”
-_et seq._
-
-[39] See A. B. Tomlinson’s _Grave Greek Mound_ (1838). _Schoolcraft in
-American Ethnological Soc. Transactions_, vol. i. Especially Squier and
-Davis.
-
-[40] Dr. Patton has described some interesting mounds near Vincennes,
-Indiana. A giant mound, which towers above many others of considerable
-proportions, is called the Sugar-loaf Mound, and stands on a promontory
-which overlooks the rich valley of the Wabash. The height of the
-Sugar-loaf is seventy feet, with a circumference at the base of one
-thousand feet. Dr. Patton in June, 1873, sank a shaft in this mound
-to the depth of forty-six feet. The composition of the mound was of
-siliceous sand, nowhere found in the region except in other mounds.
-At ten feet below the summit bones were found, but much decayed.
-Immediately below them was a layer of charcoal and ashes. Thirty feet
-deeper the same conditions were repeated, and the bones again were so
-brittle as to render it impossible to save them. A bed of calcined clay
-was next entered which could not be penetrated with the instruments
-at command. One mile south of the Sugar-loaf is a pyramidal mound
-forty-three feet high, with a circumference of 714 feet at the base and
-a platform on top fifteen feet wide and fifty feet in length. Others of
-as great proportions are described. _Smithsonian Report_, 1873, pp. 411
-_et seq._ See also _Antiquities of La Porte County, Indiana_, by R. S.
-Robertson in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1874, pp. 377 _et seq._ A very
-low type of cranium was exhumed from one of the mounds in this county.
-Also see _Mounds at Merom and Hutsonville on the Wabash_, by F. W.
-Putnam—_Proceedings of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xv, 1872.
-Fifty-nine mounds were examined, and three stone graves discovered.
-
-[41] For an excellent treatment of this part of the subject, see
-_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 130–144 inclusive.
-
-[42] In _Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley._
-
-[43] _Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee._
-_Smithsonian Contribution No. 259._ Oct. 1876, p. 100.
-
-[44] _Antiquities of Tennessee_, p. 39, and other places.
-
-[45] _Antiquities of Tennessee_, p. 138.
-
-[46] _Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, pp. 348–360.
-Cambridge, 1878. See also _Antiquities of Jackson County, Tenn._, by
-Rev. Joshua Hale, in _Smithsonian Reports_ for 1874, p. 384. Very
-interesting and valuable explorations have been conducted in Tennessee
-by Mr. E. O. Dunning for the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch. and Eth. See
-_Reports_, 3d, p. 7; 4th, p. 7; 5th, p. 11.
-
-[47] _Mr. Jas. R. Page’s Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds_,
-in _Transactions of St. Louis Acad. of Science_, vol. iii, p. 226, and
-copied in _Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science_, Oct. 1875, vol. ii,
-No. 4, pp. 371 _et seq._
-
-[48] In _Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science_, Oct. 1875, p. 378. Also
-see _Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man_, vol. i, p. 318.
-
-[49] See _Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man_, vol. i, p. 317.
-
-[50] _Fontaine’s How the World was Peopled_, p. 278, and _Foster’s
-Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 111 _et seq._
-
-[51] _How the World was Peopled_, p. 278.
-
-[52] _Squier and Davis’s Ancient Monuments_, pp. 117 _et seq._
-_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 112.
-
-[53] _E. Cornelius_ in _Silliman’s Journal_, vol. i, p. 223, and
-_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 122.
-
-[54] _Smithsonian Report_, 1870, and _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p.
-123. A further description of works on Etowah River in Bartow Co., Ga.,
-by _Mr. Stephenson_ in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1872, p. 421. A full
-and elaborate treatment is also that by Charles C. Jones, Jr., entitled
-_Monumental Remains of Georgia_. Savannah, 1861. 12mo, p. 118.
-
-[55] _Smithsonian Report_, 1872.
-
-[56] _Smithsonian Report_, 1874, pp. 390 _et seq._
-
-[57] These measurements were carefully made by Dr. S. H. Headlee, of
-St. James, Missouri, and communicated to the editors of the _Cincinnati
-Quar. Jour. of Science_, published in January number, 1875, pp. 94–5.
-
-[58] A sensational description of this mound which appeared in the
-_St. Louis Times_ is used by Mr. S. M. Hosea as the basis of an
-article on Sacrificial Mounds in the above number of the _Cincinnati
-Quarterly Jour. of Science_, p. 62. The account contains some wonderful
-statements, which are evidently made by some unscientific person, and
-hence are utterly worthless. Although, judging from internal evidence,
-we have little faith in the reliableness of the correspondent, we give
-a paragraph for what it is worth: “The approach or causeway which
-leads across the trench from the north is ten feet in width. Ascending
-from this causeway to the summit of the mound are the remains of a
-rude flight of stairs, constructed originally of roughly-hewn stones.
-Most of these steps are now displaced, and quite a number have rolled
-down into the trench below, but there is unmistakable evidence that
-they were at one time arranged in regular order of ascent, and could
-doubtless be again replaced in position by an intelligent architect.”
-“By a series of investigations, I found that about a foot beneath
-the surface there was a regular solid platform of stone covering the
-entire top of the mound. This platform, though constructed by rude and
-unmechanical hands, is placed in position with a precision and firmness
-that might well defy the ravages of the elements in all coming ages.
-About twelve feet from the northern edge of the mound, and directly on
-a line with the approach and stairway, I noticed a very perceptible
-elevation of the earth, covering an area of about twenty by fifteen
-feet; and driving a pick into the elevated ground, the point struck
-upon solid rock a few inches below the surface. * * * Pushing our work,
-we soon unearthed a piece of workmanship that an antiquarian would
-have worked a week to bring to light. The newly-discovered curiosity
-consisted of a flat rock twelve feet long, ten feet wide, and eleven
-inches thick. The centre of the stone was hollowed to a depth of six
-inches, with a margin of about one foot around the edge.” “At the
-south end of the stone, a round hole five inches deep and four in
-diameter was drilled. Amongst the dirt taken out of this place hewn in
-the stone, was a large fossil tooth and a piece of small broken stone
-column, and several bits of pottery ware.” This description is very
-suggestive of the Mexican Temple or Teocalli, but unfortunately for the
-facts, Dr. Headlee, who made the measurements given in the text a short
-time subsequently, failed to find any certain evidences that either a
-stairway or temple had existed on the mound.
-
-[59] _Report on the Geology of Arkansas_, vol. ii, p. 414—cited by
-Foster.
-
-[60] See on chambered mounds similar to English barrows, Curtiss in
-_Peabody Museum Reports_, vol. ii, p. 717; Broadhead in _Smithsonian
-Report_ for 1879, pp. 350 _et seq._ (with cuts).
-
-[61] “Within the State, from Pulaski County to Arkansas, in all the
-little valleys which wind in and out among the flint-crowned hills
-of the Ozarks, are seen what may be termed garden mounds. These are
-elevated about two or three feet above the natural surface of the land,
-and are from fifteen to fifty feet in diameter, varying thus in size
-according to the amount of richer soil which could be scraped together.
-Their presence may always be detected in fields of growing grain by
-its more luxuriant growth and deeper green.”—_A. J. Conant_ in the
-_Transactions_ cited above, p. 354. The same writer has treated the
-subject more fully in a recent work published at St. Louis, entitled,
-“_The Commonwealth of Missouri_.”
-
-[62] _Ancient Monuments_, p. 115, and _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 120.
-
-[63] _Baldwin’s Ancient America_, p. 72.
-
-[64] Prof. Forshey, in _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 121, 122,
-remarks: “There is a class of mounds west of the Mississippi Delta and
-extending from the Gulf to the Arkansas and above, and westward to the
-Colorado in Texas, that are to me, after thirty years’ familiarity
-with them, entirely inexplicable. In my Geological Reconnoissance of
-Louisiana in 1841–2, I made a pretty thorough report upon them. I
-afterwards gave a verbal description of their extent and character
-before the _New Orleans Academy of Sciences_. These mounds lack every
-evidence of artificial construction based on implements or other
-human vestigia. They are nearly all round, none angular, and have an
-elevation hemispheroidal of one foot to five feet, and a diameter
-from thirty feet to one hundred and forty feet. They are numbered by
-millions. In many places, in pine forests and upon the prairies, they
-are to be seen nearly tangent to each other as far as the eye can
-reach, thousands being visible from an elevation of a few feet. On the
-gulf-marsh margin, from the Vermillion to the Colorado, they appear
-barely visible, often flowing into one another, and only elevated a
-few inches above the common land. A few miles interior they rise to
-two and even four feet in height. The largest I ever saw were perhaps
-one hundred and forty feet in diameter and five feet high. These were
-in Western Louisiana. Some of them had abrupt sides, though they are
-nearly all of gentle slopes. There is ample testimony that the pine
-trees of the present forests antedate these mounds. The material for
-their construction is like that of the vicinity everywhere, and often
-there is a depression in close proximity to the elevation.” We can
-make no conjecture concerning the use of those mounds described by
-Prof. Forshey, except to suggest that they in all probability served as
-foundations for dwellings in a low country, which at that time may have
-been moister and more marshy than at present. If such was the case,
-the whole region must have presented the appearance of a continuous
-community instead of the proper proportion of country and village. This
-crowded state of affairs could have been produced by the pressure from
-enemies in the north, and the lack of agricultural lands evidently was
-sufficient alone to cause a migration to the south.
-
-[65] A number of the cuts in this chapter illustrative of the Arts of
-the Mound-builders, are copies of those used by Dr. Charles Rau in his
-_Catalogue of the Archæological Collection of the National Museum_,
-Washington, Smithsonian Contribution No. 287 (1876), granted me through
-the courtesy of Professor Henry. A few also are from the memoir by
-Prof. Jos. Jones on the _Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee_. Smithsonian
-Contribution No. 259 (1876). For an able classification of these Mound
-Relics (a work which I could not undertake in a volume not devoted
-exclusively to the Mound-builders), I refer the reader to Rau’s Memoir
-above cited, as being altogether the most satisfactory attempt of the
-kind of which I have any knowledge. For a classification of works in
-Ohio, see _Antiquities of Ohio_: Report of the Committee of the State
-Archæological Society to the Centennial Commission of Ohio (Columbus,
-Ohio, 1877, 8vo). The incompleteness of the work is to be regretted.
-Ohio, out of its vast fund of material, certainly ought to furnish a
-more satisfactory contribution to the subject of archæology. The work
-comprises seven chapters, of which the last is the least satisfactory
-of all, for while bearing the title “Location of Ancient Earthworks
-in Ohio,” it enumerates only one hundred and sixteen out of the ten
-thousand mound-works in the State. Still the memoir is not without
-value. Its chapters on Stone Relics, Copper Relics, and Insignia and
-Ornaments are comparatively thorough.
-
-[66] _Ancient Monuments_, p. 143. Prof. E. B. Andrews has shown that
-the supposed uniformity of stratification in altar mounds is a fallacy.
-In many instances the earth has been dumped together indiscriminately.
-
-[67] _Ancient Monuments_, p. 143, the following general description
-is given: “The altars or basins found in these mounds are almost
-invariably of burned clay, although a few of stone have been
-discovered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size or shape.
-Some are round, others elliptical, and others square or parallelograms.
-Some are small, measuring barely two feet across, while others are
-fifty feet long by twelve or fifteen feet wide. The usual dimensions
-are from five to eight feet. All appear to have been modelled of fine
-clay brought to the spot from a distance, and they rest on the original
-surface of the earth. In a few instances a layer or small elevation of
-sand had been laid down, upon which the altar was formed. The height of
-the altars, nevertheless, seldom exceeds a foot or twenty inches above
-the adjacent level. The clay of which they are composed is usually
-burned hard, sometimes to the depth of ten, fifteen, and even twenty
-inches. This is hardly to be explained by any degree or continuance of
-heat, though it is manifest that in some cases the heat was intense. On
-the other hand, a number of these altars have been noticed which are
-very slightly burned; and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute
-of remains.”
-
-[68] Charles Rau in _Smithsonian Report_, 1872, p. 357. _Baldwin’s
-Ancient America_, p. 41.
-
-[69] _Squier and Davis_: _Op. Cit._, pp. 169–70. _Foster_: _Op. Cit._,
-pp. 188–196. Schoolcraft in vol. i, _Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc._ M. C.
-Read in _American Antiquarian_, vol. i, p. 139, Jan. 1879. Dr. Clemens
-in Morton’s _Crania Americana_, p. 221. Mr. E. O. Dunning in _Foster_,
-p. 194.
-
-[70] _Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound near Newark, Ohio_, by
-O. C. Marsh, F. G. S., in _American Journal of Science and Arts_ for
-July, 1866. Second Series, vol. xlii.
-
-[71] See _Dr. Charles T. Jackson’s Geological Report to the United
-States Government_, 1849. _Foster and Whitney’s Report on the
-Geology of the Lake Superior Region_, Part I. Published by authority
-of Congress in 1850, and substantially reproduced in _Foster’s
-Pre-Historic Races of the U. S._, chap. vii, in 1873. The most
-elaborate treatment is by _Col. Charles Whittlesey_, _Ancient Mining
-on the Shores of Lake Superior_. Published in the _Smithsonian
-Contribution to Knowledge_ in 1863, vol. xiii. _Swineford’s History and
-Review of the Mineral Resources of Lake Superior_, Marquette, 1876.
-Containing _Ancient Copper Mines of Lake Superior by Jacob Houghton_.
-
-[72] _Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 268. For a further account, see
-Mr. Henry Gillman in an article printed in _Appleton’s Journal_, August
-9, 1873, and entitled _Ancient Works at Isle Royal_; also to a paper
-printed in the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1873, and in the _Proceedings
-of the Amer. Ass. for the Advancement of Science_, 1875 meeting, p.
-330. Also A. C. Davis in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1874, p. 369.
-
-[73] _Ancient Mining on the Shore of Lake Superior_, p. 2.
-
-[74] “L’on trouve souvent au fond de l’eau, des pieces de cuivre tout
-formé, de la pesanteur de dix et vingt livres; i’en ay veu plusieurs
-fois entre les mains des Sauvages, et comme ils sont superstitieux,
-ils les gardent comme autant de divinités, ou comme des presents que
-les dieux qui sont au fond de l’eau leur ont faits pour estre la cause
-de leur bonheur; c’est pour cela, qu’ils conservent ces morceaux de
-cuivre envelopés parmi leurs meubles les plus pretieux, il y en a
-qui les gardent depuis plus de cinquante ans; d’autres les ont dans
-leurs familles de temps immemorial, et les cherissent comme des dieux
-domestiques.”—_Relations des Jésuites, en l’Année 1667_, p. 8. Quebec
-reprint, 1858. Tome iii.
-
-[75] “En y entrant par son embouchure, que se décharge au Sault, le
-premier endroit que se présente où se retrouve du cuivre en abondance,
-est une Isle que est éloignée de quarante on cinquante lieuës,
-scituée vers le côté du Nord, vis a vis d’un endroit qu’on appelle
-Missipicoüatong. Les sauvages racontent que c’est une Isle flottante,
-que est quelquefois loing, quelquefois proche, selon les vents qui la
-poussent, et la promenent de côté et d’autre. Ils ajoûtent qu’il y a
-bien longtemps que quatre sauvages y furent par rencontre, s’etans
-égarez dans la brume, dont cette Isle est presque toujours environnée.
-C’étoit du temps qu’ils n’avoient point encore eu de commerce avec les
-François, et n’avoient aucun usage ny des chaudieres ny des haches.
-Ceux-cy donc voulans se preparer à manger, firent à leur ordinaire:
-prenant des pierres qu’ils trouvoient au bord de l’eau, les faisaient
-rougir dans le feu et les jettaient dans un plat d’ecorce plein d’eau
-pour la faire boüillir et faire cuire par cette industrie leur viande.
-Comme ils choisissoient ces pierres, ils trouvoient, que c’étoient
-presque tous morceaux de cuivre; ils se servirent donc des unes et des
-autres, et aprés avoir pris leur repas, ils songerent à s’embarquer
-au plustost, craignant les Loups Cerviers et les Lievres, qui sont
-en cét endroit grands comme des Chiens, et qui venoient manger leurs
-provisions et même leur Canot. Avant que de partir, ils se chargerent
-de quantité de ces pierres grosses et menuës, et même de quelques
-plaques de cuivre; mais ils ne furent pas bien éloignez du rivage,
-qu’une puissante voix se fit entendre à leurs oreilles, disant tout
-en colere: Qui sont ces voleurs qui m’emportent les berceaux et
-les divertissemens de mes enfans? Les plaques de cuivre sont les
-berceaux, parce que parmy les sauvages ils ne sont faits que d’un ou
-deux aix joints ensemble, sur lesquels ils couchent leurs enfans; et
-ces petits morçeaux de cuivre qu’ils enlevoient, sont les jouets et
-les divertissemens des enfans sauvages, qui joüent ensemble avec des
-petites pierres.” The voice which the savages heard was believed to be
-that of a spirit called Missibizi, a certain water-god. “Quoy qu’il en
-soit, cette voix étonnante jetta tellement la frayeur dans l’esprit de
-nos Voyageurs, qu’un des quatre mourut avant que d’arriver à terre;
-peu de temps aprés un second fut enlevé, puis le troisièma; de sorte
-qu’il n’en resta qu’un, lequel s’étant rendu en son Pays, raconta
-tout ce qui s’étoit passé, pues mourut fort peu apriés.” The Father
-adds that the savages never afterward could be induced to approach
-the island for fear of being seized by the Genii presiding over its
-treasures.—_Relations des Jesuités l’année 1670_, p. 84, tome iii.
-Quebec reprint, 1858.
-
-[76] _Ancient Mining_, p. 22 _et seq._
-
-[77] _Congrès International des Américanistes._ Luxembourg. 1877, tom.
-i, pp. 51–2.
-
-[78] _Essai Politique_ (Paris, 1825–27), vol. iii, p. 114. Dr. Charles
-Rau has courteously furnished me the following references on ancient
-mining in Mexico: _Clavigaro’s History of Mexico_, Phil., 1817, vol.
-i., p. 20. _Prescott’s Mexico_, vol. i, p. 138; _Despatches of Hernando
-Cortés_ addressed to the Emperor Charles V (trans. by Folsom, New
-York, 1842), p. 412. _Memoirs of Bernal Diaz_ (trans. of Lockhart,
-London, 1844), vol. i, p. 36. Dr. Rau remarks: “We are forcibly led
-to the conclusion that the Mexicans obtained copper by the mining
-process.”—_Letter to the Author_, Aug. 24, 1878.
-
-[79] Colonel Whittlesey in the _Report of the State Archæological
-Society_ to the Centennial Commission of Ohio, Chap. IV, pl. 10, has
-figured several symmetrical tubes of stone from Ohio Mounds. The
-most perfect of these he thinks may have served “as telescopic helps
-for distant views.” The most general use to which most of them were
-applied, it is believed, was the making of signals, or possibly rude
-music. One of the tubes taken from the Tippet Mound near Newark, Ohio,
-and figured in the report, has its upper end flattened like a whistle
-or flute, and has a hole penetrating it just below the mouthpiece,
-which indicates that it may have been a musical instrument. The Huron
-slates were most frequently employed in the manufacture of tubes, as
-they were in the production of the class of objects known as ceremonial
-relics.
-
-[80] Baldwin’s _Ancient America_, p. 42, and Dupaix, quoted on pp.
-122–3.
-
-[81] Dr. Rau has shown that division of labor and its advantages was
-recognized among the aborigines; that certain individuals who were
-qualified to manufacture particular implements devoted themselves
-exclusively to that work. He bases his conjecture “on the occurrence
-of manufactured articles of a homogeneous character in mounds or in
-deposits below the surface of the soil. There is little doubt, for
-instance, that there were persons who devoted their time chiefly to
-the manufacture of stone arrow-heads and of other articles produced
-by chipping, among which may be mentioned those remarkable large
-digging tools described by me several years ago, and the oval or
-leaf-shaped implements made of the peculiar hornstone of ‘Flint Ridge’
-in Ohio.” See Stock-in-trade of an Aboriginal Lapidary, by Charles Rau,
-_Smithsonian Report_ for 1877.
-
-[82] Dr. S. S. Schoville, in the _Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of
-Science_, April, 1875, p. 164, describes the discovery of numerous mica
-plates in a mound on the east bank of the Little Miami River, about
-twenty-five miles east of Cincinnati. He states, that at the base of
-the mound, on a level with the surrounding country, the remains of
-several skeletons were found, placed with their heads together and
-lying in a horizontal position. “Lying upon or immediately over the
-cranial debris, were found plates of mica, some a foot in diameter.
-These plates were disposed in such a way as to cover an area somewhat
-larger than that occupied by the crania beneath. However, it could
-not definitely be determined whether the design had been to make
-a continuous or common roof over the faces as a group, or whether
-each face had a covering of its own.” The writer ventures the rather
-fanciful conjecture that the mica in this and many other cases served
-the purpose of exhibiting temporarily the features of the dead in the
-manner that glass is now used on caskets.
-
-[83] See a most interesting and extensive memoir on _Aboriginal Trade
-in_ _North America_, by Charles Rau, first published in vol. iv of the
-_Archiv für Anthropologie_ (Braunschweig, 1872), and translated in
-_Smithsonian Report_ for 1872, pp. 249–394.
-
-[84] Mr. A. J. Conant in the _Commonwealth of Missouri_, pp. 77–8 (St.
-Louis, 1877), refers to ancient canals fifty feet wide and twelve feet
-deep observed by Dr. G. C. Swallow. He quotes a pretty full account
-from Geo. W. Carleton, Esq. Mr. Conant considers some of the southern
-bayous of artificial origin.
-
-[85] For further material on the Mound-builders, see the documents
-cited throughout the chapter. No less important is Dr. Foster’s
-admirable work so often quoted, and which we must add has been of great
-service in the preparation of this chapter. A very good paper on the
-Mound-builders is that by Robert S. Robertson of Fort Wayne, Indiana,
-in the _Congrès International des Américanistes Compte-Rendu de la
-Sec. Ses. Luxembourg_, 1877, tom. i, pp. 39–50, though we do not fully
-agree with the author’s views as to the colonization of the Mississippi
-valley from the south. The classification of Mound-works by Rev.
-Stephen D. Peet in the same document, p. 103, is very satisfactory, and
-corresponds to that adopted in this chapter. The learned article by
-Judge Force of Cincinnati in the same document, vol. i, pp. 121–156, is
-full of interest. For recent mound explorations, see Appendix.
-
-[86] _Pre-Historic Times_, p. 425. Also cited by Foster. In this
-connection I refer the reader to the argument of Mr. John H. Becker of
-Berlin, in the _Congrès International des Américanistes_, Luxembourg,
-1877, tom. i, pp. 345–6: “These northern nations * * * have not
-quite forgotten the former existence and the exodus of these Nahua
-Mound-builders in and from the western prairie country. Cusick’s
-remarkable history of the Iroquois (Schoolcraft, vol. v) states again
-and again that ‘their hunters were opposed by big snakes,’ that the
-‘great horned snake appeared on Lake Ontario,’ that the ‘lake serpent
-traversed the country, and they were compelled to build fortifications
-in order to save themselves from the devouring monsters,’ that ‘a snake
-with a human head prevented the intercourse of their several villages,
-as it had settled near the principal path of communication,’ also ‘that
-it retreats,’ etc., etc. Now, in order to understand the force of these
-passages, it is necessary to remind the reader that the Nahua race were
-perhaps even more properly and generally designated as the ‘Culhua’ the
-‘Snake’ race, and one branch, remotely connected with them in blood
-and language, though wofully degenerated, the Snakes or Shoshones of
-Oregon, etc., carry the name to this very day. * * * ‘An expedition
-was sent towards the Mississippi River; they crossed it, reached an
-extensive meadow; they discovered a _curious animal_, a _winged fish_;
-it flew about the tree, it moved like a _humming bird_’ * * * the
-_humming bird_ was the totem of the last tribe of Nahuas, arriving in
-Anahuac from Aztlan. The Cherokee tradition, told by Timberlake, is
-equally significant: ‘The prince of rattlesnakes lives in the glens
-of the mountains. His palace is guarded by obedient subjects. * * *
-And in the myth of the Algonquins, the god-hero Michabo is in conflict
-with the shining prince of serpents who lives in the lake; he destroys
-the reptile with a dart; clothes himself with the skin of his foe, and
-_drives the rest of the serpents to the south_.’”
-
-[87] _J. D. Baldwin’s Ancient America_, p. 47.
-
-[88] Foster, pp. 172–3, remarks: “Squier and Davis hastily stated
-that none of these works occupied the alluvial bottoms (an error
-which Mr. Squier subsequently corrected), and from this statement the
-most erroneous conclusions as to their antiquity have been drawn.
-There is nothing to indicate but that those works were constructed
-after the surface had assumed its present configuration, and that the
-climate had become essentially as it is now. That they should not
-occur as abundantly on the bottoms as on the river terraces is not
-to be wondered at, when we consider the great fluctuations of the
-Mississippi and its tributaries. The extreme range between low and
-high water of the Upper Mississippi at its mouth is thirty-five feet;
-that of the Missouri at its mouth about the same; and that of the Ohio
-at Louisville, forty-two feet. Hence, during the flood time a greater
-portion of the bottom lands are subject to overflow, and it would be
-natural for the Mound-builders to shun such situations. Where the
-immediate valleys lie above high water, we find their works. Of this
-the ‘American Bottom’ is a notable instance.”
-
-[89] See Dr. Lapham’s communication in Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_,
-pp. 373–5, in which he shows the possibility of finding the average
-increase of wood each year by measuring annual rings of growth.
-
-[90] Sir Charles Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 41, says: “When I
-visited Marietta in 1842, Dr. Hildreth took me to one of the mounds,
-and showed me where he had seen a tree growing on it, the trunk of
-which when cut down displayed eight hundred rings of annual growth.”
-
-[91] See Prof. Asa Gray in Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 392; also
-Lyell’s _Antiquity of Man_, p. 41, where the opinion of President
-Harrison is quoted as follows: “We may be sure that no trees were
-allowed to grow so long as the earthworks were in use; and when they
-were forsaken, the ground, like all newly-cleared land in Ohio, would
-for a time be monopolized by one or two species of tree, such as the
-yellow locust and the black or white walnut. When the individuals
-which were the first to get possession of the ground had died out one
-after the other, they would, in many cases, instead of being replaced
-by other species, be succeeded, by virtue of the law which makes a
-rotation of crops profitable in agriculture, by other kinds, till
-at last, after a great number of centuries (several hundred years
-perhaps), that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North
-America, and far exceeding what is seen in European forests, would be
-established.”
-
-[92] Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 118, 119, 122, and M. Stronck,
-_Repères chronologiques de l’histoire des Mound-builders_ in _Congrès
-des Américanistes_, Luxembourg, tom. i, pp. 316–18, catalogues the
-record of the age of trees found on mounds.
-
-[93] Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 370.
-
-[94] _American Naturalist_, Jan. 1868.
-
-[95] _Second Visit to the United States_, vol. i, p. 252.
-
-[96] Dr. Brinton’s _Notes on the Floridian Peninsula_.
-
-[97] From the immense heaps distributed over an area of 150 miles
-between Pilatka and Salt Creek Dr. Wyman made some collections of
-interest. The banks were composed mostly of the _Ampullaria Depressa_,
-the _Paludina Multilineata_ and _Unio Buckleyi_. The bank at King
-Phillip’s Town, 450 feet long by 120 feet wide, and in some places
-eight feet thick, yielded fragments of pottery and decayed animal
-bones. At Black Hammock, on the St. Johns, a mound 900 feet long and
-from 100 to 150 in width, yielded the following: such marine shells
-as the strombus-gigos, pyrula carica and P. perversa. These had been
-shaped into hatchets, gouges and chisels. Scarcely any stone implements
-were found in any of the mounds examined. A chisel and twenty-five
-arrow-heads were collected in the vicinity of the above shell-bank.
-The following animal remains were found: bear, deer, raccoon, opossum,
-terrapin, turtle, alligator, cat-fish and garpike. But few bones
-of birds were found. Prof. Wyman can only explain the presence of
-so many of the now scarce species, the Ampullarius and Paludinas,
-on the supposition that they were much more plentiful and are now
-becoming extinct, or that the heaps where so abundantly found were
-made by slow accumulation, through the lapse of an indefinitely long
-period.—_American Naturalist_, vol. ii, Nos. 8 and 9, and _Fifth Annual
-Report of Peabody Museum_, pp. 22–25. Also _First Report of Peabody
-Museum_, pp. 11, 18.
-
-[98] A small sand-mound near Cedar Keys yielded peculiarly massive
-skulls; the capacity being 1375 cubic centimetres, or nearly 84 cubic
-inches. They show no distortion, and the average thickness of eight of
-them through the parietal bones measured 10.5 millimetres, or 0.42 of
-an inch. The heaviest weighed 995 grams, and notwithstanding the loss
-of its organic matter, is heavier than any of the three hundred skulls
-in the collection (Peabody Museum).—_Fourth Annual Report of Peabody
-Museum_, p. 13. Also see Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 170.
-
-[99] Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 159.
-
-[100] Nott and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, p. 272.
-
-[101] C. C. Jones, Jr., _Antiquities of the Southern Indians_.
-
-[102] Further consult, _Second Indiana Report_, p. iii; _Smithsonian
-Report_ for 1870; Humphreys and Abbot’s _Physics and Hydraulics of the
-Mississippi Valley_, p. 89, and Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, Chap. IV.
-
-[103] Martius: _Von dem Rechtszustande unter den Ureinwohner
-Brasiliens_, p. 80, and reprinted in his _Beiträge zur Ethnographie_,
-etc., Leipzig, 1867, quarto. “Der dermalige Zustand dieser Naturwesen
-beurkundet, dass die amerikanische Natur schon seit Jahrtausenden
-den Einfluss einer verändernden und umgestaltenden Menschenhand
-erfahren hat. Auf den Antillen und dem Festlande fanden die ersten
-Conquistadores den stummen Hund als Hausthier und auf der Jagd
-dienend, ebenso das Meerschweinchen in St. Domingo in einem heimischen
-Zustande.... Das Llama war in Peru schon seit undenklicher Zeit als
-Lastthier benützt worden, und kam nicht mehr im Zustand der Freiheit
-vor; ja sogar das Guanaco und die Vicunna scheinen damals nicht
-ganz wild, sondern in einer beschränkten Freiheit den Urbewohnern
-befreundet, gelebt zu haben, da sie, um geschoren zu werden,
-eingefangen, so dann aber wieder freigelassen würden.... Die Cultur
-dieser Pflanze (Maize) aus welcher die Peruaner auch Zucker bereiteten,
-ist uralt; man findet sie, und die Banane, den Baumwollenstrauch,
-die Quinoa- und die Mandioca-Pflanze ebenso wenig wild in America
-als unsere Getreidearten in Asien, Europa und Africa. Die einzige
-Palme, welche von den Indianern angebaut wird, hat durch diese Cultur
-den grossen, steinharten Saamenkern verloren, der oft in Fasern
-zerschmolzen, oft gänzlich aufgelöst ist. Ebenso findet man die Banane,
-deren Einfuhr nach America geschichtlich nicht nachgewiesen werden
-kann, immer ohne Saamen. Man weiss aber aus anderen Erfahrungen, welch’
-lange Zeit nothwendig ist, um den Pflanzen einen solchen Stempel von
-der umbildenden Macht menschlichen Einflusses aufzudrücken. Gewiss,
-auch in America sind die dort heimischen Nutz-Pflanzen der Menschheit
-seit undenklichen Zeiten zinsbar unterworfen.”
-
-[104] Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, p. 37.
-
-[105] Nott and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, p. 352.
-
-[106] _Antiquity of Man_, p. 44.
-
-[107] _Pre-Historic Man_, p. 12.
-
-[108] _American Naturalist_, vol. ii, p. 434, 1868. Also quoted by
-Foster, _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 77.
-
-[109] Daniel Wilson’s _Pre-Historic Man_, p. 12.
-
-[110] Vol. i, p. 200.
-
-[111] Meigs: _Trans. Am. Phil. Soc._, 1828, p. 285.
-
-[112] _Antiquity of Man_, p. 42.
-
-[113] Vol. ii, p. 197.
-
-[114] _Antiquity of Man_, p. 203.
-
-[115] _Extinct Mammalia of North America_, p. 365: “The specimen may
-have been contemporary with the remains of extinct animals, with which
-it is said to have been found, though it appears to me equally if not
-more probable that it may have fallen into the formation from an Indian
-grave above at a comparatively recent date, and become stained like the
-true fossils from ferruginous infiltration.”
-
-[116] Foster: _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 61. “A dozen plantation
-burial places and Indian mounds and camps had been exposed above for
-centuries; and in recent years since uninhabited by the whites (for a
-hundred years), the drains had cut through the surface to the depth of
-twenty and even forty feet of the bluff loam-beds. The probabilities
-are a hundred to one that this bone was not of the bluff (mastodon)
-formation but of the recent era.”
-
-[117] Foster in _Transactions of the Chicago Academy of Sciences_, vol.
-i, part ii.
-
-[118] Fontaine’s _How the World was Peopled_, pp. 67–69. A book with
-many good points, but obscure as to this particular case.
-
-[119] _On the Geology of Lower Louisiana and the Salt Deposit on the
-Petit Anse Island_, p. 14, in _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_,
-No. 248.
-
-[120] Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 58.
-
-[121] Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, p. 35.
-
-[122] Vol. xxxvi, p. 198.
-
-[123] Vol. xxxvii, p. 191.
-
-[124] J. D. Dana: _Koch’s Evidence on the Contemporaneity of Man and
-the Mastodon in Missouri_, in the _Am. Jour. of Sci. and Arts_, Art.
-xxxv, May, 1875, gives the title of two of these pamphlets as follows:
-1. _Description of the Missourium or Missouri Leviathan, together with
-its Supposed Habits; Indian Traditions Concerning the Location from
-which it was Exhumed; Also, Comparisons of the Whale, Crocodile, and
-Missourium with the Leviathan, as described in the Forty-first Chapter
-of the Book of Job_: by Albert Koch, 16 pp. octavo, St. Louis, 1841
-(1840 on the cover, indicating that the copy is from a second edition).
-2. _Description of the Missourium Theristocaulodon (Koch) or Missouri
-Leviathan (Leviathan Missouriensis), together with its Supposed Habits
-and Indian Traditions; Also, Comparisons of the Whale, Crocodile, and
-Missourium with the Leviathan, as described in the Forty-first Chapter
-of the Book of Job_: by Albert Koch. Fifth edition enlarged, 28 pp.
-octavo. Dublin, 1843. (A third edition of twenty-four pages appeared in
-London in 1841.)
-
-[125] _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1830, Art. xxxvi, p. 198,
-and copied by Mr. J. D. Dana, in his article before cited, May, 1875.
-
-[126] Dr. Koch’s _Pamphlet_ of 1843, pp. 13, 14, 27, copied by J. D.
-Dana.
-
-[127] _Transactions of St. Louis Academy of Sciences_, vol. i, 1857.
-
-[128] Foster’s _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 62.
-
-[129] _Smithsonian Report_, 1872, p. 396, in a note to his article on
-_North American Stone Implements_.
-
-[130] J. D. Dana in _American Journal of Science and Arts_, May, 1875,
-p. 340.
-
-[131] Article cited, p. 344.
-
-[132] Though the above argument by so eminent a specialist must satisfy
-any one that Dr. Koch’s claim, as it now stands, is valueless to
-science; still, it is due to the memory of the latter, to admit that he
-was the most indefatigable and successful collector in his department
-in this country. Though unscientific himself, his service to science
-must ever be recognized. The great Mastodon in the British Museum is
-a monument to his persevering research. Perhaps the disposition to
-acknowledge his services, has unduly biased the judgment of many in
-favor of his groundless claim.
-
-[133] _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 67.
-
-[134] “But it is one of those isolated cases which require further
-investigation before full credence can be attached to it.”—_Foster’s
-Pre-Historic Races_, p. 71.
-
-[135] _Antiquity of Man in the United States, Transactions of American
-Association for Advancement of Science_. Chicago, 1869.
-
-[136] _Second Visit to the United States._
-
-[137] Nott and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, p. 336, and Lyell’s
-_Antiquity of Man_, p. 43.
-
-[138] _Tableau of New Orleans_, 1852, cited by Foster, _Pre-Historic
-Races_, p. 73.
-
-[139] _Antiquity of Man_, p. 43.
-
-[140] _Surface Geology_, p. 92, _Smithsonian Contributions to
-Knowledge_, vol. ix.
-
-[141] _Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi_, pp. 150 _et seq._,
-and 435.
-
-[142] _Pre-Historic Races_, p. 76.
-
-[143] _Philadelphia Acad. of Natural Sciences. Proceedings_, Part I,
-1872. Also Foster, pp. 69–71.
-
-[144] This letter bears date December 24, 1876, written from
-Waynesville, Ohio, and signed by Robert F. Furnas, M. D.
-
-[145] Prof. Orton in _Geology of Highland County_ in “_Progress of the
-Ohio_ _Geological Survey in 1870_,” published 1871, and in vol. i. of
-_State Geological Report_, p. 442.
-
-[146] Prof. Winchell remarks: “The very general interest that is being
-excited in this country in the problems that invest the history of the
-drift is my only excuse for calling your attention to the prevalence
-of vegetable remains in the Drift of the North-west, and to the wide
-divergence of high authorities on the relative position of those
-remains in respect to the boulder clay.”—See _Proceedings_, p. 56, _Am.
-Ass. for Adv. Sci._, 1875, _24th Meeting_.
-
-[147] _Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, p. 226,
-Cambridge, 1878. Dr. Abbott concludes his interesting report by citing
-a letter from Mr. Thomas Belt, dated Grant, Colorado, June 29, 1878,
-in which the writer reports the discovery of “a small human skull in
-undisturbed loess, in a railway cutting about two miles from Denver,
-near the watershed between the South Platte and Clear Creek. All the
-plains are covered with a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose
-pebbles, overlaid by a sandy and calcareous loam closely resembling the
-diluvial clay and the loess of Europe.” The skull was found at a point
-three and a half feet from the surface.—_Ibid._, p. 257.
-
-[148] _Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum, Cambridge_, 1877, vol.
-ii, pp. 30–43; _American Naturalist_, June, 1876, p. 329.
-
-[149] _Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, p. 47.
-
-[150] Grote, _The Peopling of America_, _American Naturalist_, April,
-1877.
-
-[151] _Primitive Industry_, by C. C. Abbott, M.D., 1881, p. 551. A
-truly scientific work.
-
-[152] _Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey,
-under Dr. Hayden in 1872_, p. 657.
-
-[153] General Thomas gives the following account of this form of skull
-discovered by him, p. 657: “It is unlike that of any human being to-day
-alive on this continent; the frontal bone being low, receding, growing
-narrow and pinched from the brows up; the top of the head depressed in
-the centre. The cavity of the cranium is full seven inches long, and
-a scant four and a half inches wide. The orbital ridges or eyebrows
-are excessively developed, like those of the great Gibbon monkey. In
-fact the whole skull resembles that of the great Gibbon monkey. The
-malar or cheek bones run down very low and deep toward the lower jaw,
-are set very far to the front, and are not wide at top, but widen very
-much toward the bottom. The nose, and here is the anomaly, is much more
-aquiline than that of the Indian. The superior maxillary is one-third
-deeper and much more prominent than the Indian’s. The inferior
-maxillary is of uncommon prominence, depth, and power, far exceeding
-that of the Indian. The mouth is narrow and long, more dog-shaped than
-the Indian’s. The _foramen magnum_ or aperture at base of skull, where
-the spinal cord enters the head, is peculiarly small. The _condyloid
-processes_ are full, oblong, flat on the working surfaces, and at
-such an angle as to set the head upward and back more than any race
-we know to-day on this continent. Set one of these skulls, without
-the lower jaw, on the table, and a line drawn from the upper jaw
-perpendicularly upward would be a good inch and a half in front of the
-forehead. Set on the lower jaw and it would be two inches.” Mr. R. D.
-Guttgisal, formerly an engineer on the Mexican Central Railroad, in
-connection with some friends, opened a mound at Chihuahua, on the line
-of that railroad. The skulls resembled those I have described (so he
-informs me) in every particular. He especially remembers the somewhat
-bird-shaped head, and the excessively small _foramen magnum_. The
-bodies were not interred horizontally there, but leaning backward as if
-in a rocking-chair. Professor H. H. Smith, University of Pennsylvania,
-has one of the skulls.
-
-[154] Professor James Orton, _The Andes and the Amazons_, third ed., p.
-109, New York, 1876.
-
-[155] Sir John Lubbock, alluding to the changes that have transpired in
-the condition of man from his first appearance in America, says: “But
-even if we attribute to these changes all the importance which ever has
-been claimed for them, they will not require an antiquity of more than
-three thousand years. I do not, of course, deny that the period may
-have been very much greater, but in my opinion, at least, it _need_ not
-be greater.”—_Pre-Historic Times_, p. 234, London, 1865.
-
-Dr. Foster, after giving many of the reputed proofs of man’s antiquity
-here, sums up the argument in the following language: “The evidence, it
-must be confessed, rests, in most cases, upon the testimony of a single
-observer, and besides, there has not been a recurrence of ‘finds’ in
-the same deposit (except in the gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming,
-which require further investigation to command an unqualified belief),
-as in the valley of the Somme and in the European caves, which is so
-conclusive as to the existence of man as contemporary with the great
-Pachyderms.”—_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p. 71.
-
-[156] _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xvi, cap. 9. Above I have availed myself
-of the admirable translation by Rev. Marcus Dods, vol. ii, p. 118.
-Edinburgh, 1871. On the subject of Antipodes we may refer the reader to
-the view of _Cosmas Indicopleustes_, an Egyptian of the middle of the
-6th century. See Draper’s _Conflict between Religion and Science_, p.
-65, and the opinion of the Venerable Bede, cited by the same author.
-See further Bancroft’s _Native Races of the Pacific States_, vol. v,
-pp. 1–8, and Ogilby’s _America_, pp. 6–7.
-
-[157] R. H. Major’s _Prince Henry of Portugal_, chap. xxi. London,
-1868, 8vo. Draper’s _Conflict_, pp. 163–5.
-
-[158] The narrowness of the attainments of the “educated” in Spain in
-the 17th century is portrayed by Buckle: “Books, unless they were books
-of devotion, were deemed utterly useless; no one consulted them, no one
-collected them; and until the 18th century, Madrid did not possess a
-single public library. * * * De Torres, who was himself a Spaniard, and
-was educated at Salamanca early in the 18th century, declares that he
-had studied in the university for five years before he had heard that
-such things as the mathematical sciences existed. So late as the year
-1771, the same university publicly refused to allow the discoveries
-of Newton to be taught; and assigned as a reason, that the system of
-Newton was not so consonant with revealed religion as the system of
-Aristotle.”—_History of Civilization in England_, vol. ii, pp. 72–3.
-New York, 1861. Of course these remarks apply to Spain’s period of
-misfortune and decline, but it must also be remembered that the spirit
-of intolerance which alone brought about that condition was at its
-height about the time of the discovery of America.
-
-[159] Mr. Bancroft has illustrated the spirit of this latter class by
-quoting a passage from Garcia’s _Origen de Los Indios_, Madrid, 1729,
-p. 248. It is certainly one of the most venomous and narrow-minded
-utterances on record. See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 4.
-
-[160] _Historia Antigua de la Nueva España con Noticias de los Ritos
-y Costumbres de los Indios y Explicacion del Calendario Mexicano,
-por F. Diego Duran_, Escrita en el año de 1585; MS. in three vols.
-folio of upwards of 1000 pp. each. On p. 507, tom. iii, we find
-notice of December, 1579, as the date at which that stage of the work
-was reached. Copy in the library of Congress at Washington. From
-Beristain’s _Biblioteca Hispano-Americana, Septentrional_, tom. i, p.
-442, Mexico, 1816, we quote the following: “Duran (F. Diego) á quien el
-Illmõ. Eguara, p. 324, de su Biblioteca dá equivocadamente el nombre
-de Pedro, y á quien el Jesuita Clavigero llama Fernando con igual
-equivocacion. Fué natural de Tezcuco, antigua corte de los Emperadores
-Megicanos: y Profeso el Orden de Santo Domingo, en el Convento Imperial
-de Megico, á 8 de Margo de 1556. Era varon Docto en Theología, y de
-vasta erudicion en la historia antigua de los Indios; pero molestado de
-enfermedades en sus años ultimos, no pudo dar á luz publica los bellos
-libros, que tenia compuestos, los mas amenos y gustosos, que hasta
-entonces se habian escrito sobre las cosas de Indias, como se explica
-el Illmõ. Dáila Padilla, y repetieron despues los criticos franceses
-Querif y Echard. El referido Arzo-Bispo añade, que el P. Juan de Torar,
-Jesuita Megicano, en cuyo poder paraban los manuscritos de su paisano
-Duran, se los dió al P. José de Acosta á quien servieron mucho para su
-Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, en lo qual convienen Pinelo y
-D. Nicolás Antonio. Los dichos MSS. eran:” _Historia de los Indios de
-la N. E. Antigüallas de los Indios de la N. E._
-
-[161] “Cuanto á lo primero tendremos por principal fundamento el ser
-esta Nacion y Gente Indiana advenediza de estrañas y remotas regeiones,
-y que en su venida á poseer esta Tierra hizo un largo y prolijo camino,
-en el cual gastó muchos meses y años para llegar á ella, como de su
-relacion y pinturas se colige, y como de algunos viejos ancianos de
-muchos dias he procurado saber para sacar esta opinion en limpio; y
-dado caso que algunos cuenten algunas falsas fabulas conviene á saber,
-que nacieron de unas fuentes y manantiales de agua; otros, que nacieron
-de unas cuebas; otros, que su generacion es de los Dioses; lo cual
-clara y abiertamente se ve ser fabula, y que ellos mismos ignoran su
-origen y principio, dado caso que siempre confiessan havre venido
-de tierras; y asi lo he hallado pintado en sus antiguas pinturas,
-donde señalan grandes trabajos de hambre, sed, y desnudez, con otras
-innumerables afliciones que en él pasáron hasta llegar a esta tierra
-y poblada; con lo cual confirmo mi opinion y sospecha de que estos
-Naturales sean de aquellas diez Tribus de Isrrael que Salmanasar, Rey
-de los Asirios cautivó y transmigró de Asiria en tiempo de Ozeas, Rey
-de Isrrael, y en tiempo de Ozequias, Rey de Jerusalem, como se prodra
-ver en el cuarto Libro de los Reyes, capitulo diez y siete, donde dice
-que fue transladado Isrrael de su tierra á los Asirios hasta el dia
-de hoy, etc.; de las cuales dice Esdras en el Libro cuarto, capitulo
-trece, que se pasaron á vivir á una tierra remota y apartada que nunca
-habia sido habitada; á la cual habia largo y prolijo camino de año y
-medio, donde agora se hallan estas Gentes de todas las Islas y Tierra
-firma del mar oceano hacia la parte de occidente.”—_Historia Antigua de
-la Nueva España_, tom. i., pp. 1–2, MS.
-
-[162] London, small quarto, 1650; we have both this and the edition of
-1660 before us.
-
-[163] Harmon L’Estrange, Kt., _Americans No Jewes; or Improbabilities
-that the Americans are of that Race_, p. 4. 1652; quarto, London.
-
-[164] Id., p. 13.
-
-[165] “De suerte que aviendose conservado este nombre Piru, que es lo
-mismo que Ophir, en aquellas tierras, y hallandose que los moradores
-dellas parecen a los Hebreos en muchas cosas, bien se signe que a
-quellos Indios, y los demas proceden de Ophir nieto de Heber de quien
-los Hebreos, y su lengua tomaron el nombre. Tambien se halla el nombre
-de Iectan padre de Ophir en la provincia que oy se llama Yucatan, en la
-Nueva España, que no es pequeño fundemento para provar que ya que no
-pusiesse aquel nombre Iectan, por no haver ido a aquella tierra, pudo
-ser que lo diesse su hijo Ophir.”—_Origen de los Indios_, p. 323. Ed.,
-_Valencia_, 1607.
-
-[166] _Origen de los Indios_, (_Valencia_, 1607), p. 485.
-
-[167] _Hist. de la Nouvelle France_, lib. i, cap. iii, p. 25. Paris,
-1611.
-
-[168] _Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos_, Madrid,
-1728–30, fol. decada 1, lib. i, cap. vi.
-
-[169] _Historia de la Conquista Itza_, p. 27, Madrid, 1701, fol.
-
-[170] Aunque la verdad es que ellos, por hablar mas propriamente y
-los otros de quien descendieron, por Generacion Natural, son de los
-Hijos de Noé * * * y segun lo que tenemos dicho, en otra parte, acerca
-de el color de estas gentes, no tendria por cosa descaminada, creer
-que son descendientes de los Hijos, u Nietos de Cham, tercero Hijo de
-Noé.—_Monarquia Ind._, tom. i, p. 30.
-
-[171] Pineda in _Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, 1852, p. 343; see tradition
-of Votan, this work, chap. v.
-
-[172] _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. iv, p. 17; cited by Bancroft.
-
-[173] _Historia del origen de pentes que poblaron la America
-Septentrional que llaman la Nueva España con noticia de los primeros
-que establecieron la Monarquia, que en ella florecio de la Nacion
-Tolteca, y noticias que alcanzaron de la creacion del Mundo_ (date
-at end of first vol. 1755, and end of third 1780), _por M. Fer. de
-Echevarria y Veitia_, pp. 24–30, chap, i, tom. i, MS. Three vols.
-folio, in Library of Congress at Washington. About one-fourth of the
-work is published in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, tom. viii.
-
-[174] _Historia_, cap. xii, tom. i, p. 92, MS.; of Kingsborough’s _Mex.
-Ant._, tom. viii, p. 189.
-
-[175] _Noticias Americanas_, pp. 391–5, 405–7. Cited by Bancroft,
-_Native Races_, vol. v, p. 10.
-
-[176] _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 11.
-
-[177] _Deserts_, vol. i, p. 26. But what else could be expected of the
-editor of that curiosity of Americo-Germanic literature executed by
-some German school-boy and unearthed in the Arsenal Library at Paris,
-entitled _Manuscript Pictographique Américain précédé d’une notice
-sur l’Ideographie des Peaux-Rouges_, par l’Abbé Em. Domenech, Paris,
-1860. Published under the auspices of the Minister of State and of the
-Emperor Napoleon III. See also _Le Livre des Sauvages au Point de Vue
-de la Civilization Française_, Brussels, 1861. The internal evidences
-of this remarkable MS. being the work of a German boy are plain to any
-one having the slightest knowledge of the German language. How the
-Abbé and the Emperor could have been so blinded to its real character
-we cannot imagine; however, it would be unfair to leave the impression
-that, because of the theory of Ophir’s colonization and because of this
-literary blunder, the Abbé’s work entitled _Seven Years’ Residence in
-the Great Deserts of North America_ is without value. On the contrary,
-it contains much useful information. The following passage occurs on p.
-66 of the above work: “The most careful study concerning the origin of
-the red-skins, made on the spot, has confirmed us in the belief that
-there is nothing in science to contradict the Bible, which represents
-Adam as the sole stock whence sprung the three great races which form
-the principal types of the human family.”
-
-[178] _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. iv, p. 15. We quote the following
-from the translation by Cullan, London, 1807: “We do not doubt that
-the population of America has been very ancient, and more so than it
-may seem to have been to European authors: 1. Because the Americans
-wanted those arts and inventions, such, for example, as those of wax
-and oil for light, which on the one hand being very ancient in Europe
-and Asia, are on the other most useful, not to say necessary, and when
-once discovered are never forgotten. 2. Because the polished nations
-of the new world, and particularly those of Mexico, preserve in their
-traditions and in their paintings the memory of the creation of the
-world and of the building of the Tower of Babel, the confusion of
-languages and the dispersion of the people, though blended with some
-fables, and had no knowledge of the events which happened afterwards in
-Asia, in Africa, or in Europe, although many of them were so great and
-remarkable that they could not easily have gone from their memories.
-3. Because neither was there among the Americans any knowledge of
-the people of the old continent, nor among the latter any account of
-the passage of the former to the new world.” He then cites Votan.
-See further on early views, Gottfried Wagner’s _De Originibus Amer.
-Disertatio Lipsiæ_, 1669; Hugo Grotius’s _Dissertatio de Origine
-Gentium Americanorum Amstelodami_, 1642; Jean De Laet’s _Notæ ad Diss.
-H. Grotii de Originine Gent. Americ._, 1643; Jean De Laet’s _Responsio
-ad H. Grotii Diss. de Origine Gent. Americ._, 1644; Poisson’s
-_Animadrersiones in Originem Peruvianorum et Mexicanorum_, Parisiis,
-1644; Georgius Hornius’s _De Originibus Americanis Hagæ_, 1652; Rocha’s
-_Tratado Unico y Singulare del Origin de los Indios Occidentales,
-del Peru, Mexico, Santa Fe, y Chile_; Lima, 1681; Engel’s _Essai sur
-Cette Question: Comment l’Amérique est-elle été Peuplée d’Hommes et
-d’Ammaux_, Amsterdam, 1767; Corn. De Pauw’s _Recherche sur l’Amérique
-et les Americans_, Berlin, 1774; Vater’s _Untersuchungen über America’s
-Bevölkerung aus dem alten Continent_, Leipzig, 1810.
-
-[179] D. B. Warden’s _Recherches sur les Antiquités de l’Amérique du
-Nord_, in _Antiquités Mexicaines_, tom. ii, div. ii. Paris, 1834,
-quarto.
-
-[180] _Native Races_, vol. v, chap. i. The literary apparatus contained
-in the notes accompanying the chapter is remarkably full and valuable.
-
-[181] “I know of no man better qualified than was Brasseur de
-Bourbourg, to penetrate the obscurity of American primitive history.
-His familiarity with the Nahua and Central American languages, his
-indefatigable industry and general erudition, rendered him eminently
-fit for the task, and every word written by such a man on such a
-subject is entitled to respectful consideration. Nevertheless there
-is reason to believe that the Abbé was often rapt away from the truth
-by the excess of enthusiasm, and the reader of his wild and fanciful
-speculations cannot but regret that he has not the opportunity or the
-ability to criticise by comparison the French savant’s interpretation
-of the original documents.”—_Bancroft’s Native Races_, p. 127.
-
-[182] The work in which he repudiates his first interpretation of the
-Codex Chimalpopoca, and in which he advocates the allegorical meaning
-together with the theory of Atlantis, is entitled _Quatre Lettres sur
-le Mexique_, Paris, 1868.
-
-[183] This work, p. 135.
-
-[184] Among these we may cite Adair’s _History of the American
-Indians_; Jones’ _History of Ancient America_; Giordan’s _Tehuantepec_;
-Rossi’s _Souvenirs d’un Voyage en Orégon_, pp. 276–7; Ethan Smith’s
-_Views of the Hebrews_; Thorowgood’s _Jewes in America_; Domenech’s
-_Deserts_, vol. i, and Simon’s _Ten Tribes_.
-
-[185] _Mexican Antiquities_, London, 1831–48, 9 vols. imperial folio.
-
-[186] The tablets remained in their place of concealment until
-discovered by Joseph Smith, September 22, 1827. Mr. Bancroft, _Native
-Races_, p. 97 _et seq._ (from which we draw the above), has translated
-a full account of this wonderful claim from Bertrand’s _Memoirs_, pp.
-32 _et seq._
-
-[187] Pineda’s _De Rebus Solomonis_, but especially Horn’s _De Origine
-Gentium Americanarum_.
-
-[188] Some of these features will receive attention in a following
-chapter.
-
-[189] Hudson’s _Geographiæ Veteris Scriptores Græci Minores_,
-1698–1712, 8vo, and Rev. Thos. Falconer’s _Voyage of Hanno_,
-translated, etc., Oxford, 1797, 8vo.
-
-[190] _Native Races_, p. 66.
-
-[191] Chap. V.; see Tradition and Literature.
-
-[192] By George Jones, R. S. I.; M. F. S. V., etc.; dedicated by
-permission to the Archbishop of Canterbury and to Frederick William the
-Fourth, King of Prussia. London, 1843.
-
-[193] Mr. Jones states in his preface that to furnish a list of the
-works from which he drew his material would be pedantic, and adds:
-“Yet being professedly an original work, the volume of the brain
-has been more largely extracted from than any writer whose works
-are already before that public—to whose final judgment (upon its
-merits or demerits) the present author submits the first history of
-ancient America with all humility; but he will yield to none in the
-conscientious belief in the truth of the startling propositions and the
-consequent conclusions.” With such convictions there is no opportunity
-for unbiased investigation.
-
-[194] _Traditions of Decoodah and Antiquarian Researches_, p. 16. New
-York, 1858, 8vo.
-
-[195] _Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains Comparées aux Mœurs des Premiers
-Temps._ Paris, 1724.
-
-[196] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, p. 122; the Abbé Brasseur de
-Bourbourg’s discovery of the Greek Gods in America (_Landa, Relacion_,
-pp. lxx–lxxx) will be considered further on.
-
-[197] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, pp. 55 _et seq._; M’Culloch’s
-_Researches_, pp. 171–2; Mayer’s _Mexico as it Was_, p. 186; Humboldt’s
-_Vues_, tom. i, pp. 120–4, and Stephen’s _Central America_, vol. ii, p.
-441; Jones’ _Hist. Anc. Am._, pp. 122 _et seq._
-
-[198] Delafield’s _Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of
-America_, Cincinnati, 1839, quarto.
-
-[199] _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 54. In a note an excellent collection
-of authorities is quoted.
-
-[200] Colonel Kennon in Leland’s _Fusang_, pp. 65 _et seq._ Also C. W.
-Brooks on Japanese Race in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 51.
-
-[201] In _Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres_,
-vol. xxviii, 1761.
-
-[202] English by Chas. G. Leland: _Fusang, or the Chinese Discovery of
-America_, 1875. New York.
-
-[203] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 34, note, says: “A Chinese
-_li_ is about one-third of a mile”—English, we suppose, but upon what
-authority we are unable to say. Klaproth adopted 850 _li_ to a degree,
-while D’Eichthal fixes it at 400 to a degree in the sixth century,
-though at present it is 250 _li_ to a degree. Deguignes’ _Mémoires de
-l’Académie des Inscriptiones et Belles Lettres_, vol. xxviii, 1761, and
-Leland’s _Fusang_, pp. 128 and 140.
-
-[204] Leland’s _Fusang_, pp. 25 _et seq._ This translation was revised
-by Professor Neumann himself, and is more literal than that by Klaproth.
-
-[205] Klaproth’s _Recherches_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_,
-1831, tom. li, pp. 57 _et seq._ Humboldt’s _Examen Critique_, tom. xi,
-pp. 65–6.
-
-[206] Sr. Jose Perez in _Revue Orientale et Américaine_, No. 4, pp.
-189–195.
-
-[207] Dr. E. Bretschneider in the fifth number of the _Chinese Recorder
-and Missionary Journal_, vol. iii, published at Foochow, October 1870.
-The article entitled _Fusang, or Who Discovered America_, is copied in
-full in Leland’s _Fusang_, pp. 165 _et seq._ See also Dr. Neumann’s
-_Ost-Asien und West Amerika_; in _Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Erdkunde_
-for April, 1864. See _D’Eichthal_ in _Revue Archéologique_, 1862, vol.
-ii, and Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 33 _et seq._
-
-[208] The strongest proof upon which the Chinese theory rests is that
-of physical resemblance, which on the extreme north-western coast of
-America is very marked. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 37.
-
-[209] John Ranking’s _Historical Researches on the Conquest of Peru,
-Mexico, etc., by the Mongols_, London, 1827.
-
-[210] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 44–50, contains a good
-review, but Ranking himself must be examined to be appreciated.
-
-[211] _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 40 _et seq._, gives a brief review.
-The subject will be fully treated in its proper place.
-
-[212] In the Landnama-book, No. 107, is found a narrative of ARE
-MARSON, in Hvitramanna Land. Prof. Rafn (_Antiquitates Americanæ_,
-pp. 210 _et seq._), translates it as follows: “Ulvus Strabo, filius
-Högnii Albi, totum occupavit Reykjanesum inter Thorskafjördum et
-Hafrafellum; uxorem habuit Bjargam, filiam Eyvindi Œstmanni, sororem
-Helgii Marci. Eorum filius Atlius Rufus, qui uxorem habuit Thorbjargam,
-sororem Steinolvi Humilis; horum filius erat Mar de Reykholis, qui
-uxorem habuit Thorkatlam, filiam Hergilsis Hnapprassi (natibus
-globosis). Eorum filius fuit Arius, qui tempestate delatus est ad
-Hvitramannalandiam (Terram alborum hominum), quam nonnulli Irlandiam
-Magnum appellant, qui in oceano occidentali jacet prope Vinlandiam
-Bonam, sex dierum navigatione versus occidentem ab Irlanda.” On
-Hvitramannaland, see _Antiquitates Americanæ_, pp. 162, 163, 183,
-210, 212, 214, 447, 448, and De Costa’s _Pre-Columbian Discovery of
-America_, pp. lii, 86, 63, 70, 87, 88.
-
-[213] _Monastikon Britannicum_, pp. 131–2, 187–8. Cited by De Costa,
-_Pre-Col. Dis. of Am._, p. xviii.
-
-[214] On this subject see Brasseur de Bourbourg in the 16th vol. of the
-sixth series of _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, pp. 263, 281–9; also
-3d vol. of same work, sixth series, 1855, pp. 156–7, and in _New York
-Tribune_ for November 21, 1855.
-
-[215] _Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands an Xᵉ siècle, par
-Gabriel Gravier_, Paris, 1864, 4to.
-
-[216] _America Not Discovered by Columbus_, by R. B. Anderson, Chicago,
-1874, 16mo.
-
-[217] Gravier, _Découverte de l’Amérique_, p. 235, quotes Dr. Schuck as
-authority, _Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_, 1840–43, pp. 26–7;
-also 1844, p. 181.
-
-[218] Hakluyt’s _Principal Navigations, Voyages, etc._, vol. iii, pp.
-1 _et seq._; see a good discussion of the Welsh claim in Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 116 _et seq._
-
-[219] “I think, therefore (as mentioned before), we do not at all
-derogate from God’s greatness, nor in any ways dishonor the sacred
-evidence given us by His servants, when we think that there were as
-many Adams and Eves (every one knows these names to have an allegorical
-sense), as we find different species of the human genus * * * * God
-has created an original pair here as well as elsewhere.”—_Roman’s
-Concise Nat. Hist. of E. and W. Florida_, p. 55, New York, 1775. “We
-will candidly confess that we could never understand why philosophers
-have been so pre-disposed to advocate the theory which peoples America
-from the Eastern hemisphere. We think the supposition that the Red
-man is a primitive type of a family of the human race, originally
-planted in the Western Continent, presents the most natural solution
-of the problem; and that the researches of physiologists, antiquaries,
-philologists and philosophers in general, tend irresistibly to this
-conclusion.”—_Norman’s Rambles in Yucatan_, p. 251, New York, 1843,
-8vo. “My own belief is that, whatever was the origin of the different
-tribes or families, the whole race of American Indians are native and
-indigenous to the soil. There is no proof that they are either the
-lost tribes of Israel or emigrants from any part of the old world.
-They are a separate and as distinct a race as either the Ethiopian,
-Caucasian, or Mongolian. In the absence of all proof to the contrary,
-it seems to me to be both rational and consistent to assume that the
-Creator placed the Red race on the American Continent as early as He
-created the beasts and reptiles that inhabit it.”—_Swan’s North-west
-Coast_, p. 206, New York, 1857. “Dieu a créé plusieurs couples d’êtres
-humains différant les uns des autres intérieurement et extérieurement;
-chacun de des couples a été placé dans le climat approprié à son
-organisation.”—_Lord Kames in Warden’s Recherches_, p. 203.
-
-[220] The reader who has not given special attention to this phase of
-the subject, will be surprised to learn how generally received has
-been the autochthonic theory among writers in this field. Mr. Bancroft
-has given several quotations to illustrate this fact. See Morelet’s
-_Voyage_, vol. i, p. 177, Paris, 1857; Evens’ _Our Sister Republic_, p.
-332; Catlin’s _North American Indians_, vol. ii, p. 232. We prepared
-extracts for insertion at this point, but the limit of our space will
-not permit a full consideration of the question.
-
-Mr. Bancroft says of the theory, “If we may judge by the recent
-results of scientific investigation, [it] may eventually prove to
-be scientifically correct. To express belief, however, in a theory
-incapable of proof, appears to me idle. Indeed such belief is not
-belief, it is merely acquiescing in or accepting a hypothesis or
-tradition until the contrary is proved.”—_Native Races_, vol. v, pp.
-130–1.
-
-[221] _Crania Americana_, p. 260. Philadelphia, 1839. Folio.
-
-[222] Dr. Morton gives the following comparative table showing the
-internal capacity and dimensions of the crania of different races:
-
-  +-----------+------------+-------------+---------+---------+
-  |           |            |   _Mean     |         |         |
-  |           |   _Number  |  Internal   | _Largest|_Smallest|
-  |  RACES.   | of Skulls._|  Capacity   | in the  | in the  |
-  |           |            |in cubic in._| Series._| Series._|
-  +-----------+------------+-------------+---------+---------+
-  |Caucasian  |    52      |     87      |   109   |    75   |
-  |Mongolian  |    10      |     83      |    93   |    69   |
-  |Malay      |    18      |     81      |    89   |    64   |
-  |American   |   147      |     82      |   100   |    60   |
-  |Ethiopian  |    29      |     78      |    94   |    65   |
-  +-----------+------------+-------------+---------+---------+
-
-[223] After presenting several arguments together with accompanying
-proofs, Agassiz says: “This coincidence between the circumscription
-of the races of man and the natural limits of different zoological
-provinces characterized by peculiar distinct species of animals, is one
-of the most important and unexpected features in the Natural History
-of Mankind, which the study of the geographical distribution of all
-the organized beings now existing upon earth has disclosed to us. It
-is a fact which cannot fail to throw light at some future time upon
-the very origin of the differences existing among men, since it shows
-that man’s physical nature is modified by the same laws as that of
-animals, and that any general results obtained from the animal kingdom
-regarding the organic differences of its various types must also apply
-to man. Now there are only two alternatives before us at present: 1st.
-Either mankind originated from a common stock, and all the different
-races with their peculiarities, in their present distribution, are
-to be ascribed to subsequent changes—an assumption for which there
-is no evidence whatever, and leads at once to the admission that the
-diversity among animals is not an original one, nor their distribution
-determined by a general plan established in the beginning of the
-creation; or 2d, we must acknowledge that the diversity among animals
-is a fact determined by the will of the Creator, and their geographical
-distribution part of the general plan which unites all organized
-beings into one great organic conception; whence it follows that what
-are called human races down to their specializations as nations are
-distinct primordial forms of the type of man.” * * * He concludes
-in these words: “The laws which regulate the diversity of animals
-and their distribution upon earth apply equally to man _within the
-same limits and in the same degree_; and all our liberty and moral
-responsibility, however spontaneous, are yet instinctively directed by
-the All-wise and Omnipotent to fulfill the great harmonies established
-in Nature.”—_Types of Mankind_, pp. lxxv and lxxvi.
-
-[224] Agassiz in Nott and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, p. 78.
-
-[225] _Ibid._
-
-[226] _Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals_, p. 420. N.
-Y., 1872.
-
-[227] Note to Retzius’ article in _Smithsonian Report_, 1859, p. 264.
-
-[228] As an illustration of complex classification, we have the
-following: “From an old and well-filled European graveyard may be
-selected specimens of _klimocephalic_ (slope or saddle skull),
-_conocephalic_ (cone-skull), _brachycephalic_ (short-skull),
-_dolichocephalic_ (long-skull), _platycephalic_ (flat-skull),
-_leptocephalic_ (slim-skull), and other forms of crania equally worthy
-of penta or hexa-syllabic Greek epithets.”—_Owen (R.)_, _Anatomy
-of Vertebrates_, vol. ii, p. 570. London, 1866, 8vo. Foster, in
-_Pre-Historic Rates of the United States_, in addition to the long
-and short skulls, adopts also the _orthocephalic_ (erect-head), with
-the longitudinal diameter 100; he assumes the transverse diameter for
-dolichocephalæ to be less than 73; for orthocephalæ, to range between
-74 and 79, and for brachycephalæ, 80 and upwards.
-
-[229] _Pre-Historic Man_, chap. xx. 3d ed. London, 1876. 2 vols. 8vo.
-
-[230] Dr. Wilson’s _American Cranial Type_ in _Smithsonian Report_,
-1862, pp. 250 _et seq._ Dr. Wilson clearly shows that in one set there
-is the characteristic Mongol auxiliary of prominent cheek bones,
-while in the other the bones of the face are small and delicate. In
-twenty-six measurements he finds proof that the Peruvians were distinct
-from the Mexicans. Thirty-one dolichocephalic crania as compared with
-twenty-two brachycephalic crania convince him of the error of Morton
-and establish a diversity among the tribes of the North-east. He thinks
-analogies are traceable between the Esquimaux and the type of elongated
-skull; at all events he is satisfied that the form of the skull is as
-little constant among the tribes of the new world as among those of the
-old.
-
-[231] This author (Dr. Morton), who has given us such numerous and
-valuable facts, as well as the linguists who have studied these
-American languages with indefatigable zeal, have arrived at the
-conclusion that both race and language in the new world are unique. I
-am obliged to avow that the facts advanced by Morton himself, and that
-the study of numerous skulls with which he has enriched the museum of
-Stockholm, have conducted me to a wholly different result. I can only
-explain the fact by surmising that this remarkable man has allowed the
-views of the naturalist to be warped by his linguistic researches. For,
-if the form of the skull has anything to do with the question of races,
-we cannot fail to see that it is scarcely possible to find anywhere
-a more distinct distribution into dolichocephalæ and brachycephalæ
-than in America. It would be only necessary, in order to show this, to
-direct attention to certain of the delineations in his own work, where
-the skull of the Peruvian infant (Pl. 2), the Lenni-Lenape (Pl. 32),
-the Pawnee (Pl. 38), the Blackfoot (Pl. 40), etc., as clearly present
-the dolichocephalic form as on the other hand his Natchez (Pl. 30 and
-31) and the greater part of his representations of the skulls of Chile,
-Peru, Mexico, Oregon, etc., are distinct types of the brachycephalic.
-Conclusive, however, as the plates are, I should scarcely have ventured
-to advance these remarks, if the rich series of our own collection, and
-the numerous and excellent figures of Blumenbach, Sandifort, Van der
-Hoeven, etc., did not declare in favor of my opinion. (_Retzius_ in
-_Smithsonian Report_, 1859, p. 264.)
-
-Latham, in _Natural History of the Varieties of Man_, p. 452,
-says: “As to the conformation of the skull, a point where (with
-great deference) I differ with the author of the excellent _Crania
-Americana_, the Americans are said to be _brakhy_-kephalic, the Eskimo
-_dolikho_-kephalic.” He quotes Morton’s tables to contradict his
-(Morton’s) conclusions.
-
-[232] “Tried by Dr. Morton’s own definitions and illustrations, the
-Scioto Mound skull differs from the typical cranium in some of its
-most characteristic features. Instead of the low, receding, unarched
-forehead, it has a finely-arched frontal bone with corresponding
-breadth of forehead. The wedge-shaped vertex is replaced by a
-well-rounded arch curving equally throughout; and with the exception
-of the flattened occiput, due to artificial though probably undesigned
-compression in infancy, the cranium is a uniformly proportioned example
-of an extreme brachycephalic skull.”—_Pre-Historic Man_, vol. ii, p.
-127.
-
-[233] Chapter II, p. 127.
-
-[234] Henry Gillman, _The Ancient Men of the Great Lakes_, in
-_Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
-Science_, 24th meeting, at Detroit, 1875, p. 317; also _American
-Journal of Arts and Science_, 1874, vol. cvii, p. 1 _et seq._, and
-_Sixth Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, pp. 12–20.
-
-[235] Opportunity did not permit to obtain the exact (absolute)
-capacity.
-
-[236] Artificially perforated.
-
-[237] Very retreating frontal.
-
-[238] Very protuberant occipital.
-
-[239] Artificially perforated.
-
-[240] With epactal bone 1.5 in length. It may be interesting to mention
-that I find occasionally in our mounds a tendency to the formation of
-the epactal bone by a sudden approach of the sutures immediately below
-the apex of the occipital—a sort of transitional state.
-
-[241] _Recent Explorations of Mounds near Davenport, Iowa_, in
-_Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science_,
-24th meeting, 1875, pp. 297 _et seq._
-
-[242] Dr. Farquharson considers that some of his measurements in inches
-are scarcely accurate enough, and gives the following table in the
-decimals of a metre:
-
-MEASUREMENTS OF MOUND SKULLS; ALSO OF SIOUX SKULLS IN DECIMALS OF A
-METRE.
-
-FORAMINAL DISTANCE TAKEN WITH WYMAN’S INSTRUMENT.
-
-  A. _Horizontal Circumference._
-  B. _Long Diameter._
-  C. _Transverse Diameter._
-  D. _Vertical Diameter._
-  E. _Capacity in Cubic Centimetres._
-  F. _Foraminal Distance._
-  G. _Foraminal Ratio._
-  H. _Ratio of Diameter._
-
-  +-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----------------------+
-  |_No._| A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. |       _Mounds._       |
-  +-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----------------------+
-  |  1  |.546|.200|.120|.140|1190|    |    |.600|Albany, Ill.           |
-  |  2  |.483|.162|.128|.140|1190|.062|.382|.790|Albany, Ill.           |
-  |  3  |.495|.174|.130|.135|1020|.077|.442|.752|Albany, Ill.           |
-  |  7  |.508|.170|.140|.125|    |    |    |.823|Albany, Ill.           |
-  |  8  |.495|.175|.135|.140|1249|.065|.370|.771|Davenport, Mound No. 9.|
-  |  9  |.508|.171|.140|.140|1334|.062|.362|.818|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 10  |.508|.167|.148|.140|1135|.070|.419|.886|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 11  |.533|.180|.150|.145|1362|    |    |.833|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 12  |.457|.167|.128|.140|1021|    |    |.766|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 13  |.522|.185|.130|.150|1362|.089|.427|.702|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 14  |.483|.171|.138|.140|1192|.079|.460|.807|Henry County, Ill.     |
-  | 15  |.508|.185|.138|.145|1306|.081|.443|.745|Henry County, Ill.     |
-  | 16  |.457|.170|.130|.140|1135|.078|.448|.764|Henry County, Ill.     |
-  | 17  |.533|.185|.135|.146|1249|.072|.389|.703|Henry County, Ill.     |
-  | 18  |.508|.180|    |.140|    |    |    |    |Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 19  |.533|.196|.140|.140|    |    |    |.704|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 20  |    |.200|.128|    |    |    |    |.640|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 21  |    |.180|.137|    |    |    |    |.761|Henry County, Ill.     |
-  | 23  |    |.178|.140|.140|    |.073|.410|.730|Albany, Ill.           |
-  | 24  |    |.184|.139|.150|    |.088|.478|.755|Rock River, Ill.       |
-  | 26  |    |.200|    |    |    |    |    |    |Shell Bed, Rock Island.|
-  | 27  |.482|.170|.125|.140| 936|.076|.388|.735|Albany, Ill.           |
-  | 28  |    |.177|.135|.140|    |    |    |.762|Albany, Ill.           |
-  | 29  |.507|.177|.130|.145|1137|.088|.440|.734|Albany, Ill.           |
-  |     +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----------------------+
-  |     |.503|.179|.134|.140|1188|.075|.432|.755|Mean.                  |
-  |     +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----------------------+
-  |     | 18 | 24 | 22 | 21 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 22 |No. of skulls measured.|
-  +-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----------------------+
-
-[243] Dr. Jones found skeletons six feet, and in one instance seven
-feet in length. (_Antiquities of Tennessee_, pp. 44 and 53.)
-
-[244] _Antiquities of Tennessee_, p. 72; also note other similarities
-on p. 119.
-
-[245] _Ancient Men of the Great Lakes._ _Proceedings of the American
-Association for Advancement of Science_, meeting of 1875, pp. 322–3.
-
-[246] _Pre-Historic Man_, vol. ii, chap. xx, pp. 145, 158, 165.
-
-[247] The Aztecs are represented in our museum by three skulls found
-in an ancient cemetery near Mexico, which was uncovered in digging
-intrenchments to protect the Mexican capital against the armies of the
-United States. They are remarkable for the shortness of their axis,
-large flattened occiput, obliquely truncated behind, the height of the
-semicircular line of the temples, the shortness and trapezoid form
-of the parietal plane. They present an elevation or ridge along the
-sagittal suture; the base of the skull is very short, the face slightly
-prognathic, as among the Mongol Kalmucs. (Retzius in _Smithsonian
-Report_, 1859, p. 268.)
-
-[248] _Crania Americana_, p. 98.
-
-[249] See Dr. Morton in _Nott & Gliddon_.
-
-[250] _Pre-Historic Man_, vol. ii, chap. xx.
-
-[251] See especially _Eleventh Annual Report Peabody Museum_, pp.
-294–304.
-
-[252] _Geography_, book i, chap. ii, § 35, and book xi, chap, xi, § 7.
-
-[253] _Natural History_, book vii, chap. iv.
-
-[254] _De Situ Orbis_, lib. i, chap. xix, l. 78 (ed. 1782).
-
-[255] _Description of a Deformed Fragmentary Skull found in an Ancient
-Quarry-cave at Jerusalem_, by Dr. J. A. Meigs, _Transactions of
-Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences_, 1859.
-
-[256] We can no longer doubt, then, that this practice of giving an
-artificial form to the skull has subsisted from a remote epoch among
-the Oriental nations. As Thierry, moreover, pronounces it to be a
-Mongol usage, I have submitted the question in the memoir before
-spoken of, whether this fact does not speak in favor of an ancient
-communication between the old and the new world? Such a communication
-seems, indeed, to be now placed beyond doubt by the proofs which have
-been accumulated from time to time, through the efforts of numerous
-and zealous inquirers. It would seem likely that the usage in question
-has been introduced by the Mongols into America, where it has become
-diffused even among tribes not of the Mongol stock. (Retzius in
-_Smithsonian Report_, 1859, p. 270; also the same author in _Arch.
-des Sciences Naturelles_, Geneva, 1860; _Proceedings of American
-Association for Advancement of Science_, 1867, and _Edinburgh Phil.
-Journal_, new series, vol. vii.)
-
-[257] _Smithsonian Report_, 1862, p. 286.
-
-[258] _Essai sur les Deformations Artificielles du Crâne_, p. 74.
-
-[259] _Crania Britannica_, chap. iv, p. 38.
-
-[260] Retzius, _Smithsonian Report_, 1859, pp. 269–70.
-
-[261] Prof. Wilson, _Pre-Historic Man_, vol. ii, p. 221, and Retzius in
-the Reviews referred to in note 1, p. 180.
-
-[262] J. B. Davis in _Crania Britannica_, decade iii.
-
-[263] _Races of Man_ (Bohn), p. 45; Dr. Nott in _Types of Mankind_, p.
-436; Wilson’s _Pre-Historic Man_, vol ii, p. 221.
-
-[264] _Smithsonian Report_, 1862, p. 291.
-
-[265] Du Pratz’s _History of Louisiana_, vol. ii, p. 162.
-
-[266] Adair’s _History of American Indians_, p. 284.
-
-[267] On skull flattening, see Wilson’s _Pre-Historic Man_, vol.
-ii, chap. xxi. Prof. Jones’ _Antiquities of Tennessee, Smithsonian
-Contributions_, 1876, pp. 118 _et seq._ Landa’s _Relacion_, p. 181.
-Catlin’s _North American Indians_, vol. ii, p. 40 and other places.
-Townsend’s _Tour to the Columbia River_, pp. 178 _et seq._ Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_ as follows: I, 151, 158, 180, 210, 226–8, 256–7; Among
-the Mexicans, I, 651; II, 281; Central Americans, I, 717, 754; II,
-681–2, 731–2, 802; IV, 304, and the accompanying literary apparatus.
-
-[268] “This is certainly not a common disease now, and although rare,
-the instances of cure by bony anchylosis (the only way in which a
-true cure can take place), are even yet more rare. Nelaton, in his
-_Pathologie Chirurgicale_, has only been able to note twenty-five
-recorded cases of such an event. Now, as the space of one year is the
-shortest possible time allowed by authorities for such a cure to take
-place, and as during all this time the parts must be kept absolutely
-at rest, and the person so afflicted being entirely helpless, the
-inference is a strong one that these people were not in a savage state.
-They must necessarily have been in such a state, in the progress of
-advancement in civilization, as to be possessed of an accumulation
-of food, the requisite leisure of persons nursing the sick, and of
-dwellings sufficiently comfortable to protect them from inclemency of
-the weather in this latitude; without those elements of civilization
-those persons would inevitably have perished.”—_Dr. Farquharson in
-Proceedings of Am. Association for Advancement of Science_, vol. xxiv,
-p. 314.
-
-[269] Prof. Jones, _Antiquities of Tennessee_, gives a good summary of
-the discussion from the first writers to the present time, p. 65 _et
-seq._
-
-[270] “This flattening of the leg-bone was of a degree unheard of—I
-might almost say undreamt of—in any other part of this country or
-of the world. In many of the more extreme cases of those flattened
-tibiæ with sabre-like curvature which I had exhumed at the Rouge, the
-transverse diameter was only 0.48 of the antero-posterior, less than
-half, while in that most marked and isolated case recorded by Broca,
-from the cave at Cro-Magnon, France, it was 0.60. In the chimpanzee
-and gorilla the compression is 0.67. Shortly afterward, even this
-extreme degree of compression was cast in the shade by my bringing
-to light from a mound on the Detroit River, rich in relics, among a
-number of the flattened tibiæ, two specimens of this bone in which the
-latitudinal indices were respectively 0.42 and 0.40.”—_Henry Gillman_
-in _Proceedings American Association for Advancement of Science_, vol.
-xxiv, pp. 316–17. _The Sixth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of
-Archæology and Ethnology, Dr. Jeffries Wyman._ _The American Journal
-of Arts and Sciences_, 3d series, vol. vii, January 1874. _Gillman_ in
-_Smithsonian Report for 1873_, and _Dr. Farquharson_ in _Proceedings of
-A. A. A. S._, vol. xxiv, p. 313. 1875.
-
-[271] Gillman in _American Naturalist_ for August, 1875, and
-_Proceedings of A. A. A. Science_, 1875, p. 327.
-
-[272] Prof. Wilson has pathetically described the disinterment of
-a Peruvian family, consisting of the father, mother and child, and
-has especially dwelt upon the color and qualities of the hair as
-distinguishing them from the Red Indians. (_Pre-Historic Man_, pp. 440
-_et seq._)
-
-[273] _Commentarios Reales_, book v, chap. xxix; book iii, chap. xx.
-
-[274] Haywood’s _Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee_, p. 191.
-
-[275] Haywood, _op. cit._, pp. 163–6, 169, 100, 148–9, 338–9. On the
-mummies of Lexington, Kentucky, see Atwater’s _Archæologia Americana_,
-p. 318. Mammoth Cave, p. 359, _et passim_.
-
-[276] _Antiquities of Tennessee_, p. 5.
-
-[277] Squier and Davis’ _Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley_,
-pp. 243 _et seq._ Wilson’s _Pre-Historic Man_, vol. i, pp. 365 _et
-seq._ Charles Rau, _Smithsonian Contributions No. 287_, 1876, pp. 84,
-55. Prof. Joseph Jones’ _Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee_, _passim_,
-_Smithsonian Contributions_, No. 259.
-
-[278] Bryant’s _History of United States_, vol. i, chap. ii.
-
-[279] Prichard, _Researches into the Physical Hist. of Mankind_, 4th
-ed., 1841, vol. i, p. 269, after reviewing the question of the unity of
-the American race, remarks: “It will be easy to prove that the American
-races, instead of displaying a uniformity of color in all climates,
-show nearly as great a variety in this respect as the nations of the
-old continent; that there are among them white races with a florid
-complexion inhabiting temperate regions, and tribes black or of very
-dark hue in low and inter-tropical countries; that their stature,
-figure and countenances are almost equally diversified. Of these facts
-I shall collect sufficient evidence when I proceed to the ethnography
-of the American nations.” He fulfils this promise ably enough in vol.
-v, pp. 289, 374, 542, and other places. We respectfully refer the
-reader to the facts there accumulated.
-
-[280] Wilson’s _Pre-Historic Man_, vol. ii, p. 189.
-
-[281] See Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 262, note, where reference is made to
-Charnay, _Ruines Amér._, pp. 32, 45, 97, 103.
-
-[282] _The American Migration_, by Frederick von Hellwald. _Smithsonian
-Report_ for 1866, pp. 329, 330.
-
-[283] Jean Lamarck, _Philosophic Zoologique_, etc., Paris, 1809, 2
-vols., and _Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertebres_, 1815.
-
-[284] See Hæckel, _History of Creation_, vol. ii, pp. 255–6, and
-Professor Huxley’s reference to the genus _Equus_ (embracing the horse,
-ass and zebra from specimens collected by Prof. Marsh). New York
-Lectures, September, 1876.
-
-[285] Dr. McCosh in _Popular Science Monthly_, November, 1876, p. 88;
-Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, vol. i, p. 192 (New York ed.).
-
-[286] _Smithsonian Report_, 1866.
-
-[287] _Descent of Man_, vol. i, p. 188. Also, “The Simiadæ then
-branched off into two great stems, the new world and old world monkeys,
-and from the latter, at a remote period, man, the wonder and glory of
-the universe, proceeded.”—_Descent of Man_, vol. i, p. 204. Again, “We
-thus learn that man is descended from a hairy quadruped, furnished
-with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits and an
-inhabitant of the old world.”—_Descent of Man_, vol. ii, p. 372.
-
-[288] _History of Creation_, (N. Y. ed.), 1876, vol. ii, p. 318.
-
-[289] “Nowhere can lines of demarcation be so clearly drawn, so
-imperceptibly do the families of mankind blend at their circumferences.
-The various classifications which have been attempted are so many
-proofs of unity of origin; and their confliction shows the fallacy of
-the theory of diversity. * * * * We cannot admit that mankind can have
-diversity of origin while so united by one great plan. If a species
-or variety of the _genus homo_ sprang up in Europe and another in
-America by agency of conditions existing in those localities, it would
-be beyond probability that they should both be formed on the same
-plan.”—_H. Tuttle’s Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man Scientifically
-Considered_, pp. 34–5. Boston, 1866, 12mo.
-
-[290] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, vol. i, p. 224, and Nilsson’s _The
-Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia_, Lubbock’s trans., 1868, p. 104.
-
-[291] See _Early History of Fire_, by Prof. N. Joly of the Faculty of
-Toulouse in _Popular Science Monthly_, November, 1876, p. 17; also
-Darwin, as above cited.
-
-[292] Waitz’s _Anthropology_, Eng. trans., pp. 226–28.
-
-[293] Pallas was the first to show the fallacy of the theory in _Act.
-Académie St. Petersburg_, 1780, Part II, p. 69; followed by Rudolphi
-in his _Beyträge zur Anthropologia_, 1812, and especially by Godron,
-_De l’Espèce_, 1859, vol. ii, p. 246 _et seq._; see Darwin’s _Descent_,
-vol. i, p. 232.
-
-[294] Nott and Gliddon’s _Indigenous Races_; Duke of Argyll’s _Primeval
-Man_, p. 99.
-
-[295] _Primeval Man_, p. 100.
-
-[296] “We ourselves, when visiting the famous cavern of Abou Simbel,
-were far from finding all that the writings of certain anthropologists
-and partisans of Egyptian art, such as Gliddon, Nott, etc., had
-promised us. Doubtless one can perfectly distinguish certain types,
-that is indisputable; but to desire to find _a people_ in each
-portrait—Scythians, Arabs, Philistines, Lydians, Kurds, Hindoos, Jews,
-Chinese, Tyrians, Pelasgians, Ionians, etc.—is it not to give too great
-an influence to the Egyptian artists, who were copyists without skill,
-and but clumsy inventors?”—_Pouchet’s Plurality of the Human Race_,
-Eng. trans., p. 50. London, 1864.
-
-[297] Duke of Argyll’s _Primeval Man_, p. 101.
-
-[298] Darwin’s _Variation of Animals under Domestication_, vol. ii, pp.
-227–335, and many places.
-
-[299] Harlan’s _Medical Researches_, p. 532, and _Quatrefanges_ (_Unité
-de l’Espèce Humaine_, 1861, p. 128), cited by Darwin, _Descent_, vol.
-i, p. 237.
-
-[300] _Descent_, vol. i, p. 233, Bradford (A. W.) discusses the origin
-of color and other racial peculiarities, and attributes to the tendency
-of a species to vary, and cites the production of Albinoes, Xanthous,
-and Sedigidi or six-fingered individuals. “It must be admitted,” he
-says, “that this theory is sufficiently supported by an irrefragable
-mass of testimony to establish the _original unity_ of the human race,
-and to indicate that varieties of mankind are descended from the same
-primitive stock.”—_American Antiquities_, pp. 238–9.
-
-[301] See instances in Darwin’s _Descent_, vol. i, p. 234; Nott
-and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, p. 68, and especially Pouchet’s
-_Plurality of the Human Race_ (trans.), p. 60.
-
-[302] “I doubt not that there will be found continuous and
-uninterrupted causes which shall explain all the diversities of the
-different branches of the human family without the necessity of
-resorting to independent creations.”—_Foster’s Pre-Historic Races_, p.
-355.
-
-[303] See an excellent treatment of this subject by the Duke of Argyll,
-_Primeval Man_, pp. 94 _et seq._
-
-[304] “When speaking in a former work of the distinct races of mankind,
-I remarked that if all the leading varieties of the human family
-sprang originally from a single pair (a doctrine to which then, as
-now, I could see no valid objection), a much greater lapse of time
-was required for the slow and gradual formation of such races as the
-Caucasian, Mongolian, and Negro, than was embraced in any of the
-popular systems of chronology.”—_Sir Charles Lyell’s Antiquity of Man_,
-p. 385. Dr. J. P. Thompson says: “For such works [alluding to Babel]
-and especially for founding such an empire as was ancient Egypt, there
-was need of centuries for the growth of a population in numbers and
-resources, equal to the gigantic structures that crown the banks of
-the Nile. The less than two centuries between Archbishop Usher’s date
-of the cessation of the flood, and Piazzi Smith’s calculation of the
-date of the great pyramid, was far too short an interval for results
-upon a scale so magnificent. * * * Either then we must place the flood
-much farther back upon the chronological scale, or must admit not only
-that it was not universal in territorial extent, which is altogether
-probable, but that it was not universal in the destruction of mankind,
-which would seem to contradict both the letter and the spirit of the
-sacred record.”—_Man in Genesis and Geology_, p. 100. New York, 1870.
-12mo.
-
-[305] See Humboldt’s _Essai Polit._, vol. i, p. 79, Paris, 1811. He
-considers not only the Red Indians, but the Toltecs and Aztecs, to be
-of Asiatic Origin. See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Nat. Civil. Ant._,
-tom. i, p. 27. McCullough’s _Researches_, _Phil. and Ant._, pp. 175
-_et seq._ Crowe, _The Gospel in Central America_, p. 61. Bradford,
-_American Antiquities_, in chapter xii, gives his reasons for declaring
-the Americans to have been a “primitive and cultivated branch of the
-human family.” Mayer (Brantz) in _Mexico as it Was_, p. 260, expresses
-his agreement with the opinion entertained by Bradford. Carver, in
-_Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_, repeats the
-opinion of Charlevoix, that the Americans are of old world origin.
-Tylor, _Anahuac_, London, 1861, p. 104, says: “On the whole, the most
-probable view of the origin of the Mexican tribes seems to be the one
-ordinarily held, that they really came from the old world, bringing
-with them several legends, evidently the same as the histories recorded
-in the book of Genesis.”
-
-[306] “La teoria de la diversidad especifica de razas es tan intenible,
-que sin mas decir podemos, dejar esta cuestion, la cual ultimamente, en
-especial en Norte-América, ha escitado alguna controversia. Quédanos,
-pues, un origen primordial para toda la raza humana y entonces la
-cuestion es, saber de qué tronco ó familia del antiguo continente se
-pobló el nuevo, ó bien vice-versa, que tambien es possible, aunque
-improbable, que del que llamamos nuevo se haya poblado el viego
-continente.”—_Ezequiel Uricoechea_ in _Soc. Mex. Bol._ 2d. ep. iv,
-1854, p. 128. “For my own part I have long been convinced of the
-consanguinity between the brachycephalæ of America and those of Asia
-and the Pacific islands, and that this characteristic type may be
-traced uninterruptedly through the long chain of tribes inhabiting
-the west coast of the American Continent from Behring Straits to Cape
-Horn.”—_Retzius, Smithsonian Report_, 1859, p. 267.
-
-[307] “The era of their existence as a distinct and isolated race must
-probably be dated as far back as that time which separated into nations
-the inhabitants of the old world, and gave to each branch of the human
-family its primitive language and individuality.”—_J. C. Prichard’s
-Natural History of Man_, p. 356. London, 1845.
-
-[308] _Hist. Ant. del Messico_ (Eng. trans., 1807), vol. i.
-
-[309] “Quoique Votan soit le veritable fondateur de la civilisation
-et de l’empire des Quichés, le Codex Chimalpopoca, attribue néanmoins
-la fondation de l’empire à son Igh ou Ik, appelé par les Mexicains
-_Ehecatl_ ou _Cipactonac_, parceque ce prince vint le premir amener
-une colonie sur le continent américain. Cipactonac est composé de
-_Cipactli_, et de _Tonacayo_. Le premier vient de _ce_ un, _Ipan_, sur
-ou au-dessus, et _tlactli_, qui est le corps humain, c’est-à-dire, _Un
-homme supérieur aux autres hommes_, ou encore de _notre race_, toutes
-choses qui conviennent parfaitement au père de la race des chànes.
-Tonacayo, veut dire _notre chair_ ou le _corps humain_, le mot tout
-entier Cipactonac ayant la signification suivante: ‘Celui qui est sorti
-du premier de notre race.’ _Ehecatl_ est en mexicain l’air, ou le
-souffle, Igh ou Ik, en langua maya et tzendale. Dans les calendriers
-d’Oxaca, Soconusco, Chiappas et d’Yucatan, il suit immediatement le nom
-de Nin, Imos ou Imox, comme celui d’Ehecatl suit dans le mexicain celui
-de Cipactli.”—_Brasseur de Bourbourg, Cartas_, note, p. 71. He then
-proceeds to sustain his conclusions by citing analogies between the
-name and its significance among the Egyptians.
-
-[310] _Chimalpopoca_, MS., Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh._, p.
-lxxxviii; see also _Memorias para la Historia del Antiguo, Reyno de
-Guatemala_, por Franc. de Paula Garcia Pelaez (Guatemala, 1851). Pelaez
-states that Votan founded the ancient Culhuacan, now known as Palenque,
-in the year 3000 of the world and in the tenth century B. C.
-
-[311] Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh_, p. lxxxx, on the authority of
-Ordoñez.
-
-[312] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 159.
-
-[313] _Ordoñez_, Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh_, p. lxxxvii.
-
-[314] _Constituciones Diocesanes del Obispado de Chiappas._ Rome, 1702.
-
-[315] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 160: “It is not altogether
-improbable that a genuine Maya document similar to the Manuscript
-_Troano_ or _Dresden Codex_, preserved from early times, may have found
-a native interpreter at the time of the Conquest, and have escaped in
-its disguise of Spanish letters the destruction which overtook its
-companions.”
-
-[316] “The memoir in his possession consists of five or six folios of
-common quarto paper, written in ordinary characters in the Tzendal
-language, an evident proof of its having been copied from the original
-in hieroglyphics, shortly after the Conquest. At the top of the
-first leaf, the two continents are painted in different colors, in
-two small squares, placed parallel to each other in the angles; the
-one representing Europe, Asia and Africa is marked with two large
-S’S upon the upper arms of two bars drawn from the opposite angles
-of each square, forming the point of union in the centre; that which
-indicates America has two S’S placed horizontally on the bars, but I
-am not certain whether upon the upper or lower bars, but I believe
-upon the latter. When speaking of the places he had visited on the old
-continent, he marks them on the margin of each chapter with an upright
-S and those of America with a horizontal S. Between these squares
-stands the title of his history: ‘Proof that I am Culebra (a Snake),’
-which title he proves in the body of the work by saying that he is
-Culebra because he is Chivim.”—_Cabrera, Teatro Critico Amer._, pp.
-33–4.
-
-[317] Title of Ordoñez in brief: _Historia de la Creation del Cielo y
-de la Tierra Conforme al Sistema de la Gentilidad Americana_.
-
-[318] See his _Teatro Critico Americano_, p. 32 _et seq._, in Rio’s
-_Description of the Ruins of an American City_. London, 1822, quarto.
-
-[319] “Mais il y défigura complètement l’ouvrage d’Ordoñez qu’il no
-connaissait pas assez et auquel il ajouta des opinions extrêmement
-hasardées. D. Ramon se plaignit amèrement de ce plagiat et des fausses
-idées que Cabrera donnait de son travail, obtint contre lui un
-jugement, où le plagiaire fut condamné par le tribunal de l’audience
-royale de Guatémalà, le 30 Juin, 1794. Mais Cabrera, tout en pillant
-les idées du savant antiquaire, n’en rendait pas moins justice à son
-talent et à son merite.”—_Brasseur de Bourbourg on Ordoñez MS. Cartas_,
-p. 8.
-
-[320] The explanation given by Cabrera is as follows: “Let us suppose
-then, with Calmet and other authors whom he quotes, that some of the
-Hivites who were descendants from Heth, son of Canaan, were settled
-on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and known from the most remote
-parts under the name of Hivim or Givim, from which region they were
-expelled, some years before the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt,
-by the Caphtorims or Philistines, who, according to some writers,
-were colonists from Cappadocia, others considering them to be from
-Cyprus, and more probably, according to a third opinion, from Crete,
-now Candia; that to strengthen their native country Egypt, and to
-protect themselves from all assault, they built five large cities,
-viz.: Accaron, Azotus, Ascalon, and Gaza [fifth wanting in account],
-from whence they made frequent sallies upon the Canaanite towns and
-all their surrounding neighbors (except the Egyptians, whom they
-always respected), and carried on many wars in the posterior ages
-against the Hebrews. The Scriptures (Deuteronomy, chap. ii, verse 23,
-and Joshua, chap. xiii, verse 4) inform us of the expulsion of the
-Hivites (Givim) by the Caphtorims, from which it appears that the
-latter drove out the former, who inhabited the countries from Azzah
-to Gaza. Many others were settled in the vicinity of the mountains
-of Eval and Azzah, among whom were reckoned the Sichemites and the
-Gabaonites; the latter by stratagem made alliance with Joshua, or
-submitted to him. Lastly, others had their dwellings about the skirts
-of Mount Hermon, beyond Jordan to the eastward of Canaan (Joshua,
-chap. ii, verse 3). Of these last were Cadmus and his wife Hermione or
-Hermonia, both memorable in sacred as well as profane history, as their
-exploits occasioned their being exalted to the rank of deities, while
-in regard to their metamorphosis into snakes (Culebras) mentioned by
-Ovid, _Metam._, lib. 3, their being Hivites may have given rise to this
-fabulous transmutation, the name in the Phœnician language implying
-a snake, which the ancient Hebrew writers suppose to have been given
-from this people being accustomed to live in caves under ground like
-snakes.”—_Cabrera, Teatro Critico_, pp. 47–8. On p. 95 he reaches the
-conclusion that the Votanites were Carthaginians.
-
-[321] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 163.
-
-[322] _Cartas_, p. 12.
-
-[323] The description of its contents drawn by Brasseur de Bourbourg
-from the part in his possession is briefly as follows: The second
-volume of Ordoñez comprised the history of the ancestors of Votan, a
-descendant of Shem by the Hivo-Phœnician line; of their emigration
-from the Eastern Continent to the Occident; of their voyage with their
-first legislator by the Usumasinta River and its affluents to the
-Plain Palenque; the foundation of the great monarchy of the Quichés
-as well as that of Nachan, which was the capital; of the founding of
-the three royal cities of Mayapan, Tulha, and Chiquimula. The Abbé
-finds allusion to this work in Torquemada, Juarros, Cogolludo, Lizana,
-and particularly in Sahugun, book iii of his _Hist. Gen._, where it
-is claimed to treat of the original inhabitants of Palenque. He then
-states that the work was written in Guatemala at the close of the
-eighteenth century, and was sent to Spain or taken thither by its
-author for publication. In 1803 it was found in the hands of Sr. Gil
-Lemos of Madrid, where it had been left for publication. Its contents
-becoming known to the Council of the Indias, it was suppressed like
-many others on the early history of America. Ordoñez, who for ten years
-afterwards was canon of the Cathedral at Ciudad Real, died without
-seeing his work published. See Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Cartas_, p. 12
-_et seq._
-
-[324] These are as follows: Chontal, Quiché, Zutugil, Kachiquel,
-Mam, Pokoman, Pokonchi, Caichi Coxoh, Ixil, Tzendal, Tozotzil, Chol,
-Huaxteco, and Totonaco; besides those of the islands of Cuba and Hayti,
-Borquia and Jamaica.—_Geografia de los Linguas_, p. 98. Mexico, 1864,
-4to.
-
-[325] _Ibid._, p. 128.
-
-[326] “Il y a plus d’un trait de ressemblance entre le personnage
-mysterieux qui parut à Carthage et le Votan des Tzendales. Les chemins
-souterraines où celui-ci fut admis, lesquels traversent le terre
-pour arriver à la racine du ciel, indiquent une suite d’épreuves qui
-rappellent les initiations Égyptiennes et dont on trouve des traces
-jusqu’à l’époque même de la conquête dans les épreuves de la chevalerie
-Mexicaine.”—_Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh_, p. cviii.
-
-[327] _Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_, tom. ii, p. 124. Mexico, 1865, 8vo.
-
-[328] MS. Quiché de Chichicastenango in Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist.
-Nat. Civ._, vol. i, pp. 105–6. See also Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol.
-v, p. 21.
-
-[329] The _Popol Vuh_ was first published by Dr. Scherzer in Vienna,
-in 1857, under the title of _Las Historias del Origen de los Indios
-de esta Provincia de Guatemala, traducidas de la Lengua Quiché al
-Castellano para mas Comodidad de los Ministros del S. Evangelio_, por
-el R. P. F. Francisco Ximenez, cura doctrinero por el real patronato
-del Pueblo de S. Thomas, Chuila,—Exactamente segun el texto español del
-manuscrito original que se halla en la biblioteca de la Universidad
-de Guatemala, publicado por la primera vez, y aumentado con una
-introduccion y anotaciones por el Dr. C. Scherzer. Father Ximenez, a
-Dominican and curate of Chichicastenango of Guatemala, wrote about
-1720, and subsequently. His work, because of its condemnation of the
-oppression of the Indians, was suppressed, but was finally discovered
-in June, 1854, in the library of the University of San Carlos, in
-Guatemala, by Dr. Scherzer. Father Ximinez describes the work as a
-literal copy of an original Quiché book, made in Roman letters by
-Quiché copyists, after the introduction of Christianity into Guatemala.
-The copy is stated ambiguously to have been made to replace the
-original _Popol Vuh_—national book—which was lost. How a book which
-had been lost could be copied literally, the Father fails to tell us.
-Internal evidence, however, sustains the claim that it was written
-by native Quichés. In 1860, Brasseur de Bourbourg undertook a new
-translation of the _Popol Vuh_, from the Ximinez document (containing
-the Quiché and Spanish). This he did among the Quichés and with the aid
-of the natives, and as a result it is believed that a much more literal
-translation than that made by Ximenez was obtained. In our examination
-of Quiché history we have compared both translations and shall draw
-from them directly, but shall also take advantage of the excellent
-condensations and renderings which Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft has made. See
-_Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 42, note, for the leading facts as we have
-stated them.
-
-[330] We must refer the reader either to the originals or to that
-treasure-house of American traditional lore, Mr. Bancroft’s third
-volume, which is a repository of poetic renderings as well. Nor have
-we endeavored in every instance to avoid the use of that author’s
-incomparable terminology, so expressive of the spirit of the original.
-
-[331] Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh_, p. 7; Ximinez, _Hist. Ind.
-Guat._, pp. 5–6; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 44.
-
-[332] Mr. Bancroft’s rendering, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 45.
-
-[333] Mr. Bancroft’s graceful and truly poetic rendering, _Native
-Races_, vol. iii, pp. 47, 48.
-
-[334] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 54. Brasseur de
-Bourbourg, _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages 1858_, tome iv, p. 268, and
-_Hist. de Tlaxcallan_ in the same, tome xcix, 1843, p. 179, where
-reference is made to these bundles.
-
-[335] _Popol Vuh_, p. lxxxv, note, et _Ibid._, p. ccliv. The Abbé
-places that Tulan among the ruins of the valley of Palenque near
-the modern town of Comitan in the state of Chiapas. He adds: “Siége
-principal des princes de la race Nahuatl, cette ville aurait été fondée
-à une époque contemporaine de la capitale des Xibalbides, plusieurs
-siècles avant l’ère chrétienne, et au rapport de toutes les traditions,
-elle aurait rivalisé constamment avec sa métropole dont elle cherchait
-à se rendre indépendante.”
-
-[336] _Popol Vuh_, notes, pp. xci–ii. We have used Mr. Bancroft’s
-rendering of the passage.
-
-[337] _Geografia de las Linguas Mexicanas_, pp. 96–8 and pp. 127–29. A
-linguistic argument.
-
-[338] Brasseur de Bourbourg is the authority cited by Mr. Bancroft,
-vol. v, p. 188.
-
-[339] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 188.
-
-[340] _Popol Vuh_, p. 195. Bancroft, vol. v, 172–80.
-
-[341] _Popol Vuh_, p. cclvi. Bancroft, vol. v, p. 545. The Abbé has
-largely drawn upon his imagination in this instance as in some others,
-and the opinion is only interesting because of its authorship.
-
-[342] Las Casas, _Hist. Apologética_, MS., tom. iii, cap. cxxiv et cxxv.
-
-[343] Torquemada, tom. ii, pp. 53–4. Ximinez renders the word Xibalby
-“Inferno.”
-
-[344] It will be remembered that Votan deposited his treasure in the
-“house of gloom” or “darkness.”
-
-[345] Mr. Bancroft’s rendering of the paragraph. Vol. v, p. 179.
-
-[346] See Bancroft, vol. v, p. 184.
-
-[347] _Ibid._, vol. v, p. 187.
-
-[348] _Memorias para la Historia del Antiguo Reyno de Guatemala._
-Guatemala, 1857.
-
-[349] _Nations Civilisées_, tom. i, p. 126. Also see the following
-from the _Popol Vuh_, p. clx: “Quant aux évènements dont Tulan fût
-le théâtre à cette époque, on ne saurait se dissimuler, en comparant
-l’ensemble des détails qu’on trouve dans ce chaos, qu’il ne se fût
-opéré alors un vaste mouvement parmi les populations de l’empire
-de Xibalba, mouvement causé sans doute par les efforts d’une caste
-souveraine pour garder le pouvoir et par l’invasion de races nouvelles,
-sorties des mêmes contrées, septentrionales, d’où étaient venus les
-Nahuas, ou des regions plus sauvages du nord-ouest; barbares ou
-civilisées, il y eut naturellement de leurs essaims qui s’amalgamèrent
-aux nations soumises à l’empire, tandis que d’autres, continuant leur
-route vers l’Amérique méridionale, y portèrent, sinon les institutions
-entières des Quinamés et des Nahuas, au moins les symboles qui les
-avaient le plus frappés au passage ou qui convenaient davantage à leur
-génie.”
-
-[350] “De la creation, pues, tenien esta opinion. Decian que antes de
-ella ni habia cielo ni tierra ni sol, ni luna ni estrellas. Ponian
-que hubo un marido y una muger divinos que lamaron Aehel Atcamma.
-Estos habian tenido padre y madre los cuales engendaron trece hijos,
-y que él mayor con algunos con él se ensoberbecieron y guiso hacer
-criaturas contra la voluntad del padre y madre; pero no pudieron por
-que lo que hicieron fueron unos vasos viles de servicio como jarros
-y ollas y semejantes. Los hijos menores que se llamaban Huncheven
-hunahan, pidieron licencia à su padre y madre para hacer creaturas,
-y concedieransela, diciendoles que saldrian con ellos por que se
-habian humillado. Y asi lo primero hicieron los Cielos y Planetas,
-luego Ayre, Agua y Tierra. Despues dicen que de la tierra formaron
-al hombre y á la muger. Los otros que fueron soberbios presumiendo
-hacer criaturas contra la voluntad de los padres fueron en el infierno
-lanzados.”—_Las Casas, Historia Apologética, MS._, cap. 235, p. 324;
-see also _Torquemada, Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii, p. 53–4; _Help’s Spanish_
-_Conquest_, vol. ii, p. 140; _Garcia, Origen de los Indios_, p. 519,
-Valencia ed., 1607, and _Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civil._,
-tom. ii, pp. 74–5.
-
-[351] _Historia Apologética, MS._, cap. 235, p. 327.
-
-[352] Landa’s _Relacion_, p. 28, and Herrera, Dec. iv, lib. x, cap. ii.
-
-[353] “Y antiguamente dezian al oriente cen-ial, pequena-baxada, y al
-puniente nohen-ial, la grande-baxada.”—_Lizana’s Devocionario_, p. 354
-in _Landa’s Relacion_.
-
-[354] Cogolludo’s _Historia de Yucatan_, lib. iv. cap. iii, p. 178.
-
-[355] _Geografia de las Linguas_, p. 128.
-
-[356] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 618.
-
-[357] Bancroft, vol. iii, p. 463; Lizana in Landa’s _Relacion_, p. 356;
-Cogolludo’s _Hist. de Yuc._, p. 197; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist.
-Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 76, tom. ii, pp. 10–13.
-
-[358] Landa, pp. 35–9, and 300–1.
-
-[359] See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii, p. 18;
-Torquemada’s _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii, p. 52; Herrera’s _Hist. Gen.
-Dec._, iv, lib. x, cap. ii; Landa’s _Relacion_, pp. 35–9, 300 _et
-seq._; _Echevarria y Veitia, MS._, cap. 19, p. 116 _et seq._, and Las
-Casas’ _Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. cxxiii.
-
-[360] See for those annals the Perez document in Stephen’s _Yucatan_,
-vol. ii, pp. 465–9; Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa, pp. 120–9, and
-Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 762–5, and vol. v, p. 624 _et seq._
-
-[361] Las Casas, _Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. cxxiii, p. 10,
-Cogolludo’s _Hist. Yuc._, p. 190; Torquemada’s _Monarq. Ind._, tom.
-iii, p. 133.
-
-[362] Ixtlilxochitl, _Relaciones_, in Kingsborough’s _Mexican
-Antiquities_, vol. ix, p. 322.
-
-[363] _Historia Antigua_, MS., tom. i, cap. ii.
-
-[364] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 199.
-
-[365] Ixtlilxochitl fixes the date of the destruction in the year 229
-A. D., Veytia in 107. See further on the Quinames, Echevarria y Veitia,
-_Historia del Origen de Gentes_, MS., tom. i, p. 33, and Kingsborough’s
-_Mex. Ant._, vol. viii, cap. iii, p. 179. Mendieta’s _Hist. Eccl._,
-p. 96, Mexico, 1870. Pineda in _Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, tom. iii,
-p. 346. Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh_, pp. lxviii, and _Hist.
-Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 66. Oviedo’s _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii, p. 539.
-Clavigero, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i, p. 125. Boturini, _Idea
-de Una Nueva Historia_, pp. 130–5. Humboldt, _Vues des Cordilleres_, p.
-205, and Orozco y Berra, _Geografia de las Lenguas_, pp. 119–24.
-
-[366] Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, lib. iii, cap. vii. Bancroft, vol.
-v., p. 206. Orozco y Berra, _Geografia_, pp. 120, 125, 133. Brasseur de
-Bourbourg’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 154.
-
-[367] Orozco y Berra, _Geografia_, p. 127. Pimentel, _Lenguas Indigenas
-de Mexico_, tom. i, p. 223. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 204.
-
-[368] Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i, p. 278. Brasseur de
-Bourbourg’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, pp. 151–61.
-
-[369] _Historia Chichimeca_, cap. i, in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._,
-vol. ix, p. 205.
-
-[370] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 196, and vol. ii, p. 112.
-Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i, p. 32. Mendieta’s _Hist. Eccl._, p.
-146.
-
-[371] “Celebraron assimismo los Indios su dicho origen en antiguos
-cantares, y tuvieron tan viva la memoria de la torre de Babel, que la
-quisieron imitar en America con varios monstruosos edificias.” He then
-cites the Pyramid of Cholula as having been built in commemoration of
-the Tower of Babel. See Boturini, _Idea de Una Nueva Historia_, p. 113.
-
-[372] Boturini’s _Idea_, p. 111 _et seq._ Clavigero, _Storia Ant. del
-Messico_, tom. i, pp. 129–31, et tom. ii, p. 6. Kingsborough’s _Mex.
-Ant._, especially vol. vi, p. 401, and _Spiegazione delle Tavole del
-Codice Mexicano_, tav. vii, in _Mex. Ant._, vol. v, pp. 164–5, and
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 67; vol. v, p. 200 _et seq._
-
-[373] A portion of the work has been printed at Mexico.
-
-[374] _Historia Antigua de la Nueva España_, MS., tom. i, cap. i, pp.
-6–7.
-
-[375] Alcedo (_Diccionario Geografico Historico_, tom. iii, p. 374)
-says that the Olmecs subsequently migrated southward and settled
-Guatemala. While this statement may be true in part, still it is not
-probable that any general migration took place, and Guatemala was
-certainly populated long before the Olmec power existed.
-
-[376] Ixtlilxochitl, _Relaciones_, in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol.
-ix, pp. 321–2.
-
-[377] Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol. viii, p. 25.
-
-[378] See Prescott’s _Conq. Mexico_, vol. i, p. 171, on the Censorial
-Council; also Ixtlilxochitl, Clavigero and Veytia as cited by him.
-
-[379] Echevarria y Veitia, _Hist. Gentes_, MS., tom. i, p. 29, and
-Kingsborough, vol. viii, p. 176. Panes, _Fragmentos de Historia_, MS.,
-p. 3 (copy in Congressional Library, Washington), as well as several
-other authorities.
-
-[380] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 193–5.
-
-[381] _Codex Chimalpopoca_ in Brasseur’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, pp.
-53, 71.
-
-[382] _Codex Chimal._ in Brasseur’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 117,
-and Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 194.
-
-[383] Sahagun, _Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España_, p.
-xviii, tom. i, Mexico, 1829.
-
-[384] _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii, lib. x, p. 139 _et seq._ A translation
-and summary of facts is also given by Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v,
-p. 189 _et seq._
-
-[385] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 211, in a note has
-summarized the dates of departure from Hue hue Tlapalan, as given
-by different authors, with the following result: Date of departure
-according to Veytia (tom. i, p. 208), 596 A. D.; Clavigero (tom. iv,
-p. 46), 544 A. D.; but in the 1st tom., p. 126, he gives 596, agreeing
-with Veytia; Müller (_Reisen_, tom. iii, p. 94 _et seq._, 439 A.
-D.; Brasseur de Bourbourg (_Popol Vuh_, p. clv), last of the fourth
-century; Cabrera (_Teatro_, pp. 90–1), 181 B. C. The commonly accepted
-date is that of Clavigero—544 A. D. But after comparing these authors
-and considering the grounds upon which they base their calculations, we
-are convinced that it is useless to attempt to arrive at the true date,
-just as it is impossible to determine any date with certainty in all
-the ancient American chronology. We will not go so far as Mr. Bancroft,
-who says that “the departure from Hue hue Tlapalan seems to have
-taken place in the fifth or sixth century.” The claims for the fourth
-century, we think, are just as good as for the others, if not better.
-
-[386] On the migration see Ixtlilxochitl’s _Relacions_, in
-Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol. ix, pp. 321–4; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s
-_Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 100, 136, and _Popol Vuh_, p. clv,
-clix–xi: Veytia’s _Hist. Ant. Mej. Tom._ _1st passim_; Clavigero’s
-_Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i, p. 426; tom. iv, pp. 46, 51;
-Müller’s _Reisen in den Vereinigten-Staaten, Canada and Mexico_, Bd.
-iii, ss. 91–7, Leipzig, 1864; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, pp.
-192–223.
-
-[387] See _Geografia de las Lenguas de Mexico_, the _Carta
-ethnografica_ affixed, and the text, pp. 1–76.
-
-[388] Ixtlilxochitl, _Hist. Chichimeca_, cap. ii. Kingsborough, _Mex.
-Ant._, vol. ix, p. 206. On page 450 see also another and different
-account.
-
-[389] _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 214.
-
-[390] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 214–15; Brasseur
-de Bourbourg, _Popol Vuh_, pp. lxiv, cxii, cxxvi–viii, clix;
-Ixtlilxocbitl in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol. ix, p 446; Alvarado
-in _Ternaux-Compans Voy._, série i, tom. x, p. 147.
-
-[391] Baldwin’s _Ancient Am._, p. 202.
-
-[392] See E. Q. Squier, _Nicaragua, its People, Scenery_, etc.
-_Archæology and_ _Ethnology of Nicaragua_, part i, vol. iii, _Trans. of
-Am. Ethnol. Soc._, and _Notes on Cent. Am._, chap. xvi.
-
-[393] Buschmann (Johann Carl Ed.), especially his _Die Spuren der
-Aztekischen Sprachen im Nördlichen Mexico und Höhern Amerikanischen
-Norden_. Berlin, 1859. Quarto.
-
-[394] _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 688 _et seq._; vol. v, p. 215, and
-numerous places.
-
-[395] “All around the lakes of Mexico there are traces of ancient
-potteries, and I noticed that the bits of broken red earthenware
-scattered about them are identical in composition and color with those
-I have picked up in the valley of the Mississippi, and supposed to
-be relics of the ancient Mound-builders.”—_Evens (A. S.), Our Sister
-Republic_, p. 330. Hartford, 1870. Octavo.
-
-[396] Ixtlilxochitl’s _Relaciones_, Kingsborough’s _Mexican
-Antiquities_, vol. ix, p. 322.
-
-[397] _Monarq. Ind._, lib. i, cap. 19.
-
-[398] _Relaciones_, in many places, and in _Hist. Chichimecs_, cap. 13.
-
-[399] _Relacion_, MS. written 1582 in Sr. Icazbalceta’s collection.
-
-[400] _Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_, tom. i, p. 154.
-
-[401] _Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España_, MS., p. 45, Library at
-Washington.
-
-[402] Duran’s _Historia Antigua_, tom. i, cap. i, p. 9, MS.
-
-[403] Duran’s _Historia Antigua_, MS., tom. i, cap. 27; also cited in
-the Spanish by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306. Aztlan, translated “whiteness”
-above, may be rendered “colorless” with equal propriety. Hue hue
-Tlapalan, on the contrary, is translated ancient red-land, or land of
-color, just the opposite of Aztlan, a fact which may serve to prove
-that they were two quite different localities.
-
-[404] Clavigero, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i, pp. 156–9 (north of
-Colorado River); Humboldt, _Vues_, ii, p. 179, and _Essai Pol._, tom.
-i, p. 53 (north of 42° north latitude); Orozco y Berra, _Geografia_,
-pp. 81–2, and 136–7; Prichard’s _Nat. Hist of Man_, vol. ii, pp. 514–16
-(Arazonia); Pimentel, _Lenguas Indig. Mex._, tom. i, p. 158. Most
-writers indefinitely assign the name to a region in the North, without
-attempting to designate the locality.
-
-[405] Acosta, _Hist. de las Ind._, p. 454; Schoolcraft’s _Archives of
-Ab. Knowledge_, vol. i, p. 68; M. Aubin places it in Lower California;
-Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii, p. 292; Pickering’s
-_Races in U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix, p. 41.
-
-[406] Mendieta, _Hist. Ecles._, p. 144 (Xalisco); Veytia, _Hist. Ant.
-Mej._ (Sonora); Möllhausen, _Reisen in d. Felsengebirge N. Am._, tom.
-ii, p. 143 _et seq._
-
-[407] Chief among these we may cite: Squier’s _Notes on Central Amer._,
-p. 349; Waldeck’s _Voy. Pitt._, p. 45, and Bancroft’s _Native Races_,
-vol. v, pp. 221, 305–6, 322–5; Müller, _Geschichte der Amerikanischen
-Urreligionen_, pp. 530–4, the latter, though inclined to assign Aztlan
-to a southern locality, still recognizes the fact that the Nahua family
-was originally a northern people.
-
-[408] _Historia Antigua_, MS., tom. i, cap. i, p. 9.
-
-[409] _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii, p. 292.
-
-[410] Chief among whom are Gallatin, Gama and Veytia, who suppose that
-the adjustment of the calendar took place in 1090 A.D., and that the
-year Ce Tochtli corresponds with that date.
-
-[411] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 324, and seems to be the
-opinion of Brasseur, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii, pp. 292–5.
-
-[412] Garcia Cubas’ _Republic of Mexico in 1876_ (Eng. trans.), p. 58.
-
-[413] Veytia, tom. ii, pp. 91–8, and as summarized by Bancroft, vol. v,
-p. 323.
-
-[414] Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol. ix, pp. 5–8, and Bancroft, vol.
-v, p. 323.
-
-[415] _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i, pp. 156–63.
-
-[416] See Acosta, _Hist. Nat. Ind._, pp. 454–62. Herrera, _Histor.
-Gen._, dec. iii, lib. ii, cap. x–xi. Duran, MS., _Hist. Antig._, cap.
-i, ii, iii of tom. i.
-
-[417] “Pero porque la noticia que tengo de su origen y principio no es
-mas, ni ellos saben dar mas relacion sino desde aqullas siete cuebas
-donde habitaron tan largo tiempo, las cuales desampararon para venir
-a vuscar esta Tierra unos primero que otros, otros despues, otros muy
-despues hasta dejarlas desiertas. Estas cuebas son en Teo-culhuican,
-que por otro nombre le llaman Aztlan, tierra de que todos tenemos
-noticia caer hacia la parte del Norte y Tierra-firma con la Florida;
-por tanto desde este lugar de estas cuebas dare verdadera relacion de
-estas Naciones y de sus sucessos. * * * Salieron pues siete Tribus de
-Gentes de aquellas cuebas donde habitaban para venir á vuscar esta
-Tierra, á las cuales llamaban Chicomostoc, de donde vienen a fingir que
-sus Padres nacieron de unas cuebas, no teniendo noticia de lo de atras
-de la salida.”—_Duran_, _Hist. Antig._, MS., tom. i, cap. i, p. 9.
-
-[418] The _Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España_, MS. (Congressional
-Library) of Diego Panes alludes to this event. “Como los Tarascos se
-adelantaron luego que pasaron el estrecho de mar, en los troncos de
-Arboles, y balsas, y otros instrumentos del pasaje y se metieron á
-vida y avitar en las siete cuebas espelnucas, y Tabernas de la Tierra,
-hasta que hicieron abitaciones, y moradas y como desde alli fueron
-cresciendo, y tomnado, el tiento de la Tierra y disposiciones de ella
-para poblarla.”
-
-[419] We quote Bancroft’s rendering from the _Vues_, tom. ii, p. 176
-_et seq._: “From Colhuacan, the Mexican Ararat, fifteen chiefs or
-tribes reach Aztlan, ‘land of flamingoes,’ north of 42°, which they
-leave in 1038, passing through Tocolco, ‘humiliation,’ Oztotlan, ‘place
-of grottoes,’ Mizquiahuala, Teotzapotlan, ‘place of divine fruit,’
-Iluicatepec, Papantla, ‘large-leaved grass,’ Tzompanco, ‘place of
-human bones,’ Apazco, ‘clay vessel,’ Atlicalaguian, ‘crevice in which
-rivulet escapes,’ Quauhtitlan, ‘eagle grove,’ Atzcapotzalco, ‘ant
-hill,’ Chalco, ‘place of precious stones,’ Pantitlan, ‘spinning-place,’
-Tolpetlac, ‘rush mat,’ Quauhtepec, ‘eagle mountain,’ Tetepanco, ‘wall
-of many small stories,’ Chicomoztoc, ‘seven caves,’ Huitzquilocan,
-‘place of thistles,’ Xaltepozauhcan, ‘place where the sand issues,’
-Cozcaquauhco, ‘a vulture,’ Techcatitlan, ‘place of obsidian mirrors,’
-Azcaxochitl, ‘ant flower,’ Tepetlapan, ‘place of tepetate,’ Apan,
-‘place of water,’ Teozomaco, ‘place of divine apes,’ Chapultepec,
-‘grasshopper hill.’”—_Native Races_, vol. v, p. 324, note.
-
-[420] The following account is from Franc. Gemelli Carreri’s _Voyage
-Round the World_, Churchill’s _Voyages_, London, 1732, 6 vol. fol.
-(book iv, cap. iii), p. 485: “The ancient histories of Mexico make
-mention of a flood, in which all men and beasts perished, and only one
-man and woman were saved in a boat, which in their language they call
-_Acalle_. The man, according to the character by which his name is
-expressed, was called Cox-cox, and the woman Chichequetzal. This couple
-coming to the foot of the mountain, which, according to the picture,
-was named Culhuacan, went ashore, and there they had many children, all
-born dumb. When they multiplied to a great number, one day a pigeon
-came, and from the top of a tree gave them their speech, but not one of
-them understood the others’ language, and therefore they divided and
-dispersed, every one going to take possession of some country. Among
-these they reckoned fifteen heads of families who happened to speak
-the same language, joined together and went about to find some land to
-inhabit. When they had wandered one hundred and four years they came to
-the place they call Antlan, and continuing their journey thence, came
-first to the place called _Capultepec_, then to Culhuacan, and lastly
-to the place where Mexico now stands.”
-
-[421] See communication in Garcia y Cubas’ _Atlas Geografico,
-Estadistico e Histórico de la República Mejicana_, April 1858, entrega
-29, and Bancroft, iii, p. 68, note.
-
-[422] We should be guilty of a fault if we were to convey the idea
-that no deluge legend other than this was current among the Aztecs.
-The Codex Chimalpopoca records a flood in which mankind were drowned
-and turned into fishes. In Mr. Bancroft’s graceful rendering we learn
-that “the waters and sky drew near each other; in a single day all was
-lost, the day Four Flower consumed all that there was of our flesh.
-And this was the year Ce-Calli; on the first day, Nahui-Atl, all was
-lost. The very mountains were swallowed up in the flood, and the waters
-remained, lying tranquil during fifty and two spring-times. But before
-the flood began, Titlacahuan had warned the man Nata and his wife
-Nena, saying: Make now no more pulque, but hollow out to yourselves a
-great cypress, into which you shall enter when, in the month Tozoztli,
-the waters shall near the sky. Then they entered into it, and when
-Titlacahuan had shut them in, he said to the man: Thou shalt eat but
-a single ear of maize, and thy wife but one also. And when they had
-finished eating, each an ear of maize, they prepared to set forth, for
-the waters remained tranquil and their log moved no longer; and opening
-it they began to see the fishes. Then they lit a fire by rubbing pieces
-of wood together and they roasted fish.” The account states that the
-deities then descended and transformed the fishes into dogs. (Brasseur
-de Bourbourg, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, pp. 425–7. Bancroft, vol. iii,
-pp. 69, 70.) We cannot with gravity give the Tezpi legend preserved in
-Michoacan. If the reader will refer to the Mosaic account of the flood,
-he will only need to substitute the name of Tezpi for Noah, a vulture
-for the raven, and a humming-bird for the dove, and the Tezpi legend
-substantially will be before him. Of course the detail of the Mosaic
-account is wanting; nevertheless it is certain that the Tezpi legend is
-the product of the fancy of some over-zealous priest, who thought he
-could see a stricter analogy between the Nahua deluge tradition and the
-Scriptural account than really exists.
-
-[423] _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 325.
-
-[424] See note 1, page 261, this chapter.
-
-[425] Bancroft, vol. v, p. 325.
-
-[426] E. G. Squier in _Notes on Cent. Am._, p. 349, makes the
-following remark: “It is a significant fact, that in the map of their
-migrations, presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of the
-Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (Atl standing for Atzlan),
-a pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a _palm-tree_. This
-circumstance did not escape the attention of the observant Humboldt,
-who says, ‘I am astonished at finding a palm-tree near this teocalli.
-This tree certainly does not indicate a northern origin.’” We might
-add that we are equally surprised that so generally able a writer
-as Mr. Squier should resort to so absolutely weak an argument. Sr.
-Ramirez has clearly explained that all the figures and their adjuncts
-are but hieroglyphic parts of proper names. The palm-tree no doubt
-plays its part. M. Waldeck (_Voyage Pitt._, p. 45) makes the same
-remark as Mr. Squier—that it indicates a southern origin. Gondra
-(Prescott’s _Historia Conq. Mex._, cited by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306,
-note) replies that this may be a thoughtless insertion of the painter.
-The possibility that an unskillful artist should unintentionally
-represent a tree of which he had no knowledge is so great, that any
-argument dependent upon it hangs upon a slender thread. Over against
-Mr. Squier’s claim we desire to place the simple inquiry, Does the
-Elephant Mound of Wisconsin indicate that its constructors were natives
-of Asia, where the elephant is common, or that they lived in the epoch
-of the American Mastodon? It is well-known that the latter phase of
-the question could not be true, since the condition of the mound
-contradicts such great antiquity.
-
-[427] Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i, p. 245 _et seq._, states
-that a band of people came from the north by way of Panuco, dressed in
-long black robes; that they thence went to Tulla, where they were well
-received, but that region being already thickly populated, they went
-to Cholula. They were great artists, were skilled in working metals;
-with them was Quetzalcoatl, with a fair and ruddy complexion and a long
-beard. ‘He was their leader.’
-
-[428] Mendieta, _Hist. Ecl._, pp. 82, 86, 92, 397–8; also cited
-by Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 250–2, and Clavigero, _Hist. Ant. Del.
-Messico_, pp. 11–13.
-
-[429] Sahagun, _Hist. Gen._, tom. i, lib. iii, p. 245, and Torquemada,
-tom. ii, p. 47 _et seq._, do not agree fully as to the details.
-
-[430] Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii, p. 47 _et seq._, and
-Sahagun, tom. i, chap. iii, p. 245 _et seq._
-
-[431] _Ibid._
-
-[432] Mendieta, _Hist. Ecl._, p. 82 _et seq._
-
-[433] Goatzacoalco, described as a province near the sea, one hundred
-and fifty leagues from Cholula (Torquemada, tom ii, pp. 48–52). The
-same author traces him to Yucatan and identifies him with Cukulcan. See
-preceding chapter.
-
-[434] On a raft, according to Sahagun.
-
-[435] See Müller, _Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen_, p. 599.
-
-[436] Torquemada, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii, p. 50. In presenting these
-legends we have employed nearly the same language which we used in
-treating the same subject in an article entitled “Culture-Heroes of the
-Ancient Americans,” published in _Appleton’s Journal_ for March 1877.
-
-[437] See Bancroft, vol. v. p. 256, and the authorities cited.
-
-[438] The sources of the Quetzalcoatl legends have been cited in
-connection with our version of the fables applying to the name. On the
-relation of Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec king, to the subject,
-see Sahagun, _Hist. Gen._, tom. ii, lib. viii, p. 266, but especially
-see Bancroft, vol. v, p. 256 _et seq._, for a fuller account. The
-same author has treated the subject with an unprecedented fullness in
-his third volume, chap. vii. The able examination of Quetzalcoatl’s
-character by Müller, in his _Geschichte d. Am. Urreligionen_ (pp. 577
-_et seq._), has been of great value to us in the preparation of this
-sketch.
-
-[439] _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 404 _et seq._
-
-[440] _Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New
-Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua._ New York, 1854, vol. ii,
-pp. 348 _et seq._
-
-[441] _Ensayo sobre Chihuahua_, p. 74.
-
-[442] _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 621 _et seq._
-
-[443] Published in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, série iv, tom. i, pp. 282 _et
-seq._, translated in Schoolcraft’s _Hist. and Condition of Indian
-Tribes_, vol. iii, pp. 300 _et seq._, and Bartlett’s _Pers. Narrative_,
-vol. ii, pp. 281–2. Quoted in _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 622–23.
-
-[444] Bernal in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, série iii, tom. iv, p. 804.
-
-[445] Sedelmair, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, série iii, tom. iv,
-p. 847, copied by Orosco y Berra, _Geografia_, pp. 108–10. Also cited
-by Bancroft.
-
-[446] _Pers. Narrative_, vol. ii, pp. 278–80.
-
-[447] Emory’s _Reconnoissance_, pp. 81–3.
-
-[448] Johnston’s _Journal_ in _Ibid._, pp. 567–600.
-
-[449] _Pers. Nar._, pp. 271–284.
-
-[450] Browne’s _Apache Country_, pp. 114–24.
-
-[451] Coronado, on his trip from Culiacan to the “seven cities of
-Cibola” in 1540, saw a roofless building called Chichilticale, or “red
-house.” Castañeda says it was built of red earth and had formerly been
-occupied by people from Cíbola. This is of interest, especially since
-it is quite certain that the seven cities visited were identical with
-the Pueblo towns around old Zuñi on the Zuñi River in New Mexico (see
-Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 673–4, and Morgan in _North American Review_,
-April, 1869. The best treatment of Coronado’s march is by Simpson in
-_Smithsonian Report_, 1859, pp. 309 _et seq._ See further _Castañeda_,
-in Ternaux-campans, _Voy._, série i, tom. ix, pp. 40–1, 161–2. Gallatin
-in _Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, vol. ii, and Whipple in _Pac. R. R.
-Report_, vol. iii.
-
-[452] _Relacion_ in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, série iii, tom. iv, p. 847.
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 634.
-
-[453] Velarde in _ibid._, série iv, tom. i, p. 363, and _Native Races_,
-vol. iv, p. 634.
-
-[454] Bartlett’s _Pers. Nar._, vol. ii, pp. 242–8. Johnston in Emory’s
-_Reconnoissance_, pp. 596–600. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, p.
-636.
-
-[455] Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in _Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii,
-pp. 14, 15.
-
-[456] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 636.
-
-[457] Whipple in _Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, pp. 91–4.
-
-[458] Emory’s _Reconnoissance_, pp. 63–9, 80, 133–4. _Ibid._, pp.
-581–96. Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 638–9, has copied three
-plans.
-
-[459] _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 640.
-
-[460] Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in _Pacific R. R. Report_.
-
-[461] First published in _Scribner’s Monthly_, vol. ix, Nos. 3, 4 and
-5, for January, February and March, 1875.
-
-[462] _Cañons of the Colorado_, in _Scribner’s Monthly_, vol. ix,
-p. 528. Powell’s _Explorations of the Colorado River of the West_.
-Washington. 1875. 4to.
-
-[463] “It was ever a source of wonder to us why these ancient people
-sought such inaccessible places for their homes. They were doubtless
-an agricultural race, but there were no lands here of any considerable
-extent which they could have cultivated. To the west of Oraiby, and
-of the towns of the Province of Tusayan, in northern Arizona, the
-inhabitants have actually built little terraces along the face of
-the cliff, where a spring gushes out, and there made their site for
-gardens. It is possible that the ancient inhabitants of this place
-made their lands in the same way. But why should they seek such spots?
-Surely the country was not so crowded with population as to demand the
-utilization of a region like this. The only solution which suggests
-itself is this: We know that for a century or two after the settlement
-of Mexico, many expeditions were sent into the country now comprising
-Arizona and New Mexico for the purpose of bringing the town-building
-people under the dominion of the Spanish government. Many of their
-villages were destroyed, and the inhabitants fled to regions at that
-time unknown, and there are traditions among the people who now inhabit
-the pueblos which remain, that the cañons were these unknown lands.
-It may be that these buildings were erected at that time. Sure it is
-that they had a much more modern appearance than the ruins scattered
-over Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico.”—_Major Powell in
-Scribner_, vol. ix, p. 525. _Id._, _Explorations of the Colorado River
-of the West_, pp. 87, 88.
-
-[464] _Cañons of the Colorado_, in _Scribner’s Monthly_, vol. ix, p.
-402; Powell’s _Exploration of the Colorado River of the West_, pp.
-68–9. Major Powell on the 125th page of his report on the Colorado,
-gives a brief description of remains in a side cañon, a few miles from
-the great river.
-
-[465] Sitgreaves’ _Report, Zuñi and Colorado Rivers_, pp. 8–9; Whipple,
-_Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, pp. 46–50; Bancroft’s _Native Races_,
-vol. iv, pp. 642–3.
-
-[466] Whipple, _Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, pp. 76–7.
-
-[467] Sitgreaves, _Zuñi Ex._, p. 6; Whipple, in _Pacific R. R. Report_,
-vol. iii, pp. 39, 71; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 645, 673.
-
-[468] See authorities cited on page 281, note 1, of this chapter.
-
-[469] See Whipple, in _Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, p. 67, with
-beautiful full-page view. Simpson’s _Jour. of Mil. Recon._, pp. 90–3;
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 645, 667, 673.
-
-[470] Whipple in _Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, pp. 68, 70, 66,
-40–8, views of old Zuñi, and sacred spring; Möllhausen, _Reisen in die
-Felsengebirge N. Am._, tom. ii, pp. 196, 402; _Id._, _Tagebuch_, pp.
-283–4, 278, with cut; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 645–7, with cut.
-
-[471] Möllhausen’s _Journey_, vol. ii, p. 82; Whipple _et al._, in
-_Pacific R. R. Report_, vol. iii, p. 39; Simpson’s _Jour. Mil. Recon._,
-pp. 95–7; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 647–8.
-
-[472] Simpson’s _Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 89–109, 60–1, 65–74, 100, with
-cuts, views and plans; Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in _Pacific R. R.
-Report_, vol. iii, pp. 22, 52, 63–4; see also Möllhausen’s _Tagebuch_
-and _Journey_; Bancroft, vol. iv., pp. 645–50.
-
-[473] In Simpson’s _Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 131–3, and copied in a note
-by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 657.
-
-[474] See on Chaco ruins, Simpson’s _Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 34–43,
-131–3. Domenech’s _Deserts_, vol. i, pp. 199–200, 379–81, 385.
-Baldwin’s _Anc. Am._, pp. 86–9, cut; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol.
-iv, pp. 652–62, which we have found of valuable assistance; especially
-see _Ruins of the Chaco Cañon, examined in 1877_, by W. H. Jackson, in
-_Tenth Annual Report of U. S. Geol. Survey_. Washington, 1879. Best
-account.
-
-[475] Simpson’s _Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 74–5, plates 53–4, copied by
-Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 652; also see Domenech’s _Deserts_, vol i, p.
-201, and _Annual Scienc. Discov._, 1850, p. 362.
-
-[476] W. H. Jackson in _Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the
-Territories_, 2d series, No. 1, Washington, 1875, and in the _Annual
-Report_ of the same, Washington, 1876, pp. 369 _et seq._ A condensed
-though excellent account is furnished by Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 718 _et
-seq._ Also a condensed account by Prof. Edwin A. Barber in _Congrès des
-Américanistes_, Luxembourg, 1877. _Seconde Session_, tom. i, pp. 22–38.
-Also _Ibid._, _The Ancient Pueblos, or Ruins of the Valley of the Rio
-San Juan_. Parts I, II.
-
-[477] _Bulletin No. 1_, vol. ii, pp. 11, 12.
-
-[478] Published in _Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey
-of the Territories_, vol. ii, No. 1. Washington, 1876. Mr. Bancroft’s
-account in the _Native Races_, necessarily terminates with the close of
-Mr. Jackson’s labors in 1874.
-
-[479] See _A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western Colorado,
-examined during the summer of 1875, by W. H. Holmes_, in _Bulletin of
-the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories_, vol. ii,
-No. 1. Washington, 1876.
-
-[480] Ives’ _Colorado River of the West_, pp. 119–26, with plates. The
-same extract condensed into nearly the same form as above is given by
-Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 667–80.
-
-[481] _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 662 _et seq._, and the authors cited
-therein.
-
-[482] _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 663, and Simpson’s _Journal Mil.
-Recon._, p. 114.
-
-[483] I have carefully examined Father Escalante’s _Diario_ in the
-MS. copy deposited in the Congressional Library at Washington, but
-find nothing to contradict the opinion of recent explorers. The reader
-will also see Dominguez and Escalante’s _Diario y Derrotero Sante Fé à
-Monterey_, 1776, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._ Serie ii, tom. i.
-
-[484] _Ninth Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, p. 12. Cambridge, 1876.
-
-[485] _Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum_, Cambridge, 1878, pp.
-198–200, 267–80.
-
-[486] _Smithsonian Report_ for 1872, pp. 413 _et seq._; and this work,
-chapter I.
-
-[487] The facts claimed in the following account are drawn from
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii., pp. 171–74 and 175–7. Ward,
-in _Ind. Aff. Report_, 1864, pp. 192–3. Brinton’s _Myths of the New
-World_, p. 190. Ten Broeck in Schoolcraft’s _History and Condition of
-the Indian Tribes_, vol. iv, p. 73, and Tyler’s _Primitive Culture_,
-vol. ii, p. 384.
-
-[488] Davidson, in _Ind. Aff. Report_, 1865, pp. 131–3, and Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 75–77.
-
-[489] This feature of the legend is beautifully developed by Mr.
-Bancroft.
-
-[490] In this account of Montezuma I have used, with few variations,
-the same language employed by me in treating the subject in an article
-entitled, “Culture-Heroes of the Ancient Americans,” published in
-_Appleton’s Journal_ for March, 1877, pp. 275–6.
-
-[491] Hindoo Mounds, see Squier’s observations on Dr. Westerman in _Am.
-Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, April, 1851; and Atwater, in _Am. Ethnol. Soc.
-Trans._, vol. i, pp. 196–267.
-
-[492] Chief among whom are Dupaix, in Kingsborough’s _Mexican
-Antiquities_; Waldeck (exploration performed in 1832–3), Pub. 1866
-fol.; Stevens and Catherwood in 1840; M. Morelet in 1846, and Charney
-in 1858; for best bibliographical treatment, see Bancroft’s _Native
-Races_, vol. iv, pp. 289–294, note.
-
-[493] Stephens, vol. ii, p. 310: Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, p. 2, and
-Brasseur in _Ibid._, p. 17; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 300.
-
-[494] _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 300–1.
-
-[495] Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, pl. vii. See also Stephens, vol. ii, p.
-310; Dupaix, pl. xi.; Kingsborough, vol. iv, pl. xiii; Bancroft, vol.
-iv, p. 307.
-
-[496] _Ibid._, _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 312.
-
-[497] Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 303.
-
-[498] Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 339–43, and Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 323–27.
-
-[499] On the tower, see Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, p. iii, pl. xviii, xix.
-Morelet’s _Voyage_, tom. i, p. 266. Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 315, and
-Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, pp. 86–7.
-
-[500] Stephens’ _Incidents of Travel in Yucatan_. New York (1st ed.
-1843, and others subsequently).
-
-[501] Waldeck, _Voyage Pittoresque et Archéologique dans la Province
-d’Yucatan_, Paris, 1838, large fol., 22 illustrations. Norman,
-_Rambles in Yucatan_, New York, 1843, 8vo, illustrated. Baron von
-Friederichstal, _Les Monuments de l’Yucatan_, in _Nouvelles Annales
-des Voyages_, 1841, tom. xcii, pp. 297, 314. Charnay, _Cités et Ruines
-Américaines_, Paris, 1863, large folio. Of many general notices made
-up from these sources we consider Bancroft’s as the most critical and
-satisfactory. His note on the bibliography of the subject is also of
-interest.
-
-[502] We have followed the measurements of Stephens; seeming to us most
-accurate. (See _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 165 _et seq._) Norman, Charnay and
-Waldeck all differ in their measurements. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 154–5
-has given a good condensation of the description.
-
-[503] _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 175. Reproduced in Bancroft, vol. iv, p.
-156, and Baldwin, _Anc. America_, p. 132.
-
-[504] _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 174. Reproduced by Bancroft, vol. iv, p.
-160, and Baldwin, _Anc. America_, p. 132.
-
-[505] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 301. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp.
-176–7. Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, p. 136.
-
-[506] Waldeck reports that a turtle was sculptured upon each of the
-blocks of the pavement. See _Voy. Pitt._, pl. xii, where four are
-figured. Stephens, however, found no traces of them. See Bancroft, vol.
-iv, p. 175.
-
-[507] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 313. Waldeck’s _Voy. Pitt._, pp.
-95–6, pl. ix, x, xi. Stephens’ _Cent. Amer._, vol. ii, pp. 425 _et
-seq._ Charnay’s _Ruines Americ._, pp. 70 _et seq._ Bancroft, vol. iv,
-pp. 192 _et seq._
-
-[508] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 397, view of Kabah edifice. See a
-sectional view in Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 207.
-
-[509] D’abord j’ai été frappé de la ressemblance qu’offrent ces
-étranges figures des édifices mayas avec la tête de l’éléphant. Cet
-appendice, placé entre deux yeux et depassant la bouche de presque
-toute la longueur, m’a semblé ne pouvoir être autre chose que l’image
-de la trompe d’un proboscidian, car le museau charnu et saillant du
-tapir n’est pas de cette longueur.—_Waldeck, Voy. Pitt._, p. 74, pl.
-xiv, xv. Also _Humboldt, Vues_, ed. 1810, p. 92.
-
-[510] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. ii, pp. 311–17; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp.
-230–36, with plans and cuts from Stephens’ and Baldwin’s _Anc. Amer._,
-p. 140.
-
-[511] _Yucatan_, vol. i, pp. 130–9; Baldwin, _Anc. Amer._, p. 129.
-
-[512] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. ii, pp. 387 _et seq._; Bancroft, vol
-iv, pp. 254–9.
-
-[513] The original accounts furnished by actual explorers of Copan
-are as follows: 1st, by the Licenciado Diego García de Palacio, who
-prepared an account of his duties and their performance, for the king,
-Felipe II of Spain, dated March 8, 1576, and preserved in the Muñoz
-collection of MSS. The account has been published several times, at
-least once in the United States, in Palacio, _Carta Dirijida al Rey_,
-Albany, 1860, and translated into English by E. G. Squier; 2d, an
-account by Fuentes y Guzman, in a MS. dated 1689. However, so much as
-related to Copan was published in 1808 in Juarros, _Compendio de la
-Hist. de la Ciudad de Guatemala_, trans. in English in 1823; 3d, by
-Col. Juan Galindo, an officer in Central American service (explorations
-made in 1835), published communication in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Trans._,
-vol. ii, pp. 545–50, and in _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i, div. ii, pp. 73,
-76; 4th, Stephens and Catherwood in 1839, published in _Incidents and
-Travels in Central America_, vol. i, pp, 95–160. New York, 1841.
-
-The ruins have been visited by two or three persons since described
-by Stephens, but the public has not enjoyed the benefit of their
-researches, as we believe nothing has since been published on Copan.
-Brasseur de Bourbourg, who visited the ruins in 1863 and 1866,
-testifies to the perfect accuracy of the descriptions and plates in
-Stephens’ and Catherwood’s work. A considerable number of notices
-of Copan have been made up by different writers from these sources.
-The latest and best of such notices is that by Mr. Bancroft, _Native
-Races_, vol. iv, pp. 77–105, from whose bibliographical note we have
-drawn somewhat for the above facts.
-
-[514] Juarros, _Hist. Guat._, pp. 56–7; Stephens’ _Central America_,
-vol. i, p. 144, and Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 82–3.
-
-[515] Stephens’ _Central America_, vol. ii, pp. 171, 182–8, and
-Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 124–8.
-
-[516] Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, p. 15, and
-cited by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 131.
-
-[517] The only comprehensive and satisfactory treatment of the entire
-field in detail is that by Mr. Bancroft, _Native Races_, chaps. vii,
-viii, ix, x.
-
-[518] Dupaix, _Third Expedition_, pp. 6–7, pl. iii–v, fig. 6–9;
-Kingsborough, _Mex. Ant._, vol. vi, p. 469, and Mayer’s _Observations
-on Mexican History and Archæology_, pp. 25–6, and cuts (Smithsonian
-contribution, No. 86), 1856; Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp.
-368–71, with cuts.
-
-[519] _Reisen_, tom. ii, p. 282, and Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv,
-p. 375.
-
-[520] Dupaix, _Seconde Expédition_, published in Kingsborough, vol. v,
-pp. 255–68, vol. vi, pp. 447–56, vol. iv, pl. xxvii–xli, fig. 81–95,
-and in _Antiq. Mex.; Seconde Expédition_, pp. 30–44, pl. xxix–xlvi,
-figs. 78–93.; Charnay, _Cités et Ruines Américaines_, pp. 261–9,
-photographs ii–xviii, and Viollet-le-Duc in _Ibid._, pp. 74–104;
-Humboldt obtained his information and plates from the survey and
-drawings of Don Luis Martin and Col. de la Laguna, who visited the
-ruins in 1802; see _Vues_, tom. ii, pp. 278–85, pl. xvii–xviii, and
-in his other works on the same subject. The remaining original works
-are Mühlenpfordt in the _Ilustracion Mejicana_, tom. ii, pp. 493–8;
-Tempsky’s _Mitla_, pp. 250–3, with plates; Garcia, in _Soc. Mex. Georg.
-Boletin_, tom. ii, pp. 271–2; Sawkins in Mayer’s _Observations_;
-Fossey in his _Mexique_, pp. 365–70, and Müller, _Reisen_, tom. ii,
-pp. 279–81. We might append a large number of notices made second-hand
-from the above, but as they contain nothing original we omit them, and
-refer the reader who is desirous of examining them, to Bancroft’s note
-in _Native Races_, vol. iv. p. 391. Our examination of the subject
-has been confined to the accounts of Dupaix, Humboldt, and Charnay,
-together with Mr. Bancroft’s critical review of the field. From the
-latter we draw some of our bibliographical material.
-
-[521] Charnay, _Mexique_, Phot. iv; also _Cités et Ruines Amér._, Phot.
-v, vi. Other views in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 396–405.
-
-[522] Fossey, _Mexique_, p. 367, finds twenty-two different styles
-of grecques in this front, while Mühlenpfordt gives cuts of sixteen
-different styles in _Ilustracion Mej._, tom. ii, p. 501.
-
-[523] See full discussion by Viollet le Duc in Charnay’s _Ruines
-Amér._, pp. 78–9.
-
-[524] Charnay, phot. x. Mr. Bancroft was not ignorant of this error.
-Tempsky’s plate served as the guide for Baldwin’s cut.
-
-[525] Dupaix, _Seconde Exped._, pp. 40–1, pl. xliv–v, fig. 93–4.
-Kingsborough, vol. v, p. 265; vol. vi, p. 455; vol. iv, pl. xl–i, fig.
-95, and Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 413.
-
-[526] See especially a communication from Mr. Hugo Finck, for
-twenty-eight years a resident of the region, published in the
-_Smithsonian Report_ for 1870, an extract from which is published in
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 431–3.
-
-[527] Sr. Gondra received considerable information concerning these
-ruins from some unnamed person, which he published in _Mosaico
-Mexicano_, tom. ii, pp. 368–72.
-
-[528] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 442. This author has given
-quite a full description of the fortification, and two plates.
-
-[529] Dupaix’s _First Expedition_, pp. 8–9, pl. ix–xi, fig. 9–12;
-Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 215–16; vol. vi, pp. 425–6, pl. v–vi, fig.
-11–15; an account in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 368–72 and
-cut.
-
-[530] Nebel, _Viaje Pintoresco y Arqueolójico sobre la República
-Mejicana_, 1829–34, Paris, 1839, fol.; Mayer’s _Mex. Aztec_, vol. ii,
-pp. 199–200; _Ibid._, _Mexico As it Was_, pp. 247–8, and Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 47, 55–8, with two illustrations. We have
-cited Nebel from the latter.
-
-[531] The original describers of Papantla are Diego Ruiz, in _Gaceta
-de Mexico_, July 12, 1785, tom. i, pp. 349–51, copied in _Diccionario
-Univ. Geog._, tom x, pp. 120–1; also Nebel, _Viaje Pintoresco_.
-Humboldt states that Dupaix and Castañeda visited the locality, but
-they published no description, his own description may have been from
-information received from them; _Vues_, tom. i, pp. 102–3; _Ibid._,
-_Essai Pol._, p. 274; _Ibid._, in _Ant. Mex._, tom. i, div. ii, p. 12.
-Of the many descriptions drawn from these sources, those of Mayer,
-_Mex. Aztec_, vol. ii, pp. 196–7; _Ibid._, _Mexico As it Was_, pp.
-248–9, and Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 452–4, with cut from
-Nebel, are probably the best.
-
-[532] Of a large number of notices of Cholula, the most important of
-the original class are those of Humboldt, _Essai Pol._, pp. 239–40;
-_Ibid._, _Vues_, tom. i, pp. 96–124, fol. 2d, pl. vii–viii; Dupaix’s
-_First Expedition_, p. 2, pl. xvi, fig. 17, and Kingsborough, vol.
-v, p. 218, vol. iv, pl. viii, fig. 20; Clavigero, _Storia Ant. del
-Messico_, tom. ii, pl. 33–4; Mayer, _Mexico As it Was_, p. 26, and
-_Mex. Aztec_, etc., vol. ii, p. 328, cuts. For most recent reference,
-though not very scientific, see Evens’ _Our Sister Republic_, pp.
-428–32 (1869), and Haven’s _Mexico, Our Next Door Neighbor_, pp.
-109–202, 1875. Mr. Bancroft has given a short, though satisfactory
-notice, especially valuable for its citation of authorities. In a note
-(11) vol. iv, p. 471–2, a full list of the authors who have written on
-Cholula will be found, _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 469–77.
-
-[533] _Reisen_, pp. 131–2.
-
-[534] Heller, _Reisen_, pp. 131–2, cited by Bancroft, _Native Races_,
-vol. iv, p. 473.
-
-[535] Exploration performed in 1777, and account published in _Gaceta
-de Literatura_, November, 1791, also tom. ii, p. 127 of the same.
-
-[536] Copied the proceedings to a considerable extent in _Vues_, tom.
-i, pp. 129–37, pl. ix, and in _Essai Pol._, pp. 189–90.
-
-[537] Dupaix’s _First Expedition_, pp. 14–18, pl. xxxi–ii, figs. 33–6;
-Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 222–4, vol. iv, pl. xv–vi.
-
-[538] Nebel, _Viaje Pintoresco_, pl. ix–x, xix–xx.
-
-[539] The Government exploration report in _Revista Mexicana_, tom.
-i, pp. 539–50, and in _Deccionario Univ. Geog._, tom. x, pp. 938–42;
-Mayer’s _Mexico As It Was_, pp. 185–7; _Ibid._, _Mex. Aztec_, etc.,
-vol. ii, pp. 283–5, with cuts; Tylor’s _Anáhuac_, pp. 183–95. To these
-original accounts many compiled notices might be added. Mr. Bancroft’s
-critical review of the sources, supplemented with full bibliographical
-notes, is valuable and should receive the attention of the reader. See
-_Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 483–98, with several cuts after Nebel. We
-have found this writer’s summary of facts of great service in making up
-the following description.
-
-[540] The vandalic destruction of this Acropolis of Mexican
-architecture is due to the vulgar cupidity of a neighboring sugar
-manufacturer, who despoiled it in order to build the furnaces of his
-refinery.
-
-[541] See Tylor, _Anahuac_, p. 149, and on the subject in hand.
-
-[542] See Prescott, book iv, caps. i, ii, vol. ii, Kirk’s ed. of 1875,
-pp. 100–51.
-
-[543] See chapter vi, p. 248, this work.
-
-[544] Almaraz, _Apuntes sobre las Pirámides de San Juan Teotihuacan_.
-_Mexico_, 1864.
-
-[545] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, pp. 529–44, and a good
-bibliographical note on p. 530.
-
-[546] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv, p. 533. On page 548, the
-same author in a note translates the following interesting passage
-from Sr. Garcia y Cubas: “The pyramids of Teotihuacan, as they exist
-to day, are not in their primitive state. There is now a mass of loose
-stones whose interstices covered with vegetable earth have caused to
-spring up the multitude of plants and flowers with which the faces of
-the pyramids are now covered. This mass of stones differs from the
-plan of construction followed in the body of the monuments and besides
-the falling of these stones, which has taken place chiefly on the
-eastern face of the Moon, has laid bare an inclined plane perfectly
-smooth, which seems to be the true face of the pyramid. This isolated
-observation would not give so much force to my argument if it were not
-accompanied by the same circumstances in all the monuments.” This inner
-smooth surface has an inclination of 47°, differing from the angle of
-the outer faces. Sr. Garcia y Cubas, conjectures that the Toltecs, the
-descendants of the civilized architects of these monuments, fearing
-that they would be despoiled by the savages who followed them, covered
-up their sacred places with the outer coatings described. See Appendix.
-
-[547] Quemada was at first mentioned by early writers as one of
-the stations in the Aztec migration. Captain Lyon published in his
-_Journal_, vol. i. pp. 225–44, the result of explorations performed by
-him at Los Edificios in 1826. Another report was made by Sr. Esparza
-from data furnished him by Pedro Rivera in 1830, which appeared in
-Esparza’s _Informe presentado al Gobierno_, pp. 56–8, and _Museo
-Mex._, tom. i, pp. 185 _et seq._ Herr Berghes made a pretty good
-survey of the ruins in 1831: his observations were published by Nebel.
-Herr Burkart, a companion of Berghes, published a description in his
-_Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico_, tom. ii, pp. 97–105. Nebel published
-his observations in his _Viaje_. Several authors have made up notices
-from these sources without adding any original information. A list of
-these, as well as those given above, may be found in Bancroft’s _Native
-Races_, vol. iv, pp. 578–9.
-
-[548] Stephens’ _Central America_, vol. ii, pp. 438 _et seq._
-
-[549] Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s _Cités et Ruines, Introduct._, pp. 28
-_et seq._
-
-[550] Garcia y Cubas, _Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo entre las
-Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas_; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv,
-pp. 543–4, and vol. v, pp. 55–6. See Appendix.
-
-[551] Delafield, _Inquiry into the Origin of American Antiquities_, pp.
-57–61. 1839. 4to.
-
-[552] _Mexique_, pp. 274–5. Leipzig, 1843.
-
-[553] _Historical Researches_, p. 355.
-
-[554] See further, Clavigero, _Storia del Messico_, tom. iv, pp. 19–20;
-Jones, _Hist. Anc. Amer._, p. 122; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 474; Prescott,
-_Mex._, tom. iii, p. 407; Humboldt, _Essai Pol._, tom. i, p. 265;
-Tylor’s _Early History_, p. 206.
-
-[555] Humboldt, _Vues_, p. 92 (fol. ed., 1810), considers that this
-people was originally from Asia and preserved some remembrance of the
-elephant, or that in their traditions they had accounts of the mammoth
-of the American continent.
-
-[556] Waldeck, p. v, pl. xii, xiii. Stephens, _Cent. Am._, vol ii, pp.
-311, 116–17. Dupaix, pp. 20, 37, 75–6, pl. xiv–xxii. Kingsborough, vol.
-iv, pl. xxvi. Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol iv, pp. 304–6.
-
-[557] Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, pl. xiv, xv, shows both groups. Bancroft,
-vol. iv, p. 313. Dupaix, pl. xxiii–iv.
-
-[558] Waldeck, pl. xiv.
-
-[559] Waldeck, pl. xvii. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 317–18. Stephens, vol.
-ii, p. 318. Morelet, p. 97.
-
-[560] Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, p. iii, pl. 42. Dupaix, pl. xxxiii, Fig.
-37. Kingsborough, pl. xxxv, fig. 37. Stephens, vol. ii, p. 355.
-Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 328–30.
-
-[561] Waldeck, p. vii, pl. xxi–ii. Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 345–7.
-Charnay, p. 419, pl. xxi. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–6. Especially see
-Rau’s _Palenque Tablet_ (Smithsonian Contrib., No. 331), for the best
-account of Tablet of the Cross.
-
-[562] Waldeck, pl. 23–24; Stephens, vol. ii, p. 352; Dupaix, p. 24, pl.
-xxxvii–viii; mention in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–3.
-
-[563] Waldeck, pl. 25; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 344, 349; Bancroft, vol.
-iv, pp. 336–7, with cut.
-
-[564] Waldeck, pl. xxvi–xxxii; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 351–4; Bancroft,
-vol. iv, pp. 338–41.
-
-[565] Plates, Waldeck’s _Voy. Pitt._, pl. xv–xvii; Charnay’s
-photographs have attested the accuracy of Waldeck’s drawings; Waldeck’s
-views reproduced in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–3.
-
-[566] Stephens’ _Yuc._, vol. i, p. 306; Waldeck’s pl. xvi; also see
-Charnay’s phot. 39; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–4; Viollet-le-Duc’s
-drawing in Charnay, p. 65.
-
-[567] Cut from Waldeck’s _Voy. Pitt._, pl. xiii–xviii and p. 100;
-reproduced by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 185, of which ours is an
-electrotype copy. See also Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, pp. 302–3;
-Charnay, _Ruines Amer._, phot. 40, 41, 44; Norman’s _Rambles in
-Yucatan_, p. 162.
-
-[568] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. ii, pp. 303–11; Charnay’s _Ruines
-Amér._, pp. 140–1, phot. 33, 34; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iv,
-pp. 220–36.
-
-[569] Mr. Salisbury, with the most liberal courtesy, has furnished the
-heliotypes and photos from which the accompanying engravings were made.
-We take this opportunity of expressing publicly our thanks for this
-rare favor.
-
-[570] _Archæological Communication on Yucatan_, by Dr. Le Plongeon in
-Salisbury’s _Maya Archæology_, p. 65, and _Proceedings of Am. Antiq.
-Soc._, October 21, 1878.
-
-[571] _Maya Archæology_, p. 61.
-
-[572] _Ibid._, p. 62.
-
-[573] See Torquemada, _Monarchia Indiana_, lib. iv, cap. 8, and
-Herrera, _Hist. Gen. Ind._, decade ii, lib. iv, cap. 17, quoted by
-Salisbury, _Maya Archæology_, pp. 33–35.
-
-[574] See _Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres_, by Stephen Salisbury,
-Jr., in _Maya Archæology_ (heliotypes).
-
-[575] Stephens, _Cent. Amer._, vol. i, pp. 103–4, 134–43 with plates;
-Foster, _Pre-Historic Races_, pp. 302–322, 338–9; Galindo in _Amer.
-Antiq. Soc. Trans._, vol. ii, pp. 548–9; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 89–105,
-with cuts.
-
-[576] Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 371, 381, 385, 387, 414, 415, 421, 427,
-428, 435, 436, 455, 457, 462, has figured some of these, but all
-indicate an order of art inferior to the Maya.
-
-[577] Nebel, _Viaje Pintoresco_; Mayer’s _Mex. Aztec_, vol. ii, pp.
-199, 200; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 457–8.
-
-[578] Vetch, in _London Geog. Soc. Jour._, vol. vii, pp. 1–11, plate;
-Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 462.
-
-[579] Dupaix, _Third Expedition_, p. 5, pl. i–ii; _Ibid._, _First
-Expedition_, pp. 3–4, pl. i–ii, fig. 1, 2; p. 10, pl. xii; pp. 12–13,
-pl. xvii–xxii, fig. 19, 24; _Second Expedition_, p. 51, pl. lxi, fig.
-117; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 285–6; vol. iv, pl. i–ii, fig. 1–3; vol.
-vi, p. 467; vol. v, pp. 209–10; vol. vi, pp. 421–2; vol. iv, pl. i,
-fig. 1–4; vol. v, p. 217; vol. iv, p. vi, fig. 16, and Bancroft, vol.
-iv, pp. 467–69.
-
-[580] Dupaix, _First Expedition_, p. 14; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 481.
-
-[581] This work, p. 372.
-
-[582] Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 499, has reproduced some of them.
-
-[583] Humboldt, _Vues_, tom. i, pp. 332 _et seq._; tom. ii, pp. 1 _et
-seq._ and 84–5, pl. viii, (fol. ed. pl. xxiii); _Mayer, Mexico As it
-Was_, pp. 126–8; Prescott, _Conq. Mex._, vol. i, pp. 126, 145–6; vol.
-ii, pp. 112, ed. 1875; Bancroft, vol. iv. pp. 505–9, and cut.
-
-[584] Humboldt, _Vues_, tom. ii, pp. 148–61 (fol. ed., pl. xxix);
-_Ibid._, _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i, div. ii, pp. 25–7, suppl. pl. vi;
-Nebel, _Viaje_, with large plate; Mayer, _Mex. Aztec_, vol. i, pp.
-108–11; _Ibid._, _Mexico As it Was_, pp. 109–14; Bullock’s _Mexico_,
-pp. 337–42; Leon y Gama, _Dos Piedras_, pt. i, pp. 1–3, 9, 10, 34,
-and five plates latterly cited by Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 512–15, four
-plates.
-
-[585] Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 517; Mayer, _Mexico As it Was_, pl. 100–1;
-_Ibid._, _Mex. Aztec_, vol. ii, p. 274.
-
-[586] Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, pl. 55.
-
-[587] Waldeck’s _Palenqué_, p. viii, pl. xliv. Tylor’s _Anahuac_, pp.
-110, 337, for information concerning the masks. Also Bancroft, vol. iv,
-pp. 557–9.
-
-[588] _Smithsonian Contribution_, No. 287, pp. 82–7 (1876).
-
-[589] _Hist. Kingdom Guatemala_, p. 19. Lond., 1823.
-
-[590] F. Giordan, _Description et colonization de l’Isthme de
-Tehuantepec_, p. 57. Paris, 1838.
-
-[591] Melgar in _Mex. Geog. Soc. Bolletin_, 2d época, tom. iii, p. 112
-_et seq._
-
-[592] Dr. Max Uhlmann, _Handbuch der gesamten Ægyptischen
-Alterthumskunde_, I _Theil. Geschichte der Egyptologie_, p. 108.
-Leipzig, 1857.
-
-[593] Botta, _Mon. de Ninive_, vol. ii, pl. 58, and _Edinburgh Review_
-for Jan. 1870, p. 231.
-
-[594] John Newton in Appendix to Inman’s _Ancient Pagan and Modern
-Christian Symbolism_, p. 116. London, 1874.
-
-[595] _Saturn_, lib. i, cap. 20.
-
-[596] Zoeckler, _Das Kreutz Christi_, p. 9, Güterslo, 1875, and
-_Edinburgh Review_, Jan. 1870, p. 232.
-
-[597] Mr. Bancroft remarks, “He happens, however, here to have selected
-two Egyptian subjects which almost find their counterparts in America.
-In the preceding volume of this work, page 333, is given a cut of what
-is called the ‘Tablet of the Cross’ at Palenque. In this we see a
-cross and perched upon it a bird, to which (or to the cross) two human
-figures in profile, apparently priests, are making an offering. In
-Mr. Stephens’ representation from the Vocal Memnon we find almost the
-same thing, the differences being, that instead of an ornamented Latin
-cross, we have here a _crux commissa_, or _patibulata_; that instead
-of one bird there are two, not on the cross but immediately above it,
-and that the figures, though in profile and holding the same general
-positions, are dressed in a different manner, and are apparently
-binding the cross with the lotus instead of making an offering to it;
-in Mr. Stephens’ representation from the obelisk of Carnac, however,
-a priest is evidently making an offering to a large bird perched upon
-an altar; and here again the human figures occupy the same position.
-The hieroglyphics, though the characters are of course different, are,
-it will be noticed, disposed upon the stone in much the same manner.
-The frontispiece of Stephens’ _Cent. Amer._, vol. ii, described on p.
-352, represents the tablet, on the back wall of the altar, Casa No. 3
-at Palenque. Once more here are two priests clad in all the elaborate
-insignia of their office, standing one on either side of a table or
-altar, upon which are erected two batons, crossed in such a manner as
-to form a _crux decussata_, and supporting a hideous mask. To this
-emblem they are making an offering.”—_Bancroft’s Native Races_, vol. v,
-pp. 60–1, note.
-
-[598] W. H. Holmes in _Bulletin of the Geog. and Geol. Survey of the
-Territories_, Vol. II, No. I, p. 20, Pl. 11 and 12.
-
-[599] Landa, _Relacion_, p. 44. Villagutierre, _Conq.Itza_, pp. 393–4.
-Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 768.
-
-[600] _Relacion_, p. 316.
-
-[601] Peter Martyr, Dec. iv, lib. viii. Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 769–70.
-
-[602] Stephens’ _Cent. Amer._, vol. ii, pp. 342, 453–5.
-
-[603] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 780. Brasseur’s admission
-will be found in the _Bibliothéque Mexico-Guatemalienne_, Paris, 1871,
-p. xxvii. The translation, prefaced with 136 quarto pages devoted to
-a consideration of the Maya characters, is published under the title,
-_MS. Troano: Etudes sur le systéme graphique et la langue des Mayas_.
-Paris, 1869–70. 4to, 2 vols., 70 colored plates.
-
-[604] Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 773, plate, p. 774.
-
-[605] The original of Landa’s explanation is as follows: “De sus
-letras porne aqui un _a_, _b_, _c_, que no permite su pesadumbre
-mas porque usan para todas las aspiraciones de las letras de un
-caracter, y despues, al puntar de las partes otro, y assi viene a
-hazer _in infinitum_, como se podra ver en el siguiente exemplo: _Lé_,
-quiere dezir laço y caçar con el; para escrivirle con sus carateres,
-haviendoles nosotros hecho entender que son dos letras, lo escrivian
-ellos con tres, puniendo a la aspiracion de la _l_ la vocale _é_ que
-antes de si trae, y en esto no hierran. aunque usense, si quisieren
-ellos de su curiosidad, exemplo: _e L e Lé._ Despues al cabo le pegan
-la parte junta. _Ha_ que quiere dezir agua, porque la _haché_ tiene
-_a_, _h_, antes de si la ponen ellos al prinicipio con _a_, y al cabo
-deste manera, _ha_. Tambien lo escriven a partes pero de la una y otra
-manera, yo no pusiera aqui ni tratara dello sino por dar cuenta enters
-de las cosas desta gente. _Ma in kati_ quiere dezir no quiero, ellos lo
-escriven a partes desta manera: _ma i n ka ti._”—_Landa, Relacion_, p.
-318, translated by Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 778.
-
-[606] _Relacion_, p. 322.
-
-[607] Bollaert, _Examination of Central American Hieroglyphs_, in
-_Memoirs of Anthropological Soc. of London_, vol. iii, pp. 288–314.
-London, 1870.
-
-[608] Charencey, _Essai de Déchiffrement d’un fragment d’inscription
-palenquéenne_, in _Actes de la Société Philologique_, tom. i. March,
-1870.
-
-[609] Rosny, _Essai sur le Déchiffrement de L’Écriture Hiératique de
-L’Amérique Centrale_, Paris, 1876, folio, with large colored plates and
-fac-similes. In three parts, two of which only have as yet appeared
-(Oct. 1878). The author informs me (Feb. 1879) that a fourth part will
-be required to complete the work.
-
-[610] Bollaert in _Memoirs of Anthropol. Soc. of London_, vol. iii, p.
-298.
-
-[611] _Ibid._, p. 301.
-
-[612] _Ibid._, p. 307.
-
-[613] See a review of these attempts in Rosny’s _Essai_, pp. 12–13, and
-remarks on Charencey in Appendix D of Baldwin’s _Ancient America_.
-
-[614] _Examination of Cent. Am. Hier._, p. 306.
-
-[615] _The Ancient Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan_, p. 6, N. Y., 1870,
-cited by Rosny, _Essai_, p. 25.
-
-[616] _Essai_, p. 26; Rosny cites Bancroft’s opinion to the same
-effect, _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 782.
-
-[617] _Native Races_, vol. ii, pp. 529–33.
-
-[618] _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 537.
-
-[619] Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt, Kingsborough, Ramirez in Garcia y
-Cubas, and Bancroft; see this work, chapter vi, p. 262.
-
-[620] Vol. ii, pp. 544–5.
-
-[621] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. i, pl. lxi; explanation, vol. v, pp. 96–7;
-Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 538–40.
-
-[622] Delafield, _Antiq. of Am._, pp. 42–7. M. Ed. Madier de Montjau
-has recently added much to our understanding of Aztec picture-writing
-in his Chronologie hieroglyphico-phonétic des rois Aztèques de
-1352–1522 retrouvée dans diverses mappes américaines antiques,
-expliquée et précédée d’une introduction sur l’Écriture mexicaine.
-A valuable article on the same subject is found in the _Congrès
-des Américanistes_, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. ii, pp. 346–362, by M.
-l’Abbé Jules Pipart, entitled Eléments phonétiques dans les Ecritures
-figuratives des anciens Mexicains.
-
-[623] An excellent account of the various collections of Aztec
-picture-writing will be found in the introduction to Domenech’s
-_Manuscrit Pictographique_, Paris, 1860, 8vo; a book which would
-be valueless but for that feature. See also account of M. Aubun’s
-collection in Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i, pp.
-lxxvi–lxxviii. For general description of hieroglyphic principles see
-Tylor, _Researches_, pp. 89–101, and Humboldt, _Vues_, tom. i, pp.
-177–9, 162–202. See also Boturini, _Idea de una Hist._, pp. 5, 77,
-87, 96, 112, 116. Prescott, _Conq. Mex._ (Kirk’s ed., 1875), vol. i,
-pp. 94, 99, 107–9. Clavigero, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. ii, pp.
-187–94. Mendoza, in _Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, 2d época, tom. i, pp.
-896–904. Gallatin in _Amer. Ethno. Soc. Transact._, vol. i, pp. 126,
-165–69. Kingsborough’s _Mex. Ant._, vol. vi, p. 87, and Ixtlilxochitl’s
-_Hist. Chich._ in Kingsborough, vol. ix, p. 201. Torquemada, _Monarq.
-Ind._, tom. i, p. 149. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, pp. 521–52.
-
-[624] Landa, _Relation_, pp. 204–316, and the work by Perez, entitled
-_Cronologia Antigua de Yucatan_, with Brasseur’s translation into
-French in the above work, pp. 366–429. Also see English translation
-in Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, pp. 434–59. See also Orozco y Berra,
-_Geografia_, pp. 104–8, and an able discussion in Bancroft’s _Native
-Races_, vol. ii, pp. 755–67.
-
-[625] Landa’s _Relacion_, p. 204. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii,
-p. 756.
-
-[626] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 757.
-
-[627] See Perez’s Appendix to Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, pp. 458–59,
-and in Landa’s _Relacion_, Appendix, pp. 370–382, and Brasseur in the
-same. Especially Rosny, _Essai sur le Dech. de L’Écrit. Hiérat. de
-L’Amér. Cent._, pp. 15–24.
-
-[628] Landa, _Relacion_, p. 234. Perez in Landa, pp. 394 _et seq._, and
-in Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 439; also see Bancroft, vol. ii, pp.
-759 _et seq._
-
-[629] Perez in Landa, _Relacion_, pp. 366–8; also cited by Bancroft,
-vol. ii, p. 759.
-
-[630] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. ii, pp. 318–19. Stephens was unable to
-assign any use to the pillars referred to. He counted upwards of 380.
-Dr. Le Plongeon accords with our view.
-
-[631] Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, pp. 441 _et seq._
-
-[632] See Landa, _Relacion_, pp. 313, 400–412; Stephens, _Yucatan_,
-Perez, vol. i, pp. 441–447, MS. cited in vol. ii, pp. 465–469;
-Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. ii, pp. 762–765; M. Delaporte, _Le
-Calendrier Yucatèque_, MS. cited by Rosny, _Essai sur le déchiffrement
-de L’Écriture Hiératique_, p. 25.
-
-[633] Perez in Stephens’ _Yucatan_, vol. i, p. 447.
-
-[634] Sahagun, _Hist. Gen._, tom. i, lib. ii, pp. 49–76; lib. iv, pp.
-282–310, gives a partial though very satisfactory account. Leon y Gama,
-_Dos Piedras_, is critical and learned, but often incorrect. Humboldt,
-_Vues_, furnishes an elaborate account, which is very valuable though
-complicated. Veytia’s explanation is the result of thorough research,
-_Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i. Gallatin is extremely clear and reliable in
-_Amer. Ethno. Soc. Transactions_, vol. i. McCulloch’s _Researches in
-Amer._, pp. 201–25. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, pp. 502–22,
-furnishes us an account, clear and full, as are all of his discussions.
-Several cuts enhance the value of the chapter. We especially refer
-the reader to his rich bibliography of the subject, appended in
-notes. A number of additional authors are before us: Ixtlilxochitl,
-Müller, Herrera, Clavigero, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Boturini, Prichard,
-but last and best is the ingenious and masterly _Vortrag über den
-Mexicanischen Calender stein gehalten von Prof._ _Ph. Valentini, am
-30 April, 1878_ (in Republican Hall, New York), _vor dem Deutsch
-ges. wissenschaftlichen Verein_, 32 pp. 8vo, recently translated and
-published by Stephen Salisbury, Jr.
-
-[635] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 508.
-
-[636] Mr. Bancroft also follows the opinion that the above date is the
-correct one.—_Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 515.
-
-[637] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 512.
-
-[638] Prof. Valentini, _Vortrag_, p. 16.
-
-[639] _Native Races_, vol. ii, p. 513.
-
-[640] Mr. Bancroft incorrectly states that thirteen days were
-intercalated at the end of each tlalpilli (13 years). It is plain
-that if 365 days constitute a year, the lost time would not amount to
-thirteen days before fifty-two years.
-
-[641] Prof. Valentini quotes the terms given above, and Mr. Bancroft
-states that the same process of computation was pursued in both
-divisions.
-
-[642] See _The Nation_ for Aug. 8, 1878, p. 84, and for Sept. 19, 1878.
-Also Mr. Salisbury’s translation of Valentini’s _Vortrag_, Worcester,
-1879.
-
-[643] Prof. Valentini cites _Codex Vaticanus_, pl. 91, _Codex
-Boturini_, pl. 10, _Codex Tellerianus_, pl. 6 and 8. The Professor
-in making the comparison, remarks: “Auf beiden senkt sich ein Schaft
-in ein rundes Loch, von welchem aus sich etwas volutenähnliches
-hervorwindet. Wir gewahren auf den gemalten Bildern, dass jede der
-Voluten in 2 Hälften getheilt ist, die eine grau die andere roth
-gemalt. Dieselbe Abtheilung finden wir auch auf der Sculptur. Was
-dieses Symbol bedeute, wird uns aus der Beobachtung klar, dass wir
-es in den gemalten Jahrestafeln immer nur dann wiederkehrend finden,
-sobald 52 Jahre verflossen sind. Wir sehen es immer gerade an das
-Symbol dieses 52ten Jahres angehängt, an einer Stelle, in Cod. Tell.
-IV, Pl. 8. 1. Kingsb. Coll., vol. i, es erscheint auch mit einem
-erklärenden Texte. Er lautet: ‘_Dieses ist das Zeichen für die
-Zusammenbindung der 52 Jahre._’”—_Vortrag_, pp. 23, 24.
-
-[644] Prof. Valentini, _Vortrag_, pp. 24, 25, cites _Codex Selden_, pl.
-10, _Codex Laud_, pl. 8, and _Codex Veletri_, fol. 34.
-
-[645] Prof. Valentini cites a Codex from the Squier collection, where
-the symbol occurs accompanied with the word _Molpiynxihuitl_, which
-translated means “the binding of the years.” He also cites _Codex
-Boturini_, pl. 10, Kingsborough Collection.—_Vortrag_, pp. 25, 26.
-
-[646] Dr. Le Plongeon in _Yucatan_, by Stephen Salisbury, Jr., p. 88.
-Worcester, 1877.
-
-[647] _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i, pp. 254 _et seq._
-
-[648] Humboldt, _Vues_, pp. 148 _et seq._ (Ed. 1810.)
-
-[649] _Vues_, p. 152. On page 150 he furnishes tables of comparison
-which show unmistakably the analogy between the Mexican Calendar and
-that of the people of Eastern Asia.
-
-[650] Cabrera, _Teatro_ in _Rio’s Description_, pp. 103–5.
-
-[651] Delafield’s _American Antiquities_, pp. 52–3.
-
-[652] _Mexican Antiquities_, vol. vi, pp. 174, 182.
-
-[653] _Mexican Antiquities_, vol. vi, p. 163.
-
-[654] _Mexican Antiquities_, vol. viii, p. 19.
-
-[655] “It is impossible on reading what Mexican mythology records
-of the war in heaven, and of the fall of Zoutemoque and the other
-rebellious spirits; of the creation of light by the word Touacatecutli,
-and of the division of the waters; of the sin of Yztlacohuhqui, and
-his blindness and nakedness; of the temptation of Suchiquecal and
-her disobedience in gathering roses from a tree, and the consequent
-misery and disgrace of herself and all her posterity—not to recognize
-scriptural analogies. But the Mexican tradition of the deluge is that
-which bears the most unequivocal marks of having been derived from a
-Hebrew source. This tradition records that a few persons escaped in
-the Ahuehuete, or ark of fir, when the earth was swallowed up by the
-deluge, the chief of whom was named Patecatle or Cipaquetona; that he
-invented the art of making wine; that Xelua, one of his descendants, at
-least one of those who escaped with him in the ark, was present at the
-building of a high tower, which the succeeding generation constructed
-with a view of escaping from the deluge should it again occur; that
-Tonacatecutli, incensed at their presumption, destroyed the tower with
-lightning, confounded their language and dispersed them; and that Xelua
-led a colony to the New World.”—_Mex. Antiq._, tom. vi, p. 401.
-
-[656] Ixtlilxochitl’s _Relaciones_ in _Mex. Ant._, vol. ix, and this
-work, chap. vi.
-
-[657] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 66, 68.
-
-[658] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. viii, p. 27.
-
-[659] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 246.
-
-[660] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 253.
-
-[661] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 361.
-
-[662] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. viii, p. 67.
-
-[663] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 137.
-
-[664] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 382.
-
-[665] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 238; washing of hands after meals, see p.
-53, Appendix.
-
-[666] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 414; vol. viii, p. 18.
-
-[667] The following is Kingsborough’s account of the Mexican baptism:
-“The midwife took the infant in her arms naked, and carried it into
-the court of the mother’s house, in which court were strewed reeds or
-rushes, which they call Tule, upon which was placed a small vessel of
-water, in which the said midwife bathed the said infant; and after she
-had bathed it, three boys being seated near the said rushes, eating
-roasted maize mixed with boiled beans, which kind of food they named
-Yxcue, which provision or paste they set before the said boys, in order
-that they might eat it. After the said bathing or washing, the said
-midwife desired the said boys to pronounce the name aloud, bestowing a
-new name on the infant which had been thus bathed; and the name which
-they gave it was that which the midwife wished.”—_Mex. Antiq._, vol.
-vi, p. 45.
-
-[668] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 248.
-
-[669] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 69.
-
-[670] _Ibid._, vol. vi, pp. 163 _et seq._
-
-[671] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 167.
-
-[672] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 248.
-
-[673] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 125; _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, pl.
-xix; _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vii, pp. 240–1, and Duran, MS., part ii, cap.
-20; see further, _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, pp. 135–218.
-
-[674] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, pp. 121–2. He cites several authors to
-prove this sweeping statement, and is not content with finding it among
-the Indians, but is provoked by his zeal to discover the practice of
-the same rite among the Hottentots. See _Ibid._, vol. vi, pp. 272,
-333–5; vol. viii, pp. 143, 391, 20. On page 393, vol vi, he makes this
-remarkable statement: “From an examination of some of the Mexican
-paintings, it would appear that circumcision among the Indians was
-not confined to the human species.” Also vol. viii, p. 155: “The head
-of the Totonac high-priest, was anointed by the blood of circumcised
-children.”
-
-[675] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, p. 273; vol. viii, pp. 157, 236, 160.
-
-[676] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 504.
-
-[677] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 361.
-
-[678] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 257.
-
-[679] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 222.
-
-[680] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 142.
-
-[681] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 258.
-
-[682] _Ibid._, vol. vi, pp. 301, 312; vol. viii, pp. 23–58.
-
-[683] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 27.
-
-[684] _Ibid._, vol. viii, p. 32.
-
-[685] _Ibid._, vol. viii, pp. 26–7.
-
-[686] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 190.
-
-[687] _Ibid._, vol. vi, pp. 207–8.
-
-[688] _Ibid._, vol. vi, p. 261.
-
-[689] _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi, pp. 207–8. He thinks the gospel must have
-been preached at an early day in Yucatan, and in proof cites from the
-sixth chapter of the Fourth Book of Cogolludo’s History the following:
-“A certain ecclesiastic wrote to a priest commissioned by Las Casas,
-that he met a principle-lord, who, on being questioned respecting
-the ancient religion which they professed, told him that they knew
-and believed in the God who was in Heaven, and that this God was the
-Father, Son and Holy Ghost, and that the Father was named Yzona, who
-had created man; and that the Son was called Bacab, who was born of a
-virgin of the name of Chiribirias, and that the mother of Chiribirias
-was named Yxchel; and that the Holy Ghost was named Echvah. Of Bacab,
-the Son, they said he was put to death and scourged and crowned with
-thorns and placed with his arms extended upon a beam of wood, to which
-they did not suppose that he had been nailed, but that he was tied,
-where he died and remained dead during three days, and on the third day
-came to life and ascended into heaven, where he is with his Father; and
-that immediately afterwards Echvah, who is the Holy Ghost, came and
-filled the earth with whatsoever it stood in need of.”
-
-[690] Mr. Bancroft in his fifth vol., pp. 84–89, has collated a great
-number of Lord Kingsborough’s analogies. Our limited space forbids
-further treatment.
-
-[691] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt’s _Vues_, tom.
-i, p. 236.
-
-[692] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt, _Vues_, p.
-256; Tschudi, _Peruvian Antiq._, p. 211.
-
-[693] _Vues_, p. 230 (ed. 1810).
-
-[694] Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s _Ruins_, pp. 41–2. Paris, 1863.
-
-[695] _Vues_, p. 148 (ed. 1810).
-
-[696] _Mœurs des Sauvages_, pp. 108–455.
-
-[697] Brasseur in _Introduction_ to Landa’s _Relacion_, pp. lxx–i.
-
-[698] Landa’s _Relacion_, _Introduc._, pp. lxxi _et seq._
-
-[699] Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa, pp. lxvi–ix.
-
-[700] We have not thought it necessary to treat the mythology or
-religious systems of the Mayas and Nahuas in any formal manner, but
-only incidentally to call attention to some salient features, cropping
-out in connection with the subject in hand. The religions of the
-ancient Americans have been so often and so admirably treated, that
-anything relating to them in this connection would be superfluous. See
-especially Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii; Müller’s _Geschichte
-der Amerikanischen Urreligionen_; Squier’s _Serpent Symbol in America_;
-Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, and _Ibid._, _Religious Sentiments
-in the New World_.
-
-[701] _Families of Speech_, pp. 134–6. London, 1873. 12mo.
-
-[702] Spanish, in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Antiq._, vol. viii, pp. 110–15.
-
-[703] English translation in Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. iii, and
-Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. ii, pp. 494–97.
-
-[704] _Families of Speech_, pp. 125–26.
-
-[705] The same author refers to the classification of languages adopted
-by Prof. Steinthal in his _Charakteristik der hauptsächlichsten
-Typen des Sprachbaues_. Languages are divided into _cultivated_ and
-_uncultivated_, and each again are subdivided into _isolating_ and
-_inflectional_. The American languages are classed as uncultivated and
-inflectional by incorporation.—(_Families of Speech_, p. 127.)
-
-[706] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 559, 670–2. See on
-the latter page especially a vocabulary of resemblances.
-
-[707] We refer the reader who is interested in the aboriginal languages
-of the North-west to the _Contributions to North American Ethnology_,
-published by the Department of the Interior, under the direction of
-Major J. W. Powell, Washington, 1877. 3 vols. 4to.
-
-[708] Garcia y Cubas, _The Republic of Mexico in 1876_. A political and
-ethnographical division of the population, etc., translated by Geo.
-F. Henderson, p. 66. Mexico, 1876. Most of the above names are cited
-by Mr. Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 760; by Orozco y Berra,
-_Geografía_, pp. 18–25 _et passim_, and by Pimentel, _Lenguas Indígenas
-de Mex._, vol. ii, p. 5 _et seq._
-
-[709] _Leng. Indig. de Mex._, vol. ii, p. 3.
-
-[710] _Geografía de las Lenguas de Mex._, pp. 129.
-
-[711] See Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 760, and the literary
-apparatus appended.
-
-[712] Orozco y Berra, _Geografía_, pp. 22, 128.
-
-[713] Communication of Dr. Le Plongeon to the Hon. John W. Foster,
-minister of the United States at Mexico, dated Island of Cozumel, May
-1, 1877, in Salisbury’s _Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan_, p. 83.
-
-[714] Dr. Le Plongeon, communication to Stephen Salisbury, Jr., Esq.,
-dated Island of Cozumel, June 15, 1877. He remarks: “Notwithstanding
-a few guttural sounds, the Maya is soft, pliant, rich in diction and
-expression, even every shade of thought may be expressed.” “Strange to
-say the language remained unaltered. Even to-day, in many places in
-Yucatan the descendants of the Spanish conquerors have forgotten the
-native tongue of their sires, and only speak Maya, the idiom of the
-vanquished.”—_Communication above cited in Salisbury’s Le Plongeon in
-Yucatan_, pp. 95 _et seq._
-
-[715] The following is Señor Melgar’s comparative list with the Spanish
-translated into English.
-
-  _Hebrew._    _English._                              _Chiapenec._
-
-  Ben,         Son,                                    Been.
-  Bath,        Daughter,                               Batz.
-  Abbá,        Father,                                 Abagh.
-  Chimah,      Star in Zodiac? the creator of rain,    Chimax.
-  Maloc,       King,                                   Molo.
-  Abah,        Name applied to Adam,                   Abagh.
-  Chanan,      Afflicted,                              Chanam.
-  Elab,        God,                                    Elab.
-  Tischiri,    September,                              Tsiquin.
-  Chi,         More,                                   Chic.
-  Chabic,      Rich,                                   Chabin.
-  Enos,        Son of Seth,                            Enot.
-  Votan,       To give,                                Votan.
-  Lambotus,    River of Arica,                         Lambat.
-
-He adds: “Todas estas coincidencias hacer suponer que en épocas muy
-remotas existeron communicaciones entre el viejo y el nuevo mundo.” He
-then refers to Plato’s _Atlantis_.—_Melgar in Sociedad Mex. de Geog.
-Boletin_, iii, _Época_, p. 108.
-
-[716] Brasseur’s letter to M. Rafn in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 6th
-series, vol. xvi, p. 263. He thinks the Scandinavians may have reached
-those remote parts at an early day. On pp. 281–9 he gives a list of
-words chosen from the Quiché, Cakchiquel and Zutohil, showing analogies
-with languages of Northern Europe, especially with the Scandinavian.
-Also see the same author in the _Nouv. Ann. des Voy._, 6th series, vol.
-iii, 1855, pp. 156–7. The Abbé in a letter to the _New York Tribune_,
-November 21st, 1855, in referring to the early inhabitants of Vera
-Paz, says: “_They came from the east_—not from the south-east, _but
-from the north-east_. I speak only of the tribes of Quiché-Cakchiquel
-and Zutohil. They came from the north-east, certainly passed through
-the United States, and as they say themselves, _they crossed the sea
-in darkness, mist, cold and snow_. I suppose they must have come from
-Denmark and Norway. They came in small numbers, and lost their white
-blood by their mixture with the Indians whom they found—whether in the
-United States or in these regions, certainly there must have been a
-Tula in our northern European countries. But what is more convincing of
-this migration or passage, I find the same result by a comparison of
-the languages. I cannot speak of the structure of them, but by what I
-have observed is that the fundamental forms and words of the languages
-of these regions (except the Mexican) are intimately connected with the
-Maya or Tzendal, and that all the words that are neither Mexican nor
-Maya belong to our languages of Northern Europe, viz.: English, Saxon,
-Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Flemish and German, some even appear to
-belong to the French or Persian.”
-
-[717] Dr. Farrar, referring to the Basque, says: “What is certain
-about it is, that its structure is polysynthetic, like the language of
-America. Like them, and them only, it habitually forms its compounds by
-the elimination of certain radicals in the simple words; so that, _e.
-g._, _ilhun_, twilight, is contracted from _hill_, dead, and _egun_,
-day; and _belhaun_, the knee, from _belhar_, front, and _oin_, leg.
-It was this fact that made Larramendi give to his treatise on Basque
-grammar the title of ‘The Impossible Overcome.’ The most daring of all
-the hypotheses which have been suggested points to the conceivable
-existence of some great Atlantis; to the possibility of the ‘Basque
-area being the remains of a vast system, of which Madeira and the
-Azores are fragments belonging to the Miocene period.’ Be this as
-it may, the fact is indisputable and is eminently noteworthy that,
-while the affinities of the Basque roots have never been conclusively
-elucidated, there has never been any doubt that this isolated language,
-preserving its identity in a western corner of Europe between two
-mighty kingdoms, resembles in its grammatical structure the aboriginal
-languages of the vast opposite continent, and those alone.”—_Families
-of Speech_, pp. 132–3. Also see Alfred Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s
-_Indigenous Races of the Earth_, p. 48.
-
-[718] See Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s _Indig. Races_, pp. 81–84.
-
-[719] Salisbury’s _Le Plongeon in Yucatan_, p. 96.
-
-[720] See on the Maya, Ruz, _Gram. Yucateca_; Pimentel, _Quadro Leng.
-Indig._, tom. ii, pp. 5 _et seq._, whose grammar we have followed
-above. Also vol. ii, pp. 119, 221; vol. i, p. 229, for idioms; Gallatin
-in _Am. Ethnol. Soc. Transact._, vol. i, pp. 252 et seq.; Vater,
-_Mithridates_. tom. iii, pt. iii, pp. 4–24; Brasseur de Bourbourg,
-_Grammaire_ in Landa’s _Relacion_, pp. 459 _et seq._, also _Maya and
-French Vocabulary_; Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 759–82,
-quotes prayer as above. Further see literature cited in Ludewig’s
-_Literature of American Aboriginal Languages_, ed. of Trübner. London,
-1858, pp. 102–3.
-
-[721] Full accounts of the grammatical structure of the languages of
-this family may be found in Pimentel’s _Quadro_, tom. i, pp. 35–78,
-321–60; Orozco y Berra’s _Geografía_, pp. 25 _et seq._; Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 748–58.
-
-[722] Ixtlilxochitl, _Hist. Chic._ in Kingsborough’s _Mex. Antiq._,
-vol. ix, p. 217, and cited by Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p.
-724.
-
-[723] _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 724–5; Pimentel, _Quadro Leng.
-Indig. de Mex._, tom. i, pp. 154–8, and our discussion in this work,
-chapter vi. p. 255.
-
-[724] _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 726–7. The same author refers
-to the _Natural History_ of Dr. Hernandez, written in the Aztec, as
-proof of its copiousness. “Twelve hundred different species of Mexican
-plants, two hundred or more species of birds, and a large number of
-quadrupeds, reptiles, insects and metals, each of which is given its
-proper name in the Mexican language.” (Quoted by Pimentel, _Quadro._,
-vol. i, p. 168.)
-
-[725] See Prescott’s _Conq. of Mex._, vol. i, p. 174 (ed. of 1875).
-“Tezcuco,” says Boturini, “where the noblemen sent their sons to
-acquire the most polished dialect of the Nahuatlac language, and to
-study poetry, moral philosophy, the heathen theology, astronomy,
-medicine and history.” (_Idea_, p. 142, cited by Prescott.)
-
-[726] _Geografía de las Lenguas_, p. 9.
-
-[727] Pimentel, _Quadro, Lenguas Indig._, p. 165, also copied by
-Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 731. From Pimentel we draw our
-extract of Aztec Grammar.
-
-[728] _Quadro, Leng. Indig._, tom. i, p. 183.
-
-[729] It will be observed in some portions of this abstract, I have
-used almost the same words as are employed by Mr. Bancroft. This is
-owing to the fact that both he and I have translated certain passages
-literally from Señor Pimentel, from whose work I have drawn this
-account throughout. See _Quadro, Lenguas Indig. de Mex._, tom. i, pp.
-164–216; Gallatin in _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, vol. i, pp. 214–246;
-Vater, _Mithridates_, vol. iii, pt. iii, pp. 85–106, and Bancroft’s
-_Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 721–37.
-
-[730] _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 726.
-
-[731] _Mithridates_, tom. iii, pt. iii, pp. 75 _et seq._
-
-[732] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 663–70, our authority
-for the facts stated on p. 486. See his sketch of the theory and the
-reaction under Buschmann.
-
-[733] _Die Lautveränderung Aztekischer Wörter in der Sonorischen
-Sprachen._ Berlin, 1855, 4to, and _Die Spuren der Aztekischen
-Sprachen_. Berlin, 1850, 4to.
-
-[734] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 669.
-
-[735] Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 667–8; William von
-Humboldt in Buschmann, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._ pp. 48–50; Orozco y
-Berra, _Geografia_, p. 39.
-
-[736] Buschmann, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 172; Orozco y Berra,
-_Geografia_, pp. 321–5; Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 714.
-
-[737] _Geografia_, pp. 58, 147–8.
-
-[738] “As regards this Aztec element, I do not mean to say that these
-languages are related to the Aztec language in the same sense that
-other languages are spoken of as being related to each other, for
-this might lead those who are searching for the former habitation or
-fatherland of the Aztecs, to suppose that it has been found. This
-element consists simply in a number of words identical or reasonably
-approximate to the like Aztec words, and in the similarity, perhaps,
-of a few grammatical rules. How this Aztec word-material crept into
-the languages of the Shoshones, whether by inter-communication, or
-Aztec colonization, we do not know. Nor do I wish to be understood as
-attempting to sustain the popular theory of an Aztec migration from the
-North; on the contrary, the evidences of language are all on the other
-side.”—_Bancroft’s Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 660–1.
-
-[739] Buschmann, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 290; Bancroft, _Native
-Races_, vol. iii, pp. 673–4.
-
-[740] _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, pp. 349–51, 391, 648–52 _et seq._;
-Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 661–79, comparative table
-compiled from Buschmann, Turner, Molina, Ortega, and others, on p. 678.
-
-[741] Buschmann, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 629, and Bancroft,
-_Native Races_, vol. iii, pp. 630–1.
-
-[742] “The Chinook language is spoken by all the nations from the
-mouth of the Columbia to the Falls. It is hard and difficult to
-pronounce for strangers, being full of gutturals like the Gaelic. The
-combinations _thl_ or _tl_ are as frequent in the Chinook as in the
-Mexican.”—Franchère, _Narrative of a Voy. to N. W. Coast of N. Am._,
-p. 262. Swan, speaking of the Chinook, says: “The peculiar clucking
-sound is produced by pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth,
-and pronouncing the word ending with _tl_ as if it were the letter _k_
-at the end of the _tl_; but it is impossible in any form or method of
-spelling that I know of, to convey the proper guttural clucking sound.
-Sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end all their words in _tl_;
-and the effect is ludicrous to hear three or four talking at the same
-time with this singular sound, like so many sitting-hens.”—_North West
-Coast_, p. 315.
-
-[743] Buschmann, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, pp. 628–9; Bancroft, _Native
-Races_, vol. iii, p. 619.
-
-[744] Gibbs’ _Alphabetical Vocab. of Clallam and Lummi Lang._, p. 6;
-Gallatin, in _Trans. Am. Eth. Soc._, vol. i, p. 54.
-
-[745] Buschmann, _Die Völker und Sprachen Neu-Mexico’s_, p. 370, calls
-attention to the great resemblance of
-
-  _Aztec._             _Nutka._
-
-  tepuztli = copper = chipuz
-  tetl     = stone  = tenetschök
-
-and adds that _Esquiates_ the name of a society is entirely Mexican. We
-append the result of his investigations:
-
-  “Von ähnlicher Art, gleich den Spanisch gemodelten Gestalten
-  Mexicanischer Wörter, sind viele Nutka-Wörter der Spanischen
-  Sammlung: nur mit dem Unterschiede, dass sie auf keinen
-  vorhandenen mexicanischen Wörtern beruhen (da zufällig diese
-  Buchstaben-combinationem in der Azt. Sprache nicht vorkommen, aber
-  ihren Wesen nach recht gut vorkommen könnten). Solche Wörter sind:
-  _iztocoti_ = Muschel (dazu Eigenname _iztocoti_ No. 923); _majati_
-  = jagd (caza), _mamati_ = Hof, _muztati_ = Regenbogen: _cucustlati_
-  = Nasenloch, _natlaycazte_ = Rippen; _otniquit_ = Jungfrau;
-  _mamatle_ = Schiff; _oumatle_ = Leib; _aguequetle_ = Hunger;
-  _capitzitle_ = Dieb; _tahechitle_ = larga: _temextixitle_ = Kuss;
-  _cuachitle_ = reisen; _cuchitle_ = pincher; _meyali_ = Schmerz.
-  Es giebt noch eine höhere Gattung von Nutka-Wörtern (der Span.
-  Reise), welche (besonders durch die Aechtheit ihrer Endung von der
-  vorigen verschieden) ganz und gar wie mexicanische Wörter aussehen,
-  und (so weit sie substantiva sind) mexicanische sein würden, wenn
-  es der Sprache beliebt hätte diese bestimmten Lautgestalten zu
-  bilden: _inapatl_ = Rücken; _tlexatl_ = Matte; _tzahuacatl_ =
-  9; _chamiehtl_ = Iris; _naguatzitl_ = Zwerg; _naschitl_ = Tag;
-  _jacamitl_ = viereckig; _huatzacchitl_ = Husten; _nectzitl_ =
-  trinken; _pugxitl_ = heben; _cocotl_ = Seeotter; _amanutl_ =
-  espinilla; _apactzutl_ = Bart; _ictlatzutl_ = Mund; _iniyutl_ =
-  Kehle; _jayutl_ = Fluth; _tlatlacastzeme_ = Blätter (wie ein Mex.
-  Plural in _me_); _coyactzac_ = Fuchsbalg. Noch mehr Wörter finden
-  sich, wenn man für die Mex. Sprache unnatürliche und zu harte
-  Consonanten—Verbindungen übersieht. Diese letzte höhere Gattung
-  vorzüglich, doch auch die erstere meint Alexander von Humboldt in
-  der obigen Stelle (S. 363). So gawinnt die Nutka-Sprache durch eine
-  reiche Zahl von Wörtern und durch grosse Züge ihres Lautwesens,
-  einzig von allen anderen fremden, die ich habe aufdecken können,
-  in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende Aehnlichkeit mit
-  der Aztekischen oder Mexicanischen; und so wird die ihr schon
-  früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt. Ihrer
-  Mexicanischen Erscheinrung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite
-  hier ausspreche jede Wirklichkeit.”—_Ibid._, p. 371.
-
-[746] _Compte-Rendu Seconde Ses. Cong. Internat, des Américanistes_,
-Luxembourg, vol. i, pp. 51–2.
-
-[747] Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 727. Acosta, _Hist. Nat.
-Ind._, p. 600. Sahagun, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii, lib. ix, cap. 9.
-
-[748] “To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, when
-visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the shores of
-Oregon, Washington and Vancouver’s Island, nations that now and then
-understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other tongues, some of
-which had been adopted into their own language. When Lewis and Clarke,
-in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon [Chinook] seems to have already
-assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the sentences quoted by the
-explorers.”—_Bancroft’s Native Races_, vol. iii, p. 632.
-
-[749] I append a partial list from Señor Najera’s _Disertacion sobre
-la lengua_ _Othomi_, Mexico, 1845, fol., pp. 87–8. I have rendered the
-Spanish list into English.
-
-  +----------+----------+-------------++----------+---------+------------+
-  |_Chinese._|_Othomi._ | _English._  ||_Chinese._|_Othomi._| _English._ |
-  +----------+----------+-------------++----------+---------+------------+
-  | Cho.     | To.      | The, that.  || Pa.      | Da.     | To give.   |
-  | Y.       | N-y.     | A wound.    || Tsun.    | Nsu.    | Honor.     |
-  | Ten.     | Gu, Mu.  | Head.       || Hu.      | Hmu.    | Sir, Lord. |
-  | Siao.    | Sui.     | Night.      || Na.      | Na.     | That.      |
-  | Tien.    | Tsi.     | Tooth.      || Hu.      | He.     | Cold.      |
-  | Ye.      | Yo.      | Shining.    || Ye.      | He.     | And.       |
-  | Ky.      | Hy (ji). | Happiness.  || Hos.     | Hia.    | Word.      |
-  | Ku.      | Du.      | Death.      || Nugo.    | Nga.    | I.         |
-  | Po.      | Yo.      | No.         || Ni.      | Nuy.    | Thou.      |
-  | Na.      | Ta.      | Man.        || Hao.     | Nho.    | The good.  |
-  | Nin.     | Nsu.     | Female.     || Ta.      | Da.     | The great. |
-  | Tseu.    | Tsi, Ti. | Son.        || Li.      | Ti.     | Gain.      |
-  | Tso.     | Tsa.     | To perfect. || Ho.      | To.     | Who.       |
-  |  uan.    | Khuani.  | True.       || Pa.      | Pa.     | To leave.  |
-  | Siao.    | Sa.      | To mock.    || Mu, Mo.  | Me.     | Mother.    |
-  +----------+----------+-------------++----------+---------+------------+
-
-[750] Warden, in _Antiquités Mexicaines_, tom. ii, div. ii, pp. 125 _et
-seq._ The same author has furnished many linguistic analogies, though
-without following any scientific classification. Ampère, _Promenade
-en Amérique_, vol. ii, p. 301, furnishes a list of Chinese and Otomi
-resemblances.
-
-[751] Orozco y Berra, _Geografía_, p. 17. Pimentel, _Leng. Indig.
-de Mex._, tom. i, p. 118. Bancroft, vol. iii, p. 737. Vater,
-_Mithridates_, tom. iii, pt. iii, p. 113. Malte-Brun (V. S.), in
-_Congrès des Américanistes, Luxembourg, Seconds Ses._, tom. ii, pp.
-16–18.
-
-[752] “In 1857, a gentleman named Henley, a good Chinese scholar, who
-acted as an interpreter of this state for some time, published a list
-of words in the Chinese and Indian languages to show that they were of
-the same origin. From this we make an extract supporting our remarks:
-
-  _Indian._  _Chinese._ _English._  | _Indian._   _Chinese._  _English._
-                                    |
-  Nang-a,    Nang,      Man.        | A-pa,       A-pa,       Father.
-  Yi-soo,    Soa,       Hand.       | A-ma,       A-ma,       Mother.
-  Keoka,     Keok,      Foot.       | Ko-le,      A-ko,       Brother.
-  Aek-a-soo, Soo,       Beard.      | Ko-chae,    To-chae,    Thanks.
-  Yuet-a,    Yuet,      Moon.       | Nagam,      Yam,        Drunk.
-  Yeeta,     Yat,       Sun.        | Koolae,     Ku-kay,     Her.
-  Utyta,     Hoto,      Much.       | Koo-chue,   Chue-koo,   Hog.
-  Lee-lum,   Ee-lung,   Deafness.   | Chookoo,    Kow-chi,    Dog.”
-  Ho-ya-pa,  Ho-ah,     Good.       |
-
-We have no means at hand of testing the following statement from
-the same author: “The Chinese, who have become so numerous in
-California since the discovery of gold, bear a striking resemblance
-to the Indians, and are known to be able to converse with them in
-their respective languages to an extent that cannot be the result of
-mere coincidence of expression.”—_Cronaise, The Natural Wealth of
-California_, p. 31. Probably a mistake.
-
-[753] “Unhesitatingly as I make this assertion—an assertion for which I
-have numerous tabulated vocabularies as proof—I am by no means prepared
-to say that one-tenth part of the necessary work has been done for
-the parts in question; indeed, it is my impression that it is easier
-to connect America with the Kuirle Isles and Japan, etc., than it is
-to make Japan and the Kuirle Isles, etc., Asiatic.”—_Latham, Man and
-His Migrations_, pp. 195–6. Barton, _New Views_, is certain that the
-languages of America originated in Asia; see pp. lxxxviii–xcii. On p.
-28 of Appendix he furnishes a comparative list of Japanese and Indian
-words.
-
-[754] Vergleichung der Amerikanischen Sprachen mit den Ural-Altaïschen
-hinsichtlich ihrer Grammatik. (_Congrès des Américanistes_, Luxembourg,
-1877, tom. ii, p. 56 _et seq._) Also see E. L. O. Roehrig “On the
-Language of the Dakota or Sioux Indians,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1872.
-
-[755] Prof. Valentini’s communication to the author.
-
-[756] Brasseur, in Landa’s _Relacion_, p. xxi, and _Popol Vuh_, chap.
-iii. Brasseur, in _Quatre Lettres_, p. 24, speaking of the _Codex
-Chimalpopoca_, says: “Oui, Monsieur, si ce livre est en apparence
-l’histoire des Toltèques et ensuite des rois des Colhuacan et de
-Mexico, il présente, en réalité, le récit du cataclysme qui bouleversa
-le monde, il y a quelques six on sept mille ans, et constitua le
-continents dans leur état actuel,” pp. 40–41. He expresses his belief
-that the _Cod. Chim._ has a double meaning, and that many names
-and symbols possessed by the natives refer to the cataclysm which
-occurred six or seven thousand years ago. “C’est le récit de ces
-bouleversements, c’est l’histoire du cataclysme, dont tous les peuples
-ont gardé la mémoire, que racontent tous mes documents.”
-
-[757] The following are the legends, according to Brasseur de
-Bourbourg: “According to the tradition of the Sacred Book (_Popol
-Vuh_), water and fire contributed to the universal ruin, at the time of
-the last cataclysm which preceded the fourth creation. ‘Then,’ says the
-author, ‘the waters were agitated by the will of the Heart of Heaven,
-and a great inundation came upon the heads of these creatures. * * *
-They were engulfed, and a resinous thickness descended from heaven.
-* * * The face of the earth was obscured and a heavy darkening rain
-commenced, rain by day and rain by night. * * * There was heard a
-great noise above their heads as if produced by fire. Then were men
-seen running, pushing each other, filled with despair; they wished
-to climb upon their houses, and the houses tumbling down fell to the
-ground; they wished to climb upon the trees, and the trees shook them
-off; they wished to enter into the grottoes, and the grottoes closed
-themselves before them.’ In the _Codex Chimalpopoca_, the author,
-speaking of the destruction which took place by fire, says: ‘The third
-sun is called _Quia-Tonatiuh_, sun of rain, because there fell a rain
-of fire; all which existed burned, and there fell a rain of gravel.’
-They also narrate that whilst the sandstone which we now see scattered
-about, and the _tetzontli_ (amygdaloide poreuse) boiled with great
-tumult, there also rose the rocks of vermillion color. Now this was in
-the year _Ce Tecpactl_, One Flint, it was the day _Nahui-Quiahuitl_,
-Fourth Rain. Now, in this day, in which men were lost and destroyed in
-a rain of fire, they were transformed into goslings; the sun itself
-was on fire, and everything, together with the houses, was consumed.”
-Brasseur recounts a Haytian legend concerning the origin of the sea and
-isles: “There was, they say, a powerful man called Iaia, who, having
-murdered his only son, wished to bury him; but not knowing where to
-put him, enclosed him in a calabash, which he placed afterwards at the
-foot of a high mountain, situated a little distance from the place
-where he lived; on account of his affection for his son he often went
-to the spot. One day, having opened it (the calabash), there came out
-whales and other very large fishes, of which Iaia, full of fear, having
-returned home, told his neighbors what had happened, saying that this
-calabash was filled with water and innumerable fishes. This news being
-spread abroad, four twin brothers, desiring to obtain fish, went to
-the place where the calabash was. Just as they had taken it in their
-hand to open it, Iaia came, and they seeing him, threw the calabash on
-the ground, in their fear of him. This (the calabash) having burst,
-on account of the great weight which was enclosed in it, the waters
-gushed forth, and the interminable plain, which stretched farther than
-the eye could reach, was flooded and covered with water. The mountains
-alone, because of their great height, were not submerged in this great
-inundation. So they believed that these mountains were the islands and
-the other divisions of the earth which we see in the world.”—_Brasseur
-de Bourbourg_, in _Landa’s Relacion_, pp. xxi–iv.
-
-[758] “With regard to the primitive dolichocephalæ of America, I
-entertain an hypothesis still more bold, perhaps, namely, that they
-are nearly related to the Guanches in the Canary Islands and to the
-Atlantic populations of Africa, the Moors, Tauricks, Copts, etc.,
-which Latham comprises under the name of Egyptian-Atlantidæ. * * * We
-find, then, one and the same form of skull in the Canary Islands, in
-front of the African coast, and in the Carib-Islands, on the opposite
-coast which faces Africa. * * * The color of the skin on both sides
-of the Atlantic is represented in these populations as being of a
-reddish-brown. * * * These facts involuntarily recall the tradition
-which Plato tells us in his _Timæus_ was communicated to Solan by an
-Egyptian priest respecting the ancient Atlantis. * * * This tradition
-deserves attention in connection with facts which seem to point in the
-same direction.”—_Retzius, in Smithsonian Report_ for 1859, p. 266.
-
-[759] Salisbury, _Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan_, pp. 57–61.
-
-[760] Unger, _Die Versunkene Insel Atlantis_, cited by Lyell,
-_Antiquity of Man_, p. 440.
-
-[761] Published in Winterthal, 1854–58, 3 bde. Also by the name author,
-see _Urwelt der Schweiz_, Zurich, 1865, and _Ergänzungsblätter_, bd. ii
-(Hildburgh), 1867. See Meyer’s _Konversations-Lexicon_, 3. _Aufl._, bd.
-viii, p. 693; bd. ii, p. 125, where the above are cited. Dr. Otto Ule,
-_Die Erde_, bd. i, p. 27, concurs with the above; work published in
-Leipzig, 1874, 2 vols. large 8vo.
-
-[762] See Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 440, and Oliver, _Lecture at
-the Royal Institution_, March 7, 1862, cited by Lyell.
-
-[763] Sir C. Wyville Thomson, _The Atlantic_ (voyage of the
-_Challenger_), vol. i, pp. 190, 208, 213; vol. ii, 23, 232. New York,
-1878. Also see _Scientific American_ for July 28th, 1877.
-
-[764] _Depths of the Sea_, by Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., J. G. Jeffreys,
-F.R.S., and Dr. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., London, 1873.
-
-[765] _The Atlantic, Exploring Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger_, vol. ii,
-pp. 248–9.
-
-[766] _The Atlantic_, vol. ii, p. 23.
-
-[767] _Scientific American_, July 28, 1877.
-
-[768] _The Atlantic_, vol. ii, p. 254.
-
-[769] _Ibid._, vol. ii, p. 288.
-
-[770] _Popular Science Review_, July 1878, cited by _Scientific
-American_ of August 24, 1878, vol. xxxix, p. 114.
-
-[771] Le Conte, _Elements of Geology_, New York, 1878, p. 131.
-
-[772] Le Conte, _Geology_, p. 129.
-
-[773] _Ibid._, pp. 127–32. Dr. Otto Ule, _Die Erde_, bd. i, ss. 496–502.
-
-[774] See Plato’s _Critias and Timæas_. Also Aristotle, _De Mundo_,
-cap. iii, and _Prince Henry the Navigator_, chap, vii, by Major, Lond.,
-1868.
-
-[775] See Reclus, _The Ocean_, pp. 70–82. New York, ed. 1878.
-
-[776] Irving’s _Columbus_, vol. i, chap, iii; vol. ii, p. 308. Reclus,
-_Ocean_, pp. 223, 229.
-
-[777] Irving’s _Columbus_, vol. ii, p. 279. Lafiteau, _Conquestes des
-Portugais_, lib. ii, cited by Irving.
-
-[778] See Martius, _Beitrage_, etc., p. 180, for the origin-tradition
-of the Tupis or Brazilians, where it is narrated that two brothers with
-their families landed at a remote period on Cape Frio. The brothers
-Tupi and Guarani gave their names to the two great South American
-families.
-
-[779] Brasseur in Landa’s _Relacion_, pp. lii–lxv; Eckstein, _Les Cares
-or Cariens de l’Antiquité_, 2d part, vi, dans la _Revue Archéologique,
-XVᵉ année_; Brugsch, _Die Geogr. der Nachbarlaender Egyptens_, pp.
-84–88, cited by Brasseur. “En ces vieux jours du monde, dit encore
-M. d’Eckstein, où Ibères et Libyens, Lahabim et Phoutim s’enlacaient
-plus ou moins à travers l’Europe occidentale, et poussaient jusqu’au
-sein de l’Irlande et de la Grande Bretagne, les monuments de
-Mizraïm semblent révéler des rapports maritimes de ces Libyens et
-probablement de ces Ibères avec les Cares et avec les autres races
-anté-pélasgiques des côtes de la Grèce et de l’Italie, ainsi que des
-iles de l’Archipel.”—_Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa’s Relacion_, pp.
-lvii–lviii.
-
-[780] _Manual of Geology_, second ed., p. 583.
-
-[781] Le Conte, _Elements of Geology_, pp. 145–149.
-
-[782] Baldwin’s _Ancient America_, Appendix C, pp. 288–293.
-
-[783] _Man and His Migrations_, pp. 129–30.
-
-[784] Kennon in Leland’s _Fusang_, p. 68.
-
-[785] “From the result of the most accurate scientific observation, it
-is evident that the voyage from China to America can be made without
-being out of sight of land more than a few hours at a time. To a
-landsman, unfamiliar with long voyages, the mere idea of being ‘alone
-on the wide, wide sea’ with nothing but water visible, even for an
-hour, conveys a strange sense of desolation, of daring and adventure.
-But in truth it is regarded as a mere trifle, not only by regular
-seafaring men, but even by the rudest races in all parts of the world;
-and I have no doubt that from the remotest ages, and on all shores,
-fishermen in open boats, canoes, or even coracles, guided simply by the
-stars and currents, have not hesitated to go far out of sight of land.
-At the present day, natives of the South Pacific islands undertake,
-without a compass, and successfully, long voyages which astonish even a
-regular Jack-tar, who is not often astonished at anything.”—_Kennon in
-Leland’s Fusang_, pp. 71–2.
-
-[786] See Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. v, pp. 51–54, where the paper
-of the Japanese Consul, Mr. Brooks, read before the Californian Academy
-of Sciences in March, 1875, is cited, detailing forty-one instances in
-which Japanese junks were cast upon our coast since 1782. Mr. Brooks
-states that he has a record of over one hundred similar disasters.
-Whymper, in his _Alaska_ (N. Y. 1869), p. 250, refers to other Japanese
-wrecks, and especially to one which, after drifting ten months, reached
-the Sandwich Islands. The Hawaiians, on seeing the crew, said, “It is
-plain now, we came from Asia.” See also M. de Roquefeuil, _Journal d’un
-Voyage autour du Monde, pendant les annes, 1816–1819_; _Smith’s Human
-Species_, p. 238.
-
-[787] _Physical Geography_, p. 41, cited by Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_,
-p. 367.
-
-[788] _Antiquity of Man_, p. 367.
-
-[789] “There is as much reason to believe that America was peopled from
-Asia, as that the primitive races of Europe and Africa should derive
-their origin from an Eastern source.”—_Macfie, Vancouver Island and
-British Columbia._ London, 1865.
-
-[790] “The weather is, it is true, cold at Behring’s Straits, even
-in summer, but not one-fourth as cold as at Matsumai, Japan, in
-winter.”—_Col. Kennon in Leland’s Fusang_, p. 74.
-
-[791] Frederick von Hellwald in _Smithsonian Report_, 1866, p. 345.
-“Open skin canoes, capable of containing twenty or more persons with
-their effects, and hoisting several masts and sails, are now frequently
-observed among the seacoast Tehuktchis, and the inhabitants of northern
-Alaska.”—_Whymper, Alaska_, p. 246–7.
-
-[792] He continues his statement that the Gulf Stream of the Pacific
-is the warming agent, and adds the argument that “the present
-inhabitants of the countries contiguous to Behring’s Straits on the
-two sides, in manners, customs, and physical appearance are almost
-identical.”—_Smithsonian Report_, 1866, p. 345.
-
-[793] Gallatin, p. 156. Bancroft, in assuming the certainty of a
-migration by Behring’s Straits, says “it seems absurd to argue the
-question from any point,” vol. v, p. 54. Venegas, _Noticia de la
-California_, Madrid, 1757, vol. i, p. 71, and London ed., 1759, p. 61,
-says the Californians at that date had clear traditions of having come
-from the north. Fontaine, _How the World was Peopled_, (N. Y. 1872),
-pp. 147–9, thinks that the march of Genghis with 1,400,000 Tartars
-caused the flight of his enemies in large numbers across the Aleutian
-archipelago and Behring’s Straits. Warden, _Recherches_, pp. 118–36,
-makes an argument for a migration through Behring’s Straits from
-Tartary and China.
-
-[794] Gallatin, in _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, vol. i, p. 158, says:
-“That America was first peopled by Asiatic tribes is highly probable;
-but after the lapse of several thousand years, the memory of that
-ancient migration was lost.” He inquires as to what we knew of Gaul or
-Britain before the Roman invasion. Mr. W. H. Dall, in his thoughtful
-Memoir on the _Origin of the Innuit_, says: “I see no reason for
-disputing the hypothesis that America was peopled from Asia originally,
-and that there were successive waves of emigration. The northern route
-was clearly by way of Behring Strait; at least, it was not to the south
-of that, and especially it was not by way of the Aleutian Islands.”—_In
-Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. i, p. 95. Washington,
-1877. 4to.
-
-[795] Aug. R. Grote, _The Peopling of America_, in _American
-Naturalist_, April 1877.
-
-[796] Croll, _Climate and Time_, New York, 1875, 12mo. Prof. McFarland
-in _Am. Jour. of Sci. and Arts_, June 1876, p. 456. Newcomb on Croll’s
-_Theory_ in same journal for April 1876, p. 263.
-
-[797] Whymper, _Alaska_, pp. 246, 247, discusses the volcanic nature
-of the Aleutian Islands, mentioning the fact that “There are records
-of very severe shocks of earthquake felt by the Russian traders and
-nations dwelling on them.”
-
-[798] Sir Charles Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, pp. 273 _et seq._, has
-shown that Great Britain was separated from the continent by subsidence
-and glacial action, thus producing the English Channel which, we have
-already seen, corresponds singularly with Behring’s Straits in width
-and depth, and formerly, no doubt, both corresponded more nearly in
-climatic conditions. It is not unreasonable to suppose that both
-passages were produced by the same agencies.
-
-[799] Presidential Address to the Am. Association for Adv. of Sci.,
-1872, and published in his _Darwiniana_, pp. 203 _et seq._
-
-[800] John H. Becker, _The Migration of the Nahuas, Congrès des
-Américanistes_, Luxembourg, ses., tom. i. p. 349. Altogether the most
-enlightened treatment of the subject yet published.
-
-[801] Becker in _Ibid._, pp. 348–9. The same author cites from the
-_Trans. of Am. Geog. Soc._, 1874, the following interesting statement
-made by Gen. Milnor: “Nowhere else on the continent can similar
-great valleys such as the Missouri and Columbia be found, meeting
-advantageously at a common point on the main dividing backbone
-which separates the continental waters flowing east and west to
-the two oceans. The heads of these main valleys are here only from
-three to four thousand feet above the sea, while the great treeless
-plains—further south—are elevated more than six thousand feet.”
-
-[802] The expedition which the German government and the Berlin
-Geographical Society is about to send to the North Pacific under the
-intelligent direction of my friend Dr. Van der Horck, will no doubt
-contribute largely to our information concerning the ethnographical
-relationship of America to Asia.
-
-[803] Second Report on the Implements found in the Glacial Drift of New
-Jersey, by C. C. Abbott in _Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum_,
-pp. 225–57. Cambridge, 1878.
-
-[804] Mr. Becker remarks: “Why should the Aztec priesthood and
-nobility, a class bred and educated in the understanding of traditional
-lore and an elaborate system of picture-writing, be considered as a
-set of metaphysical lunatics who did not know or did not mean what
-they said.”—_Migration of the Nahuas_ in _Cong. des Américanistes_,
-Luxembourg, 1877, tom. i, p. 342.
-
-[805] _Vide_ _Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History_,
-Vol. I, No. 3, October, 1878.
-
-[806] _Vide_ _Archæological Explorations in Tennessee_, by F. W.
-Putnam. _Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of American
-Archæology and Ethnology_, Cambridge, Mass., 1878.
-
-[807] Letter to the author, dated Davenport, Iowa, May 24, 1879.
-
-[808] _Bulletin of U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
-Territories_, vol. ii., No. i., p. 6.
-
-[809] _Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. iv.—U. S.
-Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W.
-Powell in charge. Washington, 1881: especially chap. ix.
-
-[810] In addition to the work by Mr. Morgan above cited, the student
-of Mound-builder and Pueblo archæology should not fail to consult
-vol. vii. of the _Report upon U. S. Geographical Surveys west of the
-one hundredth meridian, in charge of Lieutenant Wheeler_, Washington,
-1879. The volume bears the above date, but did not appear until near
-the close of 1881. The editing of this valuable work was committed to
-the discriminating care of Professor F. W. Putnam, who was assisted by
-an able corps of specialists, among others Dr. C. C. Abbott and Albert
-S. Gatschet. The Second Part is devoted to papers on the Pueblos. The
-magnificent fund of materials here presented, accompanied by full-page
-heliotypes of ruins and implements, vastly enlarges our knowledge of
-that interesting people. Still another work, of more than ordinary
-importance to ethnological and archæological students, is Dr. Charles
-Rau’s _Observations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian Sculptures in
-the Old World and in America_, Contributions to Ethnology, vol. v.
-Washington, 1881. Last, but not least, is Professor Otis T. Mason’s
-_Account of recent Progress in Anthropology_, in Smithsonian Report for
-1880.
-
-
-                         Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
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-  - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.
-  - Wide tables have been split.
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-<body>
-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The North Americans of Antiquity, by John Thomas Short</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The North Americans of Antiquity</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Their origin, migrations, and type of civilization considered</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John Thomas Short</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 5, 2022 [eBook #67101]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Robert Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICANS OF ANTIQUITY ***</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp80" id="frontispiece">
-    <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Court and Tower of the Palace, Palenque.</span> (After
-      Waldeck.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="titlepage">
-    <h1><span class="small">THE</span><br />
-      NORTH AMERICANS<br />
-      <span class="small">OF</span><br />
-      ANTIQUITY</h1>
-
-    <div class="mt6"><b><i>THEIR ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND TYPE OF<br />
-      CIVILIZATION CONSIDERED</i></b></div>
-
-    <div class="large mt10"><b><span class="smcap">By</span> JOHN T. SHORT</b></div>
-
-    <div class="xsmall mt5"><b>THIRD EDITION</b></div>
-
-    <div class="mt6"><div class="figcenter illowp18">
-      <img src="images/title.jpg" alt="" />
-    </div></div>
-
-    <div class="mt6 bold">NEW YORK<br />
-      <span class="small">HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS</span><br />
-      <span class="xsmall">FRANKLIN SQUARE</span><br />
-      1882</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="titlepage mt10 mb10">
-    Copyright, 1879, by <span class="smcap">John T. Short</span>.
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span>
-    <h2 id="PREFACE"><span class="gespertt1">PREFACE</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="short" />
-
-  <p class="drop-cap mt5">THE growing interest in the origin, migrations and life of the races of
-    American Antiquity has led me to believe that the subjects considered
-    in these pages would meet with the favorable attention of the public
-    and of the specialist in this field. With such a conviction I present
-    this volume, realizing the difficulties which attend any efforts to
-    elucidate such dark problems. Yet I cannot conceal my satisfaction
-    that the age of North American Antiquity is not all darkness, but on
-    the contrary is rapidly growing radiant with light, while a host of
-    patient searchers for its truths roll up the obscuring curtain. The
-    recent discoveries by Geo. Smith, Cesnola, and Schliemann naturally
-    cause us to turn with national pride to the rich antiquarian fields
-    in our own land. Very satisfactory results have been obtained within
-    a few years in the exploration of Mound-works and the Cliff-dwellings
-    of the West. A just view of the civilization of the builders of these
-    remains, however, requires that it be considered in connection with the
-    traditional history and civilization of the ancient races of Mexico and
-    Central America, so marked was the influence of the ancient peoples of
-    this continent upon each other.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p>
-
-  <p>Regarding this to be important, I have endeavored to present a
-    comprehensive view of the civilization of the Mound-builders,
-    Cliff-dwellers, and Pueblos, and to bring to the attention of the
-    reader the traditional history and architectural remains of the Mayas
-    of Yucatan and the Nahuas of Mexico. Only the probable origin and
-    the most remote period of the growth of these latter peoples could
-    receive attention within the limits prescribed for this work, since it
-    is my design that this volume shall serve as a manual of information
-    relating to the earliest period of North-American Antiquity, and as
-    an introduction to Ancient American History. My material relating to
-    the Mound-builders has been drawn almost entirely from the Smithsonian
-    Reports, the Proceedings of scientific societies, and private memoirs.
-    Still it is but justice to one honored co-laborer in the same field,
-    Col. J. W. Foster, to say that his excellent work, <cite>The Pre-Historic
-    Races of the U. S.</cite>, has been of great service in our investigation
-    of this subject. Although his sources of information have been, with
-    few exceptions, before me, my appreciation of his work is attested
-    by my constant reference to it. Nevertheless, the wonderful advances
-    which have been made in Mound-exploration since the issue of the
-    <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, called for a fresh treatment of the subject.</p>
-
-  <p>On the Mayas and Nahuas the following manuscript works in the
-    possession of the Congressional Library at Washington were consulted,
-    and yielded valuable material:</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Las Casas</cite></b>: Historia Apologética de las Indias occidentals, 4
-    vols. folio.</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Las Casas</cite></b>: Historia de Indias, 4 vols. folio.</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Panes</cite> (<cite>D. Diego</cite>)</b>: Fragmentos de Historia de Nueva España,
-    folio.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Echevarria y Veitia</cite></b>: Historia del origen de gentes que poblaron
-    la America Septentrional, 1755, 3 vols. folio (about one-fourth of
-    the work is published in Kingsborough’s Mex. Antiq., vol. viii).</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Escalante in Teniente</cite> (<cite>Jose Cortes</cite>)</b>: Memoria sobre las
-    Provincias del Norte de Nueva España 1799, folio.</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><b><cite>Duran</cite> (<cite>Diego</cite>)</b>: Historia Antigua de la Nueva España 1585,
-    3 vols. folio (part of the work has been published in Mexico).</p>
-
-  <p>These, together with the large number of printed books relating to
-    America in the Congressional Library added to works in my possession,
-    afforded an ample field for research.</p>
-
-  <p>I must express my appreciation of the courteous attentions of the
-    accomplished Librarian of Congress, the Hon. A. R. Spofford, who
-    together with his assistants did everything possible to facilitate
-    my investigations. To the uniform and friendly interest which Mr.
-    Spofford has manifested in my work, its successful completion is
-    largely due. The substantial assistance which I received from the
-    lamented Professor Joseph Henry—the record of whose kindly offices
-    to his fellowmen can never be written—was invaluable to me. Besides
-    placing the latest material at my disposal, he generously furnished
-    most of the engravings in this work relating to the Mound-builders.
-    Dr. Charles Rau, also of the <cite>Smithsonian Institution</cite>, has
-    placed me under obligations for valued services. To Professor F. V.
-    Hayden and to the painstaking offices of Mr. James Stevenson of the
-    <cite>U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories</cite>, I
-    am indebted for the engravings as well as the sources of information
-    relating to the Cliff-dwellers. The Hon. J. R. Bartlett, of Providence,
-    R. I., with equal generosity has conferred like favors. Prof. F. W.
-    Putnam, of the Peabody Museum of American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> Archæology and Ethnology
-    at Cambridge, Mass., and his courteous assistants, Mr. Carr and Miss
-    Smith, have provided me with valuable engravings and reports. Robert
-    Clarke, Esq., and Mr. E. Gest, of Cincinnati, have also sent me
-    engravings, and the former in particular has conferred frequent favors.
-    Professor Ph. Valentini, of Albion, N. Y., with rare liberality,
-    contributed interesting material relating to the Nahua Calendar. To Mr.
-    Stephen Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Mass., Dr. R. J. Farquharson,
-    of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of the
-    <cite>American Antiquarian</cite>, Cleveland, O., and to A. J. Conant, Esq.,
-    of St. Louis, Mo., I am indebted for the interest they have manifested,
-    and for the material which they have brought to my attention.</p>
-
-  <p>Señor Orozco y Berra, of the City of Mexico, the distinguished author
-    of the <cite>Geografía de las lenguas Mexicanas</cite>, has from time to time
-    freely made important suggestions concerning some of the problems under
-    consideration. To my friend the Rev. John W. Butler, of the City of
-    Mexico, whose intelligent efforts in my behalf have been unremitting,
-    I have special reason to be thankful. To all these generous friends I
-    must be permitted here to express my deep sense of gratitude for their
-    favors.</p>
-
-  <p>However, this pleasant task would be but half performed were I to omit
-    the recognition of the unselfish friendship of the justly eminent
-    author of the <cite>Native Races of the Pacific States</cite>. Mr. Hubert
-    Howe Bancroft, whose rare erudition and breadth of thought are only
-    surpassed by his magnanimity of nature and manliness of spirit, with
-    a liberality which has scarce a parallel in authorship, sent me
-    the majority of the engravings illustrative of the Maya and Nahua
-    architecture and sculpture, used in the fourth volume of the <cite>Native
-    Races</cite>. To this I may add the no less valuable encouragement which
-    he so heartily gave during<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span> the progress of my work. Although some
-    of my investigations were prosecuted before the publication of the
-    <cite>Native Races</cite>, and though all of Mr. Bancroft’s sources relating
-    to subjects which have received our mutual attention were before me and
-    underwent a critical examination at my hands, it is but fair to state
-    that the assistance which I derived from the <cite>Native Races</cite> has
-    been of incalculable service in the preparation of this volume. If in
-    any place I have omitted to render full credit to Mr. Bancroft, and to
-    that imperishable monument of learning and industry, his great work,
-    the omission has been due to inadvertence rather than intention. My
-    obligations to Mr. Bancroft can never be discharged, nor can the kind
-    attentions of Mr. Henry L. Oak, of the Bancroft Library, San Francisco,
-    be forgotten.</p>
-
-  <p>Still my examination of the sources has not always led me to the same
-    conclusions as were reached by the author of the <cite>Native Races</cite>.
-    This may be owing to our different standpoints of observation, or
-    possibly to an inappreciable bias in my own mind. It is, however, but
-    justice to myself to say that this work has been prosecuted to its
-    completion with the spirit of inquiry rather than of advocacy, and is
-    the embodiment of an honest search for the truth.</p>
-
-  <div class="right">THE AUTHOR.</div>
-
-  <p class="small"><span class="smcap">Columbus, O.</span>, <i>November, 1879</i>.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span>
-    <h2 id="PREFACE_TO_THIRD_EDITION">PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="short" />
-
-  <p class="drop-cap mt5">THIS, the third edition of “The North Americans of Antiquity,” has been
-    carefully revised and new facts incorporated. In this connection I
-    take the opportunity of thankfully acknowledging the kindly reception
-    and marked consideration which this work has enjoyed at the hands of
-    specialists, of learned Societies in both America and Europe, and from
-    the University of Leipzig.</p>
-
-  <div class="right">J. T. S.</div>
-
-  <p class="small"><span class="smcap">Columbus, Ohio</span>, <i>September, 1881</i>.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span>
-    <h2 id="CONTENTS"><span class="gespertt1">CONTENTS</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="shortb" />
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Ancient Inhabitants of the United States.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">The Aborigines—Antiquity of the Red Indian—The
-    Mound-builders—Geographical Distribution of
-    Mound-works—Frontier Defences of the Mound-builders—Michigan
-    Mounds—Mounds in the North-west—On the Upper Missouri—In
-    Dakota—Animal Mounds of Wisconsin—Elephant Mound—Discoveries
-    at Davenport, Iowa—Davenport Tablet—Heart of the Mound-builder
-    Country—Cahokia—Resemblances to Mexico—St. Louis and
-    Cincinnati Works—Cincinnati Tablet—Works in Ohio—Fortified
-    Places—Fort Ancient—Signal Systems—Works at Newark—The Ohio
-    Valley—Explorations in Tennessee—Burial in Stone Coffins—Mound
-    Colonies in the South-east—Mr. Anderson’s Calendar Stone—Mounds
-    of the Lower Mississippi Valley—Seltzertown Mound—Alabama
-    and Georgia Mounds—Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee—Explorations in
-    Missouri—Sun-dried Bricks—Remains in the South-west—Direction
-    of the Migration—Architectural Progress—Altar Mounds—Mounds of
-    Sepulture—Ancient Copper Mines—Astronomical Knowledge.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Antiquity of Man on the Western Continent.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Antiquity of the Mounds—No Tradition of the
-    Mound-builders—Vegetation Covering the Mounds—Age of Mound
-    Crania—Probable Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds—Ancient
-    Shell-heaps—Man’s Influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span> on Nature—Supposed Testimony of
-    Geology—Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone—Remains on Santos
-    River—The Natchez Bone—Remains on Petit Anse Island—Brazilian
-    Bone caves—Dr. Koch’s Pretended Discoveries—Ancient Hearths—Age
-    of the Mississippi Delta—Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New
-    Orleans—Dr. Abbott’s Discoveries in New Jersey—Discoveries in
-    California—Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio—Crania from Mounds in
-    the North-west—No Evidences as yet Discovered Proving Man’s
-    Great Antiquity in America.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Diversity of Opinion as to the Origin of the Ancient Americans.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism—Arabic Learning in the VIIIth
-    Century—Spirit of the Early Writers on America—Common Opinion
-    as to the Origin of the Americans—Father Duran—Lost Tribes
-    of Israel—Garcia—Lascarbot—Villagutierre—Torquemada—Pineda,
-    etc.—Abbé Domenech—Modern Views—Pre-Columbian
-    Colonization—Plato’s Atlantis—Kingsborough—The “Book of
-    Mormon”—Phœnicians—George Jones—Greek and Egyptian Theories—The
-    Tartars—Japanese and Chinese Theories—Fusang—The Mongol
-    Theory—Traces of Buddhism—White-Man’s Land—The Northmen—The
-    Welsh Claim.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Origin of the Americans as Viewed from the Standpoint of
-    Science.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Origin Theories—Indigenous Origin—Separate Creation
-    Theory—Dr. Morton’s Theory—Agassiz’s Views—Dr. Morton’s
-    Cranial Measurements—Dr. Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity
-    Groundless—Ethnic Relationships—Typical Mound-skull—Crania
-    from the River Rouge—Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements—Crania
-    from Kentucky—Researches in Tennessee by Prof.
-    Jones—Measurements—Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania from
-    Tennessee Mounds—Low Type Crania from the Mounds—Development
-    Observable in Mound Crania—Head-Flattening Derived from
-    Asia—Diseases of the Mound-builders—Physiognomy of the Ancient
-    Americans—Languages—Evolution and its Bearing on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span> Origin of
-    the Americans—Darwin and Hæckel on the Indigenous American—The
-    Autochthonic Hypothesis Groundless—Unity of the Human
-    Family—Accepted Chronology Faulty.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Traditional History of the Origin of the Maya Nations.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas—The Tradition of
-    Votan—The First Immigrants to America—The City of Nachan—The
-    Votanic Document—Ordoñez—Brasseur and Cabrera on the Tzendal
-    Document—The Empire of the Chanes—The Oldest Civilization—The
-    Earliest Home of the Mayas—The Quichés—Their Origin
-    Tradition—The Quiché Cosmogony—The Creation of Man—The Quiché
-    Migration—Tulan—Mt. Hacavitz—Human Sacrifices Instituted—Four
-    Tulans—Association of the Mayas and Nahuas—Heroic Period of
-    the Quichés—Xibalba and its Downfall—Exploits of the Quiché
-    Chieftains—War of the Sects—Xibalba and Palenque the Same—Mayas
-    of Yucatan and their Traditions—Culture-heroes—Zamna and
-    Cukulcan—Christ Myth.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Traditional History of the Origin of the Nahua Nations.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">The Early Inhabitants of Mexico—Quinames—Miztecs and
-    Zapotecs—Totonacs and Huastecs—Olmecs and Xicalancas—The
-    Nahuas—The Cholula Pyramid—Its Origin Explained by Duran—No
-    Relation to a Flood—Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition—The
-    first Toltecs—The Codex Chimalpopoca Account—The Discovery
-    of Maize—Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas—They came from
-    Florida—Their Settlement in Tamoanchan—Their Migrations—Hue Hue
-    Tlapalan—Its location, according to the Sources—Not Identical
-    with Tlapallan de Cortés—Not in Central America—Probably in
-    the Mississippi Valley—Beginning of the Toltec Annals—The
-    Chichimecs not Nahuas—The Nahuatlacas—The Aztecs—Aztlan—As
-    Described by Early Writers—Aztec Migration—Aztec Maps—Señor
-    Ramirez on Migration Maps—The seven Caves—Three Claims for the
-    Location of Aztlan—The culture Hero, Quetzalcoatl.</div>
-
-    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">The Ancient Pueblos and Cliff-Dwellers.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">The Casas Grandes of Chihuahua—Ruins in the Casas Grandes and
-    Janos Valleys—Casa Grande of the Rio Gila—Ruins in the Gila
-    Valley—Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado—Ruins in the Cañon
-    of the Colorado—In the Valley of the Colorado Chiquito—Pueblos
-    of the Zuñi River—Zuñi and the “Seven Cities of Cibola”—“El
-    Moro”—Pueblos of the Chaco Valley—Cliff-dwellers—Mr. Jackson’s
-    Discoveries in the Valley of the Rio San Juan—Cliff-houses
-    of the Rio Mancos—Cliff-dwellings on the McElmo—Traditional
-    Origin and Fate of the Cliff-dwellers—Ancestors of the
-    Moquis—Remarkable Discoveries by Mr. Holmes—The Seven Moqui
-    Towns—The Montezuma Legend.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Ancient American Civilization and Supposed Old World
-    Analogies.—Architecture, Sculpture, and Hieroglyphics.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Analogies, Real and Fancied—<span class="smcap">Maya Architecture</span>—The
-    American Pyramid—The Palace of Palenque—The French Roof at
-    Palenque—The Trefoil Arch—Yucatanic Architecture—Uxmal—The
-    Casa de Monjas—Kabah—Casa Grande of Zayi—<span class="smcap">Quiché
-    Architecture</span>—Copan—Circus of Copan—Description by
-    Fuentes—Utatlan—<span class="smcap">Nahua Architecture</span>—Remains in
-    Oajaca—Mitla—Grecques at Mitla—Remains in the State of
-    Vera Cruz—Cholula—Pyramid of Xochicalco—The Temple of
-    Mexico—Teotihuacan—Los Edificios of Quemada—Maya and Nahua
-    Architecture Compared—Old World Analogies—<span class="smcap">Sculpture</span>—Of
-    the Mounds—At Palenque—At Uxmal—Of the Nahuas—Ancient
-    American Art and its Old World Analogies—Egyptian Tau
-    at Palenque—Serpent Sculpture—Nahua Symbolism probably
-    Asiatic—<span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>—Maya MSS. and Books—Landa’s
-    Alphabet—Attempts at the Interpretation of Maya MSS. by
-    Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny—Rosny’s Classification of the
-    Hieroglyphics—Hopes that a Key has been Discovered—The Mexican
-    Picture-writing—Aztec Migration Maps.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Chronology, Calendar Systems, and Religious Analogies.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">No Mound-builder Chronology Known—Maya Calendar—Landa on the
-    Calendar—Maya Days—Maya Months—The Katun—The Ahau Katun or
-    Great Cycle—The Maya System Adjusted to our Chronology—The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">xvii</span>
-    Adjustment by Perez—Intercalary Days—The Nahua Calendar—The
-    Sources—Divisions of the Mexican Calendar—The Aztec Year—The
-    Nemontemi—Aztec Months—Aztec Days—Nahua Ritual Calendar—Mexican
-    Calendar Stone—Sources of Interpretation—History of
-    the Stone—Its Interpretation—Date of the Origin of the
-    Calendar Stone—Date of the Nahua Migration—Analogies with
-    the Nahua Calendar—<span class="smcap">Religious Analogies</span>—Jewish
-    Analogies—Deluge Traditions—Supposed Parallels in Jewish
-    and Mexican History—Analogies of Doctrine—Analogies
-    of Ceremonial Law—Yucatanic Trinity Myth—Mexican and
-    Asiatic Analogies—Buddhism in the New World—Scandinavian
-    Analogies—Mexican and Greek Analogies—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s
-    Comparisons.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Language and its Relation to North American Migrations.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Diversity of Languages in America—Causes of Diversity—Richness of
-    American Languages—Polysynthesis—Grimm’s Law—The Maya-Quiché
-    Languages—Stability of the Maya—Oldest American Language—The
-    Maya compared to the Greek, the Hebrew, the North European,
-    the Basque, West African, and the Quichua Languages—Epitome
-    of Maya Grammar—The Mizteco-Zapotec Languages—The Nahua or
-    Aztec—The Classic Tongue—Ancient and Modern Nahua—Epitome
-    of Aztec Grammar—Geographical Extension of the Aztec—In
-    the South—In the North-west—Buschmann’s Researches—The
-    Sonora Family—Opata-Tarahumar-Pima Family—Moqui and Aztec
-    Elements—Aztec in the Shoshone and in the Languages of Oregon
-    and the Columbian Region—Line of Aztec Elements—The Nahua
-    probably the Language of the Mound-builders—The Otomi—Supposed
-    Chinese Analogies—Japanese Analogies—Geographical Names.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">Probabilities that America was Peopled from the Old World
-    Considered Geographically and Physically.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Legends of Atlantis—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory—The Subject
-    Examined in the Light of Science—Retzius’ View—Le Plongeon’s
-    Observations—Identity of European and American Plant
-    Types—Revelations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">xviii</span> of the <i>Dolphin</i> and <i>Challenger</i>
-    Expeditions—The Atlantic Floor—Challenger and Dolphin
-    Ridges—“Challenger Plateau” probably once Dry Land—Identity
-    of European and South American Fauna—Elevation and
-    Depression of Coast Level—Of Greenland, the United States,
-    and South America—The Gulf Stream—Equatorial Current—The
-    Trade-Winds—Accidental Discovery of Brazil—America Probably
-    Reached by Ancient Navigators—The Caras—Atolls of the Pacific
-    Ocean—A Pacific Continent—Contiguity of the Continents
-    at the North—Aleutian Islands—The Kuro-Suvo—Behring’s
-    Straits—Inviting Appearance of the American Shore—Remoteness
-    of the Migration—Prof. Grote’s View—Prof. Asa Gray’s
-    Observations—Conditions Favorable to a Migration—Mr. John H.
-    Becker’s Observations.</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></div>
-
-  <div class="smcap">Conclusion.</div>
-
-  <hr class="short mt3" />
-
-  <div class="mt3">APPENDIX.</div>
-
-  <ol class="alpha ml3 small mt1">
-    <li><a href="#MADISONVILLE_EXPLORATIONS">MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS</a>.</li>
-    <li><a href="#ELEPHANT_PIPE">ELEPHANT PIPE</a>.</li>
-    <li><a href="#CHARNAY_EXPLORATION">CHARNAY EXPLORATION</a>.</li>
-    <li><a href="#HOUSE_ARCHITECTURE">HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS</a>.</li>
-  </ol>
-
-  <div class="mt2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></div>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter center lh2 bold"><span class="gespertt1">THE</span><br />
-    <span class="xxlarge gespertt1">NORTH-AMERICANS</span><br />
-    <span class="small gespertt1">OF</span><br />
-    <span class="xlarge"><span class="gespertt1">ANTIQUITY</span>.</span></div>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_I"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">The Aborigines—Antiquity of the Red Indian—The
-    Mound-builders—Geographical Distribution of
-    Mound-works—Frontier Defences of the Mound-builders—Michigan
-    Mounds—Mounds in the North-west—On the Upper Missouri—In
-    Dakota—Animal Mounds of Wisconsin—Elephant Mound—Discoveries
-    at Davenport, Iowa—Davenport Tablet—Heart of the Mound-builder
-    Country—Cahokia—Resemblances to Mexico—St. Louis and
-    Cincinnati Works—Cincinnati Tablet—Works in Ohio—Fortified
-    Places—Fort Ancient—Signal Systems—Works at Newark—The Ohio
-    Valley—Explorations in Tennessee—Burial in Stone Coffins—Mound
-    Colonies in the South-east—Mr. Anderson’s Calendar Stone—Mounds
-    of the Lower Mississippi Valley—Seltzertown Mound—Alabama
-    and Georgia Mounds—Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee—Explorations in
-    Missouri—Sun-dried Bricks—Remains in the South-west—Direction
-    of the Migration—Architectural Progress—Altar Mounds—Mounds of
-    Sepulture—Ancient Copper Mines—Astronomical Knowledge.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">ON that eventful morning nearly four centuries ago, when the spell
-    of uncertainty and mystery which enshrouded the Atlantic was broken,
-    and the darkness of the deep vanished with the darkness of the night,
-    the illustrious admiral discovered a world populated with beings
-    like himself. They were male and female, with all the physical
-    characteristics common to the rest of mankind, and differed from the
-    Spaniards only in that their skin was of a copper hue, and their cheek
-    bones more prominent. They were tattooed and wore their straight black
-    hair, cut short above the ears, with a few unshorn locks falling upon
-    their shoulders.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> These naked uncivilized men and women were the
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>same in their physical type with those discovered subsequently on
-    the islands and the main land by the Cabots, Vespucius, Verrezano,
-    and Cartier. To rehearse their descriptions of the natives whom they
-    first met would be but to repeat the experience and observations of
-    Columbus. Nearly five centuries earlier the Norse adventurer Thorwald
-    Ericson (1002 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) encountered natives on the New England
-    coast, corresponding in appearance, habits, and condition to those who
-    occupied the country when colonized by the first settlers. To these
-    natives they gave the name of <em>Skrellings</em>, from <em>skraekja</em>,
-    a name which they had previously applied to the Eskimo, meaning <em>to
-    cry out</em>.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Thorfin Karlsefne, who also reached the New England
-    coast four years later than Thorwald, describes the natives as
-    sallow-colored and ill-looking, having ugly heads of hair, large eyes
-    and broad cheeks. They came in canoes to his ships for the purposes
-    of trade, and though peaceable at first, soon exhibited hostility and
-    treachery.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It is probable that these Skrellings were North American
-    Indians, who had interbred with the Atlantic Coast Eskimo. How long
-    the red man’s occupation of the country antedated its discovery by
-    the Scandinavians is uncertain. His traditions are worthless on that
-    subject. His chronology of moons and cycles is an incoherent and
-    contradictory jumble. Nor does he know any more certainly from whence
-    he came. It would seem that his race came by installments, if it came
-    at all, and that he was just as far advanced in the arts of hunting
-    and war and domestic life on the day in which he first possessed
-    himself of the soil, as on that in which he was driven from it by the
-    European. Only under the fostering care of the white man has he shown
-    any improvement, and that has been of such an uncertain character as to
-    amount to proof of his incapacity for self-civilization. The Indian,
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>measured by his low condition in the scale of progress from the
-    extremest barbarism towards semi-civilization, belongs to what is known
-    as the flint age (old-stone or Palæolithic) in Europe, in which the
-    rudest flint implements seem to have been the chief auxiliaries which
-    he possessed with which to supplement and assist his hands in securing
-    a livelihood or to protect his person and family from ferocious beasts.
-    Perhaps we may more properly place him in a position midway between the
-    flint and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> the stone ages (new-stone or Neolithic), for he no doubt
-    was possessed of polished stone implements of a limited number and
-    variety. Whether made by his own hands or by those of his predecessors
-    is uncertain.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In thus assigning the Indian his place in the scale
-    by which man’s state of barbarism or degree of civilization has been
-    measured by scholars in Europe, we do not pretend to claim for him the
-    antiquity of the man of the flint age in any other part of the globe.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp93">
-    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Arrow Heads in the National Museum (Washington).</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Methods Employed by Indians of Hafting Stone Weapons.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp69">
-    <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Indian and Mound-builder Spear-heads.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Abbott, of New Jersey, in an extended treatment of the <cite>Stone
-    Age</cite> in his own State, has shown many evidences of the protracted
-    occupancy of the Atlantic States by a people whose weapons resemble
-    those of ancient man in Europe. Col. Charles Whittlesey has called
-    attention to the discovery of Indian remains in the “Shelter Cave,”
-    near Elyria, Ohio, and also in a cave near Louisville, Kentucky, where
-    the conditions seemed to point to an interment as long ago as two
-    thousand years, but the evidences both as to the remains having been
-    those of the red man and the period of burial are too uncertain to be
-    of any service in the construction of a theory.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p>
-
-  <p>The eras or ages which have been observed to mark the different stages
-    of the development of pre-historic man in Europe (in the manufacture
-    of implements and the construction of places of abode), are apparently
-    reversed in America.</p>
-
-  <p>The Neolithic and Bronze ages preceded the Palæolithic at least in
-    the Mississippi Basin—not that the last inhabitants deteriorated and
-    lost the higher arts which are well known to have been cultivated upon
-    the same soil occupied by them, but that they were preceded by a race
-    possessed of no inferior civilization, who were not their ancestors,
-    but a distinct people with a capacity for progress, for the exercise of
-    government, for the erection of magnificent architectural monuments,
-    and possessed of a respectable knowledge of geometrical principles.
-    The remains of this mysterious people known as the mound-builders
-    are spread over thousands of square miles of the United States, and
-    it is a question whether the antiquarian is more surprised at the
-    greatness of their number than in many instances at the immensity
-    of their proportions. The entire valley region of the Missouri,
-    Mississippi and Ohio rivers with that of their affluents was occupied
-    by this remarkable people—presenting us with a parallel to the ancient
-    civilization which flourished in the earliest times on the watercourses
-    of the old world. The geographical distribution of these mounds may be
-    described in general terms with a view to the territory occupied by
-    them in the United States, as central, western, and southern.</p>
-
-  <p>The publication of the valuable works of Squier and Davis, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>of Dr.
-    Lapham and those of Mr. Squier alone, in which the remains of these
-    regions are described, was like a revelation which brought to light
-    the wonders of an entombed civilization.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In treating of the mounds
-    geographically, we find no evidences of this people having reached
-    the Atlantic seaboard, unless we except the great shell-heaps found
-    in various localities on the coast, and of which we will speak
-    further on. It is true that in South Carolina a few vestiges of their
-    residence are found on the Wateree River near Camden, and in the
-    mountainous regions of North Carolina,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> where they wrought mica mines
-    for the mineral which they prized as precious, and which so often
-    accompanies the remains of their dead. No <em>authentic</em> remains of
-    the Mound-Builders are found in the New England States, nor even in
-    the State of New York. In the former, we have an isolated mound in
-    the valley of the Kennebec in Maine, and dim outlines of enclosures
-    near Sanborn and Concord in New Hampshire, but there is no certainty
-    of their being the work of this people.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the latter, it was at
-    first supposed that the remains found in the western portion of the
-    State were uniform in their plan of construction with the works of
-    the Ohio valley; but Mr. Squier pronounces them to be purely the
-    work of Red Indians. This conclusion should not be viewed as final,
-    even though Cusick’s vague statement (in <cite>Schoolcraft</cite>, vol. v)
-    that the Iroquois “were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>compelled to build fortifications in order
-    to save themselves from the devouring monsters” lends it an air
-    of plausibility. Either people may have been their builders. Col.
-    Whittlesey would assign these fort-like structures, differing from
-    the more southern enclosures in that they were surrounded by trenches
-    on their outside, while the latter uniformly have the trench on the
-    inside of the enclosure, to a people anterior to the Red Indian and
-    perhaps contemporaneous with the Mound-builders, but distinct from
-    either.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> A quite reasonable view is that of Dr. Foster, that they
-    are the <em>frontier</em> works of the Mound-builders, adapted to the
-    purposes of defence against the sudden irruptions of hostile tribes.
-    He remarks, “If our country were to become a desolation, the future
-    antiquary would find the sea-coast studded with fortifications of a
-    complex form, and as he penetrated to the interior they would disappear
-    altogether.”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It is probable that these defences belong to the last
-    period of the Mound-builders’ residence on the lakes, and were erected
-    when the more warlike peoples of the North who drove them from their
-    cities first made their appearance. Passing along the boundary of the
-    Mound-builders’ territory towards the west, we find the great lakes in
-    all cases to have served as its limit on the north. Mr. Henry Gillman
-    has described in several publications<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> his exploration of mounds in
-    Michigan and the lakes. One of the richest mounds in relics and human
-    remains is known as “the Great Mound of the River Rouge,” situated on
-    the stream from which it takes its name, near the Detroit River and
-    about four and a half miles from the centre of the city of Detroit.
-    The mound now measures twenty feet in height, and must originally have
-    measured 300 feet in length by 200 in width, though the removal of
-    large quantities of sand from it has greatly reduced its proportions
-    and destroyed many valuable relics. Many other <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>mounds surrounding it
-    have also been removed. The most remarkable result of the exploration
-    was the discovery of tibiæ flattened to an extreme degree, such as
-    is peculiar to platycnemic man. A circular mound in the vicinity
-    yielded even more remarkable specimens of this singular flattening or
-    compression. Two specimens presented unprecedented proportions; the
-    transverse diameter of one shaft being 0.42 and the other 0.40 of the
-    antero-posterior diameter. The circular mound yielded eleven skeletons
-    besides a large number of burial vases and stone implements of all
-    descriptions peculiar to the mounds. Of the crania from this mound we
-    shall speak in Chapter IV. In 1872, Mr. Gillman examined a remarkable
-    group of tumuli situated at the head of St. Clair River. These mostly
-    stand on the shores of Lake Huron. The relics, besides human remains,
-    consisted of pieces of mica, and necklaces of beads of the teeth of
-    the moose alternating with well-wrought beads of copper. The same
-    peculiarity of flattened <i>tibiæ</i> was markedly prominent in the
-    remains.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The same investigator has examined mounds at Ottawa Point,
-    Michigan, near the mouth of the Oqueoc River, at Point La Barbe in the
-    Straits of Mackinac, and at Beaver Harbor on Beaver Island in Lake
-    Michigan. Excepting ancient copper mines, no known works extend as far
-    north as Lake Superior anywhere in the central region. Farther to the
-    North-west, however, the works of the same people are comparatively
-    numerous. Dr. Foster quotes a British Columbia newspaper, without
-    giving either name or date, as authority for the discovery of a large
-    number of mounds, seemingly the works of the same people who built
-    farther east and south.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> On the Butte Prairies <span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>of Oregon Wilkes and
-    his exploring expedition discovered thousands of similar mounds.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp50">
-    <img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Great Serpent, Adams Co., O.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Lewis and Clarke, in the Journal of their expedition up the Missouri
-    River, describe the remains of fortifications on Bonhomme Islands at
-    as early a date as 1804–5–6, but until recently their statements have
-    been received with a degree of doubt.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> This doubt has, however,
-    been fully set at rest by the members of the United States Geological
-    Surveying Expedition of 1872. Not only has it been shown that works
-    exist at Bonhomme’s Island, but all the way up through the Yellowstone
-    region and on the upper tributaries of the Missouri mounds are found
-    in profusion.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Dr. C. Thomas, of the above-named expedition, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>made
-    interesting discoveries in Dakota Territory, near the Northern Pacific
-    Railroad crossing of the James River. Mounds were examined giving
-    evidence of perhaps greater antiquity than those common in the interior
-    of the country, if their contents be depended upon as furnishing a
-    means of test.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Missouri <span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>valley seems to have been one of the
-    most populous branches of the wide-spread Mound-builder country. The
-    valleys of its affluents, the Platte and Kansas rivers, also furnish
-    evidence that these streams served as the channels into which flowed
-    a part of the tide of population which either descended or ascended
-    the Missouri. The Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, however, formed
-    the great central arteries of the Mound-builder domain. In Wisconsin
-    we find the northern central limit of their works; occasionally on the
-    western shores of Lake Michigan, but in great numbers in the southern
-    counties of the State, and especially on the lower Wisconsin River.
-    The peculiar and fantastic forms of most of these mounds have led some
-    writers to suppose that they belonged to a different race from that
-    which occupied the valleys to the south. Instead of the usual type of
-    the pyramid and circle, these remains mostly represent animals, or
-    birds, or men. Still Dr. Lapham, who has described them fully in his
-    admirable work<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> on the <cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, concluded
-    that sufficient resemblances between these remains and those of the
-    south exist to ascribe to them a common origin. A few instances of the
-    circle and square are found in association with the animal mounds,
-    while in Ohio, on Brush Creek in Adams <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>County, the “Great Serpent,”
-    and the “Alligator” in Licking County furnish proof that either the
-    same people built them or at least the same impulses, religious or
-    otherwise, actuated the people of both districts. The former of the
-    above figures is well described by its name, “with its head conforming
-    to the crest of a hill, and its body winding back for 700 feet in
-    graceful undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail.”
-    The length of the latter “from the point of the nose following the
-    curves of the tail to the tip, is about 250 feet, the breadth of the
-    body forty feet and the length of the legs or paws each thirty-six
-    feet.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Until recently no effigy mounds were believed exist further
-    south than <span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>Ohio; however, Mr. C. C. Jones, Jr., in the <cite>Smithsonian
-    Report</cite> for 1877 has shown this to be a mistake. Mr. Jones describes
-    an eagle-shaped stone mound north of Eatonton, in Putnam Co., Georgia,
-    of the following dimensions: Height of tumulus at the breast of the
-    bird, seven or eight feet; length from the top of the head to the
-    extremity of the tail, 102 feet; distance from tip to tip of the wings,
-    120 feet; greatest expanse of tail, 38 feet. A careful regard to the
-    proportions of the bird are shown. A similar stone mound, of nearly the
-    same proportions, was found near Lawrence Ferry on the Oconee River
-    in Putnam County. In this instance a circle of stones encloses the
-    effigy. At Trenton, Wisconsin, and in many other places examined by
-    Dr. Lapham, cruciform works were found, some of which were constructed
-    with the arms extending toward the cardinal points.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Instances of
-    extinct or unknown animal forms occur occasionally: one instance is
-    that of an animal somewhat resembling a monkey, having a body of about
-    160 feet in length, while the tail describes a semicircle and measures
-    alone 320 feet.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The most remarkable instance of the kind, however,
-    is that of the big elephant mound found a few miles below the mouth
-    of the Wisconsin River, so perfect in its proportions and complete in
-    its representations of an elephant that its builders must have been
-    well acquainted with all the physical characteristics of the animal
-    which they delineated.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> This fact suggests the inquiry whether these
-    people were Asiatic in origin and penetrated to the interior of the
-    country before their recollections of the elephant were forgotten,
-    or whether they were contemporaneous with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> the mastodon of North
-    America? In the remarkable works at Aztlan, Dr. Lapham finds not only
-    resemblances to the Ohio antiquities, but striking analogies with those
-    of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Elephant Mound, Wisconsin.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Across the Mississippi in Minnesota and Iowa, the predominant type
-    of circular tumuli prevail, extending throughout the latter State to
-    the Missouri. There are evidences that the Upper Missouri region was
-    connected with that of the Upper Mississippi by settlements occupying
-    the intervening country. Mounds are found even in the valley of the Red
-    River of the North.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Eastern Iowa, especially in the neighborhood of Davenport, has
-    furnished some of the most interesting mounds that have yet been
-    examined. Several gentlemen—especially Rev. Mr. Gass—of the Davenport
-    Academy of Sciences have within a couple of years recovered a number of
-    fine specimens of copper axes, nearly all wrapped in Mound-builder’s
-    cloth. This cloth had been “preserved by the antiseptic action of
-    the salts of copper, in all probability of the carbonates. In all
-    specimens one thread of the warp is double or twisted, and there are
-    about four to the one-fourth of an inch.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Stone pipes of excellent
-    workmanship carved to represent various animals were found. Pottery,
-    copper beads in considerable numbers, mica and sea-shells (Pyrula and
-    Cassis), one which had an internal capacity of 152 cubic inches, or
-    five and one-half pints, were among the relics recovered. Most of the
-    human remains were much decayed; although some, among them a skull,
-    were preserved. The character of the Altar mound in this group is
-    rather unusual. Within the mound hewn rectangular stones were laid upon
-    one another with perfect regularity, so as to break joints, forming
-    something resembling the exterior appearance of a chimney. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>We are not
-    aware of any similarly shaped altar ever having been discovered in the
-    mounds. The most remarkable discovery of all, however, was made January
-    10, 1877, by Rev. Mr. Gass and his assistants in one of the mounds
-    which previously had been examined in part. Two tablets of coal slate
-    covered with a variety of figures and hieroglyphics were found.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> One
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>of these, the larger, is of a most interesting character. On one side,
-    as will be seen in the accompanying cut, a number of persons with hands
-    joined have formed a semicircle around a mound, upon which a fire has
-    been kindled, probably for the purpose of sacrifice, or for converting
-    into a hardened and water-proof covering the layer of clay which may
-    have been spread over the remains of some distinguished personage
-    beneath. The presence of a layer of baked clay above human remains
-    in so many Ohio mounds leads to this conjecture. The three prostrate
-    human figures may be those of wives or servants of the deceased, to be
-    sacrificed upon his grave, as has been the custom from the remotest
-    times in India and among many savage tribes. The conspicuousness of
-    the sun, moon, and stars, suggest even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> a sadder thought, that perhaps
-    it may be purely a religious ceremony in which human victims are being
-    offered to the heavenly bodies. Sabine worship, which spread throughout
-    the entire length of the continent, is known to have been accompanied
-    with the most horrid rites. Above the arch of the firmament are
-    hieroglyphics which if deciphered no doubt would tell of the nature of
-    this and other similar scenes. On the reverse side of the tablet is a
-    rude representation of a hunting scene in which various animals, such
-    as the buffalo cow, deer, bear, etc., etc., are figured. It has been
-    conjectured that a large animal in the upper left-hand corner may be a
-    mammoth, but there is little ground for the supposition. The scene is
-    probably a representation of the exploits of the person buried in the
-    mound. The smaller tablet is evidently a calendar stone with signs of
-    the zodiac regularly marked upon it; of this calendar we shall speak in
-    a future chapter. The above conjectures as to the significance of the
-    representations on these tablets are based upon the supposition that
-    they are genuine and not the work of an impostor, of which we cannot
-    refrain from expressing a slight suspicion. That Rev. Mr. Gass has
-    given a true account of his discovery there cannot be the slightest
-    doubt—that he and his co-laborers in the work of excavation believe
-    them to be genuine is equally certain.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Davenport Tablet.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Descending to the interior, we find the heart of the Mound-builder
-    country in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. It is uncertain whether its
-    vital centre was in Southern Illinois or in Ohio—probably the former
-    because of its geographical situation with reference to the mouths of
-    the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. To enter upon a detailed description
-    of the antiquities of this remarkable region would alone more than
-    occupy the entire limits which we have prescribed for this work. This
-    undertaking has already been well performed by Atwater, Squier and
-    Davis, Foster, Baldwin, and many others. We shall therefore confine
-    our remarks to notices of the most conspicuous remains and the general
-    peculiarities of Mound-builder architecture. This people possessed
-    a due appreciation of the physical advantages of certain localities
-    for their cities. The site of St. Louis was formerly covered with
-    mounds, one of which was thirty-five feet high,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> while in the American
-    bottom on the Illinois side of the river their number approximates two
-    hundred. In a group of sixty or more, lying between Alton and East St.
-    Louis, stands the most magnificent of all the Mound-builders’ works,
-    the great Mound of Cahokia, which rises to a height of ninety-seven
-    feet and extends its huge mass in the form of a parallelogram, with
-    sides measuring 700 and 500 feet respectively. On the south-west<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> there
-    was a terrace 160 by 300 feet, reached by means of a graded way. The
-    summit of the pyramid is truncated, affording a platform of 200 by 450
-    feet. Upon this platform stands a conical mound ten feet high. Dr.
-    Foster remarks: “It is probable that upon this platform was reared a
-    capacious temple, within whose walls the high-priests gathered from
-    different quarters at stated seasons, celebrating their mystic rites,
-    whilst the swarming multitude below looked up with mute adoration.”<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
-    When we consider the analogy between the general features of this
-    pyramid and that on which the temple of Mexico was situated, it is not
-    unnatural to reflect that Cahokia may have served as the prototype of
-    the more magnificent structure which was so often deluged with the
-    blood of its thousands of human victims. The temple of Mexico and many
-    others of its type may have been the embodiment of the same principles
-    of architecture employed at Cahokia, but carried to greater perfection
-    under the more favorable conditions afforded in the valley of Anahuac,
-    or precisely the reverse may be true. Such speculations are, however,
-    more easily set forth than sustained. Dr. Foster, through a mistake,
-    states that the monster mound has been removed. This, we are happy to
-    say, is not the case.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp87">
-    <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drilled Ceremonial Weapons.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Numerous interesting explorations have been conducted recently in
-    Illinois with rich results. Among the most notable of these are the
-    discoveries of Mr. Henry R. Howland, reported in a paper read before
-    the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, March, 1877 (<cite>Bulletin of
-    the Buffalo Soc. of Nat. Sc.</cite>, vol. iii., p. 204 <i>et seq.</i>).
-    In January, 1876, Mr. Howland witnessed the removal of a mound near
-    Mitchell Station in the American Bottom. In a stratum four or five
-    feet from the base, composed chiefly of human bones, a large quantity
-    of matting and a number of copper relics were disclosed to view. The
-    matting was a coarse vegetable cane-like fibre simply woven, without
-    twisting. Among the articles wrapped in the matting were several
-    miniature tortoise shells formed of copper. They were of beaten copper
-    of one sixty-fourth of an inch in thickness, the largest being but
-    two and one-eighth inches in length. “A narrow flange or rim, about
-    five thirty-secondths of an inch in width, is neatly turned at the
-    base, and over the entire outer surface the curious markings peculiar
-    to the tortoise shell are carefully produced by indentation—the
-    entire workmanship evincing a delicate skill of which we have never
-    before found traces in any discovered remains of the arts of the
-    Mound-builders.” These shells were covered with several wrappings, the
-    first and nearest to the shell proving to be of vegetable fibre, the
-    second of a dark-brown color; when placed under the microscope and
-    examined by Dr. G. J. Engleman and Sir Joseph Hooker, proved to be
-    a very fine cloth woven from animal hair—of the rabbit and possibly
-    of the deer. The third envelope was made from the intestine of some
-    animal. The lower jaws of deer were discovered in which the forward
-    part containing the teeth were encased in thin copper and wrapped in
-    the fine hair-cloth just described. From holes bored in the back of
-    each jaw, it is inferred that the articles were suspended from the
-    neck as totems or badges of authority. Three wooden spool-like objects
-    were found in the same place, partially plated with thin copper.
-    Copper rods or needles from fourteen to eighteen inches in length, a
-    beautiful shell necklace, and a spear head of chert a foot long, were
-    also discovered. Among the rest were several sea-shells (<i>Busycon
-    Perversum</i>), evidently brought from the Gulf a thousand miles
-    distant. In the summer of 1874,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> Mr. H. R. Enoch, of Rockford, Ill.,
-    discovered a tablet in a mound situated on the bank of Rock River,
-    five miles south of Rockford. The “Rockford Tablet” created quite a
-    sensation at first because it was thought to bear upon its face several
-    symbols found upon the Mexican Calendar stone. However, a thorough
-    investigation of its claims prove it to be a fraud, no doubt placed in
-    the mound where discovered for the purpose of deception. Mr. J. Moody
-    of Mendota, Ill., in referring to the twelve symbols of the tablet
-    said to be Mexican, remarks: “Six are nearly exact counterparts of
-    that number of Lybian characters which I find represented in Priest’s
-    <cite>American Antiquities</cite>. * * * From a comparison of the Rockford
-    Tablet with the plates in the work referred to above, the inference
-    is almost irresistible that the engraver had a copy of Priest’s
-    <cite>American Antiquities</cite> before him while doing his work.” (See
-    <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes, Luxembourg</cite>, 1877. Tome
-    ii, p. 160.)</p>
-
-  <p>The same sagacity which chose the neighborhood of St. Louis for these
-    works, covered the site of Cincinnati with an extensive system of
-    circumvallations and mounds. Almost the entire space now occupied by
-    the city was utilized by the mysterious builders in the construction
-    of embankments and tumuli built upon the most accurate geometrical
-    principles, and evincing keen military foresight.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Dr. Daniel Drake
-    described these works in 1815, and many others subsequently.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The
-    most important discovery made among these remains was that of the
-    “Cincinnati Tablet” in 1841. This singular relic was taken from a large
-    mound formerly thirty-five feet high, removed at the above date from
-    the extension of Mound Street across Fifth <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>Street. When found, it was
-    lying on a level with the original surface under the skull of a much
-    decayed skeleton, with two polished, pointed bones about seven inches
-    long, and a bed of charcoal and ashes. This stone in all probability
-    served the double purpose of a record of the calendar and a scale
-    for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> measurement.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Mr. E. Gest, the courteous owner of the tablet,
-    provided the accompanying cuts expressly for this work, regarding them
-    as the first correct representations of the stone.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp64">
-    <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cincinnati Tablet.</span> (Front.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp64">
-    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cincinnati Tablet.</span> (Back.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp83">
-    <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dagger ½ Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The vast number as well as the magnitude of the works found in the
-    State of Ohio, have surprised the most careless and indifferent
-    observers. It is estimated by the most conservative, and Messrs.
-    Squier and Davis among them, that the number of tumuli <span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>in Ohio equals
-    10,000, and the number of enclosures 1000 or 1500. In Ross County
-    alone, 100 enclosures and upwards of 500 mounds have been examined.
-    Some of the works exhibit fine engineering skill; such, for instance,
-    are those near Liberty, Ohio, where two embankments, each forming a
-    perfect circle, are found in conjunction with a perfect square. The
-    larger circle measures 1700 feet in diameter and contains forty acres,
-    while the smaller has a diameter of 800 feet. The square contains
-    twenty-seven acres and measures 1080 feet on each side. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> set of
-    works in Pike County consists of a circle enclosing a square, the
-    four corners of which each touch the circular embankment. The opening
-    or doorway through the circle is opposite the opening in the square.
-    Prof. E. B. Andrews found a conical mound enclosed by a circle, the
-    base of the mound reaching to the edge of the ditch outside of which
-    is the circular wall. The mound was located on the Hocking River,
-    nine miles northward of Lancaster, Ohio (see <cite>Tenth Ann. Rep. of
-    Peabody Mus. of Arch. and Eth.</cite>, p. 51). The works at Hopetown, near
-    Chillicothe, present several combinations of the square and circle.
-    The two principal figures of these works are a square and circle—each
-    containing exactly twenty acres. The discovery of these geometrical
-    combinations—executed with such precision—in many parts of the country,
-    lead to the belief that the Mound-builders were one people spread over
-    a large territory, possessed of the same institutions, religion, and
-    perhaps one government. These facts are highly important as shedding
-    light upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> degree of their civilization. The evidence is ample
-    that they were possessed of regular scales of measurement, of the means
-    of determining angles and of computing the area to be enclosed by a
-    square and circle, so that the space enclosed by these figures standing
-    side by side might exactly correspond. In a word, their scientific and
-    mathematical knowledge was of a very respectable order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp95">
-    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Works in Liberty Township, Ross County, Ohio.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Celts.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br />
-    The large celt, upper line, from a mound (Tenn.). The others Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Chisels, Gouges and Adzes.</span> (Nat.
-      Mus.) Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The military works of the Mound-builders, other than those previously
-    mentioned as existing on the Lakes and in Western New York State,
-    are of a twofold character, consisting first of fortified eminences,
-    of which an instance is found in Butler County, Ohio, where 16³⁄₁₀
-    acres are walled in on the summit of a hill, and the entrance to the
-    enclosure guarded by a complicated system of covered ways. On Paint
-    Creek, Ross County, a remarkable stone work encloses 140 acres, in
-    the centre of which was an artificial lake, probably to supply water
-    in case of a siege. Perhaps the most remarkable fortification left by
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> Mound-builders is that known as Fort Ancient, Ohio, on the Little
-    Miami River, forty-two miles north-east of Cincinnati. The specialist
-    is already familiar with the oft-quoted description of the Survey by
-    Prof. Locke, made in 1843. We will therefore only refer to a few of
-    the measurements contained in that description. “The work occupies
-    a terrace on the left bank of the river, two hundred and thirty
-    feet above its waters. The place is naturally a strong one, being a
-    peninsula defended by two ravines, which, originating on the east side,
-    near to each other, diverging and sweeping around, enter the Miami,
-    the one above, the other below the work. The Miami itself, with its
-    precipitous bank of two hundred feet, defends the western side.” * *
-    * “The whole circuit of this work is between four and five miles. The
-    number of cubic yards of excavation may be approximately estimated
-    at 628,800”. The embankment stands in many places twenty feet in
-    perpendicular height. The most interesting and valuable paper on this
-    work is that by Mr. L. M. Hosea, of Cincinnati, in the <cite>Quarterly
-    Journal of Science</cite> (Cincinnati), October, 1874, p. 289 <i>et
-    seq.</i> This writer observes that it has often been remarked that
-    the form of Fort Ancient resembles a rude outline of the continent of
-    North and South America. None of the mounds contained in the enclosure
-    have yielded any relics of special interest. The greatest possible
-    diversity of opinion exists concerning the antiquity of the abandonment
-    of the works. Judges Dunlevy and Force, the latter in his memoir on the
-    <cite>Mound-builders</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> estimate the period as a thousand <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>years,
-    while Mr. Hosea thinks several thousand years would be required to
-    produce the numerous little hillocks and depressions which mark the
-    spot where trees have grown, fallen and decayed. Reasoning from other
-    data, we are inclined to the more conservative opinion of Judge Force
-    as altogether the safer. Fort Ancient, which could have held a garrison
-    of 60,000 men with their families and provisions, was one of a line
-    of fortifications which extend across the State and served to check
-    the incursion of the savages of the North in their descent upon the
-    Mound-builder country.</p>
-
-  <p>The second class of military works, which are exceedingly numerous on
-    all the watercourses—existing not only on the Ohio and Mississippi, but
-    on all their tributaries, especially on the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami,
-    Wabash, Illinois, Kentucky, and minor streams—are mounds which served
-    as outlooks. These were always placed in positions to command extended
-    views, and from which signals could be given to still others of the
-    same character, or probably to settlements remote from the watercourses.</p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp55">
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Square Mound, Marietta.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A system of these works no doubt formerly existed on the Great Miami
-    River extending north of Dayton, Ohio, southward to the Ohio River, and
-    connected with the great settlement on the site of Cincinnati and with
-    the high bluffs on the Kentucky shore. The great Mound at Miamisburgh,
-    ten miles south of Dayton, formed a part of this chain. This monster
-    mound is sixty-eight feet high and 852 feet in circumference, and may
-    have served the double purpose of a signal station and the base of a
-    small edifice devoted to astronomical or religious purposes. There is
-    little doubt that the Mound-builders in the latter period of their
-    occupancy of this region, when apprehensive of danger from their
-    enemies, employed a system of signal telegraph by which communication
-    was had, through means of the watch-fire or the torch, between
-    localities as distant as those now occupied by Cincinnati and Dayton.
-    Only a few minutes were necessary by means of such a perfected system
-    in which to transmit a signal fifty or one hundred miles. Squier and
-    Davis remark on this subject: “There seems to have existed a system of
-    defences extending from the sources of the Alleghany and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> Susquehanna
-    in New York, diagonally across the country, through Central and
-    Northern Ohio to the Wabash. Within this range the works which are
-    regarded as defensive are largest and most numerous.” The signal system
-    we have reason to believe was employed throughout the entire extent
-    of this range of works. The majority of the enclosures found in the
-    Ohio and Mississippi valleys are presumed not to have been designed
-    for military purposes, since the trench is usually <em>inside</em> of
-    the embankment. However, instances of the trench being outside of the
-    parapet occur in Southern Ohio.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The most magnificent Mound-builder
-    remains in Ohio are the extensive and intricate works near Newark in
-    Licking County. The survey made by Col. Whittlesey and published in
-    the <cite>Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, is the most
-    reliable as well as the fullest source of our information concerning
-    their magnitude, though the plan has been corrected considerably by
-    more recent surveys. These works occupy an area of two miles square,
-    and formerly consisted of twelve miles of embankment. The spacious
-    gateways—one of which has embankments on both sides measuring
-    thirty-five feet in height from the bottom of the interior trench—the
-    labyrinthine system of avenues, the strangely-shaped mounds, one
-    of which resembles a huge bird-track with a middle toe 155 feet in
-    length and the remaining two each 110 feet in length—together with
-    the solitude of the ancient forest which entombed this buried city,
-    we confess impressed us with a sense of wonderment and that strange
-    perplexity which an insoluble mystery exercises over the mind. We
-    can appreciate the remark of Mr. Squier in his description: “Here
-    covered with the gigantic <span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>trees of a primitive forest, the work
-    truly presents a grand and impressive appearance; and in entering
-    the ancient avenue for the first time, the visitor does not fail to
-    experience a sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the
-    portals of an Egyptian temple, or in gazing upon the ruins of Petra of
-    the Desert.” It is estimated that a force of thousands of men assisted
-    by modern appliances and implements as well as horse-power, which the
-    Mound-builder did not possess, would require several months in which
-    to construct these works.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> At Marietta a most interesting system of
-    works exist, covering an area three-fourths of a mile long and half
-    a mile broad. These occupy the river terrace or second bottom at the
-    confluence of the Muskingum River with the Ohio, and present analogies
-    with the works further south and with those of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> Two
-    irregular squares inclose fifty and twenty-seven acres respectively.
-    The walls of the larger are between five and six feet high and from
-    twenty to thirty feet wide at the base. Within an enclosure are four
-    truncated pyramids or platforms, one of which, the largest, is 188 feet
-    long, 132 feet wide, and only 10 feet high, with a graded way reaching
-    to its summit, as have also two of the other pyramids. No one can look
-    at these structures without seeing the force of Lewis H. Morgan’s
-    Pueblo theory,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> which makes these mounds or flattened pyramidal
-    elevations the foundation for edifices of a perishable nature;
-    constructed perhaps of hewn wood, but not of a combination of the adobe
-    and wood as he supposes, since no material for such a combination is
-    found in the Ohio valley.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The most elevated of the Marietta works
-    is an elliptical mound thirty feet high, enclosed by an embankment.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The most recent and satisfactory exploration of mounds in Ohio, was
-    that conducted by Prof. E. B. Andrews for the Peabody<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> Museum of
-    American Archæology and Ethnology, and published in the Tenth Annual
-    Report of the Trustees (Cambridge, 1877). The mounds examined are in
-    Fairfield, Perry, Athens, and Hocking Counties. In Fairfield County
-    they were all located upon hills and commanded extensive views. Their
-    contents indicated great age, being much decayed. At New Lexington in
-    Perry County, ancient flint diggings, unquestionably worked by the
-    Mound-builders, were examined, many of the pits being six to eight feet
-    deep. In Athens County, on Wolf Plain, situated in Athens and Dover
-    Townships, several circles and nineteen conical mounds are found. One
-    of the latter measures forty feet high, with a diameter of 170 feet,
-    and contains 437.742 cubic feet. Another, known as the Beard Mound, was
-    excavated, and the interesting fact discovered that in its construction
-    the dirt had been “thrown down in small quantities—averaging about a
-    peck—as if from a basket.” Prof. Andrews is of the opinion that the
-    mound was a long time in building, “for we find,” he remarks, “at
-    many different levels, the proof that grasses and other vegetation
-    grew rankly upon the earth heap and were buried by the dirt.” In a
-    neighboring mound known as the George Connett Mound, under a bed of
-    charcoal five feet below the summit, a skeleton was found in a box or
-    coffin, enclosed by timbers. The upper part of the coffin and middle of
-    the body had been destroyed by fire. A circle of five hundred copper
-    beads was found around the body. A copper instrument resembling a
-    calker’s chisel, measuring 141 mm. in length, width at flattened end,
-    52 mm., diameter of cylindrical part, 20 mm. The instrument was formed
-    from sheet copper, beaten with such care that no traces of the hammer
-    are visible. “The edges are brought together and united very closely
-    by a slight overlap.” Professor Andrews describes and figures a piece
-    of leather ornamented with oval copper beads taken from a point eight
-    feet below the surface of a mound designated as the “school-house
-    mound.” The original piece measured eight or ten inches square, but
-    unfortunately fell into the hands of bystanders, who tore it in pieces
-    for relics. The Professor regards the curiosity as of Mound-builder
-    origin, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> thinks it belonged to an ornamented dress. We cannot
-    detail these interesting explorations here, and must dismiss them with
-    the deduction that in certain cases the cremation of the bodies found
-    in mounds was accidental, caused by the heat penetrating through a
-    layer of earth on which a fire had been kindled. In other instances,
-    the body seems to have been burned intentionally, and the ashes and
-    charred bones heaped together in the centre of the mound. Some clay and
-    stone tubes of fine workmanship were obtained. The same document above
-    cited contains a valuable paper by Mr. Lucian Carr on his interesting
-    exploration of a mound in Lee County, Virginia.</p>
-
-  <p>Grave Creek Mound, situated twelve miles below Wheeling in West
-    Virginia, is the Monster work of the Ohio Valley. It measures seventy
-    feet in height and nine hundred feet in circumference. Its form is that
-    of a truncated cone, the flattened area on the top being fifty feet in
-    diameter.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The States of Indiana<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and Illinois formed with Ohio
-    a portion of the great centre of the Mound-builder country, as the
-    remains found on the watercourses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> of both States testify. The valleys
-    of the Wabash, Kankakee, Illinois and Saline Rivers were the once
-    populous dwelling-places of a thrifty and industrious people who have
-    left thousands of structures behind them.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> The Alleghany Mountains,
-    the natural limit of the great Mississippi basin, appears to have
-    served as the eastern and south-eastern boundary of the Mound-builder
-    country. In Western New York, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
-    and in all of Kentucky and Tennessee, their remains are numerous
-    and in some instances imposing. In Tennessee especially, the works
-    of the Mound-builders are of the most interesting character. Prof.
-    Joseph Jones, of the University of New Orleans, has by his thorough
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>and recent explorations under the patronage of the Smithsonian
-    Institution, brought to light very interesting materials for the study
-    of the history of this people. The works of defence in the shape
-    of stone forts, by some thought to be peculiar to New York and the
-    lake boundaries, with occasional exceptions in the Ohio Valley, have
-    been found to abound in Coffee and other counties. One very perfect
-    example of this kind of fortification, but very imperfectly described
-    and figured by Haywood,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> is that known as the stone fort near
-    Manchester, Tenn. This enclosure, containing over fifty-four acres, has
-    been minutely described by Prof. Jones.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> In the accompanying cut
-    the reader will obtain a pretty clear idea of the form of this fort.
-    The wall, which varies from four to ten feet in height, is composed
-    of loose rocks gathered apparently from the bed of the streams below,
-    and the vicinity. The ditch shown in the cut at the rear of the works
-    was probably designed to convey water from one creek to the other.
-    The entrance is quite complicated and constitutes the most remarkable
-    feature of the fortification.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pendants and Sinkers.</span> (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">STONE FORT.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p>
-
-  <p>One peculiarity of burial noticeable in this locality, and one
-    which evidently indicates progression when we come to compare these
-    people with those farther north, is the fact that the ancient race of
-    Tennessee buried their dead in rude stone coffins or cists, constructed
-    of flat pieces of limestone or slaty sandstone which abound in the
-    central portions of the State. In most of the mounds this mode of
-    burial prevailed, but was not confined to them, for outside of the
-    mounds in many enclosures a large number of stone graves occur. Of
-    the class of “Stone-grave Burial Mounds”, one situated twelve miles
-    from Nashville, near Brentwood, is worthy of mention. This mound was
-    about forty-five feet in diameter by twelve feet high, and contained
-    one hundred skeletons. These were mostly in stone graves, which were
-    constructed in ranges one above another, three or four deep. The lower
-    graves were short and square, containing bones that had apparently
-    been deposited after the flesh had been removed. The upper graves
-    were full length and contained remains in which the bones occupied
-    their natural relation to each other. The workmanship both of the
-    mound and stone cists was of the most perfect character. The lids
-    of the upper stone cists were so arranged as to present a perfectly
-    rounded, sloping rock surface. The mound was situated on the eastern
-    slope of a beautiful hill, covered with a heavy growth of the native
-    forest. In a large and carefully constructed stone tomb, Prof. Jones
-    discovered the skeleton of an aged individual of immense length, having
-    toothless jaw bones. In a grave occupied by a skeleton of a female,
-    a small compartment or stone box was found near the head, separated
-    from the main coffin by stone slabs, in which was the skeleton of an
-    infant. It should be added that in the square or short graves so often
-    met with, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> skull was placed in the centre and the other bones
-    arranged around it.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Numerous stone graves not covered by mounds
-    were found on the Cumberland River opposite the mouth of Lick Branch,
-    surrounding a chain of four mounds. A similar graveyard was found
-    on the same bank of the Cumberland, a mile and a half farther down.
-    Others were met with on White Creek, nine miles from Nashville, at
-    Sycamore in Cheatham County; at Brentwood, in White County near Sparta,
-    and along the tributaries of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers at
-    short intervals. At Oldtown on the Big Harpeth, is an extensive and
-    remarkable collection of stone graves. All these burial grounds seem
-    to be those of the people who constructed the mounds, for most of the
-    mounds examined contained stone <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>graves, not in their upper strata, but
-    on the level of the surrounding land. A mound opposite Nashville, on
-    the east bank of the Cumberland River, of great interest, was examined.
-    Prof. Jones is convinced that it formerly served as the site or base
-    of a temple. Its dimensions were one hundred feet in diameter by only
-    ten feet high. In the centre of the mound and only three feet from its
-    surface the Professor uncovered a large sacrificial vase or altar,
-    forty-three inches in diameter, composed of a mixture of clay and
-    river-shells. The rim of this flat earthen vessel or sacrificial altar
-    was three inches in height and appeared mathematically circular. The
-    surface of the “altar” was covered by a layer of ashes about one inch
-    in thickness. The antlers and jaw-bone of a deer were found resting on
-    the surface of the altar, and it is probable that part of the animal
-    had been consumed as a sacrifice. The whole had been carefully covered
-    with three feet of earth and the ashes preserved. In this mound rude
-    sarcophagi were ranged around this sacred centre with the heads toward
-    the altar and the feet toward the circumference of the circle, while
-    the directions of the bodies were those of radii. Those bodies near
-    the altar were ornamented with numerous beads of sea-shell and bone.
-    In a carefully constructed stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> sarcophagus, in which the face of
-    the skeleton was turned toward the setting sun, the beautiful shell
-    ornament shown in the cut, measuring 4.4 inches in diameter, was found
-    lying on the breast-bone of the skeleton. It was made from some large
-    shell derived from the sea-coast. Of the numerous interesting places
-    examined by Prof. Jones, the site of Oldtown, on the Big Harpeth River,
-    about six miles south-west of Franklyn, Tennessee, is worthy of special
-    attention. The plan of the works and their general dimensions will be
-    seen in the cut. At present, the crescent-shaped wall of 2470 feet in
-    extent is but from two to six feet in height, having been reduced to
-    its present condition by the plowshare. Thirty years ago it is said
-    to have been so steep that it was impossible to ride a horse over
-    it. Within the enclosure are two pyramidal mounds; the larger is one
-    hundred and twelve by sixty-five feet and eleven feet high, and the
-    smaller, seventy by sixty feet by nine feet high; also a small burial
-    mound measuring thirty by twenty feet and 2.5 feet high. Another burial
-    mound is covered by the residence of the owner, Mr. Thomas Brown. Many
-    curiously-shaped clay vessels were obtained at these works by the
-    explorers. Some of the vases were fashioned into effigies of frogs and
-    various animals, and one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> vase obtained by Mr. Brown in excavating for
-    the foundation for his residence, had a neck terminating in two human
-    heads. Some of the vessels from Oldtown are figured in the cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter0 illowp37">
-    <img src="images/i_061a.jpg" alt="" />
-  </div>
-  <div class="caption smcap">Clay Image from a Stone Grave in Burial Mound near
-    Brentwood, Tennessee.</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100" id="i_061bi">
-    <img src="images/i_061bi.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">“Stone Sword” from Ancient Earthwork on Big Harpeth
-      River, Tennessee. ¼ Natural Size.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Shell Ornament from the Breast of a Skeleton found
-      in a carefully constructed Stone Coffin in a Mound near Nashville, Tenn.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp70">
-    <img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Plan of Oldtown Works.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_064a.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Stone Pipe, Murfreesboro, Tenn. ¼ Natural Size.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_064b.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Pottery from Oldtown, Tenn.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The art of painting seems to have been extensively practised by the
-    mound people of Tennessee, not only in the decoration of pottery, but
-    in representing ideal conceptions, which they spread out in extensive
-    pictures upon the smooth faces of rocky<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> walls overhanging the rivers.
-    The material generally used was <em>red ochre</em>. Prof. Jones says:
-    “The painting representing the sun on the rocks overhanging the Big
-    Harpeth River, about three miles below the road which crosses this
-    stream and connects Nashville and Charlotte, can be seen for a distance
-    of four miles, and it is probable that the worshippers of the sun
-    assembled before this high place for the performance of their sacred
-    rites.”<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The Professor’s vast collection of relics in stone and
-    clay, including several images, we cannot here describe. We refer the
-    reader to the Memoir itself. The Professor has clearly shown that the
-    Mound-builder people and the Indians were distinct, and has set at
-    rest a question upon which some few doubts were still entertained by
-    a certain school of Archæologists, which has really never been very
-    strong. The connection with or identity of the Mound-builders and the
-    Toltics or the same family of people is also shown satisfactorily. We
-    will add that the Professor is disposed to consider the Natchez as the
-    connecting link between the Mound-builders and the Nahuas. We regard
-    the Memoir one of the most important which has ever appeared on the
-    subject of mound exploration. The rich collection of crania will be
-    referred to in a future chapter.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp36">
-    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Black Vase from an Aboriginal Cemetery, Nine Miles
-      from Nashville.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss, also
-    a party under Major Powell excavated a large number of mounds and
-    stone graves, mostly in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. The
-    results were substantially the same as those obtained by Prof. Jones.
-    Prof. Putnam found within an earthwork near Lebanon, in Wilson County,
-    sixty miles east of Nashville, what he considers to be the remains of
-    dwellings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> of the Mound-builders. There were circular ridges of earth
-    varying from a few inches to a little over three feet in height, with
-    diameters ranging from ten to fifty feet. Within these enclosures, a
-    few inches below the surface, hard floors, upon which fires had been
-    made, were discovered. Under these floors, in many instances, infants
-    and children had been buried, while the adults had been interred in a
-    neighboring mound. Accompanying the skeletons of the children, many
-    beautiful vessels of strange and artistic forms were found (cuts of
-    three of these were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> kindly furnished by Prof. Putnam for this work),
-    all evincing the tenderness with which the offspring of this people
-    were regarded. Prof. Putnam examined nineteen of the earth-circles,
-    which he adds, “proved to my satisfaction that the ridges were formed
-    by the decay of the walls of a circular dwelling. * * * These houses
-    had probably consisted of a frail circular structure, the decay of
-    which would only leave a slight elevation, the formation of the ridge
-    being assisted by the refuse from the house.”<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Painted Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br />
-      (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dish from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br />
-      (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Colonies of Mound-builders seem to have passed the great natural
-    barrier into North Carolina and left remains in Marion County, while
-    still others penetrated into South Carolina and built on the Wateree
-    River. In March, 1873, Mr. Jas. R. Page examined several mounds in
-    Washington and Issaquena Counties in the State of Mississippi. One
-    mound explored in Washington<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> County on the old bank of the Mississippi
-    River, was a truncated cone eighty feet in diameter by forty feet
-    high. A mound in the neighborhood, only eleven feet high, yielded
-    rich returns for the labors of excavation. A white oak on its summit
-    measured thirty-six inches in diameter. This mound yielded twelve
-    skeletons with their crania. The group was in a sitting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> posture around
-    a circle, with their faces looking toward its centre. Directly in
-    front of the mouth of each skeleton were placed two or three vessels
-    of pottery, beautifully ornamented with etchings and graceful lines.
-    The object of the vessels, placed in such near proximity to the mouths
-    of the buried remains, can only be conjectured. We regret that no
-    measurements of the crania are given, and what is more, we deplore the
-    loss of most of the crania in the course of their transportation.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
-    Mr. W. Marshall Anderson, of Circleville, Ohio, examined Mounds in
-    Issaquena County, Miss., with interesting results; in one mound
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>opened, not far from its outer edge, three skeletons were found
-    buried in a standing position, as though they had acted as the guards
-    of a more distinguished person deposited in the centre. Penetrating
-    the mound still farther by means of a trench, Mr. Anderson reached a
-    large deposit of ashes and burnt earth. Near the centre of the mound
-    and five feet above the level of the earth, upwards of twenty-five
-    unbroken specimens of fine pottery were discovered. At the very centre
-    three individuals had been buried apparently in great state, with
-    all the insignia of their important positions in life. These were
-    ornaments, urns, vases, beads, and arrow-points; while adjoining the
-    heads of each were food and drinking vessels. Not far removed from
-    these, two skeletons were found with bowls placed upon their heads
-    like helmets. Mr. Anderson is the possessor of a very remarkable stone
-    disk obtained for him by Dr. Robinson from a Issaquena mound near
-    Lake Washington, Miss. The disk is nearly eight and a half inches
-    in diameter and three-quarters of an inch thick, of fine-grained
-    sandstone. The device which it bears upon its face is composed of two
-    entwined rattlesnakes. A trifling ornamental border is graven on the
-    reverse side of the disk. When found it was broken in two pieces. Mr.
-    Anderson, in comparing its strange device to the Aztec Calendar Stone,
-    remarks: “Here are the eighteen pipes of the border corresponding to
-    the eighteen months of the year, but the twenty days of the month and
-    the five intercalaries are not to be found. The thirteen hieroglyphical
-    figures, and the four zodiacal signs, which as multiples give the
-    fifty-two years of the Aztec cycle, are also absent on the Mississippi
-    stone.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> The serpent-symbol appears to have played its part among
-    the Mound-builders, as well as in Mexico and Central America. The great
-    serpent of Adams County, Ohio, is the most extensive delineation of
-    the all-important symbol on the continent. Out of eighteen engraved
-    circular plates made of the shell of the Pyrula and taken from
-    Brakebill and Lick Creek Mounds in East Tennessee (and now deposited
-    in the Peabody Museum of Archæology) thirteen bear the device of a
-    rattlesnake. In one of the mounds of “Mound City,” Ross County, Ohio,
-    several small tablets representing the rattlesnake were unearthed,
-    while other mounds in the same locality yielded pipes bearing the same
-    representation.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp58">
-    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br />
-      (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp78">
-    <img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Works in Washington County, Miss.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Shuttle-like Tablets.</span> (Nat. Mus.)
-      Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>On the Southern Mississippi, in the area embraced between the
-    termination of the Cumberland Mountains near Florence and Tuscumbia in
-    Alabama and the mouth of Big Black River, this people left numerous
-    works, many of which were of a remarkable character.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> The whole
-    region bordering on the tributaries of the Tombigbee, the country
-    through which the Wolf River flows and that watered by the Yazoo River
-    and its affluents, was densely populated by the same people who built
-    mounds in the Ohio Valley. Mr. Fontaine describes the mounds of this
-    region and of the Tennessee River Valley as being most frequently of
-    the truncated pyramidal type, and refers to one (seen by him in 1847)
-    seventy feet high, covering an acre of ground. It is remarkable that
-    the entire valley of the great river from Cairo to the mouth of Pointe
-    à la Hache, fifty miles below New Orleans, is thickly studded with
-    mounds.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> As at Cahokia the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>Monarch Mound occupied a space equal
-    to six acres, so at Seltzertown, Mississippi, we have another immense
-    mound covering nearly the same area. Its dimensions are: length, about
-    six hundred feet; breadth, four hundred feet at the base; height,
-    forty feet, with a summit nearly four acres in area, reached by means
-    of a graded way. The structure lies with its greatest length nearly
-    due east and west. Upon the platform summit are three conical mounds,
-    one at each end and the third in the centre. The mound at the western
-    extremity of the summit rises to a height of nearly forty feet, while
-    the one at the opposite extreme does not fall far short of the same
-    altitude. This would give a total height of eighty feet above the level
-    of the base. Both of these mounds are truncated. Eight other mounds of
-    minor proportions are observable. The most remarkable feature connected
-    with this mound is a wall of sun-dried bricks, built two feet thick, as
-    its support on the northern side. These were filled with grass rushes
-    and leaves, while some of the bricks of great size used in angular
-    tumuli which mark the corners of the mound, retain the impressions of
-    human hands.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> The Mound-builders were certainly numerous in the
-    Gulf States east of the Mississippi. On the Etowah River in Alabama a
-    mound seventy-five feet high and twelve hundred feet in diameter at the
-    base, has a graded avenue leading to its flattened summit. It has close
-    affinities to the Mexican and Yucatan mounds.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> M. F. Stephenson
-    describes a group of ten mounds near Cartersville, Georgia, on the
-    Etowah River, the principal one of which is eighty feet high and one
-    hundred and fifty feet square on the top. A stone idol, gold beads,
-    mica mirrors, translucent quartz beautifully wrought, and many relics
-    of interest were here discovered. He also describes three chambers hewn
-    out of the solid rock at the falls of Little River, near the Alabama
-    line; while at Nacooche the crest of a conical hill was cut off at
-    fifty feet from its base, leaving a platform top with an area of an
-    acre and a half. Two sides are quite precipitous, but the others are
-    protected by a ditch and wall. Two other instances of the stone wall
-    are mentioned. First at Yond Mountain, four thousand feet high of solid
-    granite, and perpendicular on all sides except a small space which
-    is protected by a stone wall of artificial construction. The second
-    instance is quite similar, occurring at Stone Mountain, which reaches a
-    height of 2360 feet.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> These natural eminences no doubt were utilized
-    for the purposes of worship or observation, just as many natural hills
-    in Mexico were graded and shaped symmetrically to serve similar uses.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p>
-
-  <p>Wm. McKinley, Esq., has described and surveyed additional works in
-    Georgia of quite a remarkable character, on Sapelio Island in McIntosh
-    County and on Dry Creek in Sacred Grove, Early County. But the most
-    lofty work of all, the giant of the mounds, is the pyramid of Kolee
-    Mokee in the same county, reaching a height of ninety-five feet and
-    having a circumference at its base of 1128 feet. Its form is that of
-    a parallelogram, 350 feet long and 214 wide. The plane on the summit
-    measures 181 feet in length by 82½ feet in width.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In Florida the
-    works of the Mound-builders have been extensively examined by Prof.
-    Jeffries Wyman, to whose labors we shall refer in the next chapter.
-    Dr. A. Mitchell made some interesting explorations in 1848 on Amelia
-    Island, and was rewarded by the recovery of some well-marked mound
-    crania.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Returning to the confluence of the Missouri with the Mississippi,
-    the point at which we left the western boundary of the Mound-builder
-    country in order to treat the characteristics of its central region,
-    we find mounds, as we previously stated, in great numbers in the
-    neighborhood of St. Louis. In the valley of the St. Francis River,
-    mounds that have been explored have yielded <span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>many rich relics, artistic
-    water vessels, vases and statuettes. In Green County, Missouri, N. Lat.
-    37° 20´ and 16° Long, west of Washington City, is a very remarkable
-    truncated conical mound which has only been externally surveyed. This
-    mound is 60 feet high, 350 feet in diameter at the base, and 130 feet
-    in diameter on the top. It is surrounded by a trench (except about
-    twenty feet at the north) about two hundred feet wide and four feet
-    deep. On the north the excavation is seven or eight feet deep.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
-    These trenches served a double purpose—that of furnishing material for
-    the construction of the mound, and when completed, of providing an
-    impassable moat filled with water, that neither enemies nor the rabble
-    might approach the sacred mount.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> In Phillips County, Prof. Cox
-    discovered an ancient fortification near Helena, built like a part of
-    the Seltzertown mound, of sun-dried bricks; stems and leaves of the
-    cane were used instead of straw in making the bricks.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span></p>
-
-  <p>Professor Swallow, in company with a number of scientific gentlemen,
-    opened a large mound in Lewis’ Prairie, west of New Madrid, Missouri
-    (in December, 1856), in which he found a great collection of earthen
-    dishes and vases. The mound was elliptical in form, measuring 900
-    feet in periphery at the base, 570 feet at the top and twenty feet in
-    height. The remarkable feature of the mound was that it contained a
-    room formed of poles, lathed with split cane and plastered with clay
-    both inside and out, forming a solid mass. “Over this room was built
-    the earthwork of the mound, so that when it was completed the room was
-    in its centre. The earthwork was then coated with the plaster, and
-    over all nature formed a soil. This mud plastering was left rough on
-    the outside of the room, but smooth on the inside, which was painted
-    with red ochre.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Some of the plastering was burned as red and hard
-    as brick, while other parts were only sun-dried. Professor Swallow
-    believes the mounds of the region to be very ancient. On mounds
-    and neighboring embankments a sycamore tree twenty-eight feet in
-    circumference, three feet above the ground, a black-walnut twenty-six
-    feet in circumference, a white ash twelve feet and a chestnut oak
-    eleven feet in circumference were observed. In addition to these
-    evidences of age, the Professor states that six feet of stratified
-    sands and clays have formed around the mounds since they were deserted.
-    (See Eighth <cite>Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 16 <i>et
-    seq.</i> Cambridge, 1875.)</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. A. J. Conant, in a very able paper published in the <cite>Transactions
-    of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences</cite> for April 5, 1876, has more
-    fully described the mound works near New Madrid. On the western bank of
-    the Bayou St. John, partly in a cypress swamp covered with heavy timber
-    and partly on adjacent prairie land, an earthwork encloses an area of
-    about fifty acres. In this enclosure are three large mounds, one of
-    which is pyramidal in form and still has traces of a graded way. An
-    ancient well is discernible near it. A circular mound at the opposite
-    end of the enclosure is estimated by Mr. Conant to have afforded a
-    place of burial for a thousand individuals. The bodies were buried with
-    their heads pointing toward the centre of the mound. A gourd-shaped
-    vase, a small jug or drinking vessel, and an earthen pan or platter
-    was found with each skeleton. The mouths of the vases were fashioned
-    into the form of the head of some bird or the figure of some animal or
-    of a human female. In depressions about three feet deep, within the
-    enclosure, remains of burnt clay ovens were found. Fire-places were
-    disclosed, as well as fragments of earthen vessels capable of holding
-    ten or twelve gallons. The veritable kitchens of the Mound-builders,
-    with their furniture, seem to have been brought to light. In front of
-    the enclosure and projecting out into the bayou, are tongues of land
-    about thirty feet long by ten or fifteen feet in width, and about the
-    same distance apart, “resembling upon a small scale the wharves of a
-    seaport town.” Mr. Conant pronounces them artificial, and that when
-    employed by these builders, the present cypress swamp was the channel
-    of a river. The multitude of mound works which are scattered over the
-    entire south-eastern portion of Missouri indicate that the region “was
-    once inhabited by a population so numerous, that in comparison its
-    present occupants are only as the scattered pioneers of a newly-settled
-    country.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp83">
-    <img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Discoidal Stones.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br />
-      <span class="xsmall">Central figure, upper line, from Illinois Mound.</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Prof. C. G. Forshey in <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, presents
-    most valuable information relative to the mounds in the south-west. His
-    observations convince us that the State of Louisiana and the valleys of
-    the Arkansas and Red Rivers were not only the most thickly populated
-    wing of the Mound-builder domain, but also furnish us with remains
-    presenting affinities with the great works of Mexico so striking that
-    no doubt can longer exist that the same people were the architects
-    of both. He describes works, some of them of immense proportions, on
-    the Mississippi fifty <span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>miles above Vicksburg; on Walnut Bayou; the
-    south-west bend of Lake St. Joseph, and at Trinity in the parish of
-    Catahoula, Louisiana. On the east bank of the Little River, a couple of
-    miles above its mouth, where it empties into Lake Ocalohoola, stands a
-    bluff walled with roughly hewn stone. The same writer observed a mound
-    near Natchez twenty-five feet high, standing isolated in a swamp. This
-    mound is one among many in different parts of the lower Mississippi
-    region surmounted by comparatively younger trees than are found on the
-    remains farther north. Works occur in the Atchafalaya basin, in the
-    rear of Baton Rouge, on the uplands of Lake Pontchartrain and on the
-    banks of Bayou Gros Tête. A remarkable group of truncated pyramids,
-    peculiarly Mexican in their style of architecture, exist in Madison
-    Parish, Louisiana, and are figured in Squier and Davis and copied
-    by Foster.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> It is needless to discuss the fact that the works of
-    the Mound-builders exist in considerable numbers in Texas, extending
-    across the Rio Grande into Mexico, establishing an unmistakable
-    relationship as well as actual union between the truncated pyramids
-    of the Mississippi Valley and the Tocalli of Mexico and the countries
-    further south.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> There can be no doubt as to the unity of the origin
-    of the works in both countries. There are evidences also that the most
-    recent works of Louisiana and Texas do not compare in antiquity with
-    any found in the Ohio Valley, showing it to be altogether probable
-    that the Mound-builders occupied the Lower Mississippi Valley and
-    Gulf coast for a considerable period after they were driven from the
-    northern and central region by their enemies.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>Several recent
-    writers, with no more proof than that obsidian from Mexico has been
-    found in the mounds, have confidently expressed the belief that the
-    Mound-builders entered the Mississippi Valley and the Central Region
-    from the South. This was based also on the assumption that no remains
-    were found in the North-west. It, however, is proper to note here the
-    marks of architectural progression observable in the geographical
-    distribution of ancient works. Men all around the world have been
-    mound or pyramid builders. To attempt to demonstrate this well-known
-    fact to an intelligent reader by citing the customs of antiquity and
-    the works of the present great Asiatic nations, would seem little
-    less than pedantry rather than the work of serious investigation. The
-    religious idea in man, whether observed in the darkest heathenism or
-    partially enlightened civilization, has always associated a place of
-    sanctuary with the conditions of elevation and separateness. It matters
-    not whether you apply the rule to the practices of the most obscure
-    antiquity, where a hill or natural eminence was the sanctuary of an
-    idol, the residence of a god, or examine the motives which prompt <span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>the
-    erection of the dome of a St. Paul or a St. Peter’s, or coming nearer
-    home, analyze the reasons for the construction of the ordinary church
-    spire, the same inexplicable intuition is found at the bottom of them
-    all. The simple mound so common in the northern and central region
-    of the United States, represents probably the first attempts at the
-    imitation of nature in providing a place of worship. In the absence
-    of hills and natural eminences on great plains like the prairies of
-    the North-west (for instance in such cases as are cited on <a href="#Page_28">pages 28
-    and 29</a>), nothing would be more natural than the construction of an
-    artificial hillock, especially if the elements and nature were the
-    objects of worship. The next step might have been again a copy or an
-    imitation, but instead of choosing a subject from inanimate nature,
-    an advance is made in the artistic scale, and the animal kingdom
-    furnishes not only one but varied models for reproduction. The custom
-    among savage tribes of personifying the deity, of dressing him up in
-    some form, tangible and visible, was especially characteristic of the
-    mythology of the Nahua nations of Mexico. It is not necessary to go to
-    Egypt, or India, or China to find animals of various kinds dedicated
-    to and associated with the national gods, for in the Maya and Nahua
-    mythologies, as well as in the traditions of some of the wild tribes of
-    the Pacific coast, the serpent, the coyote, the beaver and the buzzard
-    play an active part. The erection of religious structures representing
-    animals no doubt sacred to the Mound-builders, was carried on to a
-    remarkable extent in Wisconsin. These strange works probably indicate
-    the second step in their scale of architectural progression. In the
-    Ohio Valley, while the ordinary mound is found in great numbers, and a
-    few instances of animal mounds occur, three new architectural features
-    present themselves in marked prominence, all of which are artistically
-    in advance of those existing in the North and North-west. These are
-    the enclosures, the truncated mounds, and principally the truncated
-    pyramids, all of which are a departure from the strict imitation of
-    nature, and exhibit the gradual growth of the architectural idea and
-    the outcropping of the notion of utility. South of the Ohio Valley
-    the animal mounds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> disappear altogether and the truncated mounds grow
-    less common, while the truncated pyramid, the highest artistic form,
-    with its complicated system of graded ways and its nice geometrical
-    proportions, becomes the all predominant type of structure. In the
-    Lower Mississippi Valley, in some cases, as we have observed, dried
-    brick were used in the walls and angles of pyramids of the most
-    perfect type. Stone was also employed in a few instances. Here we find
-    the transition to Southern Mexico complete. No break exists in the
-    architectural chain.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stone Plates. ⅙ Natural Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br />
-      <span class="xsmall">The left and central figures from an Alabama Mound.</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Squier and Davis (and Foster as well as most other writers have
-    followed their example) classified the works of the Mound-builders as
-    follows:</p>
-
-  <table summary="Mound classification">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdrm"><div>I.</div></td>
-        <td class="pr3"><span class="smcap">Enclosures</span></td>
-        <td class="bl bt bb">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>For Defence.</i><br />
-          <i>Sacred.</i><br />
-          <i>Miscellaneous.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdrm"><div>II.</div></td>
-        <td class="pr3"><span class="smcap">Mounds</span></td>
-        <td class="bl bt bb">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>Of Sacrifice.</i><br />
-          <i>For Temple-Sites.</i><br />
-          <i>Of Sepulture.</i><br />
-          <i>Of Observation.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p class="noindent">To this some have added mounds for residence.</p>
-
-  <p>It does not fall within the scope of this work to treat of the specific
-    character and uses of the works of the Mound-builders,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> but rather
-    to note their extent and indications of age with relation to their
-    bearing on the antiquity of man in this country. Some of the arts and
-    manufactures of the Mound-builders are set forth in the illustrations
-    interspersed throughout the chapter.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> A few of the cuts figure
-    objects found upon the surface. Yet it is not improbable that a due
-    proportion of these objects were of Mound-builder origin.</p>
-
-  <p>The domestic arts appear the most advanced of any among this ancient
-    people. Pottery of respectable quality and of varied patterns is
-    abundant among their remains. Coarse cloth woven of vegetable fibre,
-    and in some instances partly made of hair, has been discovered in
-    mounds in several localities. Shell and copper beads for the purposes
-    of ornamentation were made in great numbers. Copper axes of good
-    quality have occasionally been exhumed. Copper and bone needles with
-    well-drilled eyes were made by them. They wove baskets and coarse
-    matting. They carved pipes in stone or moulded them in clay, sometimes
-    in fantastic forms, while again they fashioned them with rare skill
-    into the perfect effigies of animals and birds, or possibly ornamented
-    them with likenesses of their own faces. With <span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>the exception of a
-    few observations on the altar and sepulchral mounds, we refrain from
-    a further treatment of the works above classified, as having no
-    particular bearing on the question in hand, and refer the reader to
-    the works of Squier and Davis, and also to that of Dr. Foster, already
-    often quoted. Of the Altar or Sacrificial Mounds, the first-named
-    authors remark: The general characteristics of this class of mounds
-    are: 1. That they occur only within the vicinity of the enclosures
-    or sacred places; 2. That they are stratified; 3. That they contain
-    symmetrical altars of burned clay or stone, on which were deposited
-    various remains which in all cases have been more or less subjected to
-    the action of fire.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The same authors present the following <span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>section
-    of a mound examined by them at Mound City, near Chillicothe, Ohio,
-    which is a fair sample of the usual stratification observed in altar
-    mounds.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> The altar which this mound contained was a parallelogram
-    measuring 8 × 10 feet at its base and 4 × 6 feet at its top. It was
-    only eighteen inches in height, and contained a basin with a dip of
-    nine inches. In this basin were found fine ashes, fragments of pottery
-    and shell beads. A reference to the figure shows that the sand-stratum
-    is semicircular, with its extremities resting on the outer sides of
-    the altar. The skeleton shown in the figure designates a point three
-    feet below the apex of the mound where two well-preserved skeletons
-    were found. The strata were disturbed for their burial evidently at
-    a considerable period after the construction of the mound. This is a
-    fair example of the “intrusive burial” practised in the mounds by Red
-    Indians. The same authors found some of these altars rich in relics;
-    one especially in the vicinity of the above-described mound contained
-    nearly two hundred pipes carved in stone. Also a considerable number
-    of pearl and shell beads and copper ornaments covered with silver. It
-    is quite probable that the copper was from their Lake Superior mines,
-    as they alone are known to yield deposits of silver with copper. The
-    same peculiarity was observed with reference to the copper ornaments
-    and implements found in the Marietta works. The pipes secured in this
-    mound were much calcined by heat, and considerable copper had been
-    fused in the basin of the altar. In some of the mounds examined large
-    collections were obtained, and in some instances, articles made of
-    obsidian, which it is believed could be procured nowhere nearer than
-    the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo, or the region west of the Rocky
-    Mountains.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pestles and Mullers.</span> (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Section of Altar Mound.</span> (After Squier and Davis.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp44">
-    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Vase from an Ohio Mound.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The evidences are abundant that some mysterious rites were performed
-    at the altar mounds; cremation only may have been practised, but we
-    fear that even more awful and heart-sickening ceremonies took place
-    upon these altars as well as upon the high temple sites in which human
-    victims may have been offered to appease the elements or the sun or
-    moon by their death agonies. What splendid ceremonial, what mystic
-    rites administered by a national priesthood in the presence of a
-    devout multitude may have accompanied these horrible sacrifices, are
-    beyond even the limits of conjecture. Besides cremation, inhumation
-    was also <span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>practised extensively. Multitudes of mounds were devoted
-    either partly or exclusively to such uses. Mr. Tomlinson, the owner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
-    of the Grave Creek Mound, who sank a shaft from its original summit to
-    its centre, and intercepted it by a tunnel along the surface of the
-    ground, speaking of the latter excavation, remarks: “At the distance
-    of one hundred and eleven feet we came to a vault, which had been
-    excavated before the mound was commenced, eight by twelve feet and
-    seven in depth. Along each side and across the ends, upright timbers
-    had been placed, which supported timbers thrown across the vault as a
-    ceiling. These timbers were covered with loose unhewn stone, common
-    to the neighborhood. The timbers had rotted and tumbled into the
-    vault. * * * In this vault were two human skeletons, one of which
-    had no ornaments, the other was surrounded by six hundred and fifty
-    ivory (shell) beads, and an ivory (bone) ornament six inches long.”
-    Thirty-five feet above the bottom vault another was found containing
-    a skeleton decorated with copper rings, plates of mica and shell
-    disks. The number of disks cut from the shell known as the <i>Buscycon
-    perversum</i> and collected by the excavators was 2350; of mica 250
-    specimens, and of the little shell known as <i>Marginella apicina</i>,
-    500; all of which had been pierced and strung as beads. Ten skeletons
-    were subsequently found together upon enlarging the horizontal tunnel.
-    Ashes, charcoal and burnt bones were also discovered in large masses.
-    Though this was the largest of this class of mounds, still the general
-    characteristics of the contents are the same in all of them, and are
-    usually disposed in the same relative position to each other.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> One
-    of the most interesting explorations of sepulchral mounds was that
-    conducted in the autumn of 1865 by Professor O. C. Marsh, assisted by
-    Mr. Geo. P. Russell, of Salem, Mass., in what is known as the “Taylor
-    Mound,” situated two and a half miles south of Newark, Ohio. The mound
-    was ten feet high and eighty feet in diameter, and was surmounted by
-    a forest of oak trees ranging from two and a half to eight <span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>feet in
-    thickness, while the decaying trunks of a former growth were lying
-    upon the ground. The mound was excavated from the apex downward. Five
-    feet from the surface a pipe and a tube of stone unknown in Ohio
-    were found. Seven feet from the top, in a thin white layer of earth,
-    a string of more than one hundred beads of native copper were found
-    around the neck of a child about three years old. The salts of the
-    copper had preserved the cord of vegetable fibre on which they were
-    strung. The beads were about one-fourth of an inch in length and
-    one-third in diameter. They evidently had been hammered out of the
-    metal in its original state, and the workmanship displayed no inferior
-    skill. One foot deeper the remains of two adults, male and female,
-    were found carefully buried in layers of bark, their heads towards
-    the east, and the body of the female resting upon that of the male
-    skeleton. Immediately above these were found a considerable number of
-    charred human bones and the evidences of cremation or human sacrifice
-    in honor to the couple (probably man and wife) below. The Professor
-    even expresses the fear that the wife—who appears to have been about
-    thirty years of age—may have been put to death and buried above the
-    remains of her deceased consort. A foot deeper the party found another
-    layer of charcoal, ashes and charred bones, similar to the above, and
-    immediately beneath it a carefully-buried skeleton, much decomposed,
-    lying in a white layer of earth, and with its head toward the east.
-    A few inches below this skeleton several carelessly-buried skeletons
-    were found near the natural level of the earth. Below the natural
-    surface a cist six feet long, three feet wide and two feet deep was
-    found containing the remains of eight or more skeletons, which seem
-    to have been imperfect when buried. The remains had been thrown into
-    the grave in a careless and perhaps hasty manner. In the grave were
-    found nine lance and arrow-heads of flint. Six small hand-axes, one of
-    them of hematite and the others of compact greenstone or diorite, a
-    small hatchet of hematite, a flint chisel and scraper, fine needles or
-    bodkins made of the metatarsal bones of the common deer, a whistle made
-    from the tooth of a young bear, and spoons cut from the shells of river
-    mussels. A rude vessel of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> clay was found, but broken, while several
-    bones of animals, all but two of existing species in Ohio at present,
-    were discovered; though it is worthy of remark that the remains of
-    the deer were of a size seldom attained by the species at the present
-    day. All the skulls found in the mound were broken, and all but two so
-    badly decayed that no effort was made to preserve them. These two were
-    of small size showing the vertical occiput, prominent vertex and large
-    inter-parietal diameter. There is abundant evidence that the mound had
-    never been disturbed by Indians.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp72">
-    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Stone Pipes from Ohio Mounds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>One of the best evidences which we have of the systematic government
-    and habits of the Mound-builders, together with the comparatively
-    advanced state of the practical arts among them, is found in the
-    ancient copper mines of the Lake Superior Region so extensively
-    operated by them at quite a remote period.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> These were first
-    discovered by Mr. S. O. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company,
-    in 1848. One excavation explored by this gentleman was thirty feet
-    deep, filled with clay and a mass of mouldering vegetable matter.
-    Eighteen feet from the surface he found a mass of copper ten feet long,
-    three feet wide and two feet thick, weighing over six tons. By digging
-    around this great lump of metal, he observed that it was resting on “a
-    cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter, the
-    ends of which showed plainly the strokes of a small axe or cutting tool
-    about two and a half inches in width”. The wood, from its exposure to
-    moisture, had lost all its consistency, and opposed no more resistance
-    to a knife-blade than would ordinary <span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>peat. After having raised the
-    mass of copper over five feet along the foot wall of the lode on the
-    timbers by means of wedges, the ancient miners had abandoned the task.
-    The walls of the mine still show the marks of fire; charcoal and stone
-    mauls were taken from this and similar excavations. The largest of
-    these mauls weighed thirty-six pounds and was encircled by a double
-    groove around its centre. Withes were probably wound in these grooves
-    by which two men could wield the maul very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> effectively. The number of
-    smaller hammers of greenstone and porphyry removed from these works by
-    Mr. Knapp exceeded ten cart-loads. In one of the pits a rude oak ladder
-    was found, made by trimming the branches of a tree at a distance from
-    the trunk to leave a sufficient foothold. Wooden levers, preserved
-    beneath the water, were also of frequent occurrence. A copper maul,
-    shaped by pounding in a cold state, and weighing upwards of twenty
-    pounds, was found in this locality, as well as many well-formed copper
-    implements designed for various purposes. Upon a mound of rubbish near
-    one of the excavations, Messrs. Foster and Whitney saw a pine stump ten
-    feet in circumference—the trunk having been broken fifteen feet from
-    the ground—which must have grown and died after the earth was thrown
-    up. Mr. Knapp mentions a hemlock which he found growing on a heap of
-    rubbish which had 395 rings of annual growth. Fallen and decayed trees
-    of a previous generation were found lying across the pits. In front
-    of the Waterbury mine are blocks of stone weighing two and three tons
-    which had been removed by the ancient miners from the shaft, and when
-    observed by Colonel Whittlesey, they were covered by a forest growth of
-    the full size and kind common to the neighboring region. Under a pile
-    of rubbish the remains of a trough of cedar bark was brought to light
-    and had been used to carry off water baled from the mine by means of
-    wooden bowls, some of which were preserved by water in the mines. Mr.
-    S. W. Hill communicated to Dr. Foster in 1872 the discovery of mining
-    pits in Isle Royal, measuring fifty feet in depth.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> In the Ontonagon
-    region for thirty miles traces of the ancient miners abound. The idea
-    that the Indians formerly worked these mines was abandoned shortly
-    after their discovery. They possess no tradition of copper mines, nor
-    did their ancestors visited by the Jesuit Fathers in the early part
-    of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>the seventeenth century obtain any intelligence of mines, though
-    they penetrated this region in 1660. They often mention the occurrence
-    of loose masses of copper found in the shape of boulders, but could
-    learn nothing from the Indians as to their origin. It is quite certain
-    that no traditions were current among them on the subject. “Instead,”
-    says Col. Whittlesey, “of viewing copper as an object of every day
-    use, they regarded it as a sacred Manitou, and carefully preserved
-    pieces of it wrapped up in skin in their lodges for many years; and
-    this custom has been continued to modern times.”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Father Allouez,
-    in his <cite>Relation</cite>, has described this custom.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Father Dablon,
-    who shortly afterward visited the Lake Superior tribes, has described
-    their superstitions concerning an island where the missionaries first
-    met with copper.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> That the Mound-builders were these ancient
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>miners, there is abundant evidence. Col. Whittlesey has described a
-    collection of copper implements from Carp River containing pieces of
-    native silver, such as have often been found in the Ohio mounds.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> We
-    have already referred to this peculiarity of the Lake Superior copper.
-    The use of copper by the Mound-builders was very general all the way
-    from Wisconsin to the Gulf, and the labor involved in a journey of a
-    thousand miles from the Ohio Valley to the copper regions, the toil of
-    the summer’s mining, and the tedious transportation of the metal to
-    their homes upon their backs, and by means of an imperfect system of
-    navigation, indicates either industry and resolution such as no savage
-    Indian ever possessed, or a condition of servitude in which thousands
-    occupied a position of abject slavery.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_090a.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Stone Axes.</span> Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_090b.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stone Mauls and Hammers.</span> Surface Finds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figleft2 illowp51">
-    <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap0">Copper Celts—the smaller from a Mound near Savannah,
-      Tennessee.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>No permanent abodes were erected by the miners in this region, no
-    mounds were constructed, but the indications all point to a summer’s
-    residence only and a return to the south with the accumulation of
-    their toil when the severities of winter approached. Frederick von
-    Hellwald expresses it as his opinion that the Mexicans obtained all
-    their copper from the Lake Superior<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> mines, and adds that no evidences
-    exist that copper was mined in Mexico or Central America prior to the
-    Spanish Conquest.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Humboldt affirms that various metals were mined
-    by the Mexicans, but does not specify copper.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Col. Whittlesey and
-    Prof. Andrews estimate that in the ancient Lake Superior mines worked
-    by the Mound-builders, the removed metal would aggregate a length of
-    one hundred and fifty miles in veins of varying thickness. This fact
-    certainly indicates that great supplies were transported southward.</p>
-
-  <p>This remarkable people was evidently possessed of the beginnings of
-    science; at least if the Davenport and Cincinnati tablets are genuine,
-    astronomy must have received considerable attention at their hands. In
-    the former tablet we observe a cycle divided into twelve months (which,
-    however, is so modern and coincides so strictly with our division as to
-    excite suspicion of fraud), while in the latter we have the number 368
-    as the sum of the products of the longer and shorter lines, suggestive
-    of an approximation to the number of days in a year. Other supposed
-    astronomical instruments have been discovered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>in the mounds of
-    Ohio, and several of these, <em>antique tubes, telescope devices</em>,
-    were discovered in the course of excavations made in 1842 in the most
-    easterly of the Elizabethtown group, West Virginia. Mr. Schoolcraft
-    makes the following statement concerning them: “Several tubes of stone
-    were disclosed, the precise object of which has been the subject of
-    various opinions. The longest measured twelve inches, the shortest
-    eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite, being skillfully cut
-    and polished. The diameter of the tube externally was one inch and
-    four-tenths; the bore eight-tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at
-    the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and
-    distant objects are more clearly discerned.”<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> A silver figure found
-    in Peru represents a man in the act of studying the heavens through one
-    of these tubes, and Captain Dupaix saw a stone in Mexico bearing the
-    figure of a man sculptured on its side in the act of using a similar
-    tube.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp68">
-    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Clay Vessels from Mounds in the Mississippi Valley.
-      ¼ Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp87">
-    <img src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Clay Tube from an Ohio Mound. ½ Natural Size.</span>
-      (Peabody Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>With reference to the civilization of the Mound-builders, however
-    much writers may differ, we think the following conclusions may be
-    safely accepted: That they came into the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>country in comparatively
-    small numbers at first (if they were not Autochthones, and there is
-    no substantial proof that the Mound-builders were such), and during
-    their residence in the territory occupied by the United States they
-    became extremely populous. Their settlements were widespread, as the
-    extent of their remains indicate. The magnitude of their works, some of
-    which approximate the proportions of Egyptian pyramids, testify to the
-    architectural talent of the people and the fact that they had developed
-    a system of government which controlled the labor of multitudes,
-    whether of subjects or slaves. They were an agricultural people, as the
-    extensive ancient garden-beds found in Wisconsin and Missouri indicate.
-    Their manufactures afford proof that they had attained a respectable
-    degree of advancement, and show that they understood the advantages of
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> division of labor.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Their domestic utensils, the cloth of which
-    they made their clothing, and the artistic vessels met with everywhere
-    in the mounds, point to the development of home culture and domestic
-    industry. There is no reason for believing that the people who wrought
-    stone and clay into perfect effigies of animals have not left us
-    sculptures of their own faces in the images exhumed from the mounds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Large Clay Vessel from Milledgeville, Georgia. Size
-      14 Inches High and 13 Inches across Aperture.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>They mined copper, which they wrought into implements of war, into
-    ornaments and articles for domestic use. They quarried mica for mirrors
-    and other purposes.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> They furthermore worked flint and salt mines.
-    They probably possessed some astronomical knowledge, though to what
-    extent is unknown.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum">99</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp63" id="i_099">
-    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Copper Relics from Wisconsin.</span>
-      (From photos furnished by Prof. Butler.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Their trade, as Dr. Rau has shown, was widespread, extending probably
-    from Lake Superior to the Gulf, and possibly to Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> They
-    constructed canals by which lake systems were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>united, a fact which
-    Mr. Conant has recently shown to be well established in Missouri.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>
-    Their defences were numerous and constructed with reference to
-    strategic principles, while their system of signals placed on lofty
-    summits, visible from their settlements and communicating with the
-    great watercourses at immense distances, rival the signal systems in
-    use at the beginning of the present century. Their religion seems to
-    have been attended with the same ceremonies in all parts of their
-    domain. That its rites were celebrated with great demonstrations is
-    certain. The sun and moon probably were the all-important deities, to
-    whom sacrifices (possibly human) were offered. We have already alluded
-    to the development in architecture and art which marked the possible
-    transition of this people from north to south. Here we see but the
-    rude beginnings of a civilization which no doubt subsequently unfolded
-    in its fuller glory in the valley of Anahuac, and spreading southward
-    engrafted a new life upon the wreck of Xibalba. Though there is no
-    evidence that the Mound-builders were indigenous, we must admit that
-    their civilization was purely such—the natural product of climate and
-    the conditions surrounding them.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_II"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">ANTIQUITY OF MAN ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Antiquity of the Mounds—No Tradition of the
-    Mound-builders—Vegetation Covering the Mounds—Age of Mound
-    Crania—Probable Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds—Ancient
-    Shell-heaps—Man’s Influence on Nature—Supposed Testimony of
-    Geology—Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone—Remains on Santos
-    River—The Natchez Bone—Remains on Petit Anse Island—Brazilian
-    Bone caves—Dr. Koch’s Pretended Discoveries—Ancient Hearths—Age
-    of the Mississippi Delta—Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New
-    Orleans—Dr. Abbott’s Discoveries in New Jersey—Discoveries in
-    California—Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio—Crania from Mounds in
-    the North-west—No Evidences as yet Discovered Proving Man’s
-    Great Antiquity in America.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">AT the opening of the preceding chapter we made some allusions to
-    the supposed antiquity of the Red Indian, a subject of growing
-    archæological significance, though as yet it affords us rather
-    unsatisfactory evidence, scientifically considered, relative to the
-    problem of man’s antiquity on this continent. Quite different, however,
-    is the estimate which we place on data left us by the people of the
-    mounds. The question of the antiquity of the Mound-builders is one
-    which cannot be accurately determined; no chronometric scale can be
-    applied to the uncertain record which they have left behind them.
-    Their history is a sealed book, and the approximate date of their
-    first occupancy of the Mississippi Basin is as uncertain as the period
-    of man’s origin. However, certain data present themselves for our
-    consideration which lead us to conclude that a few thousand years,
-    three or four perhaps, and possibly even less time, is all that is
-    required in which to account for their growth into a nation and the
-    moderate advancement which they made toward civilization. As to when
-    the Mound-builders left this country, is another question, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> can be
-    approximated more closely. It is a well-known fact that no tradition
-    was ever found among the Indians as to the origin or the purpose for
-    which the mounds were constructed. They described them as having been
-    found by their ancestors in the same condition in which we now see
-    them, and clothed, if not with the same, at least with a growth of
-    vegetation similar to that which covers them to-day. It is true the
-    Iroquois, who are supposed to have reached the lake regions and the
-    Ohio Valley some time previous to the Algonquins, had certain vague
-    traditions of a people whom they called the “Allighewi;” but there
-    seems to be nothing in those indefinite allusions which would associate
-    that unknown people with the mounds. Still, Indian tradition is nearly
-    valueless in determining this question, since any fact, however grave,
-    was soon forgotten by a people so savage and unsettled. The tribes
-    of the lake region, says Dr. Lapham in his <cite>Antiquities</cite>, so
-    soon forgot the visit of the Jesuit Fathers that their descendants
-    a few generations later had no tradition of the event. The same is
-    true of the Indians of the Mississippi Valley with reference to De
-    Soto’s expedition, “which must,” remarks Dr. Foster, “have impressed
-    their ancestors with dread at the sight of horses ridden by men, and
-    the sound of fire-arms, which they must have likened to thunder. Sir
-    John Lubbock states that the New Zealanders at the time of Captain
-    Cook’s visit had forgotten altogether Tasman’s visit, made less than
-    one hundred and thirty years before.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Another <span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>argument for the
-    construction of the mounds at a remote period, and which is certainly
-    of little more value than Indian tradition, is that which supposes
-    the Mound-builders to have erected works on the lowest of the river
-    terraces existing at the time of their occupancy of the country.
-    Much stress has been laid on the fact that no works have been found
-    on the lowest-formed of the river terraces which mark the subsidence
-    of the western rivers. “And as there is no good reason,” remarks Mr.
-    Baldwin, “why their builders should have avoided erecting them on
-    that terrace while they raised them promiscuously on all the others,
-    it follows, not unreasonably, that this terrace has been formed since
-    the works were erected.”<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> To any one familiar with the great rise
-    and fall which takes place annually in the water-level of the Ohio
-    and Mississippi and all of their tributaries, the fallacy of such
-    an argument is at once apparent. We must at least allow that the
-    Mound-builders learned by experience, just as animals do, even if we
-    could deny them a very high order of intelligence. Little time could
-    have elapsed after their advent to these valleys before they observed
-    the impracticability of erecting mounds or enclosures on most of the
-    alluvial bottoms bordering these streams. The raging torrents which
-    sometimes sweep through the valleys of the central basin, uprooting
-    the largest trees, carrying away natural embankments, forming immense
-    deposits of new alluvium, submerging miles of adjacent country, and
-    in many ways changing its physical conformation, would in a few years
-    obliterate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> any traces of earthworks built within their reach.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Far
-    more certain data, however, is furnished in the arborescent vegetation
-    which covers many of the works, with which to measure part of the
-    period during which they have remained unoccupied, though we are left
-    in uncertainty as to the remoteness of their abandonment. The annular
-    rings of a tree present us indisputable evidence as to its age.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> It
-    is evident that the forests which cover these remains have grown up
-    since they were vacated, as no difference exists between them and the
-    surrounding vegetation—no break exists in the density of the forests
-    in the immediate vicinity of the works. The oldest of the trees found
-    upon the works present eight hundred annual rings, indicating as many
-    years of growth.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> This cannot, however, be set down as the limit of
-    the period of their abandonment, since, as it seems that this country
-    was open and mostly unwooded in the sections thickly settled by the
-    Mound-builders, a considerable time would be requisite for the slow
-    encroachments of a forest, even when the trees which now stand upon
-    the mounds may have been preceded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> by trees of other species or by
-    two or three generations of their own.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The age of the trees on
-    the mound-works in the Ohio Valley or farther north, rarely exceeds
-    five hundred or six hundred years, and such cases as that cited by Sir
-    Charles Lyell are the exceptions. Farther south, in the Mississippi
-    Valley and near the Gulf, they are still younger than those at the
-    north.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> So noticeable is this that we are led to think the Gulf
-    coast may have been occupied by the Mound-builders for a couple of
-    centuries after they were driven by their enemies from the country
-    north of the mouths of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. The condition of
-    skeletons found in the mounds indicate an antiquity which they furnish
-    us no means of measuring. It is not to be presumed that all human
-    remains discovered in excavating the works were interred immediately
-    previous to the abandonment of the country. Some of them may belong
-    to the middle or beginning of the period of their residence in the
-    territory occupied by the United States. Human remains taken from the
-    mounds, perhaps furnish us better evidence of the long residence of the
-    Mound-builders in this country than any other data in our possession.
-    It suffices to say that few Mound-builder crania have been recovered in
-    a condition to be of any service to science; although of late years,
-    several valuable collections <span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>have been made. The preservation of the
-    skeletons depends greatly on the composition of the soil in which they
-    are found. The Loess has afforded well-preserved remains, however,
-    with the gelatinous matter leached out. The crania of the sandy loam
-    of river bottoms, on the other hand, are in all cases so far decayed
-    upon discovery that the greatest precautions fail to prevent them from
-    crumbling to dust when exposed to the light and air. Mastodon bones,
-    on the contrary, recovered from peat swamps, and much older than any
-    of the remains of the Mound-builders, are found to have retained so
-    much of their gelatinous matter as to furnish a nourishing soup.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
-    To these evidences may be added the testimony derived from the ancient
-    ruins which points to long-continued occupation and to a considerable
-    lapse of time since their abandonment.</p>
-
-  <p>How long the Mound-builders occupied the country north of the Gulf of
-    Mexico it is impossible in the present state of science to determine.
-    Some authors conjecture that they were here two thousand years; that
-    we think would be time enough, though after all it is but conjecture.
-    It seems to us, however, that the time of the abandonment of their
-    works may be more closely approximated. A thousand or two years may
-    have elapsed since they vacated the Ohio Valley, and a period embracing
-    seven or eight centuries may have passed since they retired from the
-    Gulf coast. As an evidence of a large population having existed in this
-    country at a former period, we have immense shell-heaps artificially
-    collected, extending along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to
-    Florida, on the Gulf coast and up the river valleys through nearly
-    all of the Southern States. It is difficult to assign the formation
-    of these vast remains to any definite period or to any particular
-    people. Though of the same character as the <i lang="da">Kjökken-Möddings</i>
-    (Kitchen-Middens) of the Danish, they furnish no indications of so
-    great an antiquity. This has been shown by Dr. Jeffries Wyman in his
-    researches in Maine and Massachusetts.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Sir Charles Lyell made an
-    examination of a shell-bank on St. Simon’s Island, near the mouth of
-    the Allamaha<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> River, Georgia, so extensive that it covers ten acres to
-    a depth varying from five to ten feet.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Dr. Brinton has described
-    immense accumulations in Florida. On Amelia Island, shells exist to
-    the depth of three feet over an area 150 yards wide and a quarter of a
-    mile long. Notable instances of a similar kind are Turtle Mound near
-    Smyrna—a mass of oyster shells thirty feet thick—and a shell-bank
-    on Crystal River four miles from its mouth, reaching a height of
-    forty feet.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Dr. Wyman carefully examined many of the fresh-water
-    shell-heaps of Florida and obtained pretty satisfactory results.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>
-    Near the Silver spring upon a shell-heap covering nearly twenty acres,
-    stand several live-oaks of immense size, the largest of which measured
-    between twenty-six and twenty-seven feet in circumference. Excavations
-    under this monster, taken together with its position on the side of
-    the shell-bank, proved it to be of more recent origin than the latter.
-    Prof. Wyman, by allowing twelve rings to the inch and granting it a
-    semi-diameter of fifty inches, estimated that it was not less than
-    six hundred years old. Of course the shell-bank may have existed a
-    long time before any vegetation appeared upon it. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>crania of
-    the shell-banks of Florida differ from those of the Mound-builders
-    in greater thickness as well as greater mean capacity.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In his
-    <cite>Fresh-water Shell-Mounds of the St. John’s River</cite>, and in his
-    memoir on <cite>Human Remains in the Shell-heaps of the St. John’s
-    River</cite> (<cite>Seventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 26
-    <i>et seq.</i>), Dr. Wyman reports having discovered the startling
-    fact that cannibalism prevailed among the barbarous people of the
-    shell-banks. In the Peabody Museum a collection of human bones taken
-    from the shell-banks by Dr. Wyman are arranged to illustrate this sad
-    discovery. It is possible that this people had some relationship to
-    the Caribs. Prof. Forshey has described in brief the vast extent and
-    proportions of the marine shell-banks of the Gulf coast, and the shores
-    of the bayous, lakes and lagoons where Guathodon shells are found.
-    Those of Louisiana, especially near New Orleans, are remarkable, but
-    have yielded no remains, except broken pottery, flint flakes and stone
-    hatchets. A shell-bank at Grand Lake, on the Teche, however, upon which
-    great live-oaks are growing, situated fifteen miles inland, from which
-    the sea has receded since its formation, “yielded unique specimens of
-    axes of hæmatitic iron-ore and glazed pottery.”<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Probably the most
-    remote shell-bank from the sea containing marine shells, occurs on the
-    Alabama River, fifty miles inland.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Fresh-water shell-banks, other
-    than those examined in Florida, furnish evidences of slow accumulation
-    and indicate a comparatively remote antiquity for their origin. On
-    Stalling’s Island, in the Savannah River, two hundred miles above its
-    mouth, is a shell-bank three hundred feet in length by one hundred
-    and twenty feet in width, with an average depth of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>over fifteen
-    feet.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> In the American Bottom and on many of the tributaries of
-    the Mississippi, shell-banks occur, composed of varieties of the
-    Unios and Anodons. A remarkable example of such accumulation is the
-    well-known shell-bank a mile and a half south of New Harmony, Indiana,
-    and situated on a high hill 170 feet above the level of an arm of the
-    Wabash River. The bank covers an area of a quarter of an acre, and
-    has attracted the attention of eminent scientists like Leasure, Say,
-    Lyell and others, but nothing of value was developed that would refer
-    the construction of this and similar banks to any people more ancient
-    than the Mound-builders.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> On the Pacific coast, great numbers of
-    shell-banks exist, but contain nothing different from those in other
-    parts of the country. (See Researches in the Kjökken Möddings of the
-    Coast of Oregon and of the Santa Barbara Islands and Adjacent Mainland,
-    by Paul Schumacher. <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey</cite>,
-    vol. iii, No. 1.) There can be little doubt but these strange and vast
-    accumulations indicating the presence of an extinct population, had a
-    remote beginning, and have been added to from time to time by different
-    peoples, removed from each other both by the diversities of race and
-    the lapse of time.</p>
-
-  <p>A trifle more than a decade ago the treatment of the subject of this
-    chapter would have called for a discussion of the antiquity of the
-    magnificent architectural remains of Southern Mexico, and of the still
-    older ruins of the Maya civilization in Yucatan, and the branches of
-    that people in Central America; but the indefatigable labor which has
-    been bestowed by several eminent antiquarians upon the ancient history
-    of the civilized nations of the New World previous to its discovery by
-    Europeans, has transferred this part of the subject to another field;
-    has elevated it from the uncertain position it occupied in archæology
-    to a place in the realm of history. It is true that it is difficult
-    to draw the line between tradition and history, and especially so in
-    this case; but as tradition does not conflict with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>archæology in its
-    bearing on the ancient civilization of Tropical America, it is better
-    than nothing; certainly archæology thus far has amounted to little
-    more than nothing in revealing the approximate period of the origin of
-    these remains. While it has done much towards verifying tradition and
-    assisted largely in its interpretation, it has not been adequate to the
-    task of solving the age of these remains. Tradition, on the contrary,
-    and we might almost say history, carries us back three thousand years,
-    if not farther, as the period when man—whether the first here or
-    not—appeared upon the Western Continent. The discussion of this part of
-    our subject will be given in a future chapter. Too much doubt exists
-    with reference to the stupendous remains of Peru, especially in the
-    neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, Tiahuanaco, Old Huanaco, and Grau-Chimu,
-    as to whether they antedated the arrival of the Incas by a great lapse
-    of time, to admit of a serious discussion here. Nothing of a scientific
-    character is available as yet upon which even to base conjecture.
-    Rivero and Tschudi, it is true, have treated the subject, and their
-    work has been often quoted, but after all it amounts to but little
-    more than a description of the remains, which serves the good end of
-    exciting interest in the subject. The antiquities and legendary history
-    of the Peruvians have so recently been treated with such ability by Mr.
-    E. G. Squier, that the South American civilization needs no attention
-    in this connection.</p>
-
-  <p>In considering the question as to how long man has inhabited this
-    continent, his influence upon nature cannot be overlooked. In the
-    animal kingdom, certain animals were domesticated by the aborigines
-    from so remote a period that scarcely any of their species, as in the
-    case of the lama of Peru, were to be found in a state of unrestrained
-    freedom at the advent of the Spaniards. In the vegetable kingdom more
-    abundant testimony of the same nature is presented. A plant must be
-    subjected to the transforming influences of cultivation for a long
-    time before it becomes so changed as no longer to be identified with
-    the wild species, and infinitely longer before it becomes entirely
-    dependent upon cultivation for propagation. Yet we find that both
-    of these facts have been accomplished with reference to the maize,
-    tobacco,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> cotton, quinoa and mandico plants; and the only species
-    of palm cultivated by the South American Indians, that known as the
-    <i>Gulielma speciosa</i>, has lost through that culture its original
-    nut-like seed, and is dependent upon the hands of its cultivators
-    for its life.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> Alluding to the above-named plants, Dr. Brinton
-    remarks: “Several are sure to perish unless fostered by human care.
-    What numberless ages does this suggest? How many centuries elapsed ere
-    man thought of cultivating Indian corn? How many more ere it had spread
-    over nearly a hundred degrees of latitude and lost all resemblance
-    to its original form?”<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Certainly this class of evidence, though
-    furnishing no chronometric scale, points us to an antiquity for man on
-    this continent more venerable than that suggested either by tumuli or
-    architectural remains. The peculiar value of this argument rests in the
-    fact that with the exception of cotton, none of the plants indicated
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>have ever been cultivated by any other people than the aborigines of
-    America, and could not have matured their characteristics of dependence
-    in the old world, and been brought hither through the channel of
-    immigration.</p>
-
-  <p>Back of the age of man’s monuments of an architectural character,
-    beyond the beginning of the first existing shell-heap, and at a time
-    probably more remote than the first cultivation of maize, it has been
-    supposed that man occupied the Western Continent as a contemporary with
-    the mastodon, megalonyx and other extinct animals. Our information
-    in this department is entirely dependent upon the revelations of
-    geological science. Unfortunately very little data which may be termed
-    truly scientific has been brought to light. While considerable seeming
-    testimony to man’s antiquity on this continent has been produced
-    from a geologic quarter, still it mostly has been of an unscientific
-    character. Fossils and human remains are said to have been discovered
-    in localities and in associations that if the statements of those who
-    found them could be relied on, would give man an antiquity here as
-    great as in the valley of the Somme or in the bone caves of Belgium,
-    France, and England. In the instances alluded to, it is not so often
-    feared that the veracity of discoverers is doubtful as that their
-    general lack of acquaintance with the science should make them liable
-    to error. Where a competent geologist is not present to examine a
-    fossil <i>in situ</i>, and report intelligently upon its position and
-    surroundings, the case must remain open to suspicion. Unfortunately
-    for science, this is precisely the weak point in most of the reputed
-    “finds” which are cited as evidence in this field. In 1848, Count
-    Pourtales found in Florida, according to Agassiz, a human jaw and
-    teeth, and bones of the foot, embedded in a calcareous conglomerate
-    forming a part of a coral reef. This reef, according to Agassiz, may
-    be 135,000 years old, and the human remains at least ten thousand
-    years.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> This statement has been accepted as reliable by Sir Charles
-    Lyell,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> Daniel Wilson,<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> and other noted scientific gentlemen.
-    Count Pourtales, however, makes a statement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> which materially alters
-    the case. He says: “The human jaws and other bones found by myself in
-    Florida in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in a fresh-water
-    sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated with fresh-water
-    shells or species still living in the lakes (Paulina, Ampullaria,
-    etc.). No date can be assigned to the formation of that deposit, at
-    least from present observation.”<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Human remains were found a number
-    of years ago embedded in the solid rock in the island of Guadaloupe.
-    “But more careful investigation proved the rock to be a concretionary
-    limestone formed from the detritus of corals and shells.”<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> This
-    rock was ascertained to have been one of very rapid formation.</p>
-
-  <p>Sir Charles Lyell, in his <cite>Travels in America</cite> in 1842, expressed
-    the opinion that certain human remains found embedded in the solid rock
-    near the town of St. Paul on the Santos River, Brazil, were of great
-    antiquity.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> Subsequently referring to the memoir of Dr. Meigs on
-    the shell-heap of which the rock was a part,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> he expresses the
-    opinion that shells were brought to the place and heaped up over the
-    remains, and “were bound together in a solid stone by the infiltration
-    of carbonate of lime, and the mound may therefore be of no higher
-    antiquity than those above alluded to on the Ohio.”<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In a few
-    instances it has been alleged that the remains of man have been found
-    associated with the remains of the mastodon and other extinct animals.
-    More than thirty years ago Dr. Dickson of Natchez discovered the pelvic
-    bone of a man, the <i lang="la">os innominatum</i>, mingled with the bones of
-    extinct animals (megalonyx and mylodon). This discovery was made two
-    and one-half miles from Natchez, at the bottom of what is known as
-    Bernard’s Bayou, an immense ravine from thirty to sixty feet deep and
-    several miles long, formed by the convulsions of the earthquake of
-    1811–12. This bone is now in the possession of the Academy of Natural
-    Sciences of Philadelphia. Sir Charles Lyell visited the spot where it
-    was discovered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>in 1846, and made a careful examination of the bone
-    then in the possession of Dr. Dickson, and also explored the “Mammoth
-    Ravine.” He discusses the case as follows: “It appeared to be quite
-    in the same state of preservation and was of the same black color as
-    the other fossils, and was believed to have come like them from a
-    depth of about thirty feet from the surface. In my <cite>Second Visit
-    to America</cite> in 1846,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> I suggested as a possible explanation
-    of this association of a human bone with remains of a mastodon and
-    megalonyx, that the former may possibly have been derived from the
-    vegetable soil at the top of the cliff, where, as the remains of
-    extinct mammalia were dislodged from a lower position, and both may
-    have fallen into the same heap or talus at the bottom of the ravine,
-    the pelvic bone might, I conceived, have acquired its black color
-    from having lain for years or centuries in a dark superficial peaty
-    soil common in that region. I was informed that there were many human
-    bones in old Indian graves in the same district stained of as black
-    a dye.” * * * “No doubt, had the pelvic bone belonged to any recent
-    mammifier other than man, such a theory would never have been resorted
-    to; but so long as we have only one isolated case, and are without
-    the testimony of a geologist who was present to behold the bone when
-    still engaged in the matrix, and to extract it with his own hands, it
-    is allowable to suspend our judgment as to the high antiquity of the
-    fossil”.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> Both Dr. Joseph Leidy<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and Prof. C. G. Forshey,<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>
-    who have examined the case, agree with the above. A few years ago a
-    fragment of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>matting composed of the outer bark of the southern cane
-    (<i>Arundinaria macrosperma</i>) was discovered on Petit Anse Island
-    in Vermillion Bay, Louisiana, in connection with the remains of a
-    fossil elephant. This island, containing about five thousand acres,
-    is the locality of an extraordinary mine of rock salt, discovered and
-    worked considerably during the late rebellion. The salt is found in
-    nearly all parts of the island at the depth of fifteen or twenty feet
-    below the surface of the soil. The matting was discovered near the
-    surface of the salt, and about two feet above it were the remains of an
-    elephant, including the tusks. Prof. Henry was the first to call public
-    attention to the matter in a notice based on the verbal statements
-    of T. F. Cleu, Esq., who presented a specimen of the matting to the
-    Smithsonian Institution.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> In 1867, Prof. E. W. Hilgard and Dr. E.
-    Fontaine, secretary of the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, examined
-    the locality. We regret to say that the report made by the latter is
-    so confused in its use of terms and so conflicting in its statements
-    as to be of no service to science.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Prof. Hilgard is, on the
-    contrary, clear on the subject. He considers the heap in which the
-    matting, elephant bones, and subsequently pottery in great profusion,
-    were found, “A mass of detritus washed down from the surrounding
-    hills.” “The pottery,” he remarks, “at some points form veritable
-    strata three and six inches thick.” He then adds in a note that “it
-    is very positively stated that mastodon bones were found considerably
-    <em>above</em> some of the human relics. In a detrital mass, however,
-    this cannot be considered a crucial test.”<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Dr. Foster, after
-    citing the above, interposes the objection, “That in an island whose
-    area is less than eight miles square, there would be few floods of
-    sufficient power to transport such heavy bones as the tusks and molars
-    of mastodons to any considerable distance.”<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> Certainly the question
-    is an open one, and in its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>present unsettled status proves nothing.
-    The same uncertainty attaches itself to the discoveries of Dr. Lund,
-    the distinguished Swedish naturalist, made many years ago in the bone
-    caves of Minas Geraes, Brazil. This indefatigable investigator examined
-    more than eight hundred caverns, and in only six were human remains
-    found. In one instance out of the six, the remains were associated
-    with the bones of animals now extinct, but the original stratification
-    had been disturbed, and the presumption is that it was a case of
-    comparatively recent interment.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The most remarkable instance of the supposed, or we might be allowed
-    in this case to say <em>pretended</em> discovery of human remains in
-    association with those of extinct animals, is that set forth by Dr.
-    Koch. This collector of curiosities described his discovery of a
-    <i>mastodon giganteus</i> in 1839 in Gasconade County, Missouri,
-    at a spot on the Bourbeuse River, first in a newspaper article of
-    January 1839, and cited in the <cite>American Journal of Science and
-    Arts</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> And a second time in the St. Louis <cite>Commercial
-    Bulletin</cite> of June 25, 1839, which article was also noticed in the
-    above Journal.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> This article was signed “A. Koch, Proprietor of the
-    St. Louis Museum.” Subsequently he published descriptions in pamphlets,
-    which unfortunately did not always convey the same impressions.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
-    Dr. Koch, after referring to the discovery of a back and hip bone
-    of this remarkable animal, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>gives the following description: “I
-    immediately commenced opening a much larger space; the first layer
-    of earth was a vegetable mould, then a blue clay, then sand and blue
-    clay. I found a large quantity of pieces of rocks, weighing from two
-    to twenty-five pounds each, evidently thrown there with the intention
-    of hitting some object. It is necessary to remark that not the least
-    sign of rocks or gravel is to be found nearer than from four or five
-    hundred yards, and that these pieces were broken from larger rocks,
-    and consequently carried here for some express purpose. After passing
-    through these rocks I came to a layer of vegetable mould; on the
-    surface of this was found the first blue bone, with this a spear and
-    axe; the spear corresponds precisely with our common Indian spear; the
-    axe is different from any I have seen. Also on this earth were ashes
-    nearly from six inches to one foot in depth, intermixed with burned
-    wood and burned bones, broken spears, axes, knives, etc. The fire
-    appeared to have been the largest on the head and neck of the animal,
-    as the ashes and coals were much deeper here than in the rest of the
-    body; the skull was quite perfect, but so much burned that it crumbled
-    to dust on the least touch; two feet from this was found two teeth
-    broken off from the jaw, but mashed entirely to pieces. By putting them
-    together, they showed the animal to have been much larger than any
-    heretofore discovered. It appeared by the situation of the skeleton,
-    that the animal had been sunk with its hind feet in the mud and water,
-    and, unable to extricate itself, had fallen on its right side, and in
-    that situation was found and killed as above described; consequently
-    the hind and fore-feet on the right side were sunk deeper in the mud,
-    and thereby saved from the effects of the fire; therefore I was able
-    to preserve the whole of the hind foot to the very last joint, and the
-    fore foot, all but some few small bones that were too much decayed
-    to be worth saving. Also between the rocks that had sunk through the
-    ashes, were found large pieces of skin that appeared like fresh-tanned
-    sole leather, strongly impregnated with the lye from the ashes; and
-    a great many of the sinews and arteries were plain to be seen on the
-    earth and rocks, but in such a state as not to be moved except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> in
-    small pieces the size of a hand, which are now preserved in spirits.”
-    “Should any doubts arise in the mind of the reader of the correctness
-    of the above statement, he can be referred to more than twenty
-    witnesses who were present at the time of digging.”<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> Subsequent
-    accounts agree substantially with the above except that we never again
-    hear of the “large pieces of skin,” the “sinews and arteries,” “which
-    are now preserved in spirits.” The presumption is that the author, upon
-    mature reflection, arrived at the conclusion that in reality he had
-    seen nothing of the kind, and in fact had never preserved such relics
-    in spirits.</p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Koch made a second discovery about one year subsequently in Benton
-    County, Missouri, in the bottom of the Pomme-de-Terre River, at about
-    ten miles above its junction with the Osage River. His description is
-    as follows: “The second trace of human existence with these animals
-    I found during the excavation of the Missourium. There was embedded
-    immediately under the femur or hind-leg bone of this animal, an
-    arrow-head of rose-colored flint, resembling those used by the American
-    Indians, but of larger size. This was the only arrow-head immediately
-    with the skeleton; but in the same strata, at a distance of five or
-    six feet, in a horizontal direction, four more arrow-heads were found.
-    Three of these were of the same formation as the preceding. The fourth
-    was of very rude workmanship. One of the last-mentioned three was of
-    agate, the others of blue flint. These arrow-heads are indisputably
-    the work of human hands. I examined the deposit in which they were
-    embedded, and raised them out of their embedment with my own hands.
-    The original stratum on which this river flowed at the time it was
-    inhabited by the <i>Missourium theristocaulodon</i> and up to the
-    time of its destruction, was of the upper green sand. On the surface
-    of this stratum, and partly mingled with it, was the deposit of the
-    before-described skeleton. The next stratum is from three to four feet
-    in thickness, and consisted of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>a brown alluvium of the <em>Eocene</em>
-    region, and was composed of vegetable matters of a tropical production.
-    It contained all the remainder of the skeleton.” “Most of these
-    vegetables were in a great state of preservation and consisted of a
-    large quantity of cypress burs, wood and bark, tropical cane, ferns,
-    palmetto leaves, several stumps of trees, and even the greater part of
-    a flower of the strelitzia class, which when destroyed was not full
-    blown. There was no sign or indication of any very large trees; the
-    cypresses that were discovered being the largest that were growing here
-    at the time. These various matters had been torn up by their roots
-    and twisted and split into a thousand pieces apparently by lightning
-    combined with a tremendous tempest or tornado; and all were involved
-    in one common ruin. Several veins of iron pyrites ran through the
-    stratum.” “The next over this formation was a layer of plastic clay of
-    the <em>Eocene</em> region, also with iron pyrites. It was three feet
-    in thickness; over this a layer of conglomerate from nine to eighteen
-    inches in thickness; over this a layer of marl of the Pliocene region,
-    from three to four feet in thickness; next, a second conglomerate from
-    nine to eighteen inches in thickness. This was succeeded by a layer of
-    yellow clay of the Pliocene; over this a third layer of conglomerate
-    from nine to eighteen inches in thickness, and at last the present
-    surface, consisting of brownish clay mingled with a few pebbles, and
-    covered with large oak, maple, and elm trees, which were, as near as I
-    could ascertain, from eighty to one hundred years old. In the centre
-    of the above-mentioned deposit was a large spring which appeared to
-    rise from the very bowels of the earth, as it was never affected by the
-    severest rain, nor did it become lower by the longest draught.”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a>
-    The preceding accounts were presented to the St. Louis Academy of
-    Sciences in a special paper several years later (1857).<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Foster is inclined to believe that Dr. Koch was not mistaken
-    in his claimed discovery, having arrived at that opinion by
-    pointedly questioning him on the subject a short time before <span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>his
-    (Koch’s) death.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Charles Rau is also of the opinion that he was
-    truthful.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Mr. J. D. Dana, however, discusses the case as follows:
-    “In the account of the second case above cited Dr. Koch says that
-    the Missourium was embedded in a brown alluvium of the Eocene region
-    resting on the ‘upper green sand;’ that next over it was plastic
-    clay of the ‘Eocene region’ and beds of the ‘Pliocene region.’ He
-    thus makes his Missourium to have come from the lower tertiary, and
-    from a bed just above the green sand (cretaceous) when actually from
-    quartenary beds; and he uses the terms Eocene and Pliocene, as if he
-    had no familiarity with geological facts or language. The earlier
-    pamphlet of 1840 avoids this bad geology, ‘the upper green sand,’ in
-    that being called simply quicksand and the other beds merely beds of
-    clay and conglomerate. All the pamphlets sustain the conclusion that
-    Dr. Koch knew almost nothing of geology, and that what he gradually
-    picked up from intercourse with geologists, he generally made much
-    of but seldom was able to use rightly.”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The same critic says:
-    “In zoological knowledge he was equally deficient,” and cites the
-    fact of the discoverer recognizing the resemblance to the mastodon,
-    still makes the animal an inhabitant of the watercourses like the
-    hippopotamus; states that his food “consisted as much of vegetables as
-    of flesh, although he undoubtedly consumed a great abundance of the
-    latter,” and makes the marvelous revelation that he “<em>was capable
-    of feeding himself with his fore-foot after the manner of the beaver
-    or otter</em>.” Mr. Dana continues: “He says that one arrow-head lay
-    ‘immediately under the femur or thigh-bone,’ and he further states in
-    his later article of 1857, that ‘he carefully thought to investigate
-    the point as to its having been brought thither after the deposit of
-    the bone’ and decided against it. The observation and conclusion would
-    have been more satisfactory had the author been a better observer.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
-    “The descriptions of the deposits in Gasconade County containing the
-    remains of an animal the principal part of which was consumed by
-    fire is a still more unsatisfactory basis for a safe conclusion as
-    to age. But in the article of 1857, he says that the layer of ashes,
-    etc., ‘was covered by strata or alluvial deposits consisting of clay,
-    sand and soil, from eight to nine feet thick, <em>forming the bottom
-    of the Bourbeuse (River) in general</em>,’ which seems to make it
-    almost certain that the beds were of quite recent origin.”<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> Mr.
-    Dana considers Dr. Koch’s evidence as “<em>very doubtful</em>.”<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>
-    Dr. Foster has figured a fossil which, for a better name, he has
-    designated as a “stone hatchet,” from the modified drift of Jersey
-    County, Illinois.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> He is positive as to the position in which it
-    was found, but has doubt as to its human origin. The probabilities are
-    that its peculiar shape is due to its exposure to atmospheric agents.
-    He remarks, however: “On the whole, I will not positively assert that
-    this specimen is of human workmanship, but I affirm that if it had
-    been recovered from a plowed field I should have unhesitatingly said
-    it was an Indian hatchet.” In the <cite>Proceedings of the Philadelphia
-    Academy of Sciences</cite> for July, 1859, Dr. Holmes describes the
-    occurrence of fragments of pottery in close proximity with the bones of
-    the mastodon and megatherium, on the Ashley River in South Carolina.
-    The case, however, has not been considered authentic by scientific
-    men. Dr. Holmes is possibly mistaken.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> Col. Charles Whittlesey,
-    in 1838, saw at <span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>Portsmouth, Ohio, on the Ohio River, remains of
-    ancient fire-places situated eighteen to twenty feet above low water
-    and about fifteen feet below the surface. He states, “at low water and
-    thence up to a height of twelve or fifteen feet is a bed of sand and
-    transported gravel, containing pebbles of quartz, granite, sandstone
-    and limestone, derived partly from the adjacent Carboniferous and
-    Devonian rocks and partly from the northern drift, the upper part
-    much the coarsest. On this is a layer of blue quicksand from one to
-    five feet thick, in which is a timber-bed including large numbers of
-    the trunks, branches, stumps and leaves of trees, such as are now
-    growing on the Ohio, principally birch, black-ash, oak and hickory.
-    Over the dirt-bed is the usually loamy yellow clay of the valley,
-    fifteen to thirty feet thick, on which are very extensive works of the
-    Mound-builders. In and near the bottom of this undisturbed homogeneous
-    river-loam I saw two places where fire had been built on a circular
-    collection of small stones, a part of which were then embedded in the
-    bank.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Near these fire-places the writer of the above found the
-    membranous covering of common river shells (the Unios). We think that
-    no geologist familiar with the constant changes of the Ohio River bed,
-    will consider that the conditions surrounding these ancient fire-places
-    warrant us in assigning them a much greater antiquity than we attach
-    to the Mound-builders’ works in the neighborhood. In 1846, Sir Charles
-    Lyell, when at New Orleans, made an estimate of the time required to
-    account for the immense annual deposit of the Mississippi River in the
-    neighborhood of its delta. From a computation based on certain data,
-    which assumed the area of the alluvial plain which is the result of
-    those deposits, to equal 30,000 square miles, several hundred feet
-    thick in some places, he estimated that probably 100,000 years would
-    be requisite.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> Subsequently, during the process of excavating for
-    the New Orleans Gas Works, it was found necessary to cut through four
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>buried cypress forests. At the depth of sixteen feet and on the fourth
-    forest level, a human skeleton distinctly of the Indian type,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> was
-    found under the roots of a cypress tree, together with burnt wood. Dr.
-    Dowler, dividing the history of the delta into, 1. The epoch of grasses
-    or aquatic plants; 2. That of the cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>)
-    basins, and 3. That of the live-oak platform, tabulates the age of the
-    strata overlying the skeleton as follows:</p>
-
-  <table class="w90" summary="Age of strata">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl">Epoch of aquatic plants</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1,500</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>years</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl">Epoch of the cypress basin, in which he assumes only two successive growths</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>11,400</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bottom"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl">Epoch of live-oak platform</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1,500</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>———</div></td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl12">Total</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>14,400</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>years</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>The basis for his estimate of the age of the cypress basins was the
-    computed age of the trees of the fourth level, ten feet in diameter and
-    probably reaching 5,700 years.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Sir Charles Lyell in a later work,
-    though still adhering to his former estimate of the time required in
-    which to form the delta, cannot accept Dr. Dowler’s great antiquity
-    for the remains.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> The question in hand of course involves the
-    question of the antiquity of the deposit where the skeleton was found,
-    which is well-nigh identical with the vexed question of the age of
-    the delta. The very diversity of opinion on this subject precludes
-    the possibility of its consideration here. We will content ourselves
-    by citing two estimates in addition to those already given. Professor
-    Edward Hitchcock calculated that the entire delta embraced a bulk of
-    matter equal to 2,720 <em>cubic</em> miles, for the deposit of which he
-    thought 14,204 years necessary.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> Humphries and Abbot think that
-    both the area and thickness of the deposit have been overstated, and
-    instead of 30,000 square miles for the former, they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>claim only 19,450.
-    As to the latter, they estimate the thickness of the alluvial matter as
-    but twenty-five feet on the river banks along the St. Francis swamp;
-    thirty-five along the Yazoo swamp, and continuing of uniform thickness
-    to Baton Rouge; while the artesian well at New Orleans showed it in
-    that locality to reach a point forty feet below the level of the Gulf.
-    These authors base their calculations as to the age of the deposits on
-    the following ascertained facts: the total yearly contributions of the
-    river equal a prism two hundred and sixty-eight feet in height, with a
-    base of one mile square; two hundred and sixty-two feet is the supposed
-    mean yearly advance of the river; the original mouth of the Mississippi
-    was near the afflux of the Bayou Plaquemine, and has hence progressed
-    two hundred and twenty miles since it began to empty its deposits into
-    the Gulf. Supposing these data to be correct, they estimate that only
-    four thousand four hundred years have elapsed since that period.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>
-    This would give the skeleton alluded to a comparatively recent origin.
-    We are inclined to believe that the above estimate assigns a period for
-    the formation of the delta as much too short as that of Sir Charles was
-    too long. As to the antiquity of the skeleton, probably Dr. Foster’s
-    solution of the question is as near correct as any that ever may be
-    proposed: “Thus, then, with these carefully-observed computations
-    before us, we are not prepared to accept the high antiquity assigned
-    by Dr. Dowler to the human remains found beneath the surface at New
-    Orleans. What he regards as four buried forests which once flourished
-    on the spot, may be nothing more than driftwood brought down the river
-    in former times which became embedded in the silts and sediments which
-    were deposited on what was then the floor of the Gulf.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
-
-  <p>If all the indications were verified, we should be justified in
-    assigning man a much greater antiquity in the Rocky Mountain region
-    and on the Pacific slope than in any other part of North America.
-    Mr. E. L. Berthoud collected numerous stone implements in what he
-    considers to be tertiary gravel on Crow Creek and in the region of the
-    South Platte River, Lat. 40 N., Long. 104 W. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>Two shells secured in
-    the same locality by him have been pronounced a <i>corbicula</i> and
-    a <i>rangia</i> respectively, and are thought to belong to the older
-    Pliocene or possibly to the Miocene.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> The evidence in this case is,
-    however, unsatisfactory, and cannot be admitted to be of scientific
-    value without further authentication.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1857 a portion of a human cranium was found associated with bones
-    of the mastodon at the depth of one hundred and eighty feet below the
-    surface in a mining shaft at Table Mountain, California. Dr. C. F.
-    Winslow sent this fragment to the Boston Natural History Society, but
-    no importance was attached to it, since no other evidence other than
-    that furnished by workmen in the mine could be obtained. Subsequently,
-    when an entire skull was reported to have been found in the gold drift
-    near Angelos in Calaveras County, in a shaft one hundred and fifty
-    feet deep, the intelligent portion of the community pronounced the
-    finder guilty of a scientific fraud, and it is not yet a certainty
-    that their decision was incorrect. However, Professor Whitney, of the
-    State Geological Survey, upon hearing of the case examined the mine,
-    and found that the shaft passed through five beds of lava and volcanic
-    tufa and four beds of auriferous gravel. It was in one of these beds
-    that the skull was said to have been found. Some of the cemented gravel
-    was still adhering to the skull when it came into the Professor’s
-    possession, and Professor Wyman, to whom it was submitted subsequently,
-    refers to the difficulty which he had in removing the incrustation.
-    Professor Whitney, on the testimony of the possessor of the skull,
-    pronounced it an authentic “find,” and while his decision has been
-    acquiesced in by a number of scientific gentlemen of repute, Professor
-    Wyman among them, still the great majority, we believe, are unwilling
-    to rest their faith on such slender evidence. Though no crack was
-    apparent through which the skull might have fallen from the surface,
-    such might have existed at an earlier period. In a region which is the
-    product of volcanic action there is room for suspicion, especially in
-    cases like both of these, where, as Sir Charles Lyell has said, no
-    geologist was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>present at the moment of discovery to see the fossil
-    <i>in situ</i> and extricate it with his own hands from the matrix
-    which contained it.</p>
-
-  <p>President Edward Orton, of the Ohio State University, recently called
-    our attention to the discovery of relics of human workmanship found
-    many years ago near Waynesville, Ohio, at the depth of over twelve feet
-    below the surface. Dr. Robert Furnas, a clergyman of the Society of
-    Friends, courteously furnished us the following statement: “The relic
-    was obtained about the year 1824. It was in the process of digging
-    a well for my grandfather. My father, then twenty-one years of age,
-    was performing the work of excavation, when at the depth of thirteen
-    or fourteen feet he came to a dark mould about two feet deep, on the
-    top of which was lying <em>a thimble and a piece of coarse cloth</em>
-    six inches wide and a yard long. The outer edge containing the fringe
-    showing the end of the <em>chain</em> or warp at the end of the fabric
-    and point of fastening in weaving.” “The removal above after passing
-    through the soil consisted of solid clay of a yellowish-brown color.
-    The farm was purchased by my grandfather in 1803, and occupied by him
-    to the time of his death in 1863. He was the pioneer of the place,
-    having settled there in an unbroken forest. The location is on the
-    top of the hill on the east side of the Little Miami River forty or
-    fifty feet above the level of the stream. The cloth soon lost all
-    traces of texture on coming in contact with the air. The thimble was
-    in a pretty good state of preservation.”<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Professor Orton, who
-    has examined the locality and studied the case in hand, expressed the
-    opinion to us that it was not only authentic, but (while not amounting
-    to absolute proof) seemed to associate man’s works with a deposit which
-    has furnished remains of the mastodon. The Professor considers the
-    dark mould referred to as that upon which the relics were lying to be
-    of an inter-glacial vegetable deposit peculiar to Southern Ohio, and
-    once constituting an ancient surface of the land inhabited with animal
-    life.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>cloth from its coarse character bears a resemblance to
-    that of the mounds, while its length of just a yard is suggestive of
-    more modern measurements.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Dr. C. C. Abbott has unquestionably discovered many palæolithic
-    implements in the glacial drift in the valley of the Delaware River
-    near Trenton, New Jersey. Among a number of rude implements from the
-    undisturbed gravel of the region is a spear-head, found six feet from
-    the surface, on the site of the Lutheran Church, Broad Street, Trenton,
-    N. J. The circumstances surrounding it were such as to justify the
-    conclusion that the weapon had not gotten into its position where found
-    “subsequently to the deposition of the containing layer of pebbles.”
-    Subsequent investigation has brought to light sixty well finished flint
-    implements, all of them from what appears to be undisturbed drift.
-    Some of the relics have as many as from twenty to forty planes of
-    cleavage, all equally weathered. The specimens are not unlike their
-    neolithic counterparts taken from the aboriginal graves and stone cists
-    of Tennessee.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Dr. Abbott concludes that the gravel, boulders,
-    and rude implements associated with them were deposited by ice-rafts
-    on the descent of a glacier down the valley, and that man more rude
-    and ancient than the red Indian dwelt at the foot of the glacier,
-    being driven south by its advance and following it again to the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>north
-    upon its return.<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Professors Shaler and Pumpelly, however, while
-    considering the deposit as of glacial origin, think it was subsequently
-    modified by water-action. Dr. Abbott, with great fairness, admits that,
-    “Inasmuch as such subsequent action may have occurred long after the
-    final deposition of the gravel, as true glacial drift, the antiquity of
-    the contained stone implements is proportionately lessened.” Professor
-    Shaler, after a partial examination of the locality, remarks that “if
-    these remains are really those of man, they prove the existence of
-    inter-glacial man on this part of our shore.”<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> Dr. Abbott and Prof.
-    Aug. R. Grote believe that the Eskimo is the surviving representative
-    of paleolithic and glacial man in North America. The latter believes
-    that man reached this continent during the Pliocene, and before the
-    ice-period had interfered with a warm climate in the north.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
-    Recently Dr. Abbott has said: “It may be that, as investigations are
-    carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very
-    great antiquity, as in showing how much more recent than usually
-    supposed was the final disappearance of the glacier.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> On
-    <a href="#Page_30">page 30</a> we referred to mounds examined in the North-west, N. lat. 47°, W.
-    long. 98° 38´, by General H. W. Thomas.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> In these mounds crania
-    indicating a very low type of intelligence were discovered—in form
-    resembling skulls of the great Gibbon monkey.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> From the standpoint
-    of the development<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> theory (and by this we do not mean evolution, but
-    that progression which takes place when a savage advances from his
-    low state toward civilization), the evidences are abundant that man
-    is older by far on the Western side of the continent and perhaps in
-    the North-west, than elsewhere in the new world. Though this discovery
-    by General Thomas does not reach back in antiquity to geologic times,
-    still it cannot be denied that a considerable period must have elapsed
-    before low-type crania of the North-west could have developed into the
-    crania of the Ohio Valley Mounds. Professor James Orton, in commenting
-    on the investigations of Wilson on the coast of Equador, refers to the
-    discovery of gold, copper and stone vestiges of a former population
-    in the system of terraces traced from the coast through the province
-    of Esmeraldas to Quito. He remarks: “In all cases these relics are
-    situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which
-    he (Wilson) infers that this part of the country formerly stood higher
-    above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the antiquity of these
-    remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast is exceedingly
-    slow.”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> The antiquity of man in Europe is an established fact, but
-    how <span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>remote is a question which science as yet fails to answer. When
-    geologic research opens up Central Asia, no doubt man will be found to
-    have existed there a long period anterior to his advent in Europe. But
-    for the decadence of Arabic glory and learning we should now probably
-    be in possession of a fund of information concerning that region as
-    well as of man’s early history. Were the discovery of the human skull
-    in the gold drift of California an authentic case, we should have
-    strong reasons for supposing a remote intercourse existed between Asia
-    and the Pacific coast. It is quite certain the crania of the North-west
-    Mounds, as compared with those of the Mississippi region, clearly point
-    to that fact. We have seen that as yet no truly scientific proof of
-    man’s great antiquity in America exists. This conclusion is concurred
-    in by most eminent authorities.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> At present we are probably
-    not warranted in claiming for him a much longer residence on this
-    continent than that assigned him by Sir John Lubbock, namely, 3,000
-    years. Future research may develop the fact that man is as old here
-    as in Europe, and that he was contemporaneous with the Mastodon. As
-    the case stands in the present state of knowledge, it furnishes strong
-    presumptive evidence that man is not autochthonic here, but exotic,
-    having originated in the old world, perhaps thousands of years prior to
-    reaching the new.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_III"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">DIVERSITY OF OPINION AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT AMERICANS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism—Antipodes—Arabic
-    Learning in the 8th Century—Spirit of Early
-    Writers on America—Common Opinion as to the Origin
-    of the Americans—Father Duran—Lost Tribes of
-    Israel—Garcia—Lascarbot—Villagutierre—Torquemada—Pineda,
-    etc.—Abbé Domenech—Modern Views—Pre-Columbian
-    Colonization—Plato’s Atlantis—Kingsborough—The Book of
-    Mormon—Phœnicians—George Jones—Greek and Egyptian Theories—The
-    Tartars—Japanese and Chinese Theories—Fusang—The Mongol
-    Theory—Traces of Buddhism—White-Man’s Land—The Northmen—The
-    Welsh Claim.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">VARIOUS perplexing problems presented themselves to the minds of
-    the discoverers of the new continent for solution, as well as to
-    their immediate successors, which were greatly intensified by the
-    dogmatic teaching of the times. The status of science in the Middle
-    Ages was defined from time to time by some ecclesiastical utterance
-    without any reference to the phenomena of nature or the revelations
-    of accidental discovery. We say accidental, for no designed or
-    systematic investigation was so much as tolerated, much less encouraged
-    by friendly recognition. This unfortunate antagonism to progress
-    had its foundation chiefly in ignorance, and its origin in the
-    misinterpretation and perversion of Sacred Scripture.</p>
-
-  <p>Two questions, especially in view of the dogmatic utterances of the
-    day, presented grave difficulties to the minds of the discoverers and
-    their successors in the New World. “Is the world a sphere?” “Are the
-    Inhabitants of the Indias of a common origin with the rest of mankind?”
-    These were the most serious problems that forced themselves upon their
-    consideration. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> long ago as 280 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the investigations
-    of Aristarchus of Samos, though not accepted by antiquity, suggested
-    an affirmative answer to the first question. But the Fathers of the
-    Church had spoken authoritatively on this subject at quite an early
-    day, and consequently left no room for speculation. St. Augustine
-    discusses the question as follows: “But as to the fable that there are
-    antipodes, that is to say, men on the opposite side of the earth, where
-    the sun rises when it sets to us, men who walk with their feet opposite
-    ours, that is on no ground credible. And, indeed, it is not affirmed
-    that this has been learned by historical knowledge, but by scientific
-    conjecture, on the ground that the earth is suspended within the cavity
-    of the sky, and that it has as much room on the one side of it as on
-    the other; hence they say that the part which is beneath us must also
-    be inhabited. But they do not remark that although it be supposed or
-    scientifically demonstrated that the world is of a round and spherical
-    form, yet it does not follow that the other side of the earth is bare
-    of water; or even though it be bare, does it immediately follow that
-    it is peopled. For Scripture, which proves the truth of its historical
-    statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, gives no false
-    information; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have taken
-    ship and traversed the whole wide ocean, and crossed from this world to
-    the other, and that thus even the inhabitants of that distant region
-    are descended from that one first man.”<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Though, during the kalifate of Al-Mamoun (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 813–833)
-    Arabic learning had well-nigh demonstrated the globular form of
-    the earth and determined its circumference, according to their
-    measurements, to be about 24,000 miles, still not a man in Christendom
-    ventured to advocate the theory for almost half a dozen <span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>centuries,
-    such was the power of the ban put upon investigation which ran counter
-    to the pre-expressed opinions of a dark age. The theories of Tascanelli
-    and the observations of Columbus on the polar star prepared the way for
-    the great triumph achieved by De Gama in 1497–8, in his voyage around
-    the Cape of Good Hope; and the question of the globular form of the
-    earth was forever set at rest twenty-two years afterwards by the voyage
-    of Magellan.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> When it was definitely determined that America was a
-    continent of itself and not the eastern extremity of India, the fact
-    that it was inhabited gave rise to speculations which have since been
-    often repeated. Through an unaccountable misapprehension, not only
-    the questions of the origin of the Americans, but the manner of their
-    separation from the rest of the race, together with the routes they
-    pursued in reaching the new world—all were thought to be capable of
-    solution by the light of Scripture. The education of the early writers
-    enables us to account for the intolerance with which they looked upon
-    any other solution of the problem than that which alone would conform
-    to the teachings of the church.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
-
-  <p>It is true that the natural nobility of character possessed by such
-    writers as Las Casas, Duran and a few others, tempered the fanaticism
-    which had been inculcated by education, and enabled <span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>them to furnish
-    invaluable information concerning the real condition and traditions
-    of the so-called Indians. But, upon the other hand, there were great
-    numbers of blind, unscrupulous ecclesiastics who either destroyed
-    outright the manuscripts and picture-writing of the natives, committing
-    them to the flames, or so warping tradition in order that it might
-    conform to their mistaken theology, that in many cases the most
-    precious information is irretrievably lost. Such men could hardly be
-    expected to have treated calmly and with any degree of liberality
-    the question before us—one which has so often been asked, but as yet
-    never satisfactorily answered, and one which in the present state of
-    knowledge cannot be.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The unanimity with which the most celebrated writers on the Americans
-    during three centuries following the discovery, fixed upon a solution
-    of the problem, will be best illustrated in the following pages: One of
-    the most ingenious and at the same time most calmly expressed opinions
-    on the origin problem is that recorded by Father Duran, a native of
-    Tezcuco in Mexico, in his <cite>History of New Spain</cite>, written in
-    the year 1585.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>He was convinced that the natives had a foreign
-    origin, and that they performed a long journey of many years duration
-    in their migration to the new world. He arrived at these conclusions
-    on account of several considerations, some of which are as follows:
-    The natives had no definite knowledge of their origin, some claiming
-    to have proceeded from fountains and springs of water, others that
-    they were natives of certain caves, and others that they were created
-    by the gods, while all admit that they had come from other lands.
-    Furthermore, they preserved in their traditions and pictures the memory
-    of a journey in which they had suffered hunger, thirst, nakedness and
-    all manner of afflictions, “with which,” he adds, “my opinion and
-    supposition is confirmed that these natives are of the ten tribes of
-    Israel that Salmanasar, king of the Assyrians, made prisoners and
-    carried to Assyria in the time of Hoshea, king of Israel, and in the
-    time of Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem, as can be seen in the fourth
-    Book of the Kings, seventeenth chapter, where it says that Israel
-    was carried away from their land to Assyria, etc., from whence, says
-    Esdras, in Book Fourth, chapter third, they went to live in a land,
-    remote and separated, which had never been inhabited, to which they
-    had a long and tedious journey of a year and a half, for which reason
-    it is supposed these people are found in all the islands and lands of
-    the ocean constituting the Occident.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> The preceding opinion was
-    concurred in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>by many Spanish writers; but the first English writer to
-    support the theory was Thorowgood, in his work entitled, <cite>Jewes in
-    America</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> L’Estrange, who replied to this work, controverted
-    the theory of the lost tribes of Israel, but concluded that Shem
-    was the progenitor of the Americans; that he was ninety-eight years
-    old at the time of the flood, and was not present at the building
-    of Babel.<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> “Thus far,” he quaintly remarks, “have I offered my
-    week conceptions, first, how America may be collected to have bin
-    first planted, not denying the Jewes leave to goe into America, but
-    not admitting them to be the chief or prime planters thereof, for I
-    am of opinion, that the Americans originated before the captivity of
-    the ten tribes, even from Shem’s near progeny.”<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> Garcia presents
-    an argument in favor of the same theory, based upon the presence of
-    Scripture names in Peru and Yucatan. He is positive that the word Peru
-    has the same meaning as Ophir, the name of the grandson of Heber,
-    from whom the Hebrews derive their name. In Yucatan he also finds the
-    name Ioctan, identical with that of Ophir’s father.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>However,
-    with a determination not to be surpassed by any other theorist who
-    might assume the unity of the race as the basis of his conjectures,
-    he offers a plan for populating the new world so comprehensive that
-    no room was left for originality in any who might follow him in the
-    same field. Hispaniola, Cuba and neighboring isles, he believed to
-    have been peopled by the Carthaginians. The natives of other parts
-    proceeded from the ten lost tribes; others from the people whom Ophir
-    commanded to colonize Peru; others from the people living in the isle
-    Atlantis; others from regions adjoining that island, and by means of it
-    passed to America; others from the Greeks; others from the Phœnicians,
-    and still others from the Chinese and Tartars.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> Lescarbot cites
-    five opinions on the subject, all based more or less on scriptural
-    authority, and adds his own that the Americans were the descendants
-    of Noah. He thinks it not impossible for voyagers to have reached the
-    western continent when Solomon’s ships were sent on voyages of three
-    years’ duration.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Herrera, with characteristic soberness, states
-    that because of the lack of knowledge concerning the proximity of the
-    continents at the “ends of the earth” he is unable to say positively
-    from whom the natives were descended, but it seems most reasonable to
-    him to suppose that they are the descendants of men who passed to the
-    West Indies by the proximity of the land.<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> Villagutierre reiterates
-    the same opinion, believing that Noah’s descendants were able to reach
-    the new world either by land in some unknown quarter, or by swimming,
-    or by embarking in canoes and balsas, for short distances. He supposes
-    that animals reached the new continent in the first two ways.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>
-    Torquemada, after a long discussion of the subject, falls in with
-    this view, adding, however, the opinion that, because of their color,
-    they in all probability were descended from the sons and grandsons
-    of Ham.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> Pineda adopts substantially the preceding opinion, but
-    improves upon it somewhat by pointing out the particular branch of the
-    family of Ham, to which we may trace the origin of the first Americans.
-    For some reason, perhaps no more apparent to himself than us, he
-    designates Naphtuhim, son of Mezraim and grandson of Ham, as their
-    progenitor. He thinks that the colonization was accomplished soon after
-    the confusion of tongues, and may have been effected in any of the
-    numerous ways we have previously mentioned. He cites the tradition of
-    Votan as a proof.<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Siguenza y Gongora and Sister Agnes de la Cruz,
-    according to Clavigero, were the authors of this opinion, who further
-    designated Egypt as the starting-point for that important expedition of
-    colonists.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span></p>
-
-  <p>Echevarria y Veitia treats the subject fully, tracing it through
-    the traditions of the people. He cites their creation and flood
-    myths, their account of the building of the Tower of Babel and the
-    confusion of tongues, their dispersion upon the face of the earth,
-    and the passage of seven families to the new world (to <i>Hue hue
-    Tlappalan</i>) by means of balsas, with which they crossed rivers
-    and arms of the sea which they encountered in their journey. Though
-    minute in his details, he does nothing more in this respect than other
-    important writers to whom we shall refer in a further chapter, except
-    that his computations by means of the Mexican calendar have enabled
-    him to assign dates to some of these occurrences, which, though they
-    probably are not accurate, are at least interesting. His study of
-    the Mexican paintings convinces him that the natives had a foreign
-    origin.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> The same author <span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>in a part of his work refers to the
-    giants as the first inhabitants of the country, but fails to state
-    whether they came from the old world or not.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> Ulloa thinks Noah’s
-    long and aimless voyage in the ark was not without fruit to the science
-    of navigation. It gave confidence to his immediate descendants, who
-    no doubt were enterprising enough to construct similar vessels and
-    undertake voyages in them. These, falling in with adverse winds and
-    treacherous currents, were driven to strange islands and even to the
-    new world, and being unable to return, became the first colonists in
-    these remote regions. He thinks the custom of eating raw fish, common
-    to the American tribes, was acquired during long sea voyages.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The
-    Abbé Domenech’s opinion has been cited by Mr. Bancroft in his summary
-    of the views of this class of writers; we presume, however, only for
-    the amusement of the reader.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The Abbé, less than a score of years
-    ago, committed himself to the ludicrous and antiquated theory that
-    Ophir had colonized Peru.<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Clavigero considers the creation, flood,
-    and Babel myths of the natives sufficient evidence of unity of origin.
-    He, however, believes that the migration to this continent began at a
-    very early period.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span></p>
-
-  <p>These few writers pretty well represent the opinions of their numerous
-    contemporaries who, though they wrote voluminously enough on this
-    subject, added nothing to what we have noted. The opinions of modern
-    writers are as diverse as those of Garcia, and only surpass him in the
-    ingenuity with which they press their favorite theories. Very little
-    has been done in this field <span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>with a true scientific spirit. Each has
-    been an advocate rather than an inquirer; has had his theory to prove
-    sometimes at the expense of reason and fact, and it is remarkable that
-    the majority of works written by such advocates have presented the
-    familiar anomaly of more learning than of probability. It is scarcely
-    the province of this work to discuss these well-known productions of
-    imaginative and too often credulous writers. To more than refer to them
-    would be to lose sight for the time of the object before us.</p>
-
-  <p>The claims for the Pre-Columbian colonization of this continent of
-    course include most of those already mentioned, and properly are
-    of two classes: First, those which fix the period of colonization
-    remote enough to account for the old civilization or some phases of
-    it. Second, those which avowedly are too recent to have accomplished
-    that civilization. Of the first-named class there are about a dozen
-    thoroughly elaborated claims, while of the second there are less
-    than half that number. Mr. Warden years ago treated them all in a
-    manner and with a fullness which has not been excelled by any more
-    recent writer.<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> Though it is due to Mr. Bancroft to say that
-    never before has the subject been so exhaustively handled in our own
-    language as by him.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> As nothing new has been developed in this
-    field of speculation since Mr. Bancroft, and we might add since Mr.
-    Warden treated it, and as nothing could be contributed either to
-    the sciences of ethnology or archæology by a repetition of the old
-    discussion here, for we have our doubts whether any of the claims can
-    ever be substantiated at all, we will content ourselves with the simple
-    enumeration of the theories. A theory which rivals in antiquity, if
-    Egyptian chronology is reliable, the claims of the Fathers that the
-    immediate descendants of Noah peopled the new world shortly after the
-    deluge, is that which seeks to establish the truth of the tradition
-    told to Solon by the Egyptian priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis
-    and Sais concerning the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>island Atlantis. Critias, whose
-    grandfather had heard the tradition from Solon, communicated it to
-    Socrates. Plato first committed it to writing, and states that the
-    events which it described occurred nine thousand Egyptian years before
-    Solon heard it. After speaking of the “Atlantic Sea,” the priest adds
-    “that sea was indeed navigable, and had an island fronting that mouth
-    which you call the Pillars of Hercules; and this island was larger
-    than Libya and Asia put together, and there was a passage hence for
-    travellers of that day to the rest of the islands, as well as from
-    those islands to the whole opposite continent that surrounds the real
-    sea. For as respects what is within the mouth here mentioned, it
-    appears to be a bay with a kind of narrow entrance, and that sea is
-    indeed a true sea, and the land that entirely surrounds it may truly
-    and most correctly be called a continent.” The priest concludes his
-    account with the statement that an earthquake in a single night buried
-    the entire island and its inhabitants. This mysterious island has been
-    sought for in every quarter of the globe; but the fact that part of
-    the description seems applicable to the West Indies and the Gulf of
-    Mexico, has led theorists to place its submerged shores between that
-    locality and the Cape Verde or Canary groups. It is claimed that this
-    imaginary land bridge, this backbone of earth and rock, may have once
-    been the connecting link between the two continents. The claim has had
-    many champions, but none so celebrated as the lamented Abbé Brasseur
-    de Bourbourg. The labors of this learned Américaniste are too well
-    known to require comment.<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> The Codex Chimalpopoca, a Nahua MS. of
-    anonymous authorship, which served the Abbé as the chief <span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>authority for
-    the Toltec Period of his <cite>Histoire des Nations Civilisées</cite>, is
-    the basis upon which he rests the advocacy of his “Atlantic Theory.”
-    This singular Codex, which appears to the eyes of the uninitiated to be
-    only “A History of the Kingdoms of Culhuacan and Mexico,” he considers
-    susceptible of an allegorical interpretation, in which he reads the
-    history and fate of that first of the continents, on whose soil
-    originated all civilization and whose inhabitants were the genii of the
-    arts, the origin of which are without even a tradition.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The popularity of the Jewish theory at an early date has been indicated
-    by our citations from some of the Spanish missionaries. Garcia, after
-    a seven years residence in Peru, wrote his work for the purpose of
-    proving conclusively that the Jews had been the chief colonists of
-    the continent at an early date. He elaborated the argument set forth
-    by Father Duran,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> which is founded on passages in Esdras, but
-    proceeded to prop up this theory with a catalogue of analogies between
-    the Jews and Americans, some of which are so remote from each other
-    that the very attempt to assimilate them is simply puerile. Garcia
-    has had many disciples, some of whom have been no more critical than
-    himself.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> The illustrious advocate of the Jewish colonization of
-    America was that indefatigable antiquary, Lord Kingsborough. No more
-    masterly, no abler and more exhaustive defence was ever made in behalf
-    of a hopeless and even baseless claim than his; and as the result, the
-    historian and antiquary has placed at his disposal fac-simile prints
-    of most of the important hieroglyphic MSS. of Mexican authorship
-    deposited in the various libraries of Europe, as well as pictures
-    of the architecture and stone records common to ancient America.
-    We must confess that the work itself, with its curious plates, its
-    maze of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>notes and references, its masterly and novel discoveries of
-    analogies, though many of them are imaginary, is to us, after prolonged
-    examination, as much of a riddle as the great and improbable theory
-    which it seeks to establish.<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> Closely allied to the theory of the
-    ten lost tribes, is the claim set forth in that pretentious fraud, the
-    Book of Mormon, which attributes the colonization of North America,
-    soon after the confusion of tongues, to a people called Jaredites, who,
-    by divine guidance, reached our shores in eight vessels, and developed
-    a high state of civilization on our soil. These first colonists,
-    however, became extinct about six centuries <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, because of
-    their social sins. The Jaredites were followed by a second colony, this
-    time of Israelites, who left Jerusalem in the first year of the reign
-    of Zedekiah, King of Juda. They reached the Indian Ocean by following
-    the shores of the Red Sea, where they built a vessel which bore them
-    across the Pacific to the western coast of South America. Having
-    arrived in the new land of promise, they separated into two parties,
-    called Nephites and Laminites respectively, after their leaders. They
-    grew to be great nations and colonized North America also. Religious
-    strife sprang up between the two nations because of the wickedness
-    of the Laminites; the Nephites, however, adhered to their religious
-    traditions and the worship of the true God. Christ appeared in the new
-    world and by his ministrations converted many of both peoples to Him.
-    But towards the close of the fourth century of our era, both Laminites
-    and Nephites backslid in faith and became involved in a war with
-    each other which resulted in the extermination of the latter people.
-    The numerous tumuli scattered over the face of the country cover the
-    remains of the hundreds of thousands of warriors who fell in their
-    deadly strife. Mormon and his son Morani, the last of the Nephites
-    who escaped by concealment, deposited by divine command the annals of
-    their ancestors, the Book of Mormon written on tablets, in the hill of
-    Cumorah, Ontario County, New York, in the vicinity of which the last
-    battle of these relentless enemies took place.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>claim, of
-    course, merits mention only on the ground of its romantic character,
-    and not on the supposition for a moment that it contains a grain of
-    truth. The Phœnician and Carthaginian colonization of this continent
-    has been much discussed and credited by a larger number of Americanists
-    than any other theory, except that which refers the original population
-    to those parts of Asia adjacent to Alaska. This claim is based on the
-    maritime achievements of that nation of navigators. The three-year
-    voyages of Hiram and Solomon’s fleet to Ophir and Tarshish, has often
-    been made to do service for this theory. Ophir has most frequently
-    been placed by its advocates in Hayti or Peru.<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> Such speculations,
-    however, are incapable of proof, and are scarcely deserving of sober
-    consideration. The theory itself is one of the few that command
-    respectful attention, since tradition, history, and many facts in
-    natural science, seem to point to its probability.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> Mr. Bancroft
-    refers at some length to the voyage of Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator,
-    whose exploits beyond the pillars of Hercules, with a fleet of sixty
-    ships and thirty thousand men, is recorded in his <cite>Periplus</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>
-    With true critical insight, Mr. Bancroft rejects the opinion that
-    Hanno reached America, and thinks he only coasted along the shores of
-    Africa.<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> The only tradition preserved by the Americans is that of
-    the mysterious Votan, whom some have sought to assign to a Phœnician
-    nativity.<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Of late years the theory of the Phœnician colonization
-    has failed to receive its share of support from new writers. This
-    is owing probably to the fact that the labors of Mr. George Jones,
-    embodied in his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span><cite>Original History of Ancient America Founded on the
-    Ruins of Antiquity; the Identity of the Aborigines with the People of
-    Tyrus and Israel, and the Introduction of Christianity by the Apostle
-    St. Thomas</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> may have rendered all such support unnecessary. It
-    is more probable, however, that the assumption and credulity displayed
-    in this extraordinary work have discouraged any critical writer from
-    aspiring to the honor of having his name transmitted to posterity
-    as an advocate of the Phœnician theory, side by side with that of
-    the author of the Original History. We have no space to devote to so
-    positive a writer, except to state that he colonizes America with a
-    remnant of the inhabitants of Tyre who escaped from their island-city
-    when it was besieged by Alexander the Great in 332 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>
-    They sailed out beyond the Pillars of Hercules to their colonies in
-    the Canaries, whence the trade-winds bore them across the Atlantic to
-    the shores of Florida. Ezekiel xxvii. 26, is quoted as proof: “Thy
-    rowers have brought thee into great waters; the east wind hath broken
-    thee in the midst of the seas.”<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> The theory that the ancient
-    Americans descended from the Greeks has been incidentally advocated
-    by several authors, most of the arguments being based upon supposed
-    Greek inscriptions. Two advocates of the theory are, however, quite
-    decided in its defence, namely, Mr. Pidegeon<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> and Mr. Lafitau.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>
-    The latter <span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>believing that the ancient inhabitants of the Grecian
-    archipelago were driven from their country by Og, king of Bashan,
-    supposes the inhabitants of the new world descended from that people,
-    and cites numerous analogies of a political and social nature.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> No
-    claim has been advanced, we believe, which advocates an actual Egyptian
-    colonization of the new world, but strong arguments have been used
-    to show that the architecture and sculpture of Central America and
-    Mexico have been influenced from Egypt, if not attributable directly to
-    Egyptian artisans. These arguments are based on the resemblance between
-    the gigantic pyramids, the sculptured obelisks, and the numerous idols
-    of these pre-historic countries and those of Egypt. It requires no
-    practised eye to trace a resemblance in general features, though it
-    must be said that the details of American architecture and sculpture,
-    are peculiarly original in design.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> The principal advocate of
-    the theory, Delafield, has furnished many comparisons, but we think
-    no argument has been presented sufficiently supported by facts to
-    prove that American architecture and sculpture had any other than an
-    indigenous origin.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> Turning westward our attention is arrested
-    by the probability of the theory which claims that this continent
-    was peopled with the Tartars and nations occupying the regions of
-    North-western Asia. No one can consider the natural certainty of
-    long-continued communication between the two continents at Behring’s
-    Straits without being impressed with the truth that that narrow channel
-    served probably as the first highway between the old world and the new,
-    and <i>vice versa</i>. Certainly a part of the ancient population of
-    America came upon our soil at that quarter. Mr. Bancroft remarks: “The
-    customs, manner <span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>of life, and physical appearance of the natives on
-    both sides of the straits are identical, as a multitude of witnesses
-    testify, and it seems absurd to argue the question from any point. Of
-    course, Behring’s Strait may have served to admit other nations besides
-    the people inhabiting its shores into America, and in such cases there
-    is more room for discussion.”<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> Nearly as plausible is the theory
-    which claims that if the original population of this continent were not
-    Japanese, at least a considerable infusion of Japanese blood into the
-    original stock has taken place from time to time, either by intentional
-    colonization or by the accidents incident to navigation. The great
-    number of shipwrecks which are continually being cast upon our Pacific
-    coast by the Japanese current or Kuro-suvo are constant and substantial
-    witnesses to the reasonableness of the claim.<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Chinese colonization theory, unfortunately, does not date far
-    enough back to account for the oldest American civilization. It is
-    nevertheless remote enough, were it proven true, to considerably
-    antedate the Aztec and Inca periods. Upwards of a century ago the
-    learned French sinologist Deguignes announced that he had found in the
-    writings of early Chinese historians the statement that in the fifth
-    century of our era certain adventurers of their race had discovered
-    a country which they called Fusang.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> He further expressed it as
-    his opinion that the country described must be Western America, and
-    probably Mexico. The original document on which the Chinese historians
-    base their statements was the report of a Buddhist missionary named
-    Hoei-Shin, who in the year 499 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, claims to have returned
-    from a long journey of discovery to the remote and unknown east.
-    This report, whatever may be its intrinsic value, was accepted as
-    true by the Chinese, and found its way into the history of Li yan
-    tcheon—written at the beginning of the seventh century of our era. In
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>1841, Dr. Neumann, Professor of Oriental Languages and History at
-    Munich, after a residence of a couple of years at Canton, published a
-    translation of the narrative of Hoei-Shin with comments upon it.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> A
-    few of the most striking passages of the account given by this Buddhist
-    missionary are as follows: “Fusang is about 20,000 Chinese <i>li</i> in
-    an easterly direction from Tahan and east of the Middle Kingdom.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>
-    Many Fusang trees grow there whose leaves resemble the <i>Dryanda
-    cordifolia</i>; the sprouts, on the contrary, resemble those of the
-    bamboo tree, and are eaten by the inhabitants of the land. The fruit
-    is like a pear in form, but is red. From the bark they prepare a sort
-    of linen which they use for clothing, and also a sort of ornamental
-    stuff. The houses are built of wooden beams; fortified and walled
-    places are there unknown. They have written characters in this land,
-    and prepare paper from the bark of the Fusang. The people have no
-    weapons and make no wars, but in the arrangement of the kingdom, they
-    have a northern and southern prison. Trifling offenders are lodged in
-    the southern prison, but those confined for greater offences in the
-    northern. The name of the king is pronounced Ichi. The color of his
-    clothes changes with the different years. The horns of the oxen are so
-    large that they hold ten bushels. They use them to contain all manner
-    of things. Horses, oxen, and stags are harnessed to their wagons.
-    Stags are used here as cattle are used in the Middle Kingdom, and
-    from the milk of the hind they make butter. No iron is found in the
-    land; but copper, gold, and silver are not prized, and do not serve
-    as a medium of exchange in the market. Marriage is determined upon in
-    the following manner: the suitor builds himself a hut before the door
-    of the house where the one longed for dwells, and waters and cleans
-    the ground every evening.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> When a year has passed by, if the maiden
-    is not inclined to marry him he departs; should she be willing it is
-    completed. In earlier times these people lived not according to the
-    laws of Buddha, but it happened that in the second year—named ‘Great
-    Light’ of Song (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 458)—five beggar-monks from the kingdom
-    of Kipin went to this land, extended over it the religion of Buddha,
-    and with it his early writings and images. They instructed the people
-    in the principles of monastic life, and so changed their manners.”<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>
-    Dr. Neumann does not claim that the Chinese Fusang tree is identical
-    with the Maguay plant, but that the resemblance between it and the
-    great numbers of the latter found in Mexico suggested a name for the
-    country to the discoverer. The uncertainty as to the distance, arising
-    out of our inability to determine what was considered the length of a
-    Chinese <i>li</i> in the fifth century, is of course an obstacle to the
-    satisfactory solution of the question. The amusing and preposterous
-    statement as to the size of the horns of oxen is no argument against
-    the general truth of the narrative, since we have no data from which
-    to determine the capacity of the measure, the name of which is here
-    translated bushel, since the widest possible difference exists between
-    the ancient and modern Chinese tables of measurement. The references to
-    horses and oxen are perplexing, and give the narrative the air either
-    of imposture or mistake, since both were brought to America first by
-    the Spaniards.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> The argument by the opponents of this theory that
-    Fusang was Japan stands on a very slender foundation, since at a very
-    early period, centuries before our era, Japan afforded naval stations
-    for Chinese ships.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> Klaproth, and later Dr. E. Bretschneider,
-    designated the island of Tarakai, known as Saghalien on our maps, as
-    the Fusang of Hoei-Schin.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>M. D’Eichthal and Professor Neumann
-    have both made able arguments in defence of the authenticity and
-    reasonableness of this claim, but there are too many uncertainties
-    about it to admit of its unqualified acceptance. We are more disposed
-    to give credence to the theory that the Chinese discovered America at
-    a very early day, than to attach much importance to the particular
-    account of that discovery by Hoei-Shin. The theory is a good one,
-    with an abundance of geographical and ethnological testimony in its
-    favor.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Closely allied to the Chinese theory is that so enthusiastically
-    advocated by Ranking, who maintains that the Mongol emperor Kublai
-    Khan, in the thirteenth century sent a large fleet against Japan, but
-    that the vast armada was destroyed by a tempest, and a portion of
-    its ships were wrecked on the shores of Peru.<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> The first Inca he
-    believes was the son of Kublai Khan. It is a well-known fact that the
-    Mongol fleet was dispersed by a storm, but there are grave objections
-    to the opinion that any of the vessels were cast upon the shores of
-    South America. No tradition was found among the Peruvians only three
-    centuries later concerning the Incas or any other people having reached
-    their shores by the accident of shipwreck, or who could be identified
-    as of Asiatic origin. It is true the Incas may have designed to keep
-    their human origin as well as their misfortunes a secret, that they
-    might the better set up their claim to imperial and divine honors among
-    the people whom they sought to subjugate by that most powerful ally to
-    ambition—superstition. Mr. Ranking wrote a very plausible book, but
-    often fell into errors of credulity and unrestrained enthusiasm which
-    leaves many of his statements open to suspicion. The theory cannot be
-    accepted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>without additional and more satisfactory proof.<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> Should
-    it prove to be true, it certainly cannot throw light upon the origin of
-    the population, but only on a phase of civilization. Humboldt, Tschudi,
-    Viollet-le-Duc, Count Stolberg and other writers have pointed out
-    striking analogies between the religion of Southern Asia, especially
-    of India and that of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> If the argument from analogy is to
-    be relied on, there is abundant reason to believe that Buddhism in a
-    modified form had permeated the religious systems of the new world with
-    its mystic element besides grafting upon them some of its better and
-    more humane institutions.</p>
-
-  <p>These are all the colonization claims worth mentioning, which date
-    back far enough to account for the ancient civilization. Of the
-    second class (those too recent to have made much impression on the
-    existing state of things) there are three. The earliest of these as
-    to date, is the claim which credits the Irish with the colonization
-    of the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida. “White-Man’s
-    Land,” so often located in this country, is no doubt imaginary. The
-    obscure and unsatisfactory chronicle which forms the basis of this
-    claim destroys its own authority by the statement that White-Man’s
-    Land was six days’ sail from Ireland.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> Another legend set forth by
-    Broughton, which claims that St. Patrick preached the Gospel in the
-    “Isles of America,” carries its own refutation upon its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>face by the
-    use of the word America in its text.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The Scandinavian discovery
-    of America is a well-known fact, and requires no discussion here. The
-    <cite>Codex Flatioiensis</cite>, as expounded by the learned Prof. Rafn in
-    the <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, has, no doubt, set at rest the whole
-    matter. Humboldt, in reviewing the evidence upon which the claim is
-    founded, sums it up in these words: “The discovery of the northern
-    part of America by the Northmen cannot be disputed. The length of the
-    voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the sun’s
-    rising and setting, are accurately given. While the caliphate of Bagdad
-    was still flourishing under the Abbassides, and while the rule of the
-    Samanides, so favorable to poetry, still flourished in Persia, America
-    was discovered about the year 1000 by Lief, son of Eric the Red, at
-    about 41½° north latitude.” No evidence of a substantial character has
-    been produced to show that the Scandinavians left any impress upon the
-    American civilization. It is true, Brasseur de Bourbourg, when he first
-    began his labors in the field of American archæology expressed such
-    an opinion, but we believe he never repeated it in the latter years
-    of his life.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> The learned Abbé was guilty of many contradictions,
-    and this may be considered one of them. The most positive claims in
-    this direction are advanced by two recent authors, M. Gravier<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> and
-    Prof. Anderson,<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> the former attributing the Aztec civilization to
-    Norse influence. He cites the discovery in Brazil of an ancient city
-    near Bahia, in which was found the statue of a man pointing with his
-    forefinger to the North Pole; of course, according to M. Gravier, he
-    was a Northman.<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> Several authorities for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>the discovery of Norse
-    remains in the United States might be cited, but the unwarrantable
-    arguments of most of them add nothing to the already established
-    fact of Norse colonization in the tenth century of our era. Another
-    Pre-Columbian claim to the discovery of America is that which declares
-    Madoc-Ap-owen and his Welsh countrymen to have reached this continent
-    in 1170 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> The chronicle on which the claim is based, is
-    wanting in authority. A translation of it, taken from a history of
-    Wales by Dr. Powell, was published by Hakluyt, in 1589. As this claim
-    can have no relation to our subject, we refrain from a discussion of it
-    here.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> The only remaining theory, and probably the most important
-    of all, because of its purely scientific character, which presents
-    itself for our consideration, is that which not only considers the
-    civilization of ancient America to have been indigenous, but also
-    claims the inhabitants themselves to have been autochthonic; in a word,
-    that by process of evolution or in some other way, the first Americans
-    were either developed from a lower order in the animal kingdom or were
-    created on the soil of this continent. As the latter theory involves a
-    denial of the unity of the race, it requires a separate and critical
-    examination.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_IV"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IV</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICANS AS VIEWED FROM THE STANDPOINT OF SCIENCE.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Origin Theories—Indigenous Origin—Separate Creation Theory—Dr.
-    Morton’s Theory—Agassiz’s Views—Dr. Morton’s Cranial
-    Measurements Classified—Prof. Wilson’s Measurements—Dr.
-    Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity Groundless—Ethnic
-    Relationships—Typical Mound-skull—Crania from the
-    River Rouge—Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements—Crania
-    from Kentucky—Researches in Tennessee by Prof.
-    Jones—Measurements—Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania from
-    Tennessee Mounds—Low Type Crania from the Mounds—Development
-    Observable in Mound Crania—Head-Flattening Derived from
-    Asia—Diseases of the Mound-builders—Physiognomy of the Ancient
-    Americans—Languages—Evolution and its Bearing on the Origin of
-    the American—Darwin and Hæckel on the Indigenous American—The
-    Autochthonic Hypothesis Groundless—Unity of the Human
-    Family—Accepted Chronology Faulty.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">THE want of evidence for the theories which designate particular
-    nations as the first colonizers of the Western Continent, long ago
-    produced a feeling of distrust, which led some to repudiate all claims
-    for the foreign origin of the first inhabitants of this continent. This
-    theory, which claims for the most ancient inhabitants an autochthonic
-    origin, has had from time to time among its advocates some of the
-    most respectable ethnologists. The character of their attainments,
-    and in many cases their arguments in behalf of this most remarkable
-    hypothesis, command the respect of all who are interested in this
-    fascinating field of speculation.</p>
-
-  <p>At first it was maintained that the Creator had placed an original
-    pair of human beings here, as Scripture teaches that He did in the old
-    world.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> Other writers equally confident that the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>first ancestors
-    of the American race were indigenous, have not so definitely expressed
-    themselves as to the manner of their origin.<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> The most recent phase
-    of the autochthonic theory is that which designates evolution as the
-    means by which the continent was populated with human beings, developed
-    from its own fauna. This latter question is now the most absorbing
-    of all that occupy <span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>the attention of the American Anthropologists.
-    But to go back to the separate creation view, we find it expressed in
-    general and unscientific utterances at first, mostly based on the hasty
-    observation of travellers who, in many cases, had little knowledge
-    of anthropologic or ethnic principles. In fact, the subject was not
-    fairly discussed and its advocacy based on satisfactory investigation
-    until the justly celebrated Dr. Samuel G. Morton, of Philadelphia,
-    issued his <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, containing the results of the most
-    diligent researches on the skulls of the Mound-builders, Mexicans,
-    Peruvians, and many of the known tribes of the Red Indians. In the face
-    of abundant proof among the crania of his own splendid collection, and
-    contrary to the testimony of his numerous measurements, which have
-    often since been used against his theory, this diligent investigator
-    arrived at the conclusion that the Americans were a distinct race,
-    originated in this continent, having a uniform cranial type (excepting
-    only the Eskimo), from the Arctic Circle to Patagonia.</p>
-
-  <p>A division, however, of this supposed homogeneous race was made by this
-    author into Toltecan and Barbarous nations; the former appellative
-    comprising all the semi-civilized peoples, while the latter embraced
-    the wild tribes. All were believed to have had the same origin and to
-    belong to the same cranial type. “It is curious to observe, however,”
-    remarks Dr. Morton, “that the Barbarous nations possess a larger brain
-    by five and a half cubic inches than the Toltecans; while, on the
-    other hand, the Toltecans possess a greater relative capacity of the
-    anterior chamber of the skull in the proportion of 42.3 to 41.8. Again
-    the coronal region, though absolutely greater in the Barbarous tribes,
-    is rather larger in proportion in the semi-civilized tribes; and the
-    facial-angle is much the same in both, and may be assumed for the race
-    at 75°.”<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> In conclusion, the author is of the opinion that the
-    facts contained in his work tend to sustain the following propositions:
-    (1) “That the American race differs essentially from all others, not
-    excepting the Mongolian; nor do the feeble analogies of language, and
-    the more obvious ones in civil and religious institutions and the
-    arts, denote anything beyond <span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>casual or colonial communication with
-    the Asiatic nations; and even these analogies may perhaps be accounted
-    for, as Humboldt suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from
-    similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes.”
-    (2) “That the American nations, excepting the Polar tribes, are one
-    race and one species, but of two great families which resemble each
-    other in physical, but differ in intellectual character.” (3) “That
-    the cranial remains discovered in the mounds, from Peru to Wisconsin,
-    belong to the same race and probably to the Toltecan family.”<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>
-    Among the several ethnologists and naturalists who accepted without
-    question the conclusions reached by Morton, the chief was Agassiz,
-    who adopted them as auxiliary to his theory of the correspondence of
-    human life with certain associations in the animal kingdom.<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> They
-    served as a sure foundation, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>so far as this continent is concerned,
-    for his opinion that the races originated in nations. “We maintain,”
-    says the eminent naturalist, “that, like all organized beings, mankind
-    cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been
-    created in that numerical harmony which is characteristic of each
-    species. Men must have originated in <em>nations</em>, as the bees have
-    originated in swarms, and as the different social plants have covered
-    the extensive tracts over which they have naturally spread.”<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>
-    This view has been enlarged upon by Messrs. Nott and Gliddon, who
-    argue that, “if it be conceded that there were two primitive pairs of
-    human beings, no reason can be assigned why there may not have been
-    hundreds.”<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> The uniqueness of the so-called American race not only
-    fails of proof, but is positively disproven by the measurements of
-    crania accompanying Morton’s plates, and any thoughtful person cannot
-    avoid surprise that so distinguished a scholar as Agassiz should
-    have committed himself to a theory without first submitting it to a
-    crucial test. That there is a great variety of type observable among
-    the crania figured by Morton, even a superficial examination will
-    show, while a more careful classification presents several facts of
-    interest. For this classification we consider the simple division of
-    the crania into long and short skulls sufficient. The question of other
-    divisions has been often discussed, but with Mr. Huxley we content
-    ourselves with the simplest classification. Referring to a particular
-    instance, he says, “taking the antero-posterior diameter as 100, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>the
-    transverse diameter varies from 98 or 99 to 62. The number which thus
-    expresses the proportion of the transverse to the longitudinal diameter
-    of the brain-case is called the <em>cephalic index</em>. Those people
-    who possess crania with a cephalic index of 80 and above are called
-    <em>brachycephali</em> (short-skulled), those with a lower index are
-    <em>dolichocephali</em> (long-skulled).”<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> Dr. Meigs, while accepting
-    the classification into long and short skulls, admits that it is open
-    to the objection that it forces into either and opposite classes crania
-    closely related to each other in type and measurement.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Yet it must
-    be admitted, that in proportion as arbitrary divisions are increased,
-    these difficulties are multiplied, and that this simple, twofold
-    classification presents the fewest.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> In the following tables, which
-    contain all the measurements accompanying the plates in the <cite>Crania
-    Americana</cite>, the <em>cephalic index</em> is placed in the left-hand
-    column. That a wide difference of type is apparent between the extremes
-    of the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic measurements, certainly
-    cannot be denied.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span></p>
-
-  <table class="small mt3" summary="Dolichocephalic Crania 1">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="13" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div><b>(<i>A</i>) DOLICHOCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION LESS THAN 80 TO 100.</b></div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Extreme Length of Head and Face.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Interior Capacity.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="1" class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Cap. of<br />Anterior<br />Chamber.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">66.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">7.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">64.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">17.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>IV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">81.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">31.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">67</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>V</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.</td>
-        <td class="bl">65.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">19.7</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">78.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">30.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">89.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">52.?</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">82.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">81.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">94.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">43.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">21.</td>
-        <td class="bl">90.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">16.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">22.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">98.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">71.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">26.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.</td>
-        <td class="bl">78.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">65.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">93.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">92.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">36.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">74.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">32.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">76.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XL</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">13.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">77.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">38.?</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">86.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">74.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.</td>
-        <td class="bl">85.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.2</td>
-        <td class="bl"></td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">84.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">32.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl bb">74.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb">....</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl bb">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">19.9</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">82.6</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb">32.8</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="13" class="tdc bl bt bb br pt1 pb1"><div>* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements
-          in lineal inches.</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <table class="small mt3" summary="Dolichocephalic Crania 2">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div>(<i>A</i>) DOLICHOCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION LESS THAN 80 TO 100.<br />(Continued)</div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Posterior Chamber.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Coronal Region.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br">REMARKS.</th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">66.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Peruvian Child from Atacama (ancient).</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>IV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">50.</td>
-        <td class="bl">16.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>73°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Ancient Peruvian Cemetery near Arica.</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">67</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>V</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>61°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Peruvian.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">48.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Female Skull from Acapacingo, Mexico. Supposed Ancient Tiahuica.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">37.?</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.?</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole Warrior from Florida.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Cherokee Warrior.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVII</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Uchee.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">51.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>84°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Chippeway (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">56.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Miami Chief (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">62.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Potowatamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.</td>
-        <td class="bl"></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Naumkeag from Massachusetts.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">16.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Female Lenapé or Delaware.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">65.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">58.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Cayuga Chief 150 years old (Iroquois).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">72.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">56.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>74°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Oneida (Iroquois).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">73.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">41.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">9.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Huron Chief.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">76.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XL</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">44.?</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Black Foot.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LI</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Supposed Mound-builder, Circleville Mound.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">74.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LII</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>79°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Supposed Mound-builder from a Mississippi River Mound.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXI</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">75.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Charib of Venezuela.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">79.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXV</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Charib of St. Vincent.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">78.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">52.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Arucanian Chief, Chili.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl bb">74.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb">....</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">49.2</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">15.3</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">76°</td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br bb">Mean.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="6" class="tdc bl bt bb br pt1 pb1"><div>* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements
-          in lineal inches.</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p>
-
-  <table class="small mt3" summary="Brachycephalic Crania 1">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="13" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div><b>(<i>B</i>) BRACHYCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION, 80 AND
-          UPWARDS TO 100.</b></div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Extreme Length of Head and Face.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Interior Capacity.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Cap. of<br />Anterior<br />Chamber.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">66.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">7.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">64.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">17.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>III</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">72.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">26.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">83.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">67.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">28.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">100.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">61.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VIII &amp; IX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">71.7</td>
-        <td class="bl br">28.7</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">16.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">83.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI A</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">16.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">89.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">34.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">92.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI B</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="bl">76.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">30.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI C</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="bl">77.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">28.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI D</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">68.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">83.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">39.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">89.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII A</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="bl">74.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">28.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">77.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">30.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.</td>
-        <td class="bl">85.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">39.2</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">93.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">91.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">44.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">94.7</td>
-        <td class="bl br">42.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">82.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">86.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">36.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">91.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">40.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">13.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">70.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">31.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">85.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">85.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">36.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">90.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">83.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">37.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">74.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">33.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">88.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.</td>
-        <td class="bl">69.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">32.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">96.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.</td>
-        <td class="bl">70.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">30.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">91.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">21.</td>
-        <td class="bl">92.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">34.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">78.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">26.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">92.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">7.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">79.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">36.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">7.</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">75.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">28.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">99.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6?</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">111.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">5.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">87.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">74.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">30.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">15.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">79.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">29.5</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">86.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">3.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">76.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">34.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">74.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">76.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">&nbsp;....</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.3</td>
-        <td class="bl">81.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">35.2</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.4</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">77.</td>
-        <td class="bl br">32.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">6.8</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">5.1</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">14.6</td>
-        <td class="bl">4.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.9</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">79.5</td>
-        <td class="bl br">37.1</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="13" class="bl bt bb br pt1 pb1">Forty Skulls.<span class="ml10">* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements
-          in lineal inches.</span></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <table class="small mt3" summary="Brachycephalic Crania 2">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div>(<i>B</i>) BRACHYCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION, 80 AND
-          UPWARDS TO 100.<br />(Continued)</div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Posterior Chamber.</i>*</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Coronal Region.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br">REMARKS.</th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">66.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Peruvian Child from Atacama (ancient).</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>III</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">46.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>68°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Peruvian from Lake Titicaca.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">83.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">39.</td>
-        <td class="bl">10.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Chimuyan, Peru.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">100.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VII</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian Child.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>VIII &amp; IX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">43.</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian Female from Temple of Sun, near Lima.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">49.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI A</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">55.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">20.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">92.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI B</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">46.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">98.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI C</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">49.</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI D</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">35.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">44.</td>
-        <td class="bl">17.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Mexican from Cerro de Quesilas.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">56.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Mexican from Tacuba.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII A</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">46.</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Mexican Indian from Pamas tribe.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">From an Ancient Tomb near Mexico.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>71°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Chetimaches from Cemetery in St. Mary’s parish, Louisiana.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">57.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">25.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole Warrior.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.4</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">52.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Skull of the Chief of the Creek Indians.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">82.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">50.</td>
-        <td class="bl">15.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>79°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Menominee Female (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">51.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">12.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Ottogamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">39.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">10.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Pawnee Female from the Platte River.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">85.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">49.</td>
-        <td class="bl">16.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Dakota Warrior.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">90.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Osage.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">41.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Chinouk (natural form).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>88.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">36.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">9.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Chinouk (artificially flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">96.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">40.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Klalstonl of Oregon, (artificially flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">91.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLV</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">58.</td>
-        <td class="bl">19.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>73°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Killemook Chief. Oregon (artificially flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">59.</td>
-        <td class="bl">8.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Clalsap, Columbia River (artificially flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">92.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">51.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>68°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Kalapooyah, on Oregon River (artificial).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">42.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Clickitat from Columbia River (artificially flat.)</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIX</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">47.</td>
-        <td class="bl">6.2</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>66°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Cowalitek, Columbia River (artificially flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">99.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIII</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Grave Creek Mound.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">111.8</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIV</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">From an Alabama River Mound. Supposed Natchez (flattened).</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LV</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Mound in Tennessee.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVI</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">44.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.5</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>71°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Mound at Santa Peru.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">81.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">49.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Tumulus in the Valley of Rimac, Peru.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">86.1</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">42.5</td>
-        <td class="bl">13.7</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>74°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Mound Skull, Valley of Rimac, Peru.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">84.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIX</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">From an Ancient Tomb at Ottumba, Mexico.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">89.3</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LX</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.7</td>
-        <td class="bl">18.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Cave at Golconda, Illinois.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">80.6</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVIII</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.</td>
-        <td class="bl">11.9</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Arucanian Chief from Chili.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl">87.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">45.</td>
-        <td class="bl">14.2</td>
-        <td class="bl">75°31&#x2060;´</td>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">Mean.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="6" class="bl bt bb br pt1 pb1">Forty Skulls.<span class="ml10">* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements
-          in lineal inches.</span></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p>
-
-  <p>It will be observed that the widest range is found between the
-    proportions of the skull of the Cayuga chief 100 years old (Plate XXXV)
-    with a cephalic index of only 65.4, and those of some of the Peruvian
-    crania having a cephalic index of over 98. The supposed Natchez skull
-    (Plate LIV) is so artificially flattened as to exclude it from the
-    calculation. The mean cephalic index of each of the tables exhibits a
-    well-defined type of the long and the short skull respectively. The
-    former 74.7 and the latter 87 are both far enough removed from the
-    dividing line (80) to leave no doubt that the types are distinct and
-    separate. Additional data, materially strengthening the conclusion of
-    the variety of types found among American crania, has been furnished by
-    that eminent authority Dr. Daniel Wilson.<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The following table of
-    measurements in inches is based upon his extensive researches:</p>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements ">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bt bl"><i>No. of<br />Crania in<br />each Class.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl"><i>Description of Crania.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl"><i>Mean<br />Longitudinal<br />Diameter.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl"><i>Mean<br />Parietal<br />Diameter.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl br"><i>Cephalic<br />Index.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdl bt bl">Mound Crania (two from Morton, four undoubtedly from the mounds).</td>
-        <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>6.54</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>5.67</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bt bl br"><div>86.7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cave Crania.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.62</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.78</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>85.7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Peruvian Brachycephalic Crania.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.97</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.12</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>85.7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Peruvian Dolichocephalic Crania.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.49</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.95</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>76.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Mexican Dolichocephalic Crania.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.05</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.41</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>76.7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Mexican Brachycephalic Crania.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.56</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.51</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>84.0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>31</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Dolichocephalic Crania of Am. Indians.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.24</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.47</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>75.5</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>22</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Brachycephalic Crania of Am. Indians.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.62</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.45</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>82.3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Living Algonquins, Brachycephalæ.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.25</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>82.7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>39</div></td>
-        <td class="bl bb">West Canadian Hurons (male).</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.39</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>74.4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>It requires no careful examination of these figures to observe that the
-    type of skull among the American aborigines, ancient or modern, was in
-    no sense constant, since among the same tribes long and short skulls
-    occur in almost equal numbers. This fact is especially true among the
-    savage Indians. Among the semi-civilized nations, however, as among the
-    Peruvians and Mexicans, the long and short skulls mark the successive
-    existence and destruction of distinct peoples having physiological
-    characteristics peculiar to themselves. The Peruvian elongated crania
-    are always found with large-boned skeletons having strong hands, while
-    the short or rounded crania accompany very small bones, such as were
-    unable to endure labor like the building of pyramids and the erection
-    of such edifices as are found in Peru.<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p>
-
-  <p>It is with the utmost deference to the genius, and with full
-    recognition of the valuable researches of Dr. Morton, that we disagree
-    with his conclusions and pronounce his theory without foundation in
-    fact. There is no evidence furnished by the measurement of crania
-    that an American race, as unique in itself and distinct from the rest
-    of mankind, ever existed.<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> One of the most interesting studies
-    connected with these tables, as well as other measurements made
-    more recently, is the question of relationship between the various
-    semi-civilized peoples of the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>period. First and most naturally
-    the type of the mound crania attracts attention, and calls for
-    comparisons with the Indian type and with that of the remarkable people
-    of the more southern civilization.</p>
-
-  <p>The “Scioto Mound” skull figured by Dr. Davis in Plates xlvii and
-    xlviii of <i>The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</i>, was
-    pronounced by Dr. Morton in Dr. Meigs’ catalogue of the human crania in
-    the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, as
-    “perhaps the most admirably formed head of the American race hitherto
-    discovered.”</p>
-
-  <p>The most important measurements are as follows:</p>
-
-  <table class="mt2 mb2" summary="Scioto Mound skull measurements ">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Longitudinal diameter</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>inches.</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Parietal&nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Vertical&nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Inter-mastoid arch</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>16.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Horizontal circumference</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>19.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>——</div></td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Cephalic index</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>92.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>The chief features as pointed out by the above-named author, are: the
-    elevated vertex, flattened occiput, great inter-parietal diameter,
-    ponderous bony structure, salient nose, large jaws and broad face.
-    These he pronounces to be characteristics of the American cranium. Dr.
-    Wilson has shown that Dr. Morton has contradicted his own previous
-    definition of what that type is as well as the description given by
-    Humboldt.<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> The propriety of selecting any single cranium as typical
-    of the Mound-builders would be as questionable in this connection as
-    it was for Dr. Morton and the authors of the <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>
-    to designate the Scioto Mound skull as a type of the American cranium.
-    Until within a few years but few genuine mound skulls were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>accessible,
-    and considerable suspicion was reasonably attached to the genuineness
-    of several, including three or four of the so-called mound skulls in
-    the <cite>Crania Americana</cite>. Recent explorations have brought to light
-    a large number, of unquestioned genuineness. The Peabody Museum alone
-    possesses 300, and of these 200 were exhumed by Prof. F. W. Putnam.</p>
-
-  <p>From a number of measurements only is it possible for us to approximate
-    the type of the mound skull. We have already referred to the low
-    type skulls secured by Gen. H. W. Thomas from a mound in Dakota
-    Territory.<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> Unfortunately we are without measurements, but from
-    the description we observe that the forehead is decidedly receding,
-    and the orbital ridges are excessively developed. The inferior
-    maxillary is of unusual prominence and much more massive, as is the
-    entire bony structure, than in the common Indian cranium. Another
-    cranium of similar characteristic was exhumed from the great mound on
-    the River Rouge near its junction with the Detroit River, Michigan,
-    by Mr. Henry Gillman. From this mound several crania were taken, of
-    which one (though evidently adult) presented the hitherto, I think I
-    may say, unprecedented feature of its capacity being only fifty-six
-    cubic inches. The mean given by Morton and Meigs of the Indian cranium
-    is eighty-four cubic inches, the minimum being sixty-nine cubic
-    inches. This cranium, forwarded with other relics to the Peabody
-    Museum, presents (though in no wise deformed) the further peculiarity
-    of having the ridges for the attachment of the temporal muscle only
-    .75 of an inch apart, in this respect resembling the cranium of the
-    chimpanzee. It is rarely that in human crania those ridges approach
-    each other within a distance of two inches, while they vary from that
-    to four inches apart.<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Eight crania were exhumed by Mr. Gillman
-    from the great mound on Rouge River, which furnished him the following
-    measurements:</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center bold mt2 mb1">DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF CRANIA EXHUMED FROM THE GREAT MOUND, RIVER ROUGE, MICHIGAN.</div>
-
-  <table class="small mb2" summary="Dimensions of Crania">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bt" rowspan="16"><i>No.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity (Approximate).</i><a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Circumference.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Height.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth of Frontal.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Height.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of<br />Foramen<br />Magnum.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.65</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.35</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.02</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.822</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.733</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.465</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.712</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.767</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.547</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.95</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.777</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.800</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.500</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.47</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.77</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.07</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.763</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.801</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.479</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.54</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.70</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.94</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.74</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.681</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.716</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.23</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>22.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.80</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.80</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.63</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.63</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.853</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.828</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.397</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.82</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.62</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.01</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.739</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.736</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.473</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.93</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.35</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.03</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.55</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.08</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.940</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.037</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.605</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>Means.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>17.84</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>19.48</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>6.93</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.01</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>.786</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>.802</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt br bb"><div>.495</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <table class="small mb2" summary="Dimensions of Crania">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bt bb" rowspan="16"><i>No.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipital Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Frontal.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Parietal.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Occipital.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Zygomatic<br />Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.<a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.65</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2.<a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.80</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.75</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.35</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.95</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.20</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.65</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>10.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.85</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.45</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.<a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>10.25</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.95</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.70</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.00</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.<a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.00</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.85</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.60</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.85</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.00</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.<a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.50</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.80</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>Means.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>11.80</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>12.16</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>11.16</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>14.30</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.01</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.90</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.54</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br bt bb"><div>4.93</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The fragments of a cranium, consisting chiefly of a
-    very retreating frontal, and presenting traits of a low and brutal
-    character, reminding one of the Neanderthal skull, were found
-    underneath the above tabulated crania.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p>
-
-  <p>We observe that only three of these crania are brachycephalic, while
-    the remaining five, and the mean of all, fall under the class of
-    dolichocephalic crania, according to our classification. Mr. Gillman
-    would call some of them Orthocephalic, and the mean of the eight crania
-    giving a cephalic index of .786 and .802 as an index of height might
-    properly be so classified. The same gentleman exhumed from an ancient
-    mound on Chambers Island, Green Bay, Wisconsin, six crania, which as
-    to type were equally divided into long and short skulls, while the
-    mean cephalic index, .817, assigned them to the brachycephalic class.
-    The long skulls were not far removed, however, from the dividing line
-    between the classes (.80). The energetic and intelligent labors of
-    Dr. R. J. Farquharson of the Davenport, Iowa, Academy of Sciences,
-    has placed within our reach measurements upon twenty-five mound
-    crania.<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> The following are the most important measurements in
-    inches:</p>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Wisconsin crania">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th rowspan="6" class="bt bb bl br">CRANIA.</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Circumference.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Transverse Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Internal Capacity.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Cephalic Index<br />or Ratio<br />of Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Nine Crania from Albany, Ill.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>68.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.768</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Eleven from Rock River, Ill.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>74.48</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.771</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Four from Henry County, Ill.</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>74.47</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.743</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl bb">One from Davenport</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>19.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.25</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>76.20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>.752</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>This table introduces a new feature into the investigation in hand;
-    the brachycephalic or the near approximation to the short skull is
-    displaced by a mean cephalic index of .758, indicating the well-marked
-    dolichocephalic type. The mean internal capacity 73.3 inches falls
-    considerably below the mean of mound crania as measured by Squier and
-    Davis, Wilson and others, from localities farther south.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p>
-
-  <p>The mean results of Dr. Farquharson’s measurements<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> show a greater
-    vertical than transverse diameter, a peculiarity of most Mississippi
-    mound skulls, distinguishing them from Peruvian crania. In the Ohio
-    Valley the brachycephalic type is quite decided, though the general
-    features of high receding forehead, flattened occiput, and great
-    transverse diameter, establish their relationship to all other North
-    American mound crania yet discovered. Three Ohio Valley mound skulls,
-    as to the genuineness of which no suspicion can be entertained, namely
-    the Scioto Mound cranium and two crania from the Grave Creek Mound,
-    give the following measurements in the mean: Longitudinal <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>diameter,
-    6.5 inches; parietal diameter, 6 inches; vertical diameter, 5.5 inches,
-    and 90.7 as their cephalic index. The mean internal capacity, though
-    not obtainable with any degree of accuracy, in this instance is no
-    doubt from eight to ten cubic inches greater than in the Davenport
-    crania. With the general characteristics alike, minor differences may
-    in most instances be attributed to artificial pressure. A valuable
-    collection of mound crania was made in Kentucky for the Smithsonian
-    Institution and the Peabody Museum, by Mr. S. S. Lyon, and is
-    thoroughly reliable as a basis for measurements. Professor Wyman, in
-    the <cite>Fourth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite>, describes them
-    as follows: “The twenty-four crania measured (Table VIII) show a mean
-    capacity of 1313 cubic centimetres, which is greater than that of the
-    Peruvians, but less than that of the North American Indians generally
-    (viz., 1376 cubic centimetres, or 84 cubic inches). They differ also
-    from those of the ordinary Indians in being lighter, less massive,
-    in having the rough surface for muscular attachments less strongly
-    marked. * * * In proportions they present a very considerable variation
-    among themselves. Assuming the length of the skull to be 1.000,
-    the breadth ranges from 0.712 to 0.950 of the length. The average
-    proportion is 0.857, which places them in the short-headed group.”</p>
-
-  <p>We have already called attention to the extensive and thorough
-    work performed by Professor Joseph Jones in Tennessee, the report
-    of which was published in 1876 by the Smithsonian Institution in a
-    “contribution” entitled <cite>Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains
-    of Tennessee</cite>. Professor Jones secured above a hundred mound and
-    stone grave crania, mostly in the valley of the Cumberland and on the
-    banks of the Big Harpeth River. Some of the skeletons accompanying
-    these crania were of gigantic stature, a fact which is at variance
-    with the opinion that they were related to the diminutive race of Inca
-    Peruvians.<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a>
-    On the contrary, however, a strong argument for the
-    relationship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> between the Mound-builders and the Peruvians is found in
-    the frequent occurrence of the Inca-bone (<i>os inca</i>) so-called,
-    on the mound crania.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a>
-    Mr. Henry Gillman found this same bone in
-    one of the crania exhumed by him from the great mound of Rouge River,
-    Michigan, with a disposition to its formation in several others.<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>
-    Professor Jones is convinced of the unity of the mound race throughout
-    the entire Mississippi Basin. The following table of measurements,
-    published in the <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, is one of the most
-    valuable which has yet been prepared:</p>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements Tennessee">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Cranium.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle in Degrees.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Internal Capacity in Cubic Inches.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter in Inches.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Diameter of<br />Head and Face.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Zygomatic<br />Diameter.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.1</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>84.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>68.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.6</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>103.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>78.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>79.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>76.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>90.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>77.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>92.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>79.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>17</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>79.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>81.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>21</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>Max.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>82.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>103.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>Min.</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>75.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>68.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.6</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>Mean</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>78.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>81.44</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>6.5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.68</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4.21</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.56</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15.0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4.57</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>13.88</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>19.8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>5.2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>The most noticeable feature in the table aside from the mean cephalic
-    index .874 is the great internal capacity of cranium No. 7, which was
-    found in a stone grave in a mound near Nashville, with a skeleton over
-    six feet long. The occiput is but slightly flattened, and the general
-    contour of the head is symmetrically <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>oval. Morton gives as the mean
-    internal capacity of fifty-two Caucasian skulls 87 cubic inches; the
-    largest of the series measured 109 cubic inches, and the smallest 75
-    cubic inches. This remarkable cranium gives an internal capacity of 103
-    cubic inches, vastly above the mean European skull, and only falling
-    six cubic inches below the largest measured by Morton. As we observed
-    a considerable increase in capacity in the Scioto Mound cranium,
-    with its ninety cubic inches, over the crania of the north-west and
-    north, of Michigan and Davenport, so here a most remarkable advance
-    upon the capacity of the Scioto cranium is presented. The evidence of
-    considerable development in the size of the cranium in this same race
-    is clear; and taken with other testimony, such as the great improvement
-    in art and architecture, indicates probably a movement from north to
-    south, and that the mound race was older in the former region than in
-    the latter.</p>
-
-  <p>In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss exhumed
-    sixty-seven crania from stone graves located in the neighborhood of
-    Nashville, Tennessee. These crania were measured by Miss Jennie Smith
-    and Mr. Lucian Carr, and the latter has tabulated and described them
-    in the <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite> (pp. 361
-    <i>et seq.</i>, Cambridge, 1878). As some interesting features occur
-    in the tables, we insert here Mr. Carr’s mean measurements. It will be
-    observed that the classification in this instance is threefold, besides
-    the distinct position assigned to the “much flattened” crania.</p>
-
-  <div class="small center mt2 bold">MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF SIXTY-SEVEN CRANIA FROM STONE GRAVES IN TENNESSEE.</div>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements from stone graves">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bt">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bt">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Crania.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Height.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Height.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Width of Frontal.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br">&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Dolichocephali</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1325</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>184</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>132</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>142</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.716</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.775</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>94</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br">.730 and under.&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br">&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Orthocephali</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1346</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>172</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>134</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>141</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.775</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.819</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>89</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br">.740 @ .800</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>28</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br">&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Brachycephali</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1284</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>165</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>141</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>142</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.856</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>.865</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>90</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br">.800 @ .900</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br">&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="bl bb">Much Flattened</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1461</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>156</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>152</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>145</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.973</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.907</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>93</div></td>
-        <td class="bl br bb">.900 and over.</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>Mr. Carr calls attention to the fact that while the classified crania
-    as a whole are brachycephali, still from twenty-three to thirty-three
-    per cent. of the whole cannot be considered as falling within that
-    group. Whether the five dolichocephali in the table belonged to the
-    same race cannot be determined. They were buried together, for Prof.
-    Putnam found a long and a short skull side by side in the same grave.
-    Mr. A. J. Conant (see <cite>Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>, St. Louis, 1877,
-    8vo, pp. 106–7) discovered in a mound in South-eastern Missouri two
-    crania belonging to skeletons buried in regular order, with a large
-    number of other skeletons at the bottom of the mound, which differed
-    strangely from all others found in that locality. The forehead was
-    entirely wanting, and the contour of the top of one of the skulls was
-    almost flat. It closely resembles the Neanderthal skull. Mr. Conant
-    thought it at first to be an intrusive burial, but careful examination
-    proved it to have been placed in position before the building of the
-    mound, and to have been interred with as much care as was bestowed upon
-    any of the other occupants of the mound. Vases, drinking vessels and
-    food-pans accompanied it as they did all the other skeletons.</p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Carr thinks such crania as he has pointed out belonged to
-    individuals who were conquered in war, or adopted or introduced into
-    the tribe by intermarriage. Mr. Conant considers that the low type
-    cranium which he discovered belonged to a very ancient race, the
-    predecessors of the Mound-builders, and not far removed from the
-    palæolithic races of Europe.</p>
-
-  <p>The mound skulls are readily distinguishable from those of the Red
-    Indian. Only in the Davenport crania and the five dolichocephali
-    from Tennessee do we see any approximation as to form. However, the
-    remaining characteristics of the Davenport crania establish the fact
-    that they belonged to people of the mounds. In our classification
-    of Dr. Morton’s measurements, it will be observed that only two
-    <em>supposed</em> mound skulls appear among the dolichocephali (long
-    skulls, A), and too much doubt is attached to their genuineness to
-    admit of their use in drawing inferences. All the remainder belong
-    to the savage tribes except three Peruvians of the ancient race of
-    the region of Titicaca. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>In the table of brachycephali but few of the
-    savage tribes are represented, except those which practice artificial
-    compression to the extent of deformity. The mound skull as compared
-    with the Inca Peruvian presents few resemblances, except that both
-    generally belong to the brachycephalic class, and the singular and
-    important fact already mentioned that the Inca bone has been found in
-    North American mound crania. It is possible that when more extensive
-    research is made, this distinguishing feature may lead to the
-    conclusion that the races were one or closely related. On the other
-    hand, the massive bony structure of some of the mound crania does not
-    correspond with the facial bones of the Inca crania, which are very
-    light and delicate. Prof. Wilson has pointed out the additional fact
-    that the vertical diameter of the Peruvian short crania is not so great
-    as that of the mound and Mexican short skulls, but a reference to the
-    Professor’s own tables shows that the mean difference amounts only to
-    thirty-seven-hundredths of an inch, altogether too small a variation
-    to serve as the basis for ethnic generalizations.<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> Few if any
-    similarities can be traced between the dolichocephali of Peru and the
-    brachycephalic Mound-builders, the only resemblances being the heavy
-    bony structure possessed in common by both races. The crania of the
-    dolichocephali of Peru are pronounced of a Mongol cast and form, and
-    are in every respect unlike the mound crania. Turning our attention,
-    however, to the ancient Mexican crania, we find, so far as we are
-    able to judge from the limited number of skulls which have come into
-    the possession of ethnologists, a parallelism in measurements and
-    resemblance in the various distinctive features, such as flattened
-    occiput, broad transverse diameter, retreating forehead, strong bony
-    structure, and a remarkable agreement in vertical diameter with those
-    of the mounds of the Mississippi Basin, which point unmistakably to
-    the closest relationship. Seven Mexican brachycephali measured by
-    Prof. Wilson in the Boston and Philadelphia collections previously
-    referred to, gave a mean vertical diameter of 5.55 inches.<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> Four
-    Mound-builder <span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>crania measured by the same investigation gave precisely
-    the same result, while the remaining measurements varied from each
-    other but slightly. In confirmation of this result it is worthy of
-    notice that the mean vertical diameter of the twenty-one mound and
-    stone grave crania from Tennessee varied from that of the Mexican
-    crania by only one one-hundredth of an inch (5.56).</p>
-
-  <p>When Dr. Morton began his investigations, he was disposed to recognize
-    the existence of distinct races, represented by the dolichocephalic
-    and brachycephalic crania of Peru.<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> But in later years, and at
-    a period subsequent to the issue of his justly celebrated work,
-    he concluded that the Peruvian elongated head was the product of
-    artificial compression and not the distinguishing mark of an ancient
-    race which long antedated the Incas.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> Prof. Wilson has thoroughly
-    discussed this subject, and from a series of investigations, conducted
-    on a much more extensive scale than those of Dr. Morton, he has
-    shown conclusively that the distinguished craniologist was quite
-    mistaken as to the facts upon which he based his later views.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a>
-    Much valuable information was afforded Prof. Wilson by the researches
-    and collections of John H. Blake, Esq., made during that gentleman’s
-    residence in Peru, as well as the extensive collection of Dr. J. C.
-    Warren of Boston. Prof. Wilson points out the essential difference
-    between the compressed and the naturally dolichocephalic cranium in
-    these words: “Few who have had extensive opportunities of minutely
-    examining and comparing normal and artificially formed crania, will,
-    I think, be prepared to dispute the fact that the latter are rarely,
-    if ever, symmetrical. The application of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>pressure on the head of the
-    living child can easily be made to change its natural contour, but it
-    cannot give to its artificial proportions that harmonious repetition
-    of corresponding developments on opposite sides which may be assumed
-    as the normal condition of the unmodified cranium. But in so extreme
-    a case as the conversion of a brachycephalic head averaging about 6.3
-    inches longitudinal diameter by 5.3 inches parietal diameter into a
-    dolichocephalic head of 7.3 by 4.9 inches diameter, the retention
-    of anything like the normal symmetrical proportions is impossible.
-    Yet the dolichocephalic Peruvian crania present no such abnormal
-    irregularities as could give plausibility to the theory of their form
-    being an artificial one, while peculiarities in the facial proportions
-    confirm the idea that it is of ethnic origin and not the product
-    of deformation.” Besides these differences there are peculiarities
-    of a structural nature sufficient in themselves to distinguish the
-    Peruvian long from the short crania. The former is small, narrow and
-    decidedly long; the forehead is low and retreating, and two-thirds
-    of the brain-cavity lies behind the occipital foramen. The superior
-    maxillary is protruding and holds the incisor teeth obliquely. The
-    weight of the bony structure also exceeds that in the brachycephalic.
-    Though both classes are found artificially compressed, yet they are
-    always distinguishable from each other. One of the best illustrations
-    of this fact, and one already used by Prof. Wilson, is afforded in
-    contrasting two dolichocephalic crania, both obtained by Mr. Blake
-    in his explorations of the ancient cemeteries of Arica and Atacama.
-    Both are evidently of children; one is in its normal condition,
-    symmetrical, and when viewed from above presents the outlines of a
-    graceful oval form, while the other was subjected to such compression
-    as to throw the volume of the brain backward and to greatly deform the
-    frontal bone.<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> A slight tendency to assume the dog-shaped head of
-    the Chinooks of the Columbia River is manifest, where deformation is
-    carried to such an extent as to produce monstrosities. However, even
-    then, the normal brachycephalic type of skull of the Chinooks is not
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>transformed to the dolichocephalic, since the base of the cranium
-    remains comparatively unaffected while distension takes place in a
-    posterior and upward direction. Mr. Squier in his <cite>Peru</cite> (p. 580,
-    Appendix), has shown that circular compression produces a symmetrical
-    effect in the same direction.</p>
-
-  <p>The custom of artificially flattening the head has, upon investigation,
-    been shown not to be peculiar alone to the aborigines of America,
-    but to have been practised by many of the semi-civilized peoples of
-    antiquity in different parts of Europe and Asia. Hippocrates, in his
-    treatise <cite>De Aëre, Aquis, et Locis</cite>, has described this savage
-    practice among a people whom he calls <i>Machrocephali</i>, supposed
-    to have inhabited the region near the Palus Mæotis, in the vicinity of
-    the Caucasus. He says, “The custom stood thus: as soon as the child was
-    born, they immediately fashioned its soft and tender head with their
-    hands, and by the use of bandages and proper arts, forced it to grow
-    lengthwise, by which the spherical figure of the head was prevented
-    and the length increased.” Strabo refers to a people occupying a
-    portion of Western Asia, who were addicted to the same custom and
-    had foreheads projecting beyond their beards.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Pliny places them
-    in Asia Minor,<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> while Pomponius Mela places the Machrocephali on
-    the Bosphorus.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Blumenbach has figured in his first decade, a
-    compressed skull obtained by him from Russia and probably originally
-    from one of the tumuli of the Crimean Bosphorus, where it is supposed
-    to have been exhumed during the Russian occupation. In 1843, Rathke
-    figured and described in Müller’s <cite>Archiv für Anatomie</cite>, another
-    example of the compressed human crania, obtained from an ancient
-    grave near Kertsch in the Crimea. In 1820, Count August von Brenner
-    obtained on his estate at Fuersbrunn near Grafenegg in Austria, a
-    skull of similar characteristics. This was, upon examination, decided
-    to have belonged to an Avarian Hun. Prof. Retzius described it in
-    the <cite>Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm in
-    1844</cite>, adducing arguments to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>strengthen that supposition. Dr.
-    Tschudi, however, conceived the idea that it might have been a Peruvian
-    skull which had been brought to Europe as a curiosity during the
-    reign of Charles V. and afterwards thrown aside. His communication
-    appeared in Müller’s <cite>Archiv für Anatomie</cite>. The opinion of the
-    learned traveller was, however, subsequently reversed by the discovery
-    at Atzgersdorf, near Vienna, of another and similar cranium. More
-    recently others have come to light at the Village of St. Roman in
-    Savoy, and in the Valley of the Doubs near Mandense. Dr. Fitzinger has
-    probably investigated this subject with more thoroughness than any
-    other writer, and has shown in his articles in the <cite>Transactions of
-    the Imperial Academy of Vienna</cite>, that this custom was native to the
-    Scythian region in the vicinity of the Mœtian Moor, and prevailed in
-    the Caucasus and along the shores of the Black and Caspian seas and the
-    Bosphorus. Among the most interesting relics cited as sustaining his
-    views is an ancient medal struck in commemoration of the destruction
-    of Aquileia by Attila the Hun in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 452, and bearing the
-    bust of that “Scourge of God.” The head represented in profile is of
-    precisely the same shape as those of the other Avir skulls, having a
-    flattened form in a vertical and oblique direction. Thierry in his
-    <cite>Attila</cite> has traced the origin of the custom of flattening the
-    skull, to the Huns, who, descending from their home upon the steppes of
-    Northern Asia, left their remains upon many a field in Europe. One of
-    these deformed skulls was discovered in 1856 by J. Hudson Barclay, in
-    a large cavern near the Damascus Gate at Jerusalem. The skeleton was
-    of unusually large size and decayed, but the skull, which was pretty
-    well-preserved, was brought to this country and is preserved in the
-    collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> Dr.
-    J. Atkinson Meigs concluded, upon careful examination, that its occiput
-    had been flattened by pressure during childhood. The testimony of Dr.
-    Tschudi, rendered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> undesignedly, amounts to the best of evidence of the
-    transition of this custom from the eastern shores of Asia to Peru, and
-    this isolated instance has been strengthened beyond question or doubt
-    by the abundant proof which has been brought to light since attention
-    was directed to the subject.<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p>
-
-  <p>In referring to the methods by which artificial compression was
-    brought about in America, Prof. Wilson remarks: “Trifling as it may
-    appear, it is not without interest to have the fact brought under our
-    notice by the disclosures of ancient barrows and cysts, that the same
-    practice of nursing the child and carrying it about, bound to a flat
-    cradle-board, prevailed in Britain and the North of Europe long before
-    the first notices of written history reveal the presence of man beyond
-    the Baltic or the English Channel, and that in all probability the
-    same custom prevailed continuously from the shores of the German Ocean
-    to Behring Straits.”<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Dr. L. A. Gosse testifies to the prevalence
-    of the same custom among the Caledonians and Scandinavians of the
-    earliest times,<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> and Dr. Thurman has treated the same peculiarity
-    of the early Anglo-Saxon.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> It is a matter of no little surprise
-    to the inquirer in this field to learn that this system of skull
-    distortion introduced into Southern Europe by the Asiatic hordes which
-    overran it in the fifth century has been perpetuated, though somewhat
-    modified, and at present is in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>vogue in the south of France.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>
-    The distinguished Dr. Foville, in charge of the Asylum for Insane
-    in the Department Seine-Inférieure and Charenton, has figured this
-    process in his work on the <cite>Anatomy of the Nervous System</cite>, as
-    well as a number of skulls which have striking Peruvian resemblances.
-    The artificial form in this case is produced by the use of peculiar
-    head-dresses or bandages.<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> The Egyptians placed a pillow under the
-    neck and not for the head; hence the elongated crania characteristic of
-    the race, and it is not a little remarkable that the Feejee Islanders
-    have the same custom at the present day. The Kankas of the Sandwich
-    Islands produce the flattened occiput by supporting the infant’s head
-    always in the palm of the hand.<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> The South Sea Islanders have a
-    flattened occiput, as Pickering describes it, projecting but slightly
-    beyond the line of the neck.<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> Prof. Wilson comments upon this fact
-    as follows: “Traces of purposed deformation of the head among the
-    islanders of the Pacific, have an additional interest in their relation
-    to one possible source of the South American population by Oceanic
-    migration, suggested by philological and other independent evidence.
-    But for our present purpose the peculiar value of these modified skulls
-    lies in the disclosures of influences operating alike undesignedly,
-    and with a well-defined purpose, in producing the very same cranial
-    conformation among races occupying the British Islands in ages long
-    anterior to earliest history, and among the savage tribes of America
-    and the simple islanders of the Pacific in the present day.”<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> It
-    is a well-known fact that flattening the skull has prevailed from the
-    earliest times in most parts of the American Continent, especially on
-    the Pacific coast. From the extreme north to Southern Peru, flattening
-    the skulls was regarded as an artistic improvement on nature and was
-    practised <span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>with a maternal solicitude, if we judge from the customs
-    of the modern Chinooks, deserving of a higher aim. More centrally
-    and toward the Atlantic border the custom was not so carefully and
-    generally practised, unless we may except the case of the Natchez, who
-    carried it to almost the extreme reached at present by the Columbia
-    River tribes. The object of this strange transformation is believed
-    to have been twofold, “to give,” as Torquemada supposes, in referring
-    to the Peruvians, “a fierce appearance in war,” and to obtain the
-    mark of a royal and dominant race, a fashion which seems to have
-    been transmitted without a variation, from its Mongol source. The
-    Chinooks consider it the mark of superiority, and will not permit the
-    tribes subject to them to practise it. Mr. Paul Cane, has illustrated
-    this subject with drawings made during his visit to the Columbia
-    and Vancouver’s Island, while Dr. Pickering, Mr. Hale and others,
-    have described the hideous and beastly aspect of the singular people
-    practising the deformation. Skull flattening among the American tribes
-    may be classified as intentional and unintentional. To the class of
-    intentionally <span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>flattened skulls we may assign those of the twenty or
-    more tribes of the North-west coast, the Natchez, the ancient Mayas,
-    the Peruvians, and some of the more central and eastern South American
-    tribes. The North-western flatheads subject the head of a child during
-    the first eight or ten months of its life to pressure produced by means
-    of a cradle or cradle-board, provided with a board which rests upon
-    the forehead and tied down upon it by means of cords extending to the
-    foot of the cradle, while the other end is connected to the head of the
-    cradle with a hingelike attachment.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Chinooks (Flat-Heads), after Catlin.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Natchez produced the artificial form by bandaging the infant’s head
-    to a well-cushioned cradle-board by means of strips of deer-skin.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>
-    The Caribs bandaged the head with pieces of wool, and gave it a very
-    quadrangular shape. The Choctaws produced artificial compression by
-    means of a bag of sand.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> The unintentional flattening of the
-    skull arose from the quite general use of the cradle-board without
-    any board for pressure, or the custom common among many American
-    tribes of the mother suckling the child over her shoulder, a practice
-    widely prevalent in Africa and among savage nations. In the former
-    instance it is but reasonable to suppose that the form of a tender and
-    pliable skull would be modified more or less by the shape of the hard
-    cradle-board, and by the position in which it was placed upon its rest.
-    This fact accounts for the slight occipital compression of the mound
-    skulls and also for the irregularity of the flattening in many cases.
-    The latter process, that of nursing the child from its position on the
-    shoulder or back would no doubt subject the head to a slight pressure,
-    perhaps in most cases in a lateral direction.</p>
-
-  <p>The general prevalence of the unnatural custom of flattening the skull
-    on the eastern border-land of Europe and among the numerous tribes of
-    the western coast of America, together with its presence in Polynesia
-    as a connecting link, we think justifies us in concluding that it
-    originated among the wild hordes of the northern steppes of Asia, from
-    which centre it spread in lines of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>radiation until it reached the
-    remote localities in which recent research has found it.<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> This fact
-    is suggestive of a remote intercourse between peoples separated by seas
-    and mountains, if it does not serve as an argument for the unity and
-    common origin of the human family.</p>
-
-  <p>A careful examination of the remains of the pre-historic races other
-    than the measurement of crania has contributed largely to our fund of
-    information concerning their life and habits. Science has rendered us
-    pretty familiar with some of the diseases to which they were subject.
-    Dr. Farquharson has described a singular manifestation of disease of
-    the cervical vertebræ, shown in a peculiar roughening of the articular
-    surfaces, and also by a true or bony anchylosis of these points. He
-    concludes that the people of the mounds must have been possessed of a
-    considerable degree of civilization and facilities for the care of the
-    sick during a long period, in order to have effected the cure which
-    the condition of the bones indicate had taken place.<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> One of the
-    most alarming discoveries, however, is that which apparently shows
-    the general prevalence of syphilis. That this loathsome disease was
-    common <span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>among the various tribes of Equinoctial America is attested to
-    by the discoverers and their successors, and has been much commented
-    upon, and held by some authors to have been of American origin. The
-    most recent supporter of this view is Professor Jones, to whom we have
-    already referred.<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> He found in most of the mounds which he explored
-    in Tennessee bones bearing syphilitic nodes, and believes them to be
-    the oldest traces of the disease in existence. Dr. Farquharson made
-    similar discoveries in the Iowa and Illinois mounds. Prof. Putnam,
-    however, attributes the nodes to other diseases. That flattening of the
-    leg-bone or tibia, peculiar to pre-historic man in Europe, and perhaps
-    the result of rugged exertion in climbing mountains and traversing
-    the country with that rapidity which the chase required where the
-    horse is wanting, is more noticeable in the remains of some of the
-    Mound-builders than in any other people. This peculiarity of the tibia
-    called platycnemism, is probably a provision of nature, securing a
-    firmer and better defined process upon which the muscles of the leg
-    could fasten themselves, and its prominence among the people of the
-    mounds indicates the possession of great pedestrian powers.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The singular custom of perforating the skull after death (and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>possibly
-    during life) is shown to have been in vogue by the discovery of a
-    number of crania at the River Rouge Mound in Michigan with artificial
-    apertures. No light as yet has been thrown upon the significance
-    of this strange practice.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The nearest approach to the natural
-    condition and characteristic physiognomy of the pre-historic
-    inhabitants of this continent, is observable in the Peruvian mummies
-    collected in latitude 18° 30´ S., on the shore of the Bay of Chacota,
-    near Arica, by Mr. Blake, and transferred by him to Boston. Many
-    others have since been exhumed, and though embalmed and buried in a
-    climate which preserves the brightest colors of the garments with which
-    they were enshrouded, still the shrivelled condition of the corpses
-    furnishes us the assurance that their type of features can never be
-    truly recovered from nature. Dr. Morton has figured the head of one
-    of these mummies in Plate I of the <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, from
-    which the physiognomy may be partially restored by the aid of a vivid
-    imagination. Notwithstanding the temptation which presents itself, and
-    one which has been sufficiently indulged already, it would certainly
-    be idle to speculate as to what that type might have been. However,
-    one feature of the Peruvian mummies has been preserved true to life,
-    and is of the greatest value in determining ethnic relations. The
-    silicious sand and marl of the plain southward of Arica, where the
-    most remarkable cemeteries are situated, is slightly impregnated with
-    common salt as well as nitrate and sulphate of soda. These conditions,
-    together with the dry atmosphere rivalling that of Egypt, and in which
-    fleshy matter dries without putrefaction, the human hair has been
-    perfectly preserved, and comes to us as one of the best evidences of
-    the diversity of the American races yet produced. In general it is a
-    lightish brown, and of a fineness of texture which equals that of the
-    Anglo-Saxon race.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a>
-    Straight, coarse, black hair is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>universally
-    characteristic of the Red Indians, and is known to be one of the last
-    marks of race to disappear in intermarriage with Europeans. The ancient
-    Peruvians appear, from numerous examples of hair found in their tombs,
-    to have been an auburn-haired race. Garcilasso, who had an opportunity
-    of seeing the body of the king Viracocha, describes the hair of that
-    monarch as snow-white.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Haywood has described the discovery at
-    the beginning of this century of three mummies in a cave on the south
-    side of the Cumberland River, near the dividing line of Smith and
-    Wilson Counties in Tennessee. They were buried in baskets, as Humboldt
-    has described some of the Peruvians to bury, and the color of their
-    skin was said to be fair and white, and their hair auburn and of a
-    fine texture.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> The same author refers to several instances of the
-    discovery of mummies in the limestone and saltpetre caves of Tennessee
-    with light yellowish hair.<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> Prof. Jones supposes that the light
-    color of these so-called mummies of Tennessee and Kentucky was due to
-    the action of lime and saltpetre.<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p>
-
-  <p>We have every reason to believe that the men of the mounds were
-    capable of executing in sculptures reliable representations of
-    animate objects. The perfection of the stone carvings, as well as the
-    terra-cotta moulded figures of animals and birds obtained from the
-    mounds, have excited the wonder and admiration of their discoverers.
-    It was evidently a favorite pastime for those primitive artists to
-    reproduce the human features, for effigies and masks have often been
-    exhumed together with other sculptures. The perfection of the animal
-    representations furnish us the assurance that their sculptures of the
-    human face were equally true to nature.<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> The accompanying figures
-    of sculpture <span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>and masks together with those found in the sculpture
-    of the Mayas and Nahuas, shown in a future chapter, furnish us with
-    a twofold argument: first, that an American type of physiognomy as
-    such did not exist; that, upon the contrary, it was as variable
-    and diversified as can now be found among the peoples <span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>of Europe or
-    elsewhere; second, that a strong resemblance between some of the
-    sculptures of the mounds and those of Mexico exist. It is a remarkable
-    fact that those of Palenque furnish the most striking likeness to
-    those of the Mississippi Valley.<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> There is, perhaps, no means of
-    ascertaining of what color the pre-historic Americans were, certainly
-    not of the Mound-builders; but judging from the great variety of tints
-    and shades that prevail among the wild tribes of North America alone,
-    we may conclude that no argument in favor of an <em>American</em> race
-    can be based upon color.<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp73">
-    <img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mound Sculptures</span>: upper left-hand figure from a
-      shell-heap near Mobile, Ala., the others from Tennessee mounds.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Menominees, sometimes called the “White Indians,” formerly occupied
-    the region bordering on Lake Michigan, around Green Bay. The whiteness
-    of these Indians, which is compared to that of white mulattoes, early
-    attracted the attention of the Jesuit missionaries, and has often been
-    commented upon by travellers.<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> While it is true that hybridity
-    has done much to lighten the color of many of the tribes, still the
-    peculiarity of the complexion of this people has been marked from the
-    first time a European encountered them. Almost every shade, from the
-    ash color of the Menominees, through the cinnamon red, copper and
-    bronze tints, may be found among the tribes formerly occupying the
-    territory east of the Mississippi—the remnants of some of which are now
-    in the Indian Territory and others in the North-west—until we reach
-    the dark-skinned Kaws of Kansas, who are nearly as black as the negro.
-    The Indians in Mexico are known as the “black people,” an appellation
-    designed to be <span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>descriptive of their color. Viollet le Duc is of the
-    opinion that the builders of the great remains in Southern Mexico
-    and Yucatan belonged to two different branches of the human family,
-    a light-skinned and dark-skinned race respectively.<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> The variety
-    of complexion is as great in South America as among the tribes of the
-    northern portion of the continent.</p>
-
-  <p>Probably one of the most incontrovertible arguments against American
-    ethnic unity is that which rests upon the unparalleled diversity of
-    language which meets the philologist everywhere. The monosyllable and
-    the most remarkable polysyllables known to the linguist; synthetic and
-    analytic families of speech, simplicity and complexity of expression,
-    all seem to have sprung up and developed into permanent and in some
-    cases beautiful and grammatical systems side by side with each other
-    until the Babel of the Pentateuch is realized in the indescribable
-    confusion of tongues. The actual number of American languages and
-    dialects is as yet unascertained, but is estimated at nearly thirteen
-    hundred, six hundred of which Mr. Bancroft has classified in his third
-    volume of the <cite>Native Races of the Pacific States</cite>. It is true
-    that the American languages present a few features quite peculiar to
-    themselves (which will be treated hereafter), but as language is never
-    constant, is not a pyramid with its unchanging architectural plan, but
-    is a plant which passes through such transitions in the process of its
-    growth as to lose entirely some of the elements which it possessed
-    at first, so we may as reasonably expect that in the course of time
-    certain peculiarities incident to certain climatic conditions, certain
-    phases of nature and certain types of civilization, should develop
-    themselves as distinguishing features of the speech of the continent.
-    The very fact that language is unstable—is a matter of growth—renders
-    the argument that these peculiarities indicate unity of the American
-    race valueless; while, on the other hand, the fact that here we have
-    a greater number and variety of languages than is to be found in any
-    of the other grand divisions of the earth, is strong evidence of a
-    diversity more radical than that which simply arises <span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>from tribal
-    affiliations. In view of the wide differences existing between the
-    native Americans themselves in every feature which admits of being
-    subjected to a scientific test, we are forced to the conclusion, solely
-    resting on the evidence in the case, that the theory of American ethnic
-    unity is a delusion, an infatuating theory which served only to blind
-    its advocates as to the plain facts, and led them into grave errors
-    which will become all the more palpable as scientific investigation
-    progresses.</p>
-
-  <p>As yet no substantial reason for considering the ancient occupant
-    of this continent as peculiar in himself, and as unlike the rest
-    of mankind, has been set forth. Nothing in the American’s physical
-    organization points to an origin different from that to which each of
-    the species of the <i>genus homo</i> may be assigned. Whatever truth
-    there may be in the diverse origin of the black and white race, the
-    separate creation theory, in so far as it maintains that the Creator
-    originated upon the soil of this continent a peculiar and separate
-    race of men, must in the eyes of this age of criticism lack evidence,
-    and be assigned to its place with thousands of others which from time
-    immemorial have been contributing to the construction of a foundation
-    reef which will ultimately rise like a bold headland above the dark
-    waters of uncertainty into the realm of truth.</p>
-
-  <p>A few students of American Anthropology have solved the question of
-    the origin of the ancient population upon the hypothesis of its having
-    developed from a lower order in the animal kingdom, itself indigenous
-    to the Western Continent. One of the most distinguished representatives
-    of this school, perhaps, is Frederick von Hellwald of Vienna, who
-    states his views as follows: “I am unable to give in my adhesion to the
-    theory which assumes that the original seat of the human races must be
-    sought in higher Asia or somewhere else, whence mankind are supposed to
-    have spread themselves gradually over the whole globe; an assumption
-    which is contradicted in the most decisive manner by the peopling of
-    the new world. It is impossible to enter here into all the hypotheses
-    which have been framed for the explanation of a fact so perplexing to
-    the Biblical students of the sixteenth century, and of course later
-    times; it is enough <span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>to say that thus far not one of them have been
-    found to correspond even approximately to the demands of science, and
-    that theory is probably in every point of view the most tenable and
-    exact which assumes that man, like the plant, a mundane being, made
-    his appearance generally upon earth when our planet had reached that
-    stage of its development which unites in itself the conditions of man’s
-    existence. In conformity with this view, I regard the American as an
-    Autochthon.”<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> This subject resolves itself into two questions:
-    (1) Is the origin of the human race by the processes of development
-    from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact? (2) If so, does
-    the American continent furnish any species of ape or any known fauna
-    from which man could have developed? It is taken for granted that
-    the reader is fully familiar with Darwinism (the origin of species
-    by means of natural selection, the joint result of the independent
-    researches of Darwin and Wallace) and Lamarckism (the theory of man’s
-    descent from the ape),<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> both of which have been so enthusiastically
-    advocated by Spencer, Huxley, Hæckel and many others. Their works and
-    the magnificent array of facts which their patient researches have
-    accumulated command our admiration, even if full assent cannot be given
-    to all their conclusions.</p>
-
-  <p>The first question: <em>Is the origin of the human race by the processes
-    of development from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact?</em>
-    would at first seem to require a lengthy discussion at our hands. But
-    in a special work on a subject altogether foreign to the question,
-    such a discussion would certainly be out of place. Even if this were
-    not true, the above question as stated requires no discussion. We
-    believe that no advocate of the hypothesis of evolution could be found
-    so sanguine or so unguarded, who would come forward and answer the
-    question in the affirmative. On the contrary, we believe the question
-    would call forth an honest negative from the great body of scientists
-    who hold to the hypothesis of evolution. Obstinacy <span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>alone could deny
-    that the groups of facts which have been brought to our knowledge, the
-    occasional well-marked transitional forms<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> which are turning up,
-    the unquestionable tendency in species to vary, and possibly of their
-    varieties slowly to form new species under modified surroundings, point
-    to a principle, a law in nature, which may be characterized as the law
-    of development or evolution. But on the other hand, the hypothesis
-    that such a law exists, or, if you please, the fact that it exists,
-    does not imply that it is <em>universal in its application</em> or that
-    it has <em>extended through all the realm of nature</em>. Indeed, pure
-    justice to the advocates of the hypothesis requires the statement that
-    they have never made such a claim.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> The fact that such eminent
-    scientists as Mivart and Wallace deny the development of man from a
-    lower order, is sufficient evidence that the hypothesis in its widest
-    bearing is not accepted by all, much less is an ascertained “fact.” It
-    appears, therefore, that the first question being unsettled, and as yet
-    incapable of solution, the argument turns upon the second question:
-    <em>Does the American Continent furnish any species of ape or any known
-    fauna from which man could have developed?</em> Before answering the
-    question in the light of present knowledge, it will be of interest to
-    note the reply made by the late Professor Joseph Henry to the view of
-    Frederick von Hellwald, quoted on a preceding page. His estimate of
-    the probabilities of man developing from the lower orders of animals
-    in more than one locality on the globe is expressed as follows:
-    “The spontaneous generation of either plants or animals, although a
-    legitimate subject of scientific inquiry, is as yet an unverified
-    hypothesis. If, however, we assume the fact that a living being will
-    be spontaneously produced when all the physical conditions necessary
-    to its existence are present, we must allow that in the case of man,
-    with his complex and refined organization, the fortuitous assembly of
-    the multiform conditions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>required for his appearance would be extremely
-    rare, and from the doctrine of probabilities could scarcely occur more
-    than at one time and in one place on our planet; and further, that
-    this place would most probably be somewhere in the northern temperate
-    zone. Again, the Caucasian variety of man presents the highest physical
-    development of the human family; and as we depart either to the north
-    or south, from the latitude assumed as the origin of the human race
-    in Asia, we meet with a lower and lower type until at the north we
-    encounter the Esquimaux, and at the south the Bosjesman and the Tierra
-    Fuegian. The derivation of these varieties from the original stock
-    is philosophically explained on the principle of the variety in the
-    offspring of the same parents, and the better adaptation and consequent
-    chance of life of some of these to the new conditions of existence in
-    a more northern or southern latitude.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> As a direct answer to the
-    question, however, we can do nothing more than refer to the opinions of
-    the two greatest advocates of evolution. “In order to form a judgment
-    on this head,” says Mr. Darwin, “with reference to man, we must glance
-    at the classification of the Simiadæ. This family is divided by almost
-    all naturalists into the Catarhine group, or old world monkeys, all
-    of which are characterized (as the name expresses) by the peculiar
-    structure of the nostrils, and by having four pre-molars in each jaw;
-    and into the Platyrhine group or new world monkeys (including two very
-    distinct sub-groups), all of which are characterized by differently
-    constructed nostrils and by having six molars in each jaw. Some
-    other small differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably
-    belongs, in his dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and in
-    some other respects, to the Catarhine or old world division; nor does
-    he resemble the Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any
-    characters, excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently
-    of an adaptive nature. Therefore, it would be against all probability
-    to suppose that some ancient new world species had varied, and had
-    thus produced a man-like creature with all the distinctive characters
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>proper to the old world division, losing at the same time all its own
-    distinctive characters. There can, consequently, hardly be a doubt
-    that man is an offshoot from the old world Simian stem, and that under
-    a genealogical point of view he must be classed with the Catarhine
-    division.”<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> Such was Mr. Darwin’s opinion in 1871; and that the
-    views of evolutionists have not changed since that time as to this
-    question, we call attention to the words of the distinguished Professor
-    Hæckel in his <cite>History of Creation</cite>, which are as follows:
-    “Probably America was first peopled from North-eastern Asia by the same
-    tribe of Mongols from whom the Polar men (Hyperboreans and Esquimaux)
-    have also branched. This tribe first spread in North America, and from
-    thence migrated over the isthmus of Central America down to South
-    America, at the extreme south of which the species degenerated very
-    much by adaptation to the very unfavorable conditions of existence.
-    But it is also possible that Mongols and Polynesians emigrated from
-    the west and mixed with the former tribe. In any case the aborigines
-    of America came over from the old world, and did not, as some suppose,
-    in any way originate out of American apes. Catarhine or narrow-nosed
-    apes never at any period existed in America.”<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> The same argument
-    holds good if it be ascertained that both man and apes developed from
-    a common ancestor. With these authoritative utterances from the most
-    celebrated representatives of the development school, we shall rest the
-    fanciful hypothesis of the autochthonic origin of the ancient American
-    population. Some who may not concur in our opinion as to the question
-    of man’s development from lower animal forms, may be willing to admit
-    that the Americans had an old world origin, which certainly, in the
-    light of facts, is the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>only rational view.<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> The unity of the human
-    family is a theory, if not a fact, which is supported by a mass of
-    testimony of the most diversified character. The habits and customs,
-    the sympathies, the wants and fears, the simpler arts, as well as most
-    bodily proportions, point to a relationship which finds its easiest
-    explanation in a unity of origin. It is chiefly, however, in the ruder
-    arts that this correspondence of style or type is observable. No better
-    illustration of this offers itself than the similarity of form or
-    forms in which flint arrow-heads are found in all parts of the world.
-    It would be impossible for the most expert archæologists to assign a
-    promiscuous collection of flint weapons to the various quarters of the
-    globe from which they may have been gathered, simply on the ground of
-    characteristic forms.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> The common methods of producing fire by
-    means of friction, employed with but slight variation among people
-    the most remotely separated,<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> is an inexplicable fact, except on
-    the ground of an early community of residence or identical inventive
-    genius. The universality of certain architectural forms such as the
-    pyramid, and the singular fact that they have generally been used for
-    places of sepulture, offers an argument in the same direction. The
-    fact indicates either an early community of residence or identity of
-    mental organization. The physical resemblances of all races in certain
-    stable features which have never been known to change, indicate a
-    divergence from a common centre—from one type. The slight differences
-    in the type of skull which characterize some nations <span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>from others, is
-    no argument against original unity, since those peculiarities are
-    certainly of more recent origin than the unknown events which at a
-    remote period scattered men over the face of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> Probably
-    no difference between the races of men has been considered so essential
-    as that of color, for none has furnished such reasonable ground for
-    the views of polygenists as the marked contrast between the African
-    and Caucasian types. Years ago the view that color was the result of
-    tropical climate was abandoned,<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> for the Eskimo and Lapps are
-    almost as dark as many Africans, and their residence under the arctic
-    circle has continued from a remote antiquity. Upon the other hand every
-    variation in color, from the darkest to the lightest possible shades,
-    exist among African tribes. The antiquity of the negro type as we
-    now see it, is unquestionably considerable. As proof of this we have
-    the oft-referred to argument from Egyptian paintings. In a temple at
-    Beyt-el-Welee, in Nubia, constructed in the reign of Rameses II, is a
-    painting which has been reproduced by Bonomi, in which a negro kneels
-    at the feet of Sethos I, father and predecessor of Rameses II. All
-    the peculiarities of the Negroid type are conspicuous; the blackness
-    of the color, the thickness of lips, flatness of nose and woolliness
-    of hair which pertain to the African of to-day are unquestionably
-    present.<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> The painting representing this remarkable ethnic fact
-    is 3200 years old, dating from 1400 years before Christ. The Duke of
-    Argyll, on the authority of Prof. Lepsius, states that in earlier
-    representations of the negro, referable to the “Twelfth Dynasty” or
-    about 1900 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the negro color is strongly marked, but not
-    the negro features.<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> It is a question whether this fact indicates
-    a transition from one type to another, or whether the painting is a
-    true representation of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>the Nubians, who are known not to have flat
-    noses or projecting lips. It is supposed also that the unskillfulness
-    of the artists may account for the absence of the typal lines.<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a>
-    Hieroglyphic writings have been found dating about 2000 years <span class="allsmcap">B.
-    C.</span>, in which mention is made of the employment of Negro or black
-    troops by an Egyptian king in the prosecution of a great war.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> At
-    that remote period, when Abraham was almost the sole representative
-    of the Jewish race, the negro type had multiplied and developed into
-    strong tribes, which were important factors in the military contests of
-    the oldest of powers—the Egyptian.</p>
-
-  <p>Notwithstanding this seeming permanence of type, it is well known that
-    of all physical conditions, color is the most liable to change in
-    every organism. Many animals under domestication change their color
-    entirely.<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> In our Southern States it was observed that house-slaves
-    of the third generation presented quite a markedly different appearance
-    from field slaves.<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> This was owing as much, no doubt, to different
-    food and different habits of life as to protection from the sun, though
-    many different races have quite the same color while their habits of
-    life are as different as well could be imagined. Of this class, the
-    Eskimo, Chinese, and Fuegeans are examples. However, the fact that
-    color is variable even in a slight degree, indicates that considerable
-    if not radical changes might be brought about during a great length
-    of time. Mr. Darwin has furnished the most rational solution of the
-    question, which he describes briefly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>as follows: “Various facts which
-    I have elsewhere given, prove that the color of the skin and hair is
-    sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a complete immunity
-    from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from the attack
-    of parasites. Hence it occurred to me that negroes and other dark
-    races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker individuals
-    escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly influence
-    of the miasmas of their native countries.”<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> This doctrine of the
-    survival of only the fittest, while all the weaker and perhaps lighter
-    complexioned individuals of a race gradually succumbed to the deadly
-    influence of climate, no doubt will explain the origin of the dark
-    races, known to enjoy a special immunity against yellow and other
-    fevers.<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> At all events, the formation of the distinctive features
-    of races requires a great lapse of time. The geologist asks for time
-    in which to account for the formation of strata, and the intelligent
-    world now grants it to him without limit, and just as reasonably may
-    the ethnologist ask for time in which to account for the formation of
-    racial types.<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> Nor need the most literal interpreter of Genesis
-    object to this demand on the ground of any conflict with the letter
-    even of the historic narrative of the Pentateuch. The accepted
-    chronology, based on Archbishop Usher’s interpretation, is no part of
-    the text of Genesis. It is purely the product of his inadvertence and
-    the blindness of many others of his school of Biblical chronologists.
-    It is evident that the rules of interpretation applied to the tenth
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>chapter of Genesis, according to which the names of the descendants
-    of Noah’s sons are taken to represent individuals only, cannot hold.
-    The probabilities are that they represent considerable tribes or
-    nations. This probability is an established fact in the sixteenth
-    and subsequent verses. In the fifteenth verse we learn that Canaan,
-    the grandson of Noah, “begat Sidon, his first-born, and Heth.” Here
-    the writer seems to refer to individuals, but it is probable that he
-    alludes even to the origin of tribes. In the sixteenth verse we are
-    not left in doubt on the subject, for there he no longer speaks of
-    individuals or generations but of the growth of nations. He immediately
-    adds after the above quotation, “and [begat] the Jebusite, and the
-    Amorite, and the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the
-    Sinite,” etc., etc.<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> The account makes no pretensions at chronology
-    or at furnishing data for any system, and the constructions put upon
-    its condensed account of the origin and growth of nations during an
-    indefinite lapse of time by short-sighted interpreters, are unwarranted
-    and certainly do injustice to the oldest of our histories. When we
-    go back of the birth of Christ two thousand years—to the time of
-    Abraham—this is as far as we can tread with certainty in the light of
-    History. This period has been aptly designated by the Duke of Argyll
-    as “Time absolute.” But when we go back of 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, we are
-    compelled to walk in a twilight glimmer, with only the dim rays from
-    occasional cuneiform inscriptions, and the condensed accounts contained
-    in Genesis, falling across our uncertain pathway. This period the above
-    able writer has chosen to call “Time relative,” and the probabilities
-    are that its measure is double if not treble that of the portion of
-    “Time absolute” which precedes the Christian Era. An additional fact in
-    this connection which strengthens the preceding is, that the three most
-    ancient versions of the Pentateuch—the Hebrew, the Samaritan and the
-    Septuagint—vary considerably in their statements as to the ages of many
-    of the patriarchs at the birth of their sons. So wide is the difference
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>in this respect between the Hebrew and Septuagint versions that their
-    chronologies cannot be reconciled at all, the latter allowing a period
-    of eight hundred years more than the former from Adam to Abraham; such
-    being the case, it is impossible to arrive at the time of the flood or
-    the origin of the race. These contradictions in versions, however, do
-    not in any way impeach the historic authority of the Pentateuch, since
-    it is in no sense a chronology any more than it is a work on geographic
-    or astronomic science. The known antiquity of Egypt and China, to say
-    nothing of the facts revealed by geology concerning man’s antiquity,
-    can never be reconciled with Usher’s system, which is in no sense the
-    true chronology of any known version of the Pentateuch.<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a></p>
-
-  <p>In this chapter we have seen that there is nothing to indicate that the
-    Americans owe their origin to a special act of creation, and further,
-    if they originated by the process of development (for which there is no
-    sufficient evidence), that it was not upon the American continent. We
-    are supported in these conclusions by the most respectable writers on
-    American Ethnology<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a>
-    and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>Antiquities. That the American population
-    is of old world origin there can be little doubt; but from whence it
-    came, and to what particular people or peoples it owes its birth, is
-    quite another question.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a>
-    That view seems open to least objections
-    which maintains that the Western Continent received its population at
-    a comparatively early period in the history of the race, before the
-    peoples of Western Europe and Eastern Asia had assumed their present
-    national characteristics or fully developed their religious and social
-    customs.<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_V"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER V</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE MAYA NATIONS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas—The Tradition of
-    Votan—The First Emigrants to America—City of Nachan—The
-    Votanic Document—Ordoñez—Brasseur and Cabrera on the Tzendal
-    Document—The Empire of the Chanes—The Oldest Civilization—The
-    Earliest Home of the Mayas—The Quichés—Their Origin
-    Tradition—The Quiché Cosmogony—The Creation of Man—The Quiché
-    Migration—Tulan—Mt. Hacavitz—Human Sacrifices instituted—Four
-    Tulans—Association of the Mayas and Nahuas—Heroic Period of
-    the Quichés—Xibalba and its Downfall—Exploits of the Quiché
-    Chieftains—War of the Sects—Xibalba and Palenque the same—Mayas
-    of Yucatan and their Traditions—Culture-Heroes—Zamna and
-    Cukulcan—Christ Myth.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">THE most ancient civilization on this continent, judging from the
-    combined testimony of tradition, records, and architectural remains,
-    was that which grew up under the favorable climate and geographical
-    surroundings which the Central American Region southward of the
-    Isthmus of Tehuantepec afforded. The great Maya family with its
-    numerous branches, each in time developing its own dialect if not its
-    own peculiar language, at an early date fixed itself in the fertile
-    valley of the River Usumasinta, and produced a civilization which was
-    old and ripe when the Toltecs came in contact with it. Here in this
-    picturesque valley region in Tabasco and Chiapas we may look for the
-    cradle of American civilization. Under the shadow of the magnificent
-    and mysterious ruins of Palenque a people grew to power who spread into
-    Guatemala and Honduras, northward toward Anahuac and southward into
-    Yucatan, and for a period of probably twenty-five centuries exercised a
-    sway which, at one time, excited the envy and fear of its neighbors. We
-    are fully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> aware of the uncertainty which attaches itself to tradition
-    in general, and of the caution with which it should be accepted in
-    treating of the foundations of history; but still, with reference to
-    the origin and growth of old world nations, nothing better offers
-    itself in many instances than suspicious legends. The histories of the
-    Egyptians, the Trojans, the Greeks, and of even ancient Rome rests on
-    no surer footing. It is certain that while the legendary history of any
-    nation may be confused, exaggerated, and besides full of breaks, still
-    there are some main and fundamental facts out of which it has grown,
-    and this we think is especially true of the new world traditions.
-    Clavigero says: “The Chiapanese have been the first peoplers of the new
-    world, if we give credit to their traditions. They say that Votan, the
-    grandson of that respectable old man who built the great ark to save
-    himself and family from the deluge, and one of those who undertook the
-    building of that lofty edifice which was to reach up to heaven, went
-    by express command of the Lord to people that land. They say also that
-    the first people came from the quarter of the north, and that when they
-    arrived at Soconusco, they separated, some going to inhabit the country
-    of Nicaragua and others remaining in Chiapas.”<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> The tradition
-    of Votan, the founder of the Maya culture, though somewhat warped,
-    probably by having passed through priestly hands, is nevertheless one
-    of the most valuable pieces of information which we have concerning
-    the ancient Americans. Without it our knowledge of the origin of the
-    Mayas would be a hopeless blank, and the ruins of Palenque would be
-    more a mystery than ever. According to this tradition, Votan came from
-    the East, from Valum Chivim, by the way of Valum Votan, from across
-    the sea, by divine command, to apportion the land of the new continent
-    to seven families which he brought with him. It appears that he had
-    been preceded in America by two others named Igh and Imox, if the
-    researches of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg can be relied upon. In
-    the Tzendal calendar, Votan’s name appears as that of the third day,
-    while Igh and Imox are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>the first and second respectively. If, as is
-    supposed, the names represent the true succession of the Maya chiefs,
-    there is some ground for the Abbé’s view.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> The doubtful portions of
-    the tradition which may be interpolations are the ambiguous assertions
-    that he saw the Tower of Babel, and was present at the building of
-    Solomon’s temple. Probably the remains only of the former structure may
-    be referred to.</p>
-
-  <p>With these contradictions we have nothing to do, as they do not in any
-    way affect the subsequent history of the Votanites, or interfere with
-    the probability of their old world origin. To attempt to designate the
-    point from which Votan started or the means by which he reached the new
-    world, would be the height of folly. Votan is said to have made four
-    journeys to the land of his nativity. His achievements in the new world
-    were, however, as great as those of any of the heroes of antiquity. His
-    great city was named “Nachan,” (city of the serpents), from his own
-    race, which was named Chan, a serpent. This Nachan is unquestionably
-    identified with Palenque. The date of his journey is placed at 1000
-    years <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span><a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>
-    The kingdom of the serpents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
-    flourished so rapidly that Votan founded three tributary monarchies
-    whose capitals were Tulan, Mayapan, and Chiquimula.<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The former is
-    supposed to have been situated about two leagues east of the town of
-    Ococingo; Mayapan is well-known to have been the capital of Yucatan,
-    and Chiquimula is thought to have been Copan in Honduras.<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> One of
-    the great works of this hero was the excavation of a tunnel or ‘snake
-    hole’ from Zuqui to Tzequil. He also deposited a great treasure at
-    Huehuetan, in Soconusco, which he left under the vigilant care of
-    a guard, directed by one of the most honorable women of the land.
-    Finally, he wrote a book in which he recorded his deeds and offered
-    proof of his being a Chane (or serpent). This ancient document, which
-    is claimed to have been written by one of Votan’s descendants, of the
-    eighth or ninth generation and not by himself,<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> was in the Tzendal
-    language, a dialect or branch of the Maya, spoken in Chiapas and around
-    Palenque. Its history is, however, quite checkered, and the information
-    which it contained comes very indirectly. For generations the Votanic
-    document was scrupulously guarded by the people of Tacoaloya, in
-    Soconusco, but was finally discovered by Francisco Nuñez de la Vega,
-    Bishop of Chiapas. In the preamble of his <cite>Constituciones</cite>, §
-    xxx,<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> he claims to have read this document, but it is probable
-    that only a copy, still in the Tzendal language but written in Latin
-    characters, had come into his possession.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> He fails to give
-    any definite information from the document except the most general
-    statements with reference to Votan’s place in the calendar, and his
-    having seen the Tower of Babel, at which each people was given a new
-    language. He states that he could have made more revelations of the
-    history of Votan from this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>document but for bringing up the old
-    idolatry of the people and perpetuating it. With the zeal of a true
-    Vandal, the bishop committed the dangerous documents, together with
-    the treasure which he claims Votan to have buried in the dark-house,
-    to the flames in 1691. There seems to have been other copies, however,
-    of this remarkable manuscript, for about the close of the eighteenth
-    century, Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera was shown a document in the possession
-    of Don Ramon de Ordoñez y Aguiar, a resident of Ciudad Real in Chiapas,
-    which purported to be the Votanic memoir.<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> Ordoñez, at the time,
-    was engaged upon the composition of his work on the “<cite>History of
-    the Heaven and Earth</cite>.”<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> It appears that Cabrera was admitted
-    to the confidence of Ordoñez, and availed himself of a few facts
-    communicated to him by the latter, which he supplemented by drawing
-    from his imagination for the rest of his account.<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Brasseur de
-    Bourbourg accuses Cabrera of seriously misrepresenting Ordoñez and of
-    warping his account.<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> The following, which is Cabrera’s account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
-    may be of interest to the reader: “He (Votan) states that he conducted
-    seven families from Valum Votan to this continent and assigned lands
-    to them; that he is the third of the Votans; that having determined to
-    travel until he arrived at the root of Heaven, in order to discover
-    his relations, the Culebras, and make himself known to them, he made
-    four voyages to Chivim (which he expressed by repeating four times from
-    Valum Votan to Valum Chivim, from Valum Chivim to Valum Votan); that
-    he arrived in Spain, and that he went to Rome; that he saw the great
-    house of God building; that he went by the road which his brethren,
-    the Culebras, had bored; that he marked it, and that he passed by
-    the houses of the thirteen Culebras. He relates that in returning
-    from one of his voyages he found seven other families of the Tzequil
-    nation who had joined the first inhabitants, and recognized in them
-    the same origin as his own, that is, of the Culebras. He speaks of
-    the place where they built the first town, which, from its founders,
-    received the name of Tzequil; he affirms the having taught them
-    refinement of manners in the use of the table, table-cloth, dishes,
-    basins, cups, and napkins; they taught him the knowledge of God and
-    of his worship; his first ideas of a king and of obedience to Him;
-    that he was chosen captain of all those united families.” It is not
-    necessary for us to point out the hand of the interpolator in this
-    account; it is sufficiently apparent. However, its obnoxious prominence
-    need not destroy our faith in the general facts of the account. The
-    interpretation of the document we submit to the reader with the simple
-    reminder that the symbol of life and power among the Central Americans
-    and Mexicans has ever been a serpent, a fact which may have derived its
-    significance from the meaning of the name of the Votanites together
-    with the power attained by Palenque.<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> Votan’s followers were called
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>Tzequites by their predecessors, probably by the descendants of Igh
-    and Imox, the signification of which term is ‘men with petticoats.’ The
-    Tzendal traditions refer always to the city of Nachan as the capital
-    of the kingdom of the Chanes or Serpents, and the most significant
-    feature of the traditional names of this people is the fact that
-    the name Culhua, applied by the Nahua nations and especially by the
-    Toltecs to a powerful people who had preceeded them at the south, is
-    the exact equivalent of Chanes; the same is true of Culhuacan.<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a>
-    The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg obtained a copy of the fragmentary MS.
-    of Ordoñez, which he informs us was written in two separate parts in
-    quarto, at different times. The first or mythological part exists in
-    a copy owned by the Abbé.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> The second or historical part, if ever
-    written, has never reached the light, and from the description <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>of
-    its contents found in the first part, we should think that the author
-    might have made a rather imaginative historian.<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> While some of
-    the details of the Votanic tradition are not worthy of a moment’s
-    consideration, it is quite certain that in the general facts we have
-    a key to the origin of what all Americanists agree in pronouncing the
-    oldest civilization on this continent, one which was gray and already
-    declining when the Toltecs entered Mexico. There is not the slightest
-    evidence that it originated in any other place than in Chiapas, where
-    it is found, and extended itself into Guatemala, Yucatan, and possibly
-    branched northward in a colony as remote as Culhuacan. Sr. Orozco y
-    Berra has found fifteen languages or dialects to be related to the Maya
-    language, a fact which indicates the age and extent of that remarkable
-    civilization.<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> Sr. Orozco is convinced from linguistic and other
-    researches, that the inhabitants of Cuba and others of the West India
-    Islands were Mayas, and points out the intermediate location of Cuba
-    between Florida and Yucatan. He thinks the earliest home of the Mayas
-    on this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>continent was on the Atlantic coast of the United States, from
-    whence they emigrated to Cuba and thence to Yucatan.<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> Though we are
-    not fully satisfied that the Mayas ever occupied Florida, it is quite
-    likely that the islands of the Gulf were inhabited by them at an early
-    day. The culture hero Votan is a mystery, and to arrive at his true
-    character or office is simply an impossibility. For those disposed to
-    speculate, there is abundant opportunity.<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> The most interesting
-    traditionary history which has been discovered is that of the Quichés
-    of Guatemala. By the name Quiché, in this immediate connection, we do
-    not mean to speak of that people after they became amalgamated with
-    the Nahua nations from Central Mexico, but as a branch of the great
-    Maya monarchy, in all probability located at first at Tulha or Tula,
-    which, it is believed, was situated near Ococingo. At first, we think,
-    the Quichés developed their own institutions, dialects, etc., as one
-    of the allied powers associated with the capital city Nachan, but
-    gradually assumed an individuality which became distinctive, until a
-    rivalry between the capital and its allied neighbor sprang up, which
-    ultimately ended in the overthrow of the former. Sr. Pimentel, on the
-    authority of an ancient author, states that the name Quiché was applied
-    to the first empire of Palenque and signified <em>many trees</em>. It
-    was employed by the “innumerable families of different nations which
-    composed it, to symbolize its various branches.”<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> The tradition of
-    their origin states that they came from the far East, across immense
-    tracts of land and water; that in their former home they had multiplied
-    considerably and lived without civilization, and with but few wants;
-    they paid no tribute, spoke a common language, did not bow down to wood
-    and stone, but lifting their eyes toward heaven, observed the will of
-    their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>Creator, they attended with respect to the rising of the sun,
-    and saluted with their invocations the Morning Star; with loving and
-    obedient hearts they addressed their prayers to Heaven for the gift
-    of offspring. “Hail, Creator and Maker! regard us, attend us. Heart
-    of Heaven, Heart of the Earth, do not forsake us, do not leave us.
-    God of Heaven and Earth, Heart of Heaven, Heart of Earth, consider
-    our posterity always. Accord us repose, a glorious repose, peace and
-    prosperity, justice, life and our being. Grant to us, O Hurakan,
-    enlightened and fruitful, Thou who comprehendest all things great and
-    small.”<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> In the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, the sacred book of the Quichés,
-    we are enabled to arrive more closely at the cosmogony and worship
-    of that remarkable people.<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> The reader may not be prepared for
-    the irreconcilable contradictions and for the obscure and figurative
-    language in which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>this work abounds; but with the remembrance that
-    all nations of antiquity delighted in the use of figures, parabolic
-    disguises and personifications under which the truth was couched, we
-    may be able to profit by even the seeming foolishness and confusion
-    of the Quiché record. The strange, wild poetry of the Quichés, can
-    only be fully enjoyed by pursuing the unabridged accounts for which we
-    regret we have not space.<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> In the order of the Quiché creation, the
-    heavens were first formed and their boundaries fixed by the Creator
-    and Former, by whom all move and breathe, by whom all nations enjoy
-    their wisdom and civilization. At first there was no man or animal
-    or bird or fish or green herb—nothing but the firmament existed,
-    the face of the earth was not yet to be seen, only the peaceful sea
-    and the whole expanse of heaven. Silence pervaded all; not even the
-    sea murmured; there was nothing but immobility and silence in the
-    darkness—in the night.<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> The Creator, the Former, the Dominator—the
-    feathered serpent—those that engender, those that give being, moved
-    upon the water as a glowing light. Their name is Gucumatz, heart of
-    heaven—God. “Earth,” they said, and in an instant it was formed and
-    rose like a vapor cloud; immediately the plains and mountains arose
-    and the cypress and pine appeared. Then Gucumatz was filled with joy,
-    and cried out, “Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven, Hurakan,
-    thunderbolt!”<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> Animals were next formed, but because they could
-    not praise their Maker they were doomed to become objects of prey.
-    Four creations of men then followed. The first man was made of clay,
-    but he had no intelligence and he was consumed in the water. Upon a
-    second trial a man and a woman were made of a sort of pith, but they
-    too were unsatisfactory experiments; though they had life and peopled
-    the earth, they were very inferior, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>living like beasts and forgetting
-    the Heart of Heaven. The Creator then destroyed them with a flood of
-    resin, allowing only a few to escape, that now exist as little apes
-    in the woods. The persons of the Godhead, enveloped in the darkness
-    which enshrouded a desolated world, counseled concerning the creation
-    of a more perfect order, and as a result they formed four perfect men
-    named: Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah, and Iqi-Balam. These men
-    were miraculously formed of white and yellow maize, and the Creator
-    was content with his labors. “Verily, at last, were there found men
-    worthy of their origin and their destiny; verily, at last, did the gods
-    look upon beings who could see with their eyes and handle with their
-    hands and understand with their hearts, grand of countenance and broad
-    of limb, the four sires of our race stood up under the white rays of
-    the morning star—sole light as yet of the primeval world—stood up and
-    looked. Their great clear eyes swept rapidly over all; they saw the
-    woods and rocks, the lakes and the sea, the mountains and the valleys,
-    and the heavens that were above all; and they comprehended all and
-    admired exceedingly. Then they returned thanks to those who had made
-    the world and all therein was: we offer up our thanks, twice—yea,
-    verily, thrice; we have received life, we speak, we walk, we taste, we
-    hear and understand, we know both that which is near and that which
-    is far off, we see all things, great and small, in all the heaven and
-    earth. Thanks, then, Maker and Former, Father and Mother of our life,
-    we have been created—we are.”<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> These four creatures were considered
-    too perfect by the gods, and in order that their omniscience might be
-    destroyed, they breathed a cloud of mist over their vision. To each of
-    these men wives were made while they slept. A fourth creation seems to
-    have taken place by which the ancestors of other races were formed.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p>
-
-  <p>The account which the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> furnishes of the migrations of
-    the ancient Quichés is somewhat confused, and it is scarcely possible
-    to hope that the locations named should ever be fully identified.
-    Their worship was at first purely spiritual. “Only they gazed up into
-    heaven, not knowing what they had come so far to do.” In their original
-    home, wherever that might have been, they grew weary of this kind of
-    service—of watching for “the rising of the sun”—by which it seems they
-    meant the coming of temporal power. The four men then forsook their
-    abode and journeyed to Tulan-Zuiva, the seven caves or seven ravines.
-    Here they found gods; to each of the four men a different deity was
-    assigned. To Balam-Quitzé the god Tohil was given; to Balam-Agab the
-    god Avilix; and to Mahucutah, the god Hacavitz; and though the fourth
-    man Iqi-Balam also received a god, no special account is taken of him,
-    since the latter of the four men left no progeny. The journey to Tulan
-    is said to have been a very long one. Doubtless in this account we have
-    an allusion to one of those modifications in religious notions which
-    seems to have often attended a change of residence in early times. The
-    abstract worship of the Creator is supplanted by the more material
-    and ceremonial worship of intermediate deities (demi-gods). Tulan
-    is described as a much colder climate than the eastern and tropical
-    land which they had forsaken, and the god Tohil came to their relief
-    by the creation of fire. But incessant rains, accompanied with hail,
-    extinguished all their fires, which were again kindled repeatedly
-    by the fire-god. Tulan was an unfavorable locality for permanent
-    abode—rains, extreme cold, dampness, famine prevailed, and the peculiar
-    misfortune of the confusion of tongues there befell them. No longer
-    were the brother propagators of the race able to communicate with each
-    other. “At Tulan there was as yet no sun,” is the significant but
-    perplexing language of the narrative. At last Tulan, the mysterious
-    land of the “seven-caves,” was forsaken, and under the leadership
-    of Tohil the people began a migration which was attended with
-    indescribable hardships and famine itself. Their way led through dense
-    forests, over high mountains, a long sea passage, and by a rough and
-    pebbly shore. We are, however, told that the sea was parted for their
-    passage. Their tribulations were at an end when at last they arrived at
-    a beautiful mountain, which they named after their god Hacavitz. Here
-    they were informed that the sun would appear, and, as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> consequence,
-    the four progenitors of the race and all the people rejoiced. Here
-    was everything beauteous and gladdening. The morning star shed forth
-    a resplendent brightness, and the sun itself at last appeared, though
-    then it had not the warmth which it possessed at a later day. Before
-    the light of the sun, however, the gods Tohil, Avilix and Hacavitz,
-    together with the tiger and lion and reptiles, were changed into stone.
-    To interpret this paragraph, which is greatly condensed, is a difficult
-    undertaking, still there are certain facts which seem to serve as the
-    basis of intelligent speculation. The language is extremely figurative
-    throughout the entire narrative, and especially so here. Their worship
-    of the morning star at an early period seems to connect them with the
-    Mediterranean peoples of the old world. The allusions to the sun not
-    yet having come may be retrospective, indicating that the worship of
-    the sun had not been adopted at that early day, or it may indicate
-    that the period of national strength had not dawned. The fact that the
-    morning star shone more brilliantly on Mt. Hacavitz than at Tulan (the
-    seven caves), may mean either that the worship of the star was more
-    splendidly celebrated, or it may have reference to an astronomical
-    fact, that the star itself was more luminous, and furnish evidence in
-    harmony with the statements of the narrative that Mt. Hacavitz was a
-    more southern location than the tempestuous Tulan. The petrifaction
-    of the three tribal gods may have been the result of an age of peace
-    and prosperity which offered an opportunity for developing their
-    cultus; or, upon the other hand, if the coming of the sun refers to
-    the advent of a new religion, that which is known to have prevailed
-    among the Nahuas, the old gods may have been sculptured in stone,
-    that their national character and deeds might not be forgotten before
-    the increasing importance of the new faith. There they instituted
-    sacrifices of beasts to the three stone gods Tohil, Avilix and
-    Hacavitz; they even drew blood from their own bodies and offered it
-    to them. Finally, not content with these, the first four men, led by
-    Balam-Quitzé, instituted human sacrifices. Captives were taken from
-    neighboring tribes, kidnapping was practised extensively, until the
-    hostility of their neighbors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> broke forth into open war. The contest,
-    however, resulted favorably to the Quichés, and the surrounding tribes
-    became subject to the victorious power. In Hacavitz they composed
-    a national song called the Kamucu (“we see”)—a memorial of their
-    misfortunes in Tulan—a lament for the loss of so many of their people
-    in that unfortunate locality. This loss is described as occasioned by a
-    portion of their race being left behind, rather than as the result of
-    the misfortunes which attended them there. At last, at the noon-day of
-    their national glory, it came to pass that the ancestors of their race,
-    Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam, died—the men who
-    came from the east, from across the sea, died—and their remains were
-    enveloped in a great bundle and preserved as memorials of the ancestors
-    of the race.<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> Then the Quichés sang the sad Kamucu, and mourned the
-    loss of their leaders and that portion of their race which they left
-    behind them in Tulan.</p>
-
-  <p>The definite location of Tulan is almost out of the question; it may
-    only be conjectured. We have already stated, on the authority of
-    Ordiñez, that there was a Tulan near Ococingo.<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> The Cakchiquel MS.,
-    known only through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but evidently
-    a document containing the same facts as those stated in the <cite>Popol
-    Vuh</cite>, gives the following information concerning Tulan: “Four
-    persons came from Tulan, from the direction of the rising sun—that is
-    one Tulan. There is another Tulan in Xibalbay, and another where the
-    sun sets, and it is there that we came; and in the direction of the
-    setting sun there is another, where is the god; so that there are four
-    Tulans; and it is where the sun sets that we came to Tulan, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>from the
-    other side of the sea where this Tulan is; and it is there that we were
-    conceived and begotten by our mothers and our fathers.”<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> From this
-    it appears that two of these Tulans were not upon the continent at all;
-    one in the east across the sea, the birthplace of the race; another
-    an imaginary locality somewhere toward the region of the setting sun,
-    where the deity dwells; another Tulan is pretty certainly located in
-    Chiapas near the capital of Xibalba; with this place, however, they
-    do not state that they had any relationship, but another Tulan where
-    the sun sets is designated as the locality to which they came from
-    across the sea. Mr. Bancroft confounds the Tulan of their misfortunes
-    with that which was located near Xibalba; but this view is plainly
-    wrong, since the climatic surroundings of the Chiapan Tulan are quite
-    the opposite of those described as prevailing at that Tulan where
-    fire was so necessary. In the Tulan to which they journeyed they
-    suffered from cold, and their god Tohil, whom they received there,
-    gave them fire. Señor Orozco y Berra quite positively identifies this
-    Tulan with the Toltec capital Tollan, north of Anahuac, and certainly
-    with reason.<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> There their tongues were changed, there the Nahua
-    language was encountered. No doubt that in the first period of the
-    Toltec power in Tollan, the Maya-Quichés who had migrated northward
-    from some locality in the Usumacinta region and intermingled with the
-    Nahuas, sharing in their worship and appropriating certain elements of
-    language, migrated southward to the elevated regions of Vera-Paz and
-    founded a Quiché power in Guatemala.</p>
-
-  <p>Upon the downfall of the Toltec monarchy in the eleventh century, no
-    doubt many noble Toltec families forsook the unfortunate and fallen
-    capital and founded in Guatemala the Quiché-Cakchiquel monarchy,
-    composed of Maya and Toltec elements, which spread itself southward
-    in colonies and branches into various parts of Central America, and
-    flourished with such <span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>power and fame at the time of the Conquest. It
-    is not the province of this work to take up the annals of this or any
-    other people, but only to treat of their most primitive period. The
-    gap in Quiché history between that which we have been treating and the
-    period of the Annals is considerable, and no document has yet been
-    discovered which will fill it with the wanting record. Mr. Bancroft
-    has placed the annals within the reach of the English reader in his
-    fifth volume. Mt. Hacavitz was the point at which the scattered tribes
-    collected and formed the nucleus of the subsequently powerful monarchy
-    in Guatemala of which Utatlan was the capital. The two places may
-    have been identical. Several facts point to the early association of
-    the ancestors of the Quichés with the Nahuas who subsequently figure
-    so conspicuously as Toltecs and Aztecs. The tribes which migrated
-    northward were called Yaqui (according to the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>),
-    and the name ethnographically has the same meaning as Nahuatl.<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a>
-    The Quichés applied the name to the inhabitants of Mexico. The god
-    Tohil was called by the Yaqui tribes Yolcuat Quitzalcuat while the
-    Quichés were in Tulan. Quetzalcoatl, of whom we shall speak more
-    fully hereafter, was the greatest of the Nahua divinities.<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> The
-    Aztecs and Toltecs as well as the Quichés came from the “Seven Caves,”
-    that Tulan which seems to have been the early home of the two great
-    families speaking radically different languages—the Maya and the Nahua.
-    The statement so often met with that Tulan was across the sea is
-    perplexing. Can we look for it upon some of the islands of the Gulf or
-    Caribbean Sea? or are we to look upon the reference to the sea passage
-    as an earlier event in the history of both peoples, which because of
-    the lack of records has been confounded with some of the adventures
-    of the march toward the northern Tulan, which was undertaken at least
-    by the Mayas and possibly by the Nahuas from their common home in the
-    Usumacinta valley? We are inclined, in the light of a large margin
-    of testimony, to accept the latter view, and consider the Tulan of
-    the Chiapan region to have been the early home of both peoples—the
-    primitive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> one of the Mayas and the adopted one of the Nahuas—after
-    leaving Hue Hue Tlappalan, the accidental centre to which in their
-    wanderings they converged, and in which they met; here in an age of
-    simpler manners they lived in the enjoyment of peace, preserving each
-    their own institutions and language, though considerably influencing
-    each other’s customs. The Tulan of this Central American region may
-    have been confounded in name and characteristics with the original home
-    of each race “across the sea.”</p>
-
-  <p>The Quiché record furnishes us with the account of an epoch in the
-    early Quiché history which we are justified in characterizing as
-    their heroic period. It occupies the same place in their history as
-    the Trojan war in the history of Greece. The tradition of the fall of
-    Xibalba, the terror of its neighbors, the power which by its enemies
-    was called infernal, is a heroic composition founded on a combination
-    of events as mysterious and wonderful as those contained in the Iliad
-    itself. To locate the events in their proper place, to assign them
-    their true period, is attended with as many difficulties as attend the
-    Homeric history. The authorities differ as to the proper chronologic
-    order of the record. The <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, both in the Ximinez and
-    Brasseur editions, give the narrative to which we have reference
-    immediately after the destruction of the men made of pith or wood—the
-    result of the first creation. Mr. Bancroft is somewhat indifferent
-    about the order and follows the narrative. Brasseur de Bourbourg,
-    however, considers that chronologically the narrative follows the third
-    creation, that of the four founders of the Quiché race.<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> If we
-    look upon the so-called creations as simply tribal origins and not as
-    mythical accounts of the origin of man, there is room for the heroic
-    period before the days of the four ancestors of the Quichés; but if,
-    on the contrary, the two creations preceding that of Balam-Quitzé and
-    his associates are mythical, are the legendary accounts of a fancied
-    order in creation and not the origin of tribes, the view taken by the
-    Abbé is the only one which can be accepted. The question cannot at
-    present be definitely settled. If we resort to the latter view, that
-    of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>Abbé, it is necessary for us to suppose that the long reign
-    of Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam is that of a
-    line, a dynasty, and not of individuals—which is altogether probable.
-    Brasseur supposes the time of which the tradition speaks to have been
-    about fifteen centuries before the Spanish conquest, and thinks Copan
-    was the capital of a province called Payaqui (“in the Yaqui,” which we
-    have seen was the name of the Nahuas), and that this capital, otherwise
-    known as Chiquimula, owed its origin to a warrior known as Balam, who
-    introduced human sacrifices. His authority is the <cite>Isagoge Historico
-    MS.</cite> cited by Pelaez, to whose work we have already referred.<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a>
-    To attempt to determine upon the time definitely would be a hopeless
-    undertaking. The mysterious tradition with its confused statements and
-    allegorical allusions we will attempt to condense into intelligible
-    shape. This has already been accomplished by Mr. Bancroft, and his
-    version greatly facilitates our efforts in the same direction.</p>
-
-  <p>The second division of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> contains the account of
-    two attempts at the overthrow of the great Xibalban monarchy, founded
-    by Votan. The first of these proved unsuccessful and fatal to the
-    enemies of the great power; the second, undertaken by the descendants
-    of the defeated chieftains, resulted in the downfall of the empire
-    of the Serpents or Votanites, and in the revenge of the death of
-    the unsuccessful warriors. The account is provokingly figurative;
-    different allies of each of the powers being spoken of as owls, wild
-    beasts, rabbits, deer, rats, lice, ants, etc., a custom which has
-    always prevailed among savage and semi-civilized nations. Savages of
-    the forests are usually referred to as wild beasts in early tradition.
-    Xibalba is so hated by its enemies that its usual title is the
-    “infernal regions.”<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> Torquemada refers to it as <em>hell</em>, and
-    its king as the king of the “shades.”<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> The hatred was intense, and
-    the worst <span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>invectives were mild in the estimation of the enemies of
-    the no doubt oppressive power. We have already given the account of
-    creation in which Gucumatz (the Plumed Serpent) figured conspicuously.
-    He, however, is seen to have acted at the word of Hurakan (“Heart of
-    Heaven”). The closing paragraphs of the first division of the <cite>Popol
-    Vuh</cite> give some of the exploits of the young heroes Hunahpu and
-    Xbalanque, who figure as the defendants of the worship of the Heart of
-    Heaven. A certain Vucub-Cakix, who assumed to be the sun and god of
-    the people, and who in his pride offended the Heart of Heaven, fell at
-    their avenging hands. His sons Zipacna and Cabrakan, whose pride was
-    as offensive to Hurakan as had been their father’s, shared the same
-    fate; though the brothers lost four hundred of their allies in the
-    undertaking, by Zipanca toppling over a house upon them while they were
-    rejoicing at his supposed death in a pit in which they had buried him.</p>
-
-  <p>The second division of the account reverts to events which preceded
-    those in the closing paragraphs of the first division by one or
-    more generations. The exploits of the ancestors of the brothers are
-    narrated. Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, grandparents of the sun and moon,
-    had two sons, Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu. The former of these sons
-    married, and to him were born also two sons, Hunbatz and Hunchouen,
-    who grew up to be wise and skillful and great artists. With all
-    these persons Hurakan, the Heart of Heaven, communicated through his
-    messenger Voc. At last Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu undertook a journey
-    toward Xibalba, playing ball as they went, by which we understand that
-    they set out upon a march of conquest. Upon hearing of their approach,
-    Hun Came and Vukub Came, kings of Xibalba, sent them a challenge to
-    a game of ball by four messengers who were called owls. From the
-    ball-ground of Nimxab Carchah (now the name of an Indian town in Vera
-    Paz), they followed the messengers down the steep road to Xibalba,
-    crossing rivers and ravines and a bloody stream. After arriving at
-    the royal palace, and during the process of arranging for the contest
-    in which their strength should be tried, they were so unfortunate as
-    first to be made the subjects of ridicule for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> whole court, then
-    put to torture, and afterwards were cruelly and it seems treacherously
-    murdered. The head of Hunhunahpu was hung upon a tree, which at once
-    became overgrown with gourds so as to hide the head of the unfortunate
-    chief. Notwithstanding the royal decree that no one should approach
-    the tree, Xquiq, a virgin princess, a Xibalban, determined to taste
-    its forbidden fruit, and in an hour of solitude was in the act of
-    reaching forth to pluck it, when Hunhunahpu spat into her hand and she
-    immaculately conceived. Her condition was discovered by her father, who
-    delivered her to the owls, the royal messengers, to be put to death. By
-    bribing her executioners she escaped and went to the dwelling of the
-    old grandmother Xmucane, who upon the death of Hunhunahpu’s wife had
-    taken charge of his sons, the youthful Hunbatz and Hunchouen. Xquiq,
-    by miraculous performances, satisfied Xmucane that Hunhunahpu was the
-    father of her unborn children, and was received into her home. The
-    Xibalban virgin brought forth twin sons in the house of the enemies
-    of her country. These she named Hunahpu and Xbalanque. From the very
-    first their lot with their great-grandmother was a hard one. Their
-    half-brothers Hunbatz and Hunchouen treated them harshly, but in time
-    the twins revenged themselves by changing the former into monkeys, and
-    succeeding to their artistic skill and musical fame.</p>
-
-  <p>Various exploits of the twin brothers are narrated, chiefly—as we would
-    interpret the figurative language—with the more savage tribes of the
-    forests and mountains. From one of their captives whom they call a rat,
-    they learned of the expedition of their father and uncle, and were
-    brought into possession of their ball implements. The old ball-ground
-    (probably battle-ground) of their fathers was resorted to by Hunahpu
-    and Xbalanque, and when the Xibalban monarchs, Hun Came and Vukub Came,
-    heard of their purposes, they were angered and sent a challenge to
-    them as they had done to their ancestors. The message was delivered
-    at the great-grandmother’s home, and the two chieftains, upon being
-    acquainted with the news, returned to bid both mother and grandmother
-    farewell. Before taking final leave, they planted in the centre of
-    the house (probably the court) each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> a cane, which was endowed with
-    the singular attribute of revealing to the family the fortunes of
-    each of the brothers. The life and fate of each cane was inseparably
-    connected with that of Hunahpu and Xbalanque. On their route to Xibalba
-    the bloody river was passed and a stream called Papuhya; but, more
-    wise than their predecessors, they took cunning precautions not to be
-    deceived and sacrificed by the Xibalban monarchs. For this purpose, it
-    is said, they sent an animal called Xan before them, equipped with a
-    hair from Hunahpu’s leg, with which he pricked the princes and by their
-    exclamations learned their names. Thus they detected the artificial
-    wooden men whom we are told deceived their ancestors and made them the
-    objects of ridicule.</p>
-
-  <p>By this strange personification we think we may understand that the
-    father and the uncle of the two young heroes had treated with a couple
-    of irresponsible Xibalbans who had been sent out to meet them, with
-    the pretence that they were the kings, and when they had induced their
-    enemies to enter the city, the true monarchs seized them and repudiated
-    the action of the so-called wooden men, avowing no responsibility for
-    their pledges. Hunahpu and Xbalanque avoided two other artifices of
-    which their ancestors were the victims; one of these was a seat on a
-    red-hot stone under the pretence that it was the seat of honor; the
-    other was an ordeal in the “House of Gloom.”<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> The angry Xibalban
-    kings then met them in a game of ball, but suffered a defeat. Hun Came
-    and Vukub Came then requested the victors to give them four bouquets of
-    flowers, which request was granted, the fortunate brothers themselves
-    bearing them to the defeated kings. At their instance, however, the
-    guards of the royal gardens committed Hunahpu and Xbalanque to the
-    house of lances—the second of five ordeals common at Xibalba. Scarcely
-    had this been done before a swarm of ants—allies of the brothers—came
-    to their rescue, entered the royal gardens, bribed the lancers,
-    released their leaders and punished the owls—guards of the Xibalban
-    kings—by splitting their lips. The defeated <span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>monarchs began to realize
-    the seriousness of the contest which was being waged against them.
-    Hunahpu and Xbalanque were then subjected to ordeals in the houses of
-    cold, of tigers, and of fire respectively, but without suffering harm.
-    As we proceed, the account becomes more figurative than ever. In the
-    next ordeal in the house of bats, we are told that Hunahpu’s head was
-    cut off by the ruler of the bats, who, it seems, was recognized as of
-    super-terrestrial origin. Strange to say, this violent proceeding did
-    not prove fatal to Hunahpu; the animals assembled, came to the heroes’
-    relief, and by the strategic skill of the turtle and rabbit, at a
-    great game of ball, the brothers came out of all the Xibalban ordeals
-    unharmed.</p>
-
-  <p>The next act was designed as the beginning of the end of the great
-    struggle. Xibalba had failed because the brutes were not its allies.
-    The brothers were determined to show the haughty rival their personal
-    greatness, and resorted to the use of their magical arts. After
-    proper instructions to their sorcerers, Xulu and Pacam, Hunahpu and
-    Xbalanque mounted a funeral pyre and endured a voluntary death. But
-    their ashes and bones which were thrown into a river, rose instantly
-    into life, assuming the shape of young men. Five days subsequent to
-    this wonderful event they appeared in the form of man-fishes; and on
-    the day following, the sorcery was complete, for the brothers now
-    presented themselves in the form of “ragged old men, dancing, burning
-    and restoring houses, killing and restoring each other to life, and
-    performing other wonderful things. They were induced to exhibit their
-    skill before the princes of Xibalba, killing and resuscitating the
-    king’s dog, burning and restoring the royal palace. Then a man was
-    made the subject of their art. Hunahpu was cut in pieces and brought
-    to life by Xbalanque. Finally the monarchs of Xibalba wanted to
-    experience personally the temporary death; Hun Came the highest was
-    first killed, then Vukub Came, but life was not restored to them.”<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>
-    The twin sons of the unfortunate Xibalban virgin, an outcast from her
-    home, triumphed, their father and uncle were avenged, the warlike
-    Xibalbans—the fierce, frightful-looking, owl-like, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>faithless,
-    hypocritical tyrants, black and white, and with painted faces, as they
-    are described—were overthrown forever. The ancestors of the victorious
-    chieftains were then deified and given places in the sun and moon;
-    while their allies, the enemies of Xibalba, were made stars in the
-    firmament.</p>
-
-  <p>To interpret fully this figurative account requires further knowledge,
-    which it is hoped ultimately may come to light. The beheading of
-    Hunahpu in the house of bats may signify the loss of the most important
-    division of his army; for when the “animals” came to his relief—by
-    which we understand the less civilized tribes of the country—he
-    obtained a victory. The closing paragraphs of the account indicate that
-    a long and tiresome warfare brought the brothers repeated victories,
-    but not the entire overthrow of Xibalba; and that stratagem was
-    resorted to—a stratagem no more improbable or difficult to understand
-    than that of the wooden horse said to have been used by the Greeks
-    at Troy. The stratagem was at last successful, and Xibalba, of the
-    Votanites—we suppose the empire of the Chanes—fell. The war seems to
-    have been one of religion in part, for Hurakan, “Heart of Heaven,”
-    inspired the contest, and Gucumatz, “the Plumed Serpent,” one of
-    his associate though minor deities, was the god of Hunahpu and
-    Xbalanque. The wicked Xibalbans were puffed up against the Heart of
-    Heaven, would not accept the true faith, and hence their overthrow
-    before the advancing power of a new religion.<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> It is certain that
-    the conquerors of Xibalba (which was no doubt Palenque) were near
-    neighbors, who had been closely allied to the great power. Bancroft is
-    of the opinion that they were the Tzequiles, who arrived during Votan’s
-    absence and introduced new ideas of government and religion among
-    his people.<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> Garcia Pelaez, in his <cite>Memorias</cite>, agrees with
-    Juarros in calling them Carthaginians, and states that they arrived in
-    that region about four hundred years before Christ, founded Tulan, the
-    present Ococingo, and overthrew ancient Culhuacan or Palenque.<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a>
-    Brasseur de Bourbourg says <span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>that the Nahuas, coming into Mexico by sea
-    at the south [<i>i. e.</i>, in the south central region] slowly moved
-    toward the north, to the regions bordering on California, and also
-    spreading their civilization across the Usumacinta River, went into
-    Yucatan and even Guatemala. This he thinks occurred in the year 174 of
-    our era; Xibalba was at the height of her power, but was overthrown in
-    the revolution and conquest.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> While we do not attach much certainty
-    to the Abbé’s date, still we think that the fall of Xibalba was due to
-    Nahua influences brought to bear upon the ancestors of the Quichés.
-    The old religion and civilization of the Votanites were compelled
-    to yield to the vigorous and warlike power which brought with it a
-    religion which has ever commended itself to the senses and impulses of
-    semi-civilized peoples. The worship of the sun-symbol of the Heart of
-    Heaven was destined to supplant all other faiths.</p>
-
-  <p>It will be remembered that Quetzalcoatl was the leader and deity of the
-    Nahuas, and that in their language his name signified “plumed serpent,”
-    while Gucumatz, leader and patron deity of the Xibalban conquerors
-    has precisely the same significance in the Quiché language. Utatlan
-    upon the Guatemalian highlands was doubtless the point from which the
-    allied forces under the brothers descended the precipitous road to
-    the Usumacinta region below. It is probable that the Nahuas had lived
-    for some time in the country, had reached it in their migrations by
-    water along the Gulf coast, and spread their population to quarters
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>both north and south of the point at which they entered. They may
-    have been permitted to settle in the country without molestation, and
-    in time to have united their forces with the rivals of Xibalba for
-    the overthrow of a power which was the dread of the entire Central
-    American region. The crumbling though wonderful ruins of Palenque are
-    the sole vestiges which are left to us of a grand capital and noble
-    empire, and these offer us nothing but the sealed histories which are
-    graven in hieroglyphics upon its walls. Subsequently the Maya-Quiché
-    nations divided and extended their language in three directions;
-    one division journeyed toward Guatemala, another toward Mexico, and
-    another into Yucatan; the latter region has ever remained a peculiarly
-    Maya country. Las Casas states that some of the Guatemalians had a
-    legend of their origin, to the effect that a divine pair of beings had
-    thirteen sons (but by comparison with other authors, namely, Roman in
-    Garcia, and Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 74–5, it is clear that the writer
-    designed to write three—<em>tres</em>—instead of thirteen—<em>trece</em>),
-    or rather three sons. The eldest was puffed up in his own conceit, and
-    attempted to create man against the will of his parents, but failed,
-    except that he was able to produce vessels of the meaner sort. The
-    younger sons, who exhibited quite a different spirit, were granted
-    the privilege, and after creating the sun and moon and stars, created
-    the first man and woman, the progenitors of the human race.<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> Las
-    Casas adds, “They <span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>have among them knowledge of the flood and of the
-    end of the world. They call it ‘butic,’ a name which signifies a flood
-    of many waters. They also believe that another ‘butic’ and judgment
-    will come, not of water but of fire. They hold that certain persons
-    who escaped from the flood populated their land; these were called the
-    Great Father and Great Mother.”<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> In Yucatan the origin traditions
-    point directly to an eastern and foreign source for the population.
-    The early writers report that the natives believed their ancestors to
-    have crossed the sea by a passage which was opened for them.<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> It
-    was also believed that part of the population came into the country
-    from the West. Lizana says that the smaller portion of the population,
-    the “little descent,” came from the East, while the greater portion,
-    “the great descent,” came from the West.<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> Cogolludo disagrees with
-    this view, and considers the eastern colony as the larger; a view which
-    is not likely to be true. The author himself is not quite certain as
-    to what he thinks upon the subject, and contradicts himself squarely
-    on the same page, as to the direction from which Zamna, the Yucatanic
-    culture-hero, is said to have come.<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> Señor Orozco y Berra, thinks
-    that the Yucatanic population came from the north-east (from Florida),
-    by way of Cuba and the islands adjacent.<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> The culture-hero, Zamna,
-    the author of all civilization in Yucatan, is described as the teacher
-    of letters and the leader of the people from their ancient home. His
-    relation to the people and his office of priest and deity combined—the
-    fact that he was the leader of a colony from the East, that he named
-    all the divisions of the land, all the towns, coasts, bays and
-    rivers—identifies him with Votan or rather with one of his disciples
-    or associates. Cogolludo’s statement, first that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>he came from the
-    West, may be true of the direction from which he came into Yucatan; and
-    the statement that he came from the East, may refer to the original
-    migration by which he in company with Votan reached Chiapas and from
-    thence entered the peninsula on the north-east. He was the founder of
-    the capital city of Mayapan, and after a long life died and was buried
-    at Izamal.<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> This became a shrine for pilgrims and was visited for
-    centuries afterwards by religious devotees in large numbers. Zamna is
-    supposed to have founded the oldest royal house in Yucatan—that of the
-    Cocomes.<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> The second culture-hero, of whom mention is made by all
-    the early writers, was Cukulcan (meaning plumed serpent, precisely
-    the same as Quetzalcoatl), who entered the country from the West and
-    settled at Chichen-Itza.<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> Landa is not certain whether he preceded
-    or followed the Itzas. His celibacy, general purity of morals, and the
-    advanced character of his teachings, seem to identify him with the
-    Nahua culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, and it is believed, with reason,
-    that he appeared in Yucatan after his mysterious disappearance in
-    the province of Goazacoalco. For some unknown reason, Cukulcan left
-    Chichen-Itza after a residence there of ten years. Herrera states that
-    he had two brothers who remained in Chichen-Itza, while Cukulcan went
-    to Mayapan. He describes all as practising the purest asceticism. After
-    the disappearance of Cukulcan, temples were erected to his memory and
-    he was worshiped as a god.<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The date of his residence in Yucatan
-    is a matter of considerable dispute, Cogolludo placing it in the
-    twelfth century, Herrera in the ninth, Brasseur de Bourbourg in the
-    eleventh, and Bancroft in the second. To fix dates on no <span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>better data
-    than such legends is folly. It is probable, however, that Cukulcan
-    was the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, who was the teacher of the Nahua
-    nations and figured as the introducer of the fine arts, of purity of
-    morals, of confessional ceremonies and a humane and enlightened system
-    of religion at Cholula, and afterwards disappeared toward the East
-    upon the waters of the Gulf. With the rule of the Cocomes and the
-    annals of that remarkable branch of the Chiapan family, composed of
-    Maya and Nahua elements known as the Tutul Xius, we have nothing to do
-    in this work.<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> Las Casas, in examining the doctrine of Hunab Ku,
-    “the only God” among the Yucatecoes, who is described as the father
-    of Zamna, discovered a most striking Christ myth; one which conforms
-    so closely to the gospel account of Christ’s birth and ministry that
-    we must conclude that either some foreigner must have been cast upon
-    the coast after the Christian era began, bringing the gospel with him,
-    or that one of two views is true, namely, that the Fathers fabricated
-    the story, or that the natives, expecting favor of their conquerors,
-    endeavored to harmonize their belief with that which was being taught
-    them. Las Casas tells us of their belief in a Trinity consisting of
-    Izona, the Father; Bacab, the Son, and Echuah, the Holy Ghost.<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>
-    The Son was born of the Virgin Chibirias, and was rejected of men, was
-    scourged and crucified on a tree with cross-arms; he descended into
-    the regions of the dead, but rose again on the third day, and finally
-    ascended to heaven. In fact the story is the Apostles’ Creed without
-    the “Credo,” and is probably as much the work of the credulous and
-    imaginative Spanish Fathers as of the designing natives. The story
-    ought to be repudiated without question. It only remains for us to
-    submit the question to the reader, whether the Maya peoples are not of
-    transatlantic origin, as we believe the facts in this chapter indicate.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_VI"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VI</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE NAHUA NATIONS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">The Early Inhabitants of Mexico—Quinames—Miztecs and
-    Zapotecs—Totonacs and Huastecs—Olmecs and Xicalancas—The
-    Nahuas—The Cholula Pyramid—Its Origin Explained in the Duran
-    MS.—No Relation to a Flood—Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition—The
-    first Toltecs—The Codex Chimalpopoca Account—The Discovery
-    of Maize—Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas—They came from
-    Florida—Their Settlement in Tamoanchan—Their Migrations—Hue Hue
-    Tlapalan—Its Location, according to the Sources—Not Identical
-    with Tlapallan de Cortés—Not in Central America—Probably in
-    the Mississippi Valley—Beginning of the Toltec Annals—The
-    Chichimecs not Nahuas—The Nahuatlacas—The Aztecs—Aztlan—As
-    Described by Early Writers—Aztec Migration—Aztec Maps—Señor
-    Ramirez on Migration Maps—The Seven Caves—Three Claims for the
-    Location of Aztlan—The Culture Hero—Quetzalcoatl.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">IN considering the origin of the Nahua nations, especially of the
-    Toltecs and Aztecs, it is common to look upon the former as the first
-    inhabitants of Mexico. Such a conclusion is, however, erroneous, since
-    the Toltecs were preceded in Central-Southern Mexico, and even in
-    Anahuac, both by people of different extraction from themselves and
-    by scattering tribes of their own linguistic family, the Nahua. Of
-    the former class, the most conspicuous are the so-called Quinametin
-    (or Quinames), otherwise known as giants. These fierce and powerful
-    people were encountered by the Olmecs, the first Nahuas to colonize
-    the region north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All the early writers
-    refer to them in terms which indicate that they were disposed to accept
-    the existence of a race of giants as a fact. Veytia and Clavigero,
-    however, are convinced that the report is not to be accepted literally.
-    The widest possible difference of opinion as to their origin and
-    relationship to existing tribes prevails<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> with different authors. All
-    agree, however, that they were the first inhabitants of the country.
-    These cruel monsters, addicted to the most disgusting vices, the
-    terror of the immigrating peoples, at last met their fate, according
-    to Ixtlilxochitl, in a great convulsion of nature which shook the
-    earth and caused the mountains and volcanoes to swallow up and kill
-    them.<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> It is probable that this account was figurative. Duran
-    says they were destroyed by the Tlascaltecs while eating.<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> Veytia
-    attributes the destruction to the Olmec chiefs, who made a feast for
-    their enemies and when they were stupid and drunken fell upon them
-    and slew them. We think that in this allusion to the giants, “the
-    first inhabitants of the land,” we see the Votanic colonists from
-    Xibalba that are supposed to have penetrated Anahuac at an early
-    day. They may not have carried any special degree of refinement with
-    them from their old home, and if they did, they probably lapsed into
-    a state of semi-barbarism. Their power as a people, their enmity to
-    the immigrants, and their traditional connection with the hated and
-    all-powerful Xibalba, may have won for them the name of giants because
-    of the fear that was entertained of them; or, as Mr. Bancroft thinks,
-    they may not have been savages at all, but a civilized branch of the
-    Xibalbans, carrying on the warfare in the North which had been waged
-    farther South.<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> It is quite probable that we have here a figurative
-    allusion, from a Nahua standpoint, to the fall of the Xibalban power
-    itself—the new-world Babylon, which, like the old, may have met its
-    fate during a drunken revel.<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span></p>
-
-  <p>To the tribes which figured conspicuously in Mexico prior to the
-    Toltecs and not related to the Nahuas, we may add the Miztecs and
-    Zapotecs, whose language, though not Maya, is in some respects similar
-    to it, while the architectural remains and traditional origin of
-    this people associates them with the Nahuas. Their civilization in
-    Oajaca rivalled that of the Aztecs in its degree of advancement.<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a>
-    The Totonacs were formerly, according to Torquemada, of Nahua
-    extraction; but the authority in the face of linguistic difficulties
-    is doubtful.<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> According to Torquemada’s claim, they were the
-    builders of the temple of the sun and moon at Teotihuacan near Lake
-    Tezcuco.<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> The Huastecs of northern Vera Cruz were a Maya branch
-    of the power at the south; they mark the most northern point reached
-    by the Maya tongue. Of the Nahua predecessors of the Toltecs in
-    Mexico the Olmecs and Xicalancas were the most important. They were
-    the forerunners of the great nations which followed. According to
-    Ixtlilxochitl, these people—which are conceded to be one—occupied the
-    new world in the third age; they came from the East in ships or barks
-    to the land of Potonchan, which they commenced to populate, and on
-    the shores of the River Atoyac, between the Ciudad de los Angeles and
-    Cholula, they found some giants who had escaped the calamity which
-    overtook that race in the second age of the world.<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> Here then comes
-    the destruction of the giants referred to above. The first settlement
-    of the Olmecs and Xicalancas in Mexico is supposed to have been on the
-    site of the ancient city of Xicalanco at the point which still bears
-    the name, at the entrance of the Laguna de Terminos, while a second
-    city, built probably a little later, was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>situated on the coast a short
-    distance below Vera Cruz; the entire region bore the name of Anahuac
-    Xicalanco.<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> The first great exploit of the Olmec chiefs, the
-    destruction of the giants, we observe was performed at some distance
-    from their earliest settlement. The state of Puebla became their chosen
-    ground, and quite soon after the above achievement they undertook the
-    building of the famous tower of Cholula, which is so closely allied in
-    its traditional history with the Tower of Babel. Several authors state
-    that the erection of the pyramid of Cholula was done in memory of the
-    erection of the tower of Babel, at which it is claimed the ancestors
-    of the Olmec chiefs were present. Boturini is probably one of the
-    most sanguine advocates of this view.<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> Others consider that the
-    knowledge which the ancestors of this people transmitted to them with
-    reference to Babel, in time became associated with the Cholula edifice
-    and confounded with its history.</p>
-
-  <p>The Toltecs possessed a deluge tradition, which we will notice
-    hereafter, which unquestionably had reference to a very general and
-    devastating flood; perhaps the scriptural one, but it is clear, as we
-    think we have the authority to show, that the Cholula pyramid and its
-    origin had no relation to that tradition, though so often confounded
-    with it and the tower referred to by the Nahua chroniclers. The
-    generally accepted origin of the pyramid is as follows: from the great
-    cataclysm which destroyed the giants, seven of that race of monsters
-    escaped by shutting themselves up in a mountain cavern. After the
-    waters subsided, Xelhua, one of their number, went to Cholula and began
-    the construction of this pyramid “to escape a second flood, should
-    another occur,” according to Kingsborough, or as a “memorial of the
-    mountain called Tlaloc which had sheltered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>him,” according to Pedro de
-    los Rios. The bricks which were manufactured at the foot of the Sierra
-    de Cocotl were transported to Cholula by being passed through the
-    hands of a file of men extending between the two localities. But the
-    angered gods seeing the presumption of mortals, smote both the tower
-    and its architects with thunderbolts and stopped their work.<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> Lord
-    Kingsborough so intimately connects the erection of the tower with the
-    Toltec deluge legend as to derive Xelhua, the builder of the tower,
-    from the Toltecs rather than from the race of giants, by claiming
-    that he escaped from the deluge with Paticatle the Mexican Noah in
-    an ark, and adds that when the tower was destroyed and the tongues
-    of the builders confounded, Xelhua led a colony to the new world.
-    This last will serve as a specimen of how the Cholula legend has been
-    misunderstood and confounded with the tower of Babel. Father Duran in
-    his MS.,<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, 1585 <span class="allsmcap">A.
-    D.</span>, quotes from the lips of a native of Cholula, over an hundred
-    years old, a version of the legend which assigns quite a different
-    object for building the Pyramid, one which shows that it never was
-    erected as a memorial of Babel nor ever had any reference to an escape
-    from any flood either past or in anticipation. It is as follows: “In
-    the beginning before the light of the sun had been created, this land
-    was in obscurity and darkness and void of any created thing; all was
-    a plain without hill or elevation, encircled in every part by water
-    without tree or created thing; and immediately after the light and the
-    sun arose in the east, there appeared gigantic men of deformed stature,
-    and possessed the land, who desiring to see the nativity of the sun as
-    well as his occident, proposed to go and seek them. Dividing themselves
-    into two parties, some journeyed toward the West and others toward
-    the East; these travelled until the sea cut off their road, whereupon
-    they determined to return to the place from which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>they started, and
-    arriving at this place (Cholula), not finding the means of reaching the
-    sun, enamored of his light and beauty, they determined to build a tower
-    so high that its summit should reach the sky. Having collected material
-    for the purpose, they found a very adhesive clay and bitumen, with
-    which they speedily commenced to build the tower, and having reared
-    it to the greatest possible altitude, so that they say it reached to
-    the sky, the Lord of the Heavens, enraged, said to the inhabitants of
-    the sky, ‘Have you observed how they of the earth have built a high
-    and haughty tower to mount hither, being enamored of the light of the
-    sun and his beauty? Come! and confound them; because it is not right
-    that they of the earth, living in the flesh, should mingle with us.’
-    Immediately at that very instant the inhabitants of the sky sallied
-    forth like flashes of lightning; they destroyed the edifice and divided
-    and scattered its builders to all parts of the earth.”<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> This
-    account, the most ancient on record, makes no reference to a flood,
-    and is quite distinct from the Mexican deluge tradition. Its value as
-    an interpreter of the tendency of the American tribes not only of the
-    United States and Mexico, but of both Americas, to erect mounds and
-    truncated pyramids is not inconsiderable, since it confirms the opinion
-    long entertained that they were connected with sun-worship. The great
-    culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, the white saintly personage from the East,
-    said to have been the leader of the Nahuas, appeared during the Olmec
-    rule, and to his honor the Cholulans erected a temple upon the pyramid
-    which their countrymen or predecessors had failed to complete.<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>
-    Quetzalcoatl was, however, no tribal hero, but was so intimately
-    identified with the institutions and civilization of the entire Nahua
-    race that we purposely defer a consideration of his character at
-    present in order that we may hasten to the traditional origin of the
-    Toltecs.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p>
-
-  <p>It is not our purpose to go back to the several traditions of the
-    creation of man, preserved in as many localities in Mexico, each with
-    its own variations, but simply to take up tradition where it first
-    relates to the Toltec families. We are fully aware of the wide range
-    of opinion with reference to what properly constitutes this tradition,
-    and of the irreconcilable variations in dates and numeric details
-    among the several Spanish writers. Probably all will agree that the
-    native writer Ixtlilxochitl, who inherited the rich collection of royal
-    archives and hieroglyphic paintings belonging to his ancestors (and
-    which fortunately escaped the wholesale vandalism of the conquerors),
-    though both contradictory and negligent, has furnished us the most
-    reliable narrative which has yet been brought to light. Without
-    attempting to correct or unravel his chronology, we simply translate
-    his account of the origin of the Toltecs. Speaking of the first age
-    of the world, the pre-diluvial period, he says: “It is found in the
-    histories of the Toltecs that this age and first world as they call
-    it, lasted 1716 years; that men were destroyed by tremendous rains and
-    lightning from the sky, and even all the land without the exception
-    of anything, and the highest mountains, were covered up and submerged
-    in water ‘caxtolmoletlti,’ or <em>fifteen cubits</em>, and here they
-    add other fables of how men came to multiply from the few who escaped
-    from this destruction in a ‘toptlipetlacali,’ that this word nearly
-    signifies a close chest; and how after men had multiplied they erected
-    a very high ‘zacuali,’ which is to say a tower of great height, in
-    order to take refuge in it, should the second world (age) be destroyed.
-    Presently their languages were confused; and not able to understand
-    each other, they went to different parts of the earth. The Toltecs,
-    consisting of seven friends with their wives, who understood the
-    same language, came to these parts, having first passed great land
-    and seas, having lived in caves, and having endured great hardships
-    in order to reach this land, which they found good and fertile for
-    their habitation; and relate that they wandered one hundred and four
-    years through different parts of the world before they reached Hue hue
-    Tlapalan, which was in Ce Tecpatl, five hundred and twenty years after
-    the flood. Seventeen hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> and fifteen years after the flood, there
-    was a terrible hurricane that carried away trees, mounds, houses and
-    the largest edifices, notwithstanding which many men and women escaped
-    principally in caves and places where the great hurricane could not
-    reach them. A few days having passed, they set out to see what had
-    become of the earth, when they found it all covered and populated with
-    monkeys. All this time they were in darkness without seeing the light
-    of the sun nor the moon that the wind had brought them. The Indians
-    invented a fable which says that men were changed into monkeys. * * *
-    One hundred and fifty-eight years after the great hurricane and 4994
-    from the creation of the world, there was another destruction of this
-    land, which was of the Quinametin, giants who lived in New Spain, which
-    destruction was a great trembling of the earth, which swallowed up and
-    killed them, the mountains and volcanoes burst upon them, that for a
-    certainty none should escape. At the same time many of the Toltecs
-    perished and the Chichimecs their neighbors. That was in the year Ce
-    Tecpatl; and this age they call Tlachilonatnip, that is to say, sun [or
-    age] of earth.”<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> Here follows an account of the construction of
-    the calendar by the assembly of Lords in Hue hue Tlapalan in the year
-    5097 of the creation of the world and 104 after the destruction of the
-    giants.</p>
-
-  <p>The singular agreement of this account with the Mosaic description,
-    in some of its details, such as the height attained by the waters
-    above the mountains, the escape of certain persons in an ark, and
-    the erection of a high tower, together with the subsequent confusion
-    of tongues, Lord Kingsborough is convinced furnishes proof that the
-    Toltecs were of Jewish descent.<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> While we are not prepared to
-    believe the sanguine speculations of that eminent author in this
-    case, still one of two views must be true: either the Toltecs were
-    of old world origin, and at a remote period treasured up among their
-    traditional histories notices of the Mosaic deluge, traditions of
-    which are so generally <span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>current among the Asiatic nations, or the
-    Mexican traditions of local inundation were warped by the teachings
-    of the Spanish priests in a degree beyond any precedent in history
-    or reasonable expectation, and that within a comparatively few years
-    after the conquest. Our authority in this case is a native of Tezcuco,
-    a son of the queen; and because of his acquaintance with both the
-    hieroglyphic writings and the Castilian, served as interpreter to
-    the viceroy. His <cite>Relacions</cite> were composed from the archives of
-    his family and compared with the testimony of the oldest and best
-    informed natives. It does not seem to us that the sense of historic
-    integrity cultivated to so nice a point at Tezcuco, where the censorial
-    council, just prior to the advent of the conquerors, punished with
-    death any who should willfully pervert the truth, could have so
-    sadly degenerated that Ixtlilxochitl and the venerable natives who
-    were conscious of the representations contained in his work, should
-    proclaim a falsehood which would not meet with contradiction.<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> We
-    are aware that this author’s chronology is an inextricable maze of
-    contradictions which cannot be unravelled or reconstructed. The Toltec
-    families, seven in number, are, however, said to have reached Hue hue
-    Tlapalan five hundred and twenty years after the flood. The journey,
-    however, occupied only one hundred and four years of that time. Their
-    wanderings, attended with severe experiences, nakedness, and hunger and
-    cold, were over many lands, across expanses of sea and through untold
-    hardships.<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The date of the migration to Hue hue Tlapalan cannot be approximated
-    from available data, but it is evident that Ixtlilxochitl fixes it
-    at 520 years after the flood, or 2236 years after the creation—a
-    period which must have antedated the Christian era by a score of
-    centuries or more, even if we accept his chronology, which (on p.
-    322 of his <cite>Relacions</cite>), implies that more than five thousand
-    years elapsed between the creation and the birth <span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>of Christ. The
-    <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, a Nahua record written in Spanish letters,
-    which occupies probably the same relation to early Mexican history
-    that the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> does to the Maya history, has been made
-    known to us through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but as
-    yet it has not been published. Ixtlilxochitl was the copyist of this
-    document, and of course used it in composing his <cite>Relacions</cite>.
-    Mr. Bancroft has attempted to collect from scattered passages, taken
-    from the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> and found in Brasseur’s writings,
-    a continuous narrative, but with little success. “The division of
-    the earth,” by the sun, “six times four hundred, plus one hundred,
-    plus thirteen years ago to-day, the twenty-second of May, 1558;” in
-    other words, in the year 955 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, is a date obtained which
-    seems to refer to the division of the land among the followers of
-    Votan.<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> In the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, Gucumatz (whose name signifies
-    plumed serpent) is described as going in search of maize, while the
-    <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> describes Quetzalcoatl, whose name is
-    identical in meaning with that of Gucumatz, as entering upon the same
-    undertaking, though under somewhat different circumstances, and states
-    that when he had found it, he brought it to Tamoanchan.<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> We shall
-    see hereafter that Sahagun locates Tamoanchan in Tabasco, a fact of
-    considerable value in studying the Toltec migration. The reader will
-    not, however, associate Quetzalcoatl with the above date, since such
-    is not the purport of the record. The <cite>Chimalpopoca</cite> implies that
-    Quetzalcoatl afterwards becoming obnoxious to his companions forsook
-    them, a statement noted by Mr. Bancroft, though its full value does not
-    seem to have been observed by that author.<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> The account clearly
-    refers to the role of Quetzalcoatl among the Quichés, when he was
-    known as Gucumatz, and prior to his appearance among the Olmec (Nahua)
-    tribes. It indicates that the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> account of the
-    discovery of maize is purely Quiché, and has no reference to the Nahuas
-    whatever. The search for maize by the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>plumed serpent, call him by
-    either his Quiché or Nahua name if you wish, was prior to the advent of
-    that remarkable personage among the Nahuas. The reputed discovery we
-    consider nothing more than a figurative allusion to the introduction of
-    agriculture by this culture-hero, the knowledge of which he afterwards
-    communicated to the Nahuas at Tamoanchan. If these inferences are
-    true, the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, so far as we are acquainted
-    with its contents, can render us no assistance with reference to the
-    question in hand. We will now return to the beginning of the subject
-    and cite additional authorities, chief among them Sahagun. In the
-    introduction to his <cite>Historia General</cite>, in speaking of the origin
-    of this people, he expresses the opinion that it is impossible to
-    definitely determine more than that they report “that all the natives
-    came from seven caves, and that these seven caves are the seven ships
-    or galleys in which the first populators of the land came.” He adds,
-    “The first people came to populate this land from towards Florida,
-    and came coasting and disembarked at the port of Pánuco, which they
-    called Panco, which signifies a place to which they come who pass the
-    water. This people came in quest of the terrestrial paradise, and
-    were known by the name Tamoanchan, by which they mean, ‘we seek our
-    home.’ They settled around the highest mountains that they found. In
-    coming toward the midday to find the terrestrial paradise, they did
-    not err, because it is the opinion of the knowing that it is under the
-    equinoctial line.”<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> The above account is rendered more definite
-    in the following passage from his third volume:<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> “Countless years
-    ago the first settlers arrived in these parts of New Spain—which is
-    nearly another world—coming with ships by sea, approached a port at
-    the North, and because they disembarked there, it is called Panutla or
-    Panaoia, place where they arrive who come by the sea; at present it
-    is corruptly called Pantlan. From that port they commenced to journey
-    by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>the shores of the sea, ever beholding the snow-capped Sierras and
-    the volcanoes, until they came to the province of Guatemala, being
-    guided by their priest who carried with him their god, with whom he
-    always counseled concerning what he should do. They settled down in
-    Tamoanchan, where they were a long time, and never ceased to have their
-    wise men or prophets, called Amoxoaqui, which signifies ‘men learned
-    in the ancient paintings,’ who, although they came at the same time,
-    did not remain with the rest in Tamoanchan, for leaving them there,
-    they re-embarked and took with them all the paintings of the rites
-    and mechanic arts which they had brought.” The account continues by
-    stating that the priests informed their companions before leaving them,
-    that their God had made them masters of the land, and that they should
-    inhabit it and await his return. The priests then departed towards
-    the East with their idol wrapped in blankets. Whereupon the people
-    invented judicial astrology and the art of interpreting dreams. They
-    there also constructed the calendar which was followed during the time
-    of the Toltecs, Mexicans, Tepanecs and Chichimecs. The first migratory
-    movement was to Teotihuacan, where they erected two mountains in honor
-    of the sun and moon. Here they elected their rulers and buried their
-    princes, erecting mounds over their graves. This seems to have become
-    their holy city. The main power which had remained for a long time in
-    Tamoanchan was changed to Xumiltepec. From this latter place they,
-    however, at the instance of their priests, started again on their
-    migrations. First going to Teotihuacan in order to choose their wise
-    men. Notwithstanding the remarks of Sahagun that the seven caves were
-    the seven ships in which the first settlers came to New Spain, he here
-    affirms that in the course of their migration they came to the valley
-    of the seven caves. How long they remained in this national centre
-    we have no means of knowing, but eventually their god told them to
-    retrace their steps, which they did, going to Tollancingo (Tulancingo)
-    and finally to Tulan (Tollan). Ixtlilxochitl, if he can be relied
-    upon (and if he is unreliable we might as well give up the task of
-    tracing the early history of this or any other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> Mexican people) shows
-    clearly that the ancestors of the Toltecs were possessed of certain
-    traditions which point to an Asiatic origin; that at a remote period
-    they set out from that common home of so many peoples, possessing the
-    same traditions, in search of a suitable country in which to live; that
-    after one hundred and four years occupied in traversing broad lands and
-    seas, they arrived in a country called Hue hue Tlapalan. This event,
-    according to his chronology, must have occurred upwards of twenty
-    centuries before Christ. He tells us also that in Hue hue Tlapalan, the
-    Toltecs regulated their calendar. Sahagun says that countless years
-    ago the first inhabitants of the country (Mexico) came by sea from the
-    direction of Florida on the North, and landing at Pánuco, journeyed
-    down the coast to Guatemala (which is supposed to have embraced Chiapas
-    and perhaps Tabasco, though such is only the conjecture of an earnest
-    advocate of the Southern location of Hue hue Tlapalan, <i>i. e.</i>,
-    Mr. Bancroft) where they established a city called Tamoanchan—there
-    the calendar was regulated or corrected. Whether this was the same
-    construction of the calendar referred to by Ixtlilxochitl as having
-    taken place in Hue hue Tlapalan is questionable. If positive proof of
-    the identity of these occurrences could be produced, the identity of
-    Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan would be complete, and the disputed
-    location of the latter would be fixed in the Chiapan region or the
-    country of the Xibalbans. The fact that Quetzalcoatl brought maize to
-    Tamoanchan seems to indicate a comparative proximity of that country to
-    the Southern region where that culture-hero figured so conspicuously
-    under the Quiché name of Gucumatz. If no other testimony need be
-    introduced the disputed locality might be fixed as above indicated.
-    However, the contradictory records of Ixtlilxochitl, which we are now
-    about to cite, unsettle this conclusion. The Toltec migration from Hue
-    hue Tlapalan is briefly as follows: Three hundred and thirty-eight
-    years after Christ a revolt occurred among the Toltecs in Hue hue
-    Tlapalan, in which two rebel princes attempted to depose the legitimate
-    successor to the throne. These rebel chiefs, named Chalcatzin and
-    Tlacamihtzin respectively, were unsuccessful, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> together with five
-    other chiefs and their numerous allies and people, were driven out of
-    their city Tlachicatzin in Hue hue Tlapalan. After a journey of sixty
-    leagues, they arrived at a place which they called Tlapallanconco, or
-    Little Tlapalan. Their departure from their old home did not occur till
-    they had withstood a contest of eight years—or, according to Veytia,
-    thirteen years—duration.<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> At Tlapallanconco they lived three years,
-    at the end of which time there arose among them a great astrologer,
-    named Hueman or Huematzin, who counseled them to forsake the land of
-    their misfortunes and journey toward the rising sun, where there was
-    a happy land formerly occupied by Quinames, but now depopulated. This
-    advice seeming good they set out on their journey at the end of the
-    three years, or eleven years after leaving Hue hue Tlapalan. After
-    traveling twelve days and accomplishing seventy leagues they arrived
-    at Hueyxalan, and remained there four years. From thence a twenty days
-    journey toward the East, or according to Veytia, toward the West, and
-    of one hundred leagues in length, brought them to Xalisco, near the
-    sea-shore. Here they remained eight years. Twenty days journey and 100
-    leagues more brought them to Chimalhuacan on the coast opposite certain
-    islands, where they resided five years. Eighteen days or 80 leagues
-    traversed toward the East, and they arrived at Toxpan, where they
-    dwelt five years more. Proceeding eastward twenty days’ journey or 100
-    leagues, they came to Quiyahuitztlan Anahuac, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span>situated on the coast.
-    Here they were obliged to pass inlets of the sea in boats. During a
-    six years’ sojourn at this point, they suffered many hardships. An
-    eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Zacatlan where
-    they dwelt seven years. From thence they journeyed eighty leagues to
-    Totzapan and dwelt there six years. They next journeyed to Tepetla,
-    distant twenty-eight days, or 140 leagues, where they dwelt seven
-    years. Eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Mazatepec,
-    where they remained eight years, and a similar journey brought them
-    to Ziuhcohuatl where they tarried also eight years. Turning northward
-    from this unknown point, they journeyed twenty days or 100 leagues
-    and halted at Yztachuexucha, where they dwelt twenty-six years.
-    At last, after a journey of eighteen days or eighty leagues, they
-    arrived at Tulancingo (Tulantzinco, or Tollantzinco) a name already
-    familiar to us. Here the Toltecs emerge from what has been to us an
-    unknown wilderness without geographic guide-post or even a polar
-    star by which to reckon. Their itinerary, full of so many gaps and
-    inconsistencies, its frequent omission of the directions traversed,
-    with its starting-point so indefinitely located, is meaningless and
-    confusing, and so far as the reader is concerned, practically begins
-    nowhere and ends in nothing. At Tulancingo they remained eighteen
-    years, living in a house sufficiently large to accommodate them all.
-    Their knowledge of architecture must have been quite advanced to have
-    enabled them to construct such an edifice. The third year after their
-    arrival at Tulancingo, marked a Toltec age of 104 years from the time
-    they left their home in Hue hue Tlapalan. Finally, eighteen years
-    having elapsed, they transferred the capital to Tollan, afterwards the
-    centre of the Toltec empire. Tollan is stated to have been eastward
-    of Tulancingo (in all probability a mistake).<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> In this migration
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>we have a distance of 1150 leagues traversed; the first two moves,
-    aggregating 130 leagues, is in an unknown direction; the next advance
-    is 100 leagues in an easterly direction, according to one author, and
-    westerly according to another; however, it is agreed that the point
-    was on the sea-shore. The next move of 100 leagues is still along the
-    sea-shore, but the direction is not stated. We then have two advances
-    amounting to 180 leagues, in an easterly direction. The confusion
-    is completed in the following advances, aggregating 460 leagues in
-    unknown directions. Of the remaining 180 leagues, 100 were traveled in
-    a northern direction, while the remaining 80 leagues were taken toward
-    an unknown quarter. It is quite plain to any one, that the distances
-    traversed in the directions stated could not be traced consistently
-    with the geography of Mexico and Central America, upon the assumption
-    that Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan are identical and situated in the
-    Rio Usumacinta region. The itinerary would carry the emigrants far
-    out upon the Gulf of Mexico. It is evident that a broader territory
-    than that of Southern Mexico and Central America is required for the
-    realization of such distances. The account of the migration is no doubt
-    faulty; but even if we disregard the gaps, it presents insuperable
-    difficulties when applied to the South-Mexican region. It is manifest
-    that Sahagun and Ixtlilxochitl refer to different migrations. The
-    former to the Olmecs, who came by sea to Pánuco and thence to Tabasco,
-    from which they migrated north to Teotihuacan. The latter narrates the
-    wanderings of the Toltecs who subsequently came into Mexico by land.
-    If this distinction is borne in mind, much of the obscurity attending
-    the subject is cleared away. We are inclined to think that the accounts
-    of the two distinct migrations have become confused, and the details
-    of one substituted for the details of the other. Every one familiar
-    with the study of traditional histories is aware of this danger, or
-    even more, this tendency among semi-civilized peoples. No better
-    illustration of this fact can be presented than the sad confusion which
-    has been wrought by nearly every writer who has attempted to describe
-    the two distinct personages in Mexican history, known by the name of
-    Quetzalcoatl. Only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> Sahagun of all the early writers has seemed to have
-    any clear conception of their individual and independent attributes.
-    The demi-god, and the Toltec king, and the achievements of each, have
-    been made to change places so often by Spanish writers, that the result
-    has, with each new treatment of the subject, been confusion worse
-    confounded. Sahagun’s account of the arrival of the Nahuas in ships,
-    from the direction of Florida, their landing in Pánuco, their journey
-    toward Guatemala, their residence in Tamoanchan (probably somewhere
-    in the Chiapan region) and their subsequent migration northward to
-    Teotihuacan with its well-known pyramids, and finally their removal
-    to Tollan, north of the City of Mexico, by the way of Tolancingo,
-    is a straightforward account which finds support in the best of
-    evidence, both of a material and linguistic character. Sr. Orozco y
-    Berra has clearly shown by linguistic testimony that the Nahua nations
-    entered the country somewhere between the nineteenth and twenty-first
-    degrees of north latitude, on the Gulf coast, migrated southward to
-    a point seventeen and one-half degrees north latitude, almost to the
-    Chiapan region, and then retracing their steps northward, almost to a
-    point opposite Vera Cruz, they crossed Mexico to the Pacific coast,
-    along which they extended their language northward nearly to the
-    twenty-seventh degree north latitude.<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Sahagun says nothing of Hue
-    hue Tlapalan in his account of the migration from Tamoanchan to Tollan
-    or from Chiapas to Anahuac, for his account refers to the Olmecs, the
-    first Nahuas to reach Mexico.</p>
-
-  <p>Mr. John H. Becker, of Berlin, in an able paper addressed to the
-    Congrès des Américainistes at Luxembourg (<cite>Compte Rendu de la Seconde
-    Session</cite>, tom. i, pp. 325–50), after offering plausible arguments
-    for the identification of Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, Hue hue Tlapalan
-    of the Toltecs, Amaquemecan of the Chichimecs, and Oztotlan of the
-    Aztecs, with the region of the upper Rio Grande del Norte and Rio
-    Colorado—the land of the ravines, of grottoes, and of cañons—attempts
-    to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>trace the Toltec migration as given by Ixtlilxochitl. His
-    interesting solution of the difficult problem is as follows: “The
-    Toltecs driven out of Hue hue Tlapalan by civil wars (towards the end
-    of the fourth century of our era?) move in a westerly direction sixty
-    leagues to Tlapalanconco (northern Sinaloa and Sonora on the Rio Yaqui,
-    where distinct traces of the Nahua language exist?); thence, after
-    eleven years, they go to Hueyxalan, seventy leagues distant (perhaps
-    the northern part of Durango, where the Tepehuana language shows strong
-    Nahua affinities); thence to Xalisco on the coast, one hundred leagues
-    distant; thence to Chimalhuacan Atenco on the coast opposite some
-    islands, one hundred leagues (opposite the islands in the southern end
-    of the Gulf of California)? In that case they did undoubtedly suffer a
-    reverse in Xalisco (where they touched upon the more thickly populated
-    and civilized country, and by which they were forced to retire); thence
-    eastward eighty leagues to Toxpan (in the neighborhood of the Laguna de
-    Tlahuila and on the upper Sabina River). In that country there is even
-    now a tribe of Tochos, and the Tarahumara language there spoken, shows
-    distinct affinities to the Nahua tongue; thence eastward one hundred
-    leagues to Quahuitzlan Anahuac, on the coast with inlets—the coast-land
-    of the state of Tamaulipas, on the Gulf of Mexico? About this locality
-    there can scarcely be a doubt, since this eastern coast country and the
-    eastern plateau bore the general name Quetzalapan or Huitzilapan, until
-    the Nahuas took possession of them, when the plateau was designated
-    as <i>Huitznahuac</i>, and the name above given would be the natural
-    one to apply to the coast, since while <i>nahuac</i> (<i>an</i>) means
-    simply the Nahualand, <i>Anahuac</i> (<i>an</i>) means the ‘Nahua land
-    on the water,’ while Quahuitzlan is the old name retained in order to
-    distinguish this Anahuac on the Gulf coast from the Anahuac around the
-    Mexican lakes. Here they ‘suffered great hardships,’ and finally went
-    westward eighty leagues to Zacatlan (the northern part of the State
-    of Zacatecas?); from there eighty leagues to Totzapan, probably again
-    in the neighborhood of Toxpan before mentioned (where the Tusanes are
-    located even to-day); thence one hundred and forty leagues to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> Tepetla
-    (the extraordinary distance shows that at last they gained a decisive
-    victory, and broke through the frontier of the more civilized country
-    which they had hitherto felt). Tepetla, mountainland, must consequently
-    be sought in the neighborhood of the high mountains of Anahuac; thence
-    eighty leagues to Mazatepec (the mountain of the Mazahuas, skirting
-    the valley of Mexico towards north and west); thence eighty leagues to
-    Ziuhcohuatl, where they probably suffered another defeat, for they move
-    full one hundred leagues northward to Yztachuechucha, and stop there
-    twenty-three years, a sufficient time to raise another generation of
-    warriors; thence eighty leagues to Tollantzingo, and then finally to
-    ‘Tollan,’ the capital of their future empire, which if Ixtlilxochitl’s
-    dates can be trusted, they built about 500 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, on the site
-    of a former city of the Otomis.” This ingenious and thoughtful review
-    of the route commends itself to all who are interested in this subject.
-    Mr. Becker considers that one great argument for the correctness of the
-    starting-point which he has chosen is “the fact that even the distances
-    as given by Ixtlilxochitl agree with the actual situation of the
-    various localities here indicated.” Ixtlilxochitl, obscure as he is,
-    gives in another part of his work an additional account, besides the
-    one we have already quoted, which greatly strengthens our conviction
-    that the Toltecs came into Mexico from the north, and confirms the
-    investigations of both Mr. Becker and of Sr. Orozco. The account is
-    as follows: “In this fourth age there came to this land of Anahuac,
-    which is at present called New Spain, those of the Toltec nations who,
-    according to the accounts of their histories, were expelled from their
-    land, and after having navigated and coasted on the South Sea along
-    various lands as far as the present California, they came to what is
-    called Huitlapalan, that which at present they call after Cortés. This
-    locality they passed in the year called Ce Tecpatl, which was in the
-    year 387 of the incarnation of our Lord. Having coasted the land of
-    Xalisco, and all the coast of the south, they set out from the port
-    of Huatulco, and went through various lands as far as the province of
-    Tochtepec, situated on the coast of the North Sea, and having traversed
-    and viewed it they came to stop in the province of Tulantzinco,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> having
-    left some people in most of their stopping-places in order to populate
-    them.”<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></p>
-
-  <p>It will be observed that in this migration part of the same general
-    route above referred to, along the Pacific coast nearly opposite the
-    extremity of the California peninsula, and then returning southward
-    and inland, is clearly marked out. The Pacific ocean, called the South
-    Sea, seems to have facilitated their movements northward. Xalisco
-    was coasted, and the entire width of Mexico traversed, the Gulf of
-    Mexico reached (Sea of the North), and finally Tolancingo chosen as a
-    suitable home. It will be observed that the Huitlapalan named above is
-    not identical with Hue hue Tlapalan, the earliest home of the nations.
-    Mr. Bancroft has apparently confounded the two names, and endeavors to
-    find in the Tlapallan de Cortés (so named because of Cortés’ expedition
-    to a Tlapallan) the ancient Hue hue Tlapalan.<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> The Abbé Brasseur
-    de Bourbourg attempts precisely the same thing. The investigations of
-    both these writers on this point are interesting, though without any
-    result, unless unintentionally to strengthen the above distinction
-    between Huitlapalan and Hue hue Tlapalan. Substantially the facts are
-    as follows: Pedro de Alvarado, writing from Santiago or old Guatemala
-    to Cortés in 1524, refers to Tlapallan as fifteen days march inland,
-    and Mr. Bancroft thinks that the name must have been applied to a
-    region corresponding to either Honduras, Peten or Tabasco. Cortés’ name
-    was affixed to a Tlapallan said to lie towards Ihueras or Ibueras, the
-    former name of Honduras, because of his expedition to that country.
-    The Abbé says the name was applied to a region between the tributaries
-    of the Rio Usumacinta and Honduras. Finally, the fact that the second
-    Quetzalcoatl, when he embarked on the Gulf coast near the Goazacoalco
-    River, announced his intention of going to Tlapallan, is cited as
-    proof that the name was applied to a southern locality.<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>The
-    entire argument is perfectly satisfactory in locating a Tlapallan in
-    the Usumacinta region, but it does not have the slightest value in
-    proving that Hue hue Tlapalan was identical with that locality. On
-    the other hand, Cabrera, in referring to the ancient country of the
-    Toltecs, calls it Hue Hue Tlapalan, and states that the simple name was
-    Tlapallan, but that it was called Hue hue—old—to distinguish it from
-    three other Tlapalans which they founded in the new districts which
-    they came to inhabit. This statement is confirmed by Torquemada.<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a>
-    It is therefore probable that Bancroft’s and Brasseur’s investigations
-    were all expended on one or more of these three Tlapalans. The
-    undoubted residence of a tribe of the Nahuas (Olmecs) in the Tabasco
-    region for a considerable period—one which is measured relatively in
-    the language of Sahugun between the “countless years ago when they
-    arrived from towards Florida” and their departure towards Anahuac in
-    the fourth or fifth century—has led many writers to suppose that they
-    were of southern origin, notwithstanding the statement of Sahagun,
-    Ixtlilxochitl and all the early writers to the contrary. Supposing
-    that the sweeping assumption of the northern origin so persistently
-    adhered to by native and Spanish writers is nothing but a priestly
-    fabrication, be admitted, simply that our attention may be turned to
-    other testimony, still the evidence is against the southern origin
-    theory. The material relics of Honduras and Nicaragua absolutely
-    disprove the positive supposition that they were ever the work of the
-    people who figured in Anahuac, and no transition from one style of
-    sculpture to the other has ever been discovered, nor could be imagined.
-    An examination of the first few chapters of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth
-    volume and the works from which it has been drawn will fully satisfy
-    the reader of this fact. The evidence from the linguistic standpoint is
-    even more satisfactory, since the Nahua language as spoken in Central
-    America, in the states of San Salvador and Nicaragua, is dialectic,
-    indicating a fragmentary migration southward.<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span></p>
-
-  <p>It has been the common custom of Spanish writers and those who
-    followed them down to the middle of this century, to locate Hue hue
-    Tlapalan on the Californian coast. Vater and Humboldt from their
-    standpoints of investigation fell in with this view. The former,
-    basing his convictions on seeming linguistic affinities in the
-    north-west, which, while they are quite significant, indicative of
-    Nahua influences if not of Nahua residence, are too few to prove any
-    lengthy sojourn. Humboldt based his opinion chiefly on the traditions
-    and certain ethnological and geographical facts. Buschmann<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> has
-    completely overthrown the arguments of Vater in his series of works
-    on American languages, while Mr. Bancroft has shown conclusively that
-    there are no material remains assignable to the Toltecs to be found on
-    the Californian coast or the adjoining region.<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> When he asserts,
-    however, that there are no remains farther north than California, he
-    overlooks a well-known fact. We refer to the mounds of Oregon and
-    their extension eastward into the Yellowstone and North Missouri River
-    region. The most reasonable conjecture as to the locality of Hue hue
-    Tlapalan is that which places it in the Mississippi Valley, and assigns
-    the works of our Mound-builders to the Nahua nations. In previous
-    chapters we have shown the close resemblance of the mound crania to
-    the ancient Mexican, and have pointed out the gradual transition from
-    the rude and simple mounds of the north to the truncated pyramid of
-    the south, constructed on strict geometrical principles, having one
-    or more graded ways, and so closely resembling the Mexican teocallis.
-    Besides the testimony of Sahagun that the first settlers of Mexico
-    came from towards Florida, and the universal report of a northern
-    origin prevalent among the Aztecs at the time of the conquest, there
-    are other evidences of a racial identity common to Mound-builders and
-    Mexicans, such as pottery, sculptured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> portraitures of the facial type,
-    indications of commercial intercourse between the two countries, such
-    as the discovery of Mexican obsidian in the mounds of the Ohio Valley,
-    and the probability that both worshipped the sun and offered human
-    sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a></p>
-
-  <p>With the Toltec annals proper we have nothing to do; only the most
-    primitive period of the growth of this people concerns us here, and
-    that period is conceded to have closed with the establishment of the
-    great capital at Tollan, on the site of the present village of Tula,
-    thirty miles north-west of the city of Mexico. Seven years after the
-    arrival of the Toltecs in Tollan, the government was a theocratic
-    republic, with the seven chiefs who had conducted them thither acting
-    as their rulers, under the advice of the venerable Huemen. Finally,
-    in the beginning of the eighth century, somewhere between 710 and
-    720 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, the republic was changed into a monarchy and the
-    throne given to the son of their dreaded enemies and former neighbors,
-    the warlike Chichimecs, as a peace-offering, on condition that the
-    Toltecs should always be a free people and in no way tributary to the
-    Chichimecs. The history of the Toltec monarchy during the three and
-    a half centuries of its duration to the final overthrow of Tollan
-    (1062 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) as well as the power of the remarkable people
-    who built the ancient capital, has often been sketched, and for us
-    to repeat what has been recorded in almost every language of modern
-    Europe, would add nothing to the cause of science. This part of ancient
-    American history, so replete with the romantic and marvellous, so
-    confusing at times, because of our ignorance of many geographic and
-    archæologic features entering into it (which, in time, will probably
-    be brought to light), so saddening because of its stories of wholesale
-    misfortunes to a people whose civilization rivalled that of Europe in
-    the middle ages; and yet, after all, so fresh and novel, must <span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>continue
-    to receive increased attention, if only as a means of recreation to
-    the student of history, wearied with the beaten paths from Rome to
-    Greece, and from Greece to Rome. Mr. Bancroft has given an excellent
-    <i>resumé</i> of the annals of the Toltec period, accompanying it with
-    an ample literary apparatus in the notes. During the last century of
-    the Toltec power, Anahuac was overrun by the incursions of a fierce and
-    dreaded people—the Chichimecs. These semi-barbarians, taking advantage
-    of the internal dissensions in the Toltec monarchy, became a powerful
-    factor, either on their own part or in the hands of the enemies of
-    Tollan, in the overthrow of the empire. In the Toltec traditions we
-    read of the Chichimecs being their neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan.<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a>
-    In the annals as given in Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada and many writers,
-    the Chichimecs are represented as having pursued and annoyed the
-    Toltecs, to have followed them up in their wanderings. This probably
-    is not literally true, but their arrival upon the borders of Anahuac,
-    soon after its occupation by the Toltecs, is quite certain. It has
-    been common to consider the Chichimecs as a Nahua people, and even so
-    critical a writer as Mr. Bancroft adopts this popular error. As long
-    ago as 1855, Sr. Francisco Pimentel undertook to show the mistake into
-    which many had fallen, and in his <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>
-    (published in 1862), has furnished conclusive proof that the Chichimecs
-    originally spoke a different language from the Nahua nations, but
-    subsequently adopted the Nahua tongue, on the principle set forth by
-    Balbi: “It is not the language of the conquering people that invariably
-    dominates, but that which is most regular and cultured.” On the
-    testimony of Torquemada,<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> Ixtlilxochitl<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> and Juan Bautista
-    Pomar,<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> Sr. Pimentel shows that the Chichimec language was once
-    distinct and different from the Nahua, and that these people came under
-    the civilizing influences of the Toltecs during their golden age,
-    but in their declining period availed themselves <span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>of the opportunity
-    of possessing their country and advanced civilization.<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> If the
-    Chichimecs were the neighbors of the Toltecs in Hue hue Tlapalan, it
-    is reasonable to expect some light on the situation of that disputed
-    locality in the Chichimec traditions; but in this expectation we are
-    disappointed. There is no mention of that ancient home of the Nahuas,
-    nor of any route pursued in their migrations. Amaquemecan is the only
-    name which is applied to their most primitive land or history; one of
-    the cities which they occupied at some remote period seems to have
-    borne the name. When the Toltecs sent to the Chichimecs for their first
-    king, they were, according to Ixtlilxochitl, in the neighborhood of
-    Panuco. Panes describes them as having passed the sea, and, according
-    to their reckoning, in the year Five Tolti to have arrived at the seven
-    caves. Thence they journeyed to Amacatepeque, and certain persons
-    left that province to go to Tepenec, which is to say “the Mountain
-    of Echo.”<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> Ixtlilxochitl and some other authors derive them from
-    Chicomoztoc, a rendezvous of the nations, which has been located by
-    Clavigero at about twenty miles south of Zacatecas but is considered
-    by Duran and Acosta as identical with Aztlan in the region of
-    Florida.<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> It is impossible to determine either the starting-point
-    or route of this people, who subsequently became amalgamated with the
-    scattered Toltecs after the fall of Tollan, and whose rule in Anahuac
-    may properly be dated from the (1062) middle of the eleventh until
-    nearly the middle of the fifteenth (1431) century.</p>
-
-  <p>A few years after the Chichimec power was established there came
-    from the North (at least their last move is admitted to have been
-    from that quarter) six tribes of Nahuatlacas, who arrived in the
-    country adjoining Tollan. There were altogether seven tribes, namely,
-    the Xochimilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecs, Tlahuicas, Acolhuas, Tlascatecs
-    and Aztecs or Mexicans. The latter people, however, had separated
-    themselves from the remaining <span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>six tribes at Chicomoztoc and did not
-    reach Anahuac until about 1196 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> These people all acted
-    as tributary to the Chichimecs at first; and of the seven tribes,
-    two eventually arose to great political importance, the Tlascatecs
-    who founded an independent republic, and the Aztecs whose empire
-    has been the wonder of students of antiquity and the subject of
-    histories as romantic as the purest fiction. Some authors add a number
-    of tribal names to those already given as belonging to fragments
-    of the Nahuatlaca family, but the probability is that these minor
-    and unimportant tribes were offshoots from the others, after their
-    arrival on the central plateau. The representative branch of all the
-    Nahuatlacas was the Aztec nation, who separated from their brethren
-    in Chicomoztoc, and whose arrival at the Lake region of Mexico, is
-    dated subsequent to that of the other tribes. All of these tribes
-    are said to have come from the unknown Aztlan, their early home. The
-    question of its locality has been as much a subject of controversy
-    as the location of Hue hue Tlapalan, since, in fact, the question is
-    possibly one and the same, for the Nahua speaking people who migrated
-    into Mexico at intervals, extending over a period of a thousand years,
-    must have had a common origin. Aztlan is described by Duran as a most
-    attractive land and the presumption is that the Nahuas were forcibly
-    driven from their fair heritage by the gradual encroachments of their
-    enemies. The account of this delightful country given by Cueuhcoatl to
-    the elder Montezuma, is as follows: “Our fathers dwelt in that happy
-    and prosperous place which they called Aztlan, which means “whiteness.”
-    In this place there is a great mountain in the middle of the water,
-    which is called Culhuacan, because it has the point somewhat turned
-    over toward the bottom, and for this cause it is called Culhuacan,
-    which means “crooked mountain.” In this mountain were some openings,
-    or caves or hollows, where our fathers and ancestors dwelt for many
-    years; there, under this name Mexitin and Aztec, they had much repose;
-    there they enjoyed a great plenty of geese; of all species of marine
-    birds and water fowls; enjoyed the song and melody of birds with yellow
-    crests; enjoyed many kinds of large and beautiful fish; enjoyed the
-    freshness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> of trees that were upon those shores, and fountains enclosed
-    with elders, and savins (junipers) and aldertrees, both large and
-    beautiful. They went about in canoes, and made furrows in which they
-    planted maize, red-peppers, tomatoes, beans and all kinds of seed that
-    we eat.”<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> The location of Aztlan is not a philosophical question
-    for our consideration, since scarcely sufficient data of a definite
-    character are available on which to base a process of reasoning. The
-    report common among the Aztecs was that they had come from the North,
-    and this was no doubt true of the final move prior to their settlement
-    in Anahuac, but whether it was true of their starting-point and the
-    general course of the Aztec migration, is a question which cannot
-    be satisfactorily answered. Most Spanish writers and others of the
-    earlier school, locate Aztlan directly north of the present boundary
-    line of Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> others again California,<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> while some favor
-    the North-western Mexican States.<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> A recent school of Americanists
-    assign Aztlan a southern location, placing it in the Central American
-    region.<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> Duran and Brasseur de Bourbourg,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> both celebrated
-    authorities, on the other hand locate Aztlan in the United States; the
-    former in Florida, by which we are to understand the region of the Gulf
-    States,<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> while the latter simply expresses the conviction that
-    Aztlan was situated to the north-east of California.<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Aztec migration and the itinerary as generally accepted demands
-    consideration before forming any judgment on the location of Aztlan.
-    In this primitive abode we are told that each year the Aztecs crossed
-    a great river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan for the purpose of offering
-    sacrifices in honor of their god Tetzauch. But it happened that a
-    bird appeared to Huitziton, one of the greatest of their chiefs
-    (whom Bancroft thinks was identical with Mecitl or Mexi—hence the
-    name Mexicans), and constantly reiterated the word <i>tihui</i>,
-    <i>tihui</i>, meaning “let us go, let us go.” This singular occurrence
-    was interpreted by Huitziton as a command from the gods for them to
-    seek a new country, and after persuading the chief Tecpatzin to his
-    view, the divine oracle was announced to the people. Accordingly, in
-    the year 1064, according to some authors,<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> or in 1090 according
-    to others,<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> or a century later than the first-named date
-    according to some of the interpreters of the Aztec migration maps,
-    the Nahuatlaca tribes left their ancient home and entered upon one of
-    those strange and aimless journeys so characteristic of semi-civilized
-    and superstitious peoples. The Aztec migration as given by several
-    authorities is scarcely more satisfactory than that of the Toltecs,
-    nor can any additional light be thrown on the route pursued until Sr.
-    Orozco y Berra publishes the results of his critical examination of the
-    subject.<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> The unimportance of the itinerary in the solution of any
-    question is apparent, since it contributes but little to our knowledge
-    of the location of Aztlan.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Bancroft has greatly facilitated the comparison of the lists of
-    stations as given by different authors, in a note of great length on
-    pp. 322–4, thus presenting to the eye at a glance the diversity of
-    opinion which meets the reader of this subject. As an example, we
-    select two or three of the itineraries, simply to show the wide range
-    that opinion has taken on the subject. According to Veytia, the tribes
-    left Aztlan in I Tecpatl, 1064 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and one hundred and four
-    years afterwards reached Chicomoztoc, where they dwelt nine years;
-    the subsequent stations and the duration of their sojourn in each as
-    follows: Cohuatlicamac three years, Matlahuacallan six, Apanco five,
-    Chimalco six, Pipiolcomic three, Tollan six, Cohuactepec (Coatepec)
-    three, Atlitlalacayan two, Atotonilco one, Tepexic five, Apasco three,
-    Tozonpanco seven, Tizayocan one, Ecatepec one, Tolpetlac three,
-    Chimalpan four, Cohuatitlan two, Huexachtitlan three, Tecpayocan three,
-    Tepeyacac (Guadalupe) three, Pantitlan two, and thence to Chapultepec,
-    arriving in 1298, after a journey of one hundred and eighty-five
-    years, reckoning an additional forty-nine years for their stay at
-    Michoachan.<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> According to Tezozomoc, the stations are as follows:
-    Aztlan, Culhuacan, Jalisco, Mechoacan, Malinalco (Lake Patzcuaro),
-    Ocopipilla, Acahualcingo, Coatepec (in Tonalan), Atlitlanquin, or
-    Atitalaquia, Tequisquiac, Atengo, Tzompan, Cuachilgo, Xaltocan, and
-    Lake Chnamitl, Eycoac, Ecatepc, Aculhuacan, Tultepetlac, Huixachtitlan,
-    Tecpayuca (in two Calli), Atepetlac, Coatlayauhcan, Tetepanco,
-    Acolnahuac, Popotla (Tacuba), Chapultepec in two Tochtli.<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a>
-    Clavigero states that they left Aztlan in 1160, crossed the Colorado
-    River, stayed three years in Hucicolhuacan, went east to Chicomoztoc,
-    reached Tula in 1196, and finally Chapultepec in 1245.<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> Acosta,
-    Herrera and Duran state that Nahuatlaca tribes left Aztlan in 820
-    <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and eighty years later reached Mexico; that the Aztecs,
-    however, did not start until 1122 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span><a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> Duran identifies
-    Aztlan <span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>with Teo-Culhuacan, and locates it towards our Mississippi
-    Valley. He in common with other writers identifies Chicomostoc with the
-    seven caves.<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Tarascos, though speaking a different language, are said to have
-    separated from the Nahuatlacas at Michoacan. They describe the route
-    to the seven caves as across a sea, which they passed in balsas and
-    the trunks of trees.<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> This statement may be of some value in
-    locating that disputed rendezvous of so many tribes; and certainly
-    is more important than a mass of groundless speculation. The next
-    source of interest in this connection is the much perverted and sadly
-    misunderstood migration map first published by Gemelli Carreri, in
-    Churchill’s collection of voyages (vol. iv). Humboldt has given an
-    interpretation which, with the exception of that part which connects it
-    with a deluge and Colhuacan, “the Ararat of the Mexicans,” is generally
-    received.<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></p>
-
-  <p>Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt and many others were quite certain that they
-    could read in this map the account of the Mosaic deluge.<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> Don José
-    Fernando Ramirez, of the Mexican Museum, however, pointed out the fact
-    that the Gemelli Carreri map, copied from one owned by Sigüenza, and
-    published by Humboldt, Clavigero and Kingsborough, was in each case
-    incorrectly represented, and states that the copy contained in the
-    <cite>Atlas</cite> of Garcia y Cubas is the first correct reproduction of the
-    original presented to the public.<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> Sr. Ramirez explains away the
-    illusion of the Mexican Ararat and deluge in a manner both simple and
-    conclusive.<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> The dove with commas proceeding from its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>beak, is not
-    talking, nor giving tongues, but is repeating the word <i>tihui</i>,
-    “let us go,” referring to the legend already cited, of the bird in
-    Aztlan incessantly uttering this word in the hearing of Huitziton
-    the chief. A little bird called <i>tihuitochan</i> is still heard in
-    Mexico, having a note which is interpreted by the common people to mean
-    the same as their ancestors interpreted it in Aztlan. Sr. Ramirez is
-    convinced that the map referred to is only a record of the wanderings
-    of the Aztecs among the lakes of the Mexican Valley, and that it has
-    no reference whatever to any deluge, not even to one of the former
-    traditional destructions of the world found in the Nahua cosmogony. Mr.
-    Bancroft has added the valuable argument that the story of Cox-cox and
-    the deluge is only the product of false interpretation, or else some
-    of the earlier writers would have been acquainted with the legend. On
-    the contrary, Olmos, Sahagun, Motolinia, Mendieta, Ixtlilxochitl, and
-    Camergo are all silent with regard to it. The mountain and boat and
-    their several adjuncts are found to be nothing but hieroglyphics for
-    proper names.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p>
-
-  <p>Chalco Lake is, in the opinion of Señor Ramirez, the point of
-    departure for the fifteen chiefs at the end of their first cycle. His
-    interpretation of the Boturini map of the migration results in the same
-    conclusion. The fifteen chiefs left their island home, passing through
-    Coloacan (Colhuacan, according to Gondra’s interpretation) as their
-    second station. It appears that the first move and point of departure
-    are both unknown, and no satisfactory solution of the question has yet
-    been offered. The prevailing tradition that it is in the north has
-    been perplexing, since no material remains undoubtedly attributable
-    to the Aztecs are found north of the central plateau of Mexico, nor
-    indeed in the territories of the United States. If we adopt the general
-    theory that the Aztecs came from the Mississippi Valley, possibly the
-    original home of the Nahuas, occupied by the Olmecs prior to their
-    arrival at Panuco and their descent into the Chiapan region, and by
-    the Toltecs before their migration to Anahuac, we have a theory which
-    agrees with the testimony of Duran and Sahagun, and seems to find
-    support in the pyramidal mounds of the Lower Mississippi, which we
-    have already seen are almost as perfect in their plan and construction
-    as those found in Mexico, which do not furnish evidence of as great
-    antiquity as those of the Ohio and Missouri Valleys. According to most
-    accounts, a considerable period elapses between their departure and
-    their arrival at Chicomoztoc—the seven caves. According to Veytia it
-    was 104 years, but Brasseur adopts twenty-six years, which is also
-    the opinion of the majority of writers. Chicomoztoc has some features
-    which remind us of the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés—their seven caves,
-    from which so many tribes derived their origin. Chicomoztoc is the
-    point at which the six Nahuatlaca tribes separated from the Aztecs, and
-    thence proceeded to the Mexican lake region. It is quite probable that
-    a considerable distance may have been traversed in this interval of
-    twenty-six years, a distance which could have brought the Aztecs from
-    a comparatively northern latitude to the Chiapan region. Opposed to
-    this, however, is the fact that the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés was in a
-    cold, inhospitable region, no doubt at the North. Mr. Bancroft suggests
-    that the first part of the migration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> tradition may refer vaguely
-    back to the events which followed the Toltecs’ destruction.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> We
-    have already referred to the tendency to confusion in histories that
-    are chiefly traditional. In opposition to the view that Aztlan and
-    Chicomoztoc were remote from each of these, we have the statement of
-    Duran<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> that these caves are in Teo-Culhuacan, otherwise called
-    Aztlan, which implies that both Teo-Culhuacan and Chicomoztoc were
-    points in the region of Aztlan. Every year it was the custom of the
-    Aztecs, while in Aztlan, to cross a river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan
-    in order to sacrifice to their god Tetzauh, and after their arrival
-    at Chicomoztoc they continued the occupation of boatmen, which they
-    had followed while in Aztlan.<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> By way of summary, then, we may
-    venture the following: 1. Viewed from the standpoint of Sr. Ramirez,
-    Aztlan may be located somewhere not far distant from Chalco Lake. The
-    islands which it encircles may correspond to the description of the
-    ancient home of the Aztecs, given by Duran as quoted on <a href="#Page_257">page 257</a> and
-    described as Culhuacan. Teo-Culhuacan, where the Aztecs sacrificed
-    yearly, may be the city of Culhuacan situated in that neighborhood. As
-    additional testimony we have the fact that most of the stations named
-    in the migrations can be located in the Central Mexican region. The
-    report that they came from the north may refer only to the scattering
-    of the Nahua or Toltec people from Tollan, just north of the valley.
-    2. The statements of all the writers that the Aztecs came from the
-    north, the fact that Duran and Sahagun assign the primitive Nahua home
-    to the region of Florida, and the prevalence of mounds and shell-heaps
-    in great numbers in the Gulf States, together with the extension of
-    those mounds through Texas into Mexico, may warrant the opinion that
-    Aztlan was in the Mississippi Valley, or, looking in another direction,
-    the rock or cave dwellings recently discovered in Southern Utah and
-    the Rocky Mountain region (of which we shall give a description in
-    the next chapter) may indicate the locality of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>ancient and
-    much-sought-for land. The identity in meaning of Chicomoztoc (seven
-    caves) and Tulan Zuiva (seven caves) together with the fact that both
-    places in Quiché and Nahua history were the point of separation for
-    many tribes, is a singular coincidence, if they are not one and the
-    same. In the preceding chapter we have seen that Tulan Zuiva of the
-    Quichés was in a northern or at least a colder climate, where they
-    suffered greatly for want of fire, a fact of no little significance. On
-    the other hand Teo-Culhuacan, the place of yearly sacrifice, may have
-    been a city of the Chiapan region, since Sahagun located Tamoanchan the
-    first city of the Nahuas (Olmec) after their arrival from Florida in
-    Mexico, somewhere in the Usumacinta Valley. It is possible that a large
-    number of the immigrants remained behind the company which migrated
-    northward to Teotihuacan and thence to the seven caves, subsequently
-    uniting with the Toltecs at Tollan. This view has had quite a number
-    of advocates.<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> We will not undertake, in the present state of
-    knowledge on the subject, to decide which of these <span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>three claims is the
-    true one, if either one of them is correct. Our only wish is to furnish
-    the reader a margin for his choice. It seems to us that it would be
-    unscientific to attempt to decide a question based upon such slender
-    and contradictory data.</p>
-
-  <p>It is unnecessary for us to follow the Aztecs farther in their
-    history. The magnificent empire of the Montezumas, with its advanced
-    civilization, but at the same time cursed with its horrid worship, in
-    which thousands of human victims bathed the altars of Mexico yearly
-    with their life-blood, has been described and its glory handed down to
-    history by that most graceful and romantic of American writers, William
-    H. Prescott. We cannot, however, dismiss this the most primitive period
-    of the growth of the Nahua nations without a reference to the reputed
-    author of the higher phases of their civilization. We refer to that
-    semi-mythical and semi-divine personage, Quetzalcoatl. The numerous
-    legends concerning this culture-hero, scattered chronologically over
-    hundreds of years of Nahua history, may have originated in the life and
-    character of some noted personage—the leader and civilizer of the most
-    ancient branches of the Nahua family, or in the personification of an
-    ideal deity, a nature-god whose chief attribute, whose distinguishing
-    office, was the fertilization of the earth, the revivification of the
-    slumbering forces in nature and consequently the author of prosperity,
-    agriculture, and the arts of peace. In either case the name of the
-    original Quetzalcoatl, were he either man or deity, was eventually
-    inherited by a line of individuals who became the priests of his
-    worship, or the representatives of his teachings, and the inculcators
-    of the most humane and noble principles which entered into the ancient
-    civilization. Without entering into a lengthy discussion of the
-    probabilities in the case, we give the substance of the traditions,
-    arranged in what appears to us not only the most consistent, but also
-    the proper order. We have already acquainted the reader with the
-    meaning of Quetzalcoatl, namely, “plumed serpent.”</p>
-
-  <p>From the distant East, from the fabulous Hue hue Tlapalan, this
-    mysterious personage came to Tulla, and became the patron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> god and
-    high-priest of the ancestors of the Toltecs.<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> He is described
-    as having been a white man, with a strong formation of body, broad
-    forehead, large eyes, and flowing beard. He wore a mitre on his head,
-    and was dressed in a long, white robe, reaching to his feet, and
-    covered with red crosses. In his hand he held a sickle. His habits were
-    ascetic; he never married, was most chaste and pure in his life, and
-    is said to have endured penance in a neighboring mountain, not for its
-    effects upon himself, but as an example to others. Some have here found
-    a parallel for Christ’s temptation. He condemned sacrifices, except
-    of fruits and flowers, and was known as the god of peace; for when
-    addressed on the subject of war, he is reported to have stopped his
-    ears with his fingers.<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Quetzalcoatl was skilled in many arts, having invented gem-cutting
-    and metal-casting. He furthermore originated letters and invented the
-    Mexican calendar. The legend which describes the latter states that the
-    gods, having made men, thought it advisable that their creatures should
-    have some means of reckoning time, and of regulating the order of
-    religious ceremonies. Therefore two of these celestial personages, one
-    of them a goddess, called Quetzalcoatl to counsel with them, and the
-    three contrived a system which they recorded on tables, each bearing
-    a single sign. That sign, however, was accompanied with all necessary
-    explanations of its meaning. It is noticeable that the goddess was
-    assigned the privilege of writing the first sign, and that she chose a
-    serpent as her favorite symbol.</p>
-
-  <p>Some accounts represent that Huemac was the temporal king, or at least
-    associated with Quetzalcoatl in the government; the latter occupying
-    the priestly as well as the kingly office. Sahagun <span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>calls the associate
-    ruler Vemac. At all events, Quetzalcoatl had an enemy, the deity
-    Tezcatlipoca, whose worship was quite opposite in its character to
-    that of Quetzalcoatl, being sanguine and celebrated with horrid human
-    sacrifices. A struggle ensued in Tulla (Tollan) between the opposing
-    systems which resulted favorably to the bloody deity and the faction
-    who sought to establish his worship in preference to the peaceful and
-    ascetic service of Quetzalcoatl.</p>
-
-  <p>Tezcatlipoca, envious of the magnificence enjoyed by Quetzalcoatl,
-    determined upon his destruction. His first appearance at Tulla was
-    in the <i>rôle</i> of a great ball-player, and Quetzalcoatl, being
-    very fond of the game, engaged in play with him, when suddenly he
-    transformed himself into a tiger, occasioning a panic among the
-    spectators, in which great numbers were crowded over a precipice into
-    a river, where they perished. Again the vicious god appeared at Tulla.
-    This time he presented himself at the door of Quetzalcoatl’s palace in
-    the guise of an old man, and asked permission of the servants to see
-    their master. They attempted to drive him away, saying that their god
-    was ill. At last, because of his importunities, they obtained leave to
-    admit him.</p>
-
-  <p>Tezcatlipoca entered, and seeing the sick deity, asked about his
-    health, and announced that he had brought him a medicine which would
-    ease his body, compose his mind, and prepare him for the journey which
-    Fate had decreed that he must undertake.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> Quetzalcoatl received the
-    sorcerer kindly, inquiring anxiously as to the journey and the land of
-    his destiny. His deceiver told him that the name of the land was Tullan
-    Tlapalan, where his youth would be renewed, and that he must visit it
-    without delay. The sick king was moved greatly by the words of the
-    sorcerer, and was prevailed upon to taste the intoxicating medicine
-    which he pressed to his lips. At once he felt his malady healed, and
-    the desire to depart fixed itself in his mind.</p>
-
-  <p>“Drink again!” exclaimed the old sorcerer; and again the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>god-king
-    pressed the cup to his lips, and drank till the thought of departure
-    became indelible, chained his reason, and speedily drove him a wanderer
-    from his palace and kingdom.</p>
-
-  <p>Upon leaving Tulla, driven from his kingdom by the vicious enmity
-    of Tezcatlipoca, he ordered his palaces of gold, and silver, and
-    turquoise, and precious stones, to be set on fire. The myriads of
-    rich-plumed songsters that made the air of the capital melodious with
-    song accompanied him on his journey, pipers playing on pipes preceded
-    him, and the flowers by the way are said to have given forth unusual
-    volumes of perfume at his approach.</p>
-
-  <p>After journeying one hundred leagues southward, he rested, near a city
-    of Anahuac, under a great tree, and as a memorial of the event, he cast
-    stones at the tree, lodging them in its trunk.<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p>
-
-  <p>He then proceeded still farther southward in the same valley, until he
-    came to a mountain, two leagues distant from the city of Mexico. Here
-    he pressed his hands upon a rock on which he rested, and left their
-    prints imbedded in it, where they remained visible down to a very
-    recent date. He then turned eastward to Cholula, where he was received
-    with greatest reverence.<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> The great pyramid was erected to his
-    honor. With his advent the spirit of peace settled down upon the city.
-    War was not known during his sojourn within it. The reign of Saturn
-    repeated itself. The enemies of the Cholulans came with perfect safety
-    to his temple, and many wealthy princes of other countries erected
-    temples to his honor in the city of his choice.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Here the silversmith, the sculptor, the artist, and the architect, we
-    are led to believe, from the testimony of both tradition and remains,
-    flourished under the patronage of the grand god-king.</p>
-
-  <p>However, after twenty years had elapsed, that subtile, feverish draught
-    received from the hand of Tezcatlipoca away back in Tulla, like an old
-    poison in the veins, renewed its power. Again his people, his palaces,
-    and his pyramidal temple were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>forsaken, that he might start on his
-    long and final journey.<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> He told his priests that the mysterious
-    Tlapalla was his destination, and turning toward the East, proceeded
-    on his way until he reached the sea at a point a few miles south of
-    Vera Cruz. Here he bestowed his blessing upon four young men, who
-    accompanied him from Cholula, and commanded them to go back to their
-    homes, bearing the promise to his people that he would return to them,
-    and again set up his kingdom among them. Then, embarking in a canoe
-    made of serpent-skins, he sailed away into the East.<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Cholulans, out of respect to Quetzalcoatl, placed the government in
-    the hands of the recipients of his blessing. His statue was placed in
-    a sanctuary on the pyramid, but in a reclining position, representing
-    a state of repose, with the understanding that it shall be placed upon
-    its feet when the god returns. When Cortés landed, they believed their
-    hopes realized, sacrificed a man to him, and sprinkled the blood of the
-    unhappy victim upon the conqueror and his companions.<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Father Sahagun, when on his journey to Mexico, was everywhere asked
-    if he had not come from Tlapalla.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> No wonder when the fleet of
-    Cortés hove in sight on the horizon, almost in the same place where
-    Quetzalcoatl’s bark had disappeared, that the Mexican, who had been
-    waiting centuries for the prince of peace to return, believed his
-    waiting to be at an end. No wonder that he inquired of the distant and
-    mysterious Tlapalla. In this state of expectancy we find a most natural
-    and fruitful soil for the operations of the Spanish conquerors.</p>
-
-  <p>Such is the form into which the mass of legends concerning
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>Quetzalcoatl have been woven. There is scarcely a doubt, however, that
-    it is a matter of growth—is the accumulation of several centuries.
-    The name Quetzalcoatl (Nahua), Gucumatz (Quiché) and Cukulcan (Maya),
-    translated “feathered” or “plumed” or “winged” serpent, may originally
-    have been applied to an intelligent princely foreigner who was cast
-    upon the shores of the Central American region, and who introduced the
-    art of casting metals, and especially taught agriculture. His doctrines
-    of peace and virtue may have been sufficiently wide-spread to have
-    brought about the prosperity which is ascribed to his age. From this
-    standpoint we would consider him at first to have cast his lot among
-    the descendants of Votan, otherwise known as the “Serpents,” from which
-    occurrence he may have received his name of “Feathered Serpent.” On
-    <a href="#Page_241">pages 241–42</a> we referred to the statements of the Codex Chimalpopoca,
-    that Quetzalcoatl, becoming obnoxious to his companions, who seem to
-    be Quichés, forsook them. The account also states that he afterwards
-    brought maize to Tamoanchan (the city of the Nahuas). Our next account
-    of him describes him as figuring among the Olmecs at Cholula. This
-    realistic view of the tradition applies to the first Quetzalcoatl,
-    who may have been an actual man. While entertaining this view, we
-    must not forget that centuries prior to this period (which we may as
-    well assign to the first or second century as to any other date), the
-    Quichés possessed the ideal of such a personage whom they considered
-    a deity, who figures so actively in their cosmogony under the name of
-    Gucumatz. This deity was the vivifying force in nature, the bringer of
-    the gentle south winds, the god of the harvest and of the air. He was
-    best symbolized to the mind of the savage by the vernal shower and the
-    return of spring.</p>
-
-  <p>The serpent was everywhere considered an emblem of the vernal shower,
-    and was thought to be in some way instrumental in bringing it, together
-    with its refreshing and fructifying influences. So here, in the name of
-    Quetzalcoatl, we find a progressive step indicated in the workings of
-    the mind, an advance from the lower figure of the serpent alone to that
-    of an aërial combination, which, while it contained all the virtues of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
-    the serpent, is lifted to a higher element—that from which the shower
-    falls. The feathery vapor-clouds of summer are but the plumes or wings
-    of the shower which the serpent symbolized.</p>
-
-  <p>At last when a teacher of agriculture and the mechanic arts, so
-    conducive of prosperity and plenty, appeared—an individual who
-    discovers maize and directs the process of its reproduction and guards
-    an improvident people against want and famine, the attributes of the
-    god are recognized as dwelling in him, the ideal vaguely represented
-    by the vernal shower is concreted, is become incarnate, is presented
-    in a shape more comprehensible to the untaught mind, and at once the
-    name, reverence and worship of the god are attached to the man, the
-    culture-hero. This we believe to be the simplest interpretation of the
-    origin of the worship of Quetzalcoatl. A priesthood appears to have
-    been founded who perpetuated the doctrines of this deified man. That
-    part of the legend which relates to Tulla (Tollan) with the expulsion
-    of the king and that which followed, properly belongs to Ceacatl,
-    surnamed Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king of Tollan, who ascended the throne
-    about 873.<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> The father of this monarch had been cruelly murdered,
-    and in his early boyhood Ceacatl is said to have wreaked a terrible
-    vengeance on the murderer of his father, after which he concealed
-    himself for about twenty years. At about the above-named date he
-    reappeared, and established his claims to the throne. He espoused the
-    religion of Quetzalcoatl, and the peace which followed brought great
-    prosperity. Human sacrifices were forbidden, and a golden age seemed
-    to dawn in which Tollan exceeded all the cities of the Mexican valley
-    in importance and wealth. But a rivalry at once sprang up between the
-    priests of the bloody god Tezcatlipoca, worshipped in Culhuacan and at
-    Teotihuacan, and those of the peaceful and humane Quetzalcoatl, which
-    resulted in the voluntary departure of the Pontiff king, to whom the
-    name of his god was attached. The contest between the two sects is
-    symbolized in the legend by the tricks of Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl
-    was received at Cholula, where he remained some years, but was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>at last
-    driven away before the leader of the Tezcatlipoca faction, namely,
-    King Huemac, who advanced upon the peaceful king with a strong army.
-    Quetzalcoatl again voluntarily withdrew, rather than occasion the
-    bloodshed of his subjects. It is probable that he ultimately reached
-    Yucatan and figured there in his old character under the name of
-    Cukulcan.<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_VII"><span>CHAPTER VII</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS AND CLIFF-DWELLERS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Casas Grandes of Chihuahua—Ruins in the Casas Grandes and Janos
-    Valleys—Casa Grande of the Rio Gila—Ruins in the Gila
-    Valley—Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado—Ruins in the Cañon
-    of the Colorado—In the Valley of the Colorado Chiquito—Pueblos
-    of the Zuñi River—Zuñi and the “Seven Cities of Cibola”—“El
-    Moro”—Pueblos of the Chaco Valley—Cliff-Dwellers—Mr. Jackson’s
-    Discoveries in the Valley of the Rio San Juan—Cliff Houses
-    of the Rio Mancos—Cliff-Dwellings on the McElmo—Traditional
-    Origin and Fate of the Cliff-Dwellers—Ancestors of the
-    Moquis—Remarkable Discoveries by Mr. Holmes—The Seven Moqui
-    Towns—The Montezuma Legend.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">IN the State of Chihuahua, Mexico, and in our Territories of Arizona,
-    New Mexico, Utah and the State of Colorado, a class of remains are
-    found, wholly unlike those of the Mayas, Nahuas, or Mound-builders,
-    though in some instances they are associated with earthworks resembling
-    those of the latter race. The style of architecture is unlike that of
-    any other people on either continent, and though varying considerably
-    in its individual examples, still present certain marked and general
-    features which leave little room for doubt that the peoples of the
-    Pueblos and the Cliffs were the same. The earliest discovered of
-    this class of remains are known as the Casas Grandes, situated at
-    about half a mile from the modern town of the same name, in the
-    fertile valley of the Casas Grandes or San Migual River in Northern
-    Chihuahua. These ruins have often been described second-hand and their
-    nature is well-known to persons interested in this field of inquiry.
-    Of the above-named class of descriptions, the latest and best is
-    by Mr. Bancroft, who has added a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> bibliographical apparatus to his
-    account.<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> We will, therefore, confine our discussion of this group
-    of remains to the essential facts as given by Mr. J. R. Bartlett, whose
-    account of his researches is quite full and satisfactory.<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> These
-    facts we will give as briefly as possible, preferring to devote our
-    space to the new material composing the latter part of the chapter.
-    Several of the early writers refer to the Casas Grandes as one of the
-    Aztec stations; but a little intelligent study of the characteristics
-    of the ruins, especially in the light of recent explorations in
-    the Territories, is likely to dissipate such an opinion. The first
-    examination of the ruins of which any reliable record is left, was by
-    Sr. Escudero, in 1819, published in his <cite>Noticias Estadísticas del
-    Estado de Chihuahua</cite>. A contributor to the <cite>Album Mexicano</cite>
-    (tom. i, pp. 374–5) furnished a good account of the ruins as he
-    found them in 1842. None of the hasty sketches subsequently made by
-    several writers are worth a reference until we come to the excellent
-    description written by Mr. Bartlett in 1851, while acting as United
-    States Commissioner, in fixing the United States and Mexican boundary
-    line. The Casas Grandes, according to Mr. Bartlett, are built of adobe
-    or mud, in large quadrangular blocks measuring about twenty-two inches
-    in thickness by three feet or more in length. The irregularity of the
-    length of the blocks, however, seemed to indicate that they had been
-    formed on the wall, <i>in situ</i>, by means of a box open at the ends,
-    which, when the block dried, was moved along to mould a fresh block.
-    The mud is filled with coarse gravel from the plateau, which gives
-    greater hardness to the material. The Casas face the cardinal points
-    and consist of erect and fallen walls, ranging from five to thirty
-    feet in height. The accumulation of rubbish is, however, considerable,
-    and if the highest standing walls rest upon a common level with the
-    lowest, they will measure from forty to fifty feet in height. The
-    edifice was discovered in ruins by the conquerors, and could not have
-    been occupied for a century, at the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>least calculation, prior to its
-    discovery. It is, therefore, reasonable to presume that all the walls
-    now standing were originally much higher than at present. It appears
-    that the outer portions of the edifices were the lowest, and not more
-    than one story in height, while the central ones were from three to
-    six stories. The central or inner walls are better preserved, partly
-    by their greater thickness—five feet at the base—and partly by the
-    heaps of ruined walls which have fallen around them. Once prostrate,
-    the blocks absorb the water, and in a few years are reduced to a mass
-    of mud and gravel. It was with difficulty that Mr. Bartlett traced all
-    the outlines of the buildings; but close examination revealed the fact
-    that three lofty edifices were connected into one by means of a low
-    range of buildings, one storey high, which may have merely inclosed
-    intervening courts. The total length of this continuous edifice was
-    at least 800 feet by 250 feet wide. A regular and continuous wall was
-    observed on the south side, while the eastern and western fronts, with
-    their projecting walls, were very irregular. The question of the exact
-    number of stories is not capable of solution, as no vestige of timbers
-    or wood now remains. The explorer could not even detect a trace of
-    any cavities where the floor-timbers had been inserted in the walls,
-    so decayed and washed was their condition. Many doorways remained,
-    but the lintels having decayed, the tops had fallen in. Clavigero
-    states that the edifice had “three floors with a terrace above them
-    and without any entrance to the under floor, so that a scaling ladder
-    is necessary.” García Condé confirms this statement as to the three
-    stories besides a roof,<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> while both authors consider this to have
-    been a station on the Aztec migration. Certainly, no architectural
-    analogies with the remains farther south justify this opinion. Mr.
-    Bartlett was unable to obtain but a partial plan of the Casas Grandes.
-    <span class="figright2 illowp28">
-      <img class="pl3" src="images/i_277.jpg" alt="" />
-      <span class="xxsmall bold">PART OF GROUND PLAN OF CASAS GRANDES CHIHUAHUA.</span>
-    </span>
-    One class of apartments, however, attracted his especial attention,
-    from the fact that they were evidently designed for granaries. They
-    were arranged along one <span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>of the main walls, and measured twenty feet in
-    length by ten in breadth. They were connected by doorways “with a small
-    inclosure or pen in one corner, three or four feet high.” Numerous long
-    and narrow apartments, too contracted for sleeping or dwelling-rooms,
-    lighted by circular apertures in the upper walls, are supposed to have
-    been devoted to the same use. Large inclosures, too extensive in their
-    dimensions ever to have been roofed, evidently were used as courts.
-    Two hundred feet west of the Casas, on the plateau, are the remains of
-    a building about 150 feet square, divided into compartments, as shown
-    in the accompanying plan:
-    <span class="figleft2 illowp28">
-      <img class="pl3" src="images/i_278.jpg" alt="" />
-      <span class="xxsmall bold">GROUND PLAN OF ONE OF THE CASAS GRANDES AT CHIHUAHUA.</span>
-    </span>
-    Between this edifice and the main building,
-    are three mounds of loose stones about fifteen feet high, which the
-    explorers did not have time to open. For a distance of twenty leagues
-    and covering an area of ten leagues wide along the Casas Grandes and
-    Janos Rivers, according to García Condé, are ruins resembling small
-    mounds, from which jars, pottery in various forms, painted with white,
-    blue and scarlet colors, corn-grinders (metates), and stone-axes have
-    been taken. If this region was ever occupied by the Aztecs, even
-    temporarily, this latter class of remains might more properly be
-    attributed to them, than the Casas Grandes. Innumerable fragments of
-    pottery, superior to that now manufactured by the Mexicans, are strewn
-    everywhere in the neighborhood of the Casas Grandes. The decoration is
-    in black, red or brown, on a white or reddish ground. Several graceful
-    and highly artistic vases have been collected about the ruins, and
-    stone metates, nicely hewn, have been recovered in perfect condition.
-    On the summit of the highest mountain, ten miles south-west of the
-    ruins, stands an ancient fortress of stone, the walls of which are
-    said by the writer in the <cite>Album Mexicano</cite> to have been from
-    eighteen to twenty feet thick. The fort, which is attributed to the
-    occupants of the Casas Grandes, was two or three stories, and in the
-    centre had a high mound for the purposes of observation. Clavigero, who
-    describes the fort and all of the ruins from hearsay,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> falls into the
-    error of supposing the Casas to have also been constructed of stone. A
-    short distance from the point where the 111° (meridian) of longitude
-    crosses the Gila River, in Southern Arizona, in the valley occupied
-    farther westward by the Pima villages, stands the most famous ruin of
-    all the Western remains. The Casa Grande, otherwise named the Casa de
-    Montezuma, has attracted the attention of and furnished a fruitful
-    subject for most writers on Mexican antiquity, the majority of whom,
-    however, have contributed nothing to our knowledge of the history or
-    uses of the edifice. Of describers at second-hand, Mr. Bancroft has
-    cited thirty-four authors, according to our reckoning, and to this
-    number the reader must add that author’s account and ours. This fact
-    is an admonition to us to confine ourselves to the briefest possible
-    statement of facts, for certainly the thirty-sixth repetition of
-    the accounts furnished by two or three original explorers would be
-    altogether inexcusable, were it not for the inseparable relation of the
-    Gila Casas to the remains to be described farther on. Mr. Bancroft has
-    treated the bibliography of the subject in his usually comprehensive
-    manner,<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> and it only remains for us to refer the reader to the
-    original descriptions. The first of these was written by Padre Mange,
-    the secretary of Padre Kino, on the latter’s tour of visitation to
-    the missions of the region in 1697.<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> Lieutenant C. M. Bernal, of
-    the same expedition, adds also a description.<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> Padre Sedelmair,
-    who visited the ruin in 1744, copies literally Mange’s description
-    in his account of the Casas.<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> Father Font, who, in company with
-    Father Garcés, made an expedition conducted by Captain Anza to the
-    Gila and the missions farther north, left a diary—now preserved in
-    the original, in the archives at Guadalajara—from which Mr. Bartlett
-    translated and published an extensive description<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> of the Casas.<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a>
-    Of later writers, only four wrote from personal observation, namely,
-    Emory<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> and Johnston,<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> of General Kearney’s Military Expedition
-    to California in 1846; Bartlett<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> in 1852, and Ross Browne in
-    1863.<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> These are the only original sources of information on the
-    Casa Grande of the Gila, of which Bartlett’s account may be said to
-    be the best. However, Bancroft has contributed much to facilitate the
-    study of the subject by his addition of a full literary apparatus.</p>
-
-  <p>From all of these we draw the facts without further citation. Two and
-    a half miles south of the Gila, on a slightly elevated plateau, stands
-    the remains of the Casa Grande surrounded with a growth of mesquite
-    trees. The ascent from the river bottom is so slight and gradual that
-    its former inhabitants had constructed acequias between the river and
-    the buildings. Mr. Bartlett found three edifices within a space of
-    one hundred and fifty yards. The larger one only was in a fair state
-    of preservation. Its four outer walls and most of the inner ones were
-    standing. Three storeys were plainly marked by the ends of the beams
-    remaining in the walls or by the cavities which they once occupied. No
-    doubt the building was one story, at least, higher than this indicated,
-    as the upper walls have crumbled away considerably and filled the first
-    story with disintegrated adobe and a mass of rubbish. The central
-    portion or tower furthermore rises eight or ten feet higher than the
-    outer walls, and may have formed another story above the main building.
-    At their base, the walls are between four or five feet in thickness,
-    rising perpendicular on the inside, but on the outside tapering towards
-    the top in a curved line.</p>
-
-  <p>The material of the walls consists of blocks of adobe, prepared as in
-    the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, in position on the walls, probably
-    in boxes two feet high and four feet long; after the mud had dried
-    sufficiently, the box was moved further along the walls and refilled.
-    Some difference of opinion has existed as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>to the color of the mud
-    employed, though all admit it to be that of the surrounding valley.
-    Mr. Bancroft gives some attention to this point, and observes that
-    Bernal pronounced it “white clay,” and that according to Johnston it
-    is also white with an admixture of lime from the vicinity. Mr. Hutton,
-    a civil engineer who had thoroughly examined them, reported to Mr.
-    Simpson that the surrounding earth was of a reddish color, but the
-    admixture of pebbles with the mud gave the Casa a whitish appearance in
-    certain reflections. Mr. Bancroft seeks by this argument to identify
-    this building with Castañeda’s Chichilticale, which is described as
-    having been built of red earth.<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> The outer sides of the walls were
-    finished with a plaster similar to that which composed the blocks,
-    but the inner side was covered with hard finish of such fine quality
-    that when visited they still retained their polish after centuries of
-    exposure. It is estimated that the edifice must have stood a hundred
-    years at least prior to its discovery by the Spaniards. The inner walls
-    are slightly thinner than the outer ones, and divide the building
-    into five apartments, as shown in Mr. Bartlett’s ground plan. The
-    building measures fifty feet in length by forty in width.
-    <span class="figright2 illowp28">
-      <img class="pl3" src="images/i_281.jpg" alt="" />
-      <span class="xxsmall bold smcap0">Ground Plan.</span>
-    </span>
-    The three central rooms indicated are each about eight by fourteen feet, while
-    those at each end of the edifice are ten by about thirty-two feet. The
-    doorways indicated in the plan are three feet wide by five feet high,
-    except that in the western façade, which is only two feet wide and
-    seven or eight feet high. The main part of the edifice was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>probably
-    thirty feet high, while the tower rose still ten feet higher. Padre
-    Kino found a floor in an adjoining ruin still perfect, the supporting
-    timbers of which were round and about five inches in diameter, while
-    the floor proper was formed by placing cross-sticks on the joist and
-    covering them with a layer of adobe. Mr. Browne observed the marks of
-    a blunt axe still plainly visible in the timbers of cedar or sabine
-    which had been thus employed, while their charred ends furnish the
-    only clue to the cause of the ruin of the edifice, a fact suggestive
-    of the ravages of the savage Apaches. No stairways or other means of
-    ascent were discovered, and it is inferred that ladders were employed
-    upon the outside as among the modern Pueblos. Near the main building,
-    to the south-west, Mr. Bartlett discovered another Casa in ruins,
-    and with difficulty traced its ground plan; while a third was so
-    completely decayed as to leave no certain outline of its form. To the
-    north-west about two hundred yards, was a circular embankment eighty
-    or one hundred yards in circumference, which Mr. Bartlett supposes to
-    have been used as a stock inclosure. A few yards farther north Mr.
-    Johnston observed a terrace, two hundred by three hundred feet and
-    five feet high, and having a summit platform seventy-two feet square,
-    from which an excellent view of the valley is afforded. This monument
-    is unlike any other found among the New Mexican remains. The entire
-    valley is strewn with heaps of rubbish and ruined adobe edifices, which
-    indicate that once the whole region was thickly populated by this
-    remarkable people. Mr. Bartlett found broken metates (corn-grinders),
-    and innumerable fragments of pottery painted tastefully with red,
-    white, lead color, and black. The figures were geometrical, and many
-    of the vessels had been decorated on the inside—a practice not in
-    vogue with the modern peoples of the Gila Valley. The finish was also
-    far superior to that of modern pottery. The Casa Grande, when last
-    observed by Mr. Browne, was fast going to pieces, the moisture having
-    undermined some parts of the outer walls, which were only kept erect by
-    their great thickness. In 1873, Mr. Bancroft learned that the edifice
-    was still standing, but it is evident that it must soon share the fate
-    of its fallen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> neighbors. It is certain that this Pueblo civilization
-    spread itself over a large tract of country north of the Gila Valley
-    in the basin of the Rio Salado or Salinas, the principal tributary of
-    the Gila. Numerous buildings similar to those previously described,
-    have been noticed by different writers on the Rio Salado and its
-    tributaries. The ruins of large edifices surrounded by smaller ones are
-    described by Sedelmair (discovered in 1744) as standing between the
-    Gila and Salado.<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_283.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Casa Grande of the Gila Valley.</span>
-      (As sketched by Ross Browne in 1863.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Velarde has also cited the remains of similar structures at the
-    junction of Salado and Verde and of the Salado and Gila.<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> We cannot
-    refer to all of the remains reported in this region, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>especially
-    since most of them are indescribable and shapeless heaps of ruins.
-    One edifice, however, was observed by Mr. Bartlett, two hundred feet
-    in length by sixty or eighty feet in width; and from the accumulation
-    of debris, it is estimated that the edifice must have been three or
-    four stories in height. This was but one of several similar heaps
-    of ruins observed in the immediate vicinity. This locality, distant
-    thirty-five miles from the river’s mouth, was evidently at one time
-    the site of a populous city. The remains of numerous works, probably
-    of a public character, such as irrigating canals—one of which is now
-    more than twenty feet wide and four feet deep and several miles long,
-    in the construction of which it was necessary to cut down the bank
-    of the plateau—occur in considerable numbers. The whole region is
-    strewn with fragments of broken pottery of fine workmanship.<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> M.
-    Leroux, in 1854, discovered on the Rio Verde ruins of stone houses and
-    regular fortifications which did not appear to have been occupied for
-    centuries. The walls were of solid masonry of rectangular form, usually
-    from twenty to thirty paces in length, and the style of architecture
-    similar to that of the Casa Grande of the Gila. Still there was
-    sufficient resemblance to the Pueblos of the Moquis to indicate a
-    transition from the southern to the northern style of Pueblo dwelling.
-    The sudden change in the material employed—that from adobe to stone in
-    large blocks, well hewn—is rather remarkable. The ruins are found with
-    more or less continuity between Fort McDowell and Prescott.<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> Mr.
-    Bancroft, after citing the above, expresses regret at his inability
-    to secure information in the possession of officers in the Arizona
-    service.<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Lieutenant Whipple describes extensive ruins on the small streams
-    forming the head-waters of the Rio Verde. Both stone and adobe
-    structures were numerous, and the walls usually were found to be about
-    five feet thick.<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> Emory has described some <span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>Pueblo buildings
-    of singular structure on the upper Gila and its tributaries; most
-    interesting of these is one with a labyrinthine plan of inner circular
-    walls. The region also abounds in rock inscriptions of a rude though no
-    doubt conventional character.<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> It is quite natural to suppose that
-    remains of this ancient people would have been found extensively on
-    the greatest river of the region—the Colorado. Mr. Bancroft passes the
-    subject with the statement that “no relics of antiquity are reported by
-    reliable authorities,” and fitly explains that it is unlikely, in view
-    of the peculiarity of the region, that none will ever be found in the
-    immediate vicinity of the river.<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> Whipple and his associates state
-    that “upon the lower part of the Rio Colorado no traces of permanent
-    dwellings have been discovered.”<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Since the publication of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth volume, the public
-    has been made acquainted with the details of Major J. W. Powell’s
-    exploration of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado.<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> The descent of the
-    river was accomplished by the Major and his companions in the summer
-    of 1869, amid dangers so appalling and privations so distressing,
-    that we need not hesitate in pronouncing it an exhibition of heroism
-    having few parallels in the history of exploration. The Major has since
-    repeated his perilous journey of which we have enjoyed the pleasure
-    of a verbal description in part from the explorer himself. Groups
-    of ruins were discovered in the gloomy depths of the Grand Cañon at
-    three different points. In referring to them we will reverse the order
-    in which they were discovered. A hundred or more miles (for we are
-    unable to estimate the distance from the account) above the Virgen
-    River, where the granite walls rise perpendicularly from the water’s
-    edge thousands of feet, the cañon widened somewhat and a considerable
-    group of ruined buildings were discovered on a terrace of trap. There
-    had evidently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> been quite a village in that solitary spot, shut in
-    by hundreds of miles of granite walls either up or down the river’s
-    course. Mealing stones and fragments of broken pottery were scattered
-    about the ruins, and so many beautiful flint chips that the discoverers
-    conjectured that it might have been the home of an ancient arrow-maker.
-    Major Powell found on a natural shelf in the rock, back of the ruin,
-    a globular basket, badly broken, and so decayed that when taken up it
-    fell to pieces.<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> Some distance farther up the river, the grim walls
-    of more than a mile in height parted to admit the clear waters of a
-    stream named by the explorers “Bright Angel River.” In a little gulch
-    above the creek the foundations of two or three Pueblo houses were
-    discovered. They were built of irregular cut stones, laid in mortar.
-    An old, deeply-worn mealing stone and a great quantity of pottery were
-    found, and old trails were observed worn into the rock.<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p>
-
-  <p>It cannot fail, however, to excite the wonder of the reader to learn
-    that Major Powell found ruined pueblos hundreds of miles <span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>farther up
-    that dismal, almost subterranean river. Not far below the foot of the
-    Cataract Cañon, and a considerable distance above Escalante River, in
-    Southern Utah, the explorers discovered on a wall two hundred feet
-    above the river, but removed from the water by a narrow plain, an old
-    stone house of good masonry. The stones were laid in mortar with much
-    regularity. It had been a three-story building, the first of which
-    still remained in good condition, the second being much broken, and
-    but little being left of the third. Flint chips, beautiful arrow-heads
-    and broken pottery abounded in the vicinity. The faces of the cliffs
-    were also covered with etchings. Fifteen miles farther down the river
-    another group was discovered, the principal building of which was in
-    the shape of an L, with five rooms on the ground floor; one in the
-    angle and two in each wing. In the centre of the angle there was a deep
-    excavation, doubtless an underground chamber for religious services,
-    known as an Estufa. Major Powell considers these remains the work of a
-    branch of the people now occupying the province of Tusayan in northern
-    Arizona. These Moqui peoples will be noticed farther on. In the
-    neighborhood of the last-named ruin, the Major found a tall, pyramidal
-    work of nature, formed by smooth rock-mounds, rising one above another.
-    On climbing this he observed that this natural eminence had been used
-    as an outlook by the people of the Pueblo. A stairway cut in the rock
-    by human hands and an old ladder resting against a perpendicular rock
-    were discovered.<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Colorado Chiquito and its tributaries flows through the very heart
-    of the Pueblo country. One hundred miles above its junction with the
-    Rio Colorado, Whipple, Sitgreaves and others, found numerous ruins,
-    crowning nearly every prominent point in the valley. The pottery of
-    the region is unlike that usually met with, in that it is ornamented
-    with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>impressions and raised work, instead of being painted.<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> Forty
-    miles farther up the river colossal ruins were discovered standing on
-    the summit of a sandstone bluff. The walls, such as remained standing,
-    were ten feet thick, while the building measured 360 feet in length by
-    120 in width.<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> With the exception of the remains of stone-houses,
-    at the junction of the Rio Puerco with the Colorado Chiquito, the
-    only aboriginal remains reported are pottery, scattered arrow-heads
-    and numerous rock inscriptions. The next tributary of the Colorado
-    Chiquito—the Zuñi River—is celebrated because of its ancient and modern
-    Pueblo structures. For fifty miles from the mouth of the Zuñi, the
-    antiquarian who could, might read the history of this ancient people,
-    spread out upon the imperishable cliffs—the parchment of Nature’s
-    children. Within eight miles of the inhabited Pueblo towns, numerous
-    ruins are encountered.<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> Here, within a few miles, the almost
-    mythical “seven cities of Cibola,” described by Coronado in 1540, and
-    by Marco de Niça the year previous, are demonstrated to have been
-    situated.<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> Zuñi itself is the Granada of the devoted and romantic
-    conquerors. In the centre of a plain upon a commanding eminence, stands
-    the inhabited Pueblo of Zuñi. Its frontage is upon the river of the
-    same name, while but a short distance in the background, the mesa
-    terminates in tall cliffs of metamorphic rock several hundred feet
-    high. The town is built in blocks, with terrace-shaped houses, usually
-    three stories high, in which the lower stories do service as the
-    platform for those immediately following them. Access is obtained by
-    means of ladders reaching to the roof or terrace, formed upon the first
-    story of each of the houses. The town is very compactly built, many
-    of the streets passing under the upper stories of houses. The whole
-    is divided into four squares, and the houses in each are continuously
-    joined <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>together. The building material employed is stone, plastered
-    with mud.<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> A little more than two miles south-east of Zuñi, the
-    ancient ruined Pueblo of the same name is situated on an elevated
-    mesa of a mile in width, the precipitous descent from which, upon all
-    sides, measures a thousand feet. The ruins of old Zuñi are surrounded
-    with a growth of cedars, and cover several acres of ground. The walls,
-    constructed of small sandstone blocks laid in mud-mortar, are only
-    eighteen inches thick and are sadly dilapidated from age, only twelve
-    feet marking their highest point of present elevation. Still, there
-    is a deeper mystery about this antiquated ruin, for beneath the walls
-    now standing, others are found of a more ancient city, whose walls
-    were six feet thick, which perished either of age or by the hand of
-    the destroyer, before the present was begun. The ascent to the ruin
-    is a winding and difficult path, guarded with stone battlements at
-    different points. At a sacred spring near Zuñi, Whipple found vases
-    standing inverted upon an adobe wall. “Many of these were white,
-    well-proportioned, and of elegant forms. Upon their inner and outward
-    surfaces they were curiously painted to represent frogs, tadpoles,
-    tortoises, butterflies, and rattlesnakes.” The tufted snakes on one
-    of the vases are pronounced almost unique in America.<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> Twelve
-    miles above Zuñi, at Ojo del Pescado, four or five ruined towns are
-    found, but so badly decayed as to furnish little clue to their plan.
-    Two of them, however, are constructed elliptically around a spring,
-    and present a circumference of about 800 to 1000 feet. Two-thirds of a
-    mile down the river, ruined pueblos in a fair state of preservation,
-    with two stories standing, are described as covering an area of
-    150 by 200 yards. At the time of Möllhausen’s visit, the roofs and
-    fire-places were in quite good condition.<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>A square estufa, still
-    under roof, and numerous rock inscriptions, were observed. In this
-    instance we are furnished with abundant evidence that the destruction
-    of this people never was a wholesale one, but that gradually they are
-    succumbing to their unpropitious surroundings—a land which is fast
-    becoming a howling wilderness, with its scourging sands and roaming
-    savage Bedouin—the Apaches. One more locality in this region merits
-    attention. Eighteen miles south-east of the sources of the Zuñi River,
-    stands a sandstone rock three hundred feet high, which at a distance
-    resembles a Moorish fortress. The Spaniards named it El Moro. It is
-    also known as “Inscription Rock,” because of the Spanish and Indian
-    inscriptions which cover its smooth face. Simpson has copied some of
-    them, which is quite fortunate, since later explorers have found many
-    of them almost effaced. The ruins of two buildings are found on the
-    summit, which is reached by a difficult path. The large group is in
-    the form of a rectangle, measuring 307 by 206 feet. The walls, faced
-    with sandstone blocks, remain standing to the height of six and eight
-    feet. The other group is separated from the first by a deep ravine,
-    and is found upon the very brink of the outer precipice. A circular
-    estufa thirty-one feet in diameter was also noticed. Cedar timbers
-    were found in the walls, and broken pottery in abundance.<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> About
-    one hundred miles in a north north-easterly direction from Zuñi, in
-    longitude 108° and latitude 36°, the most remarkable of the pueblo
-    ruins are situated. These are on the north bank of the Chaco River,
-    a tributary of the Rio San Juan, a stream the affluents of which are
-    noted for a greater number of pueblo and cliff-dwellers’ ruins than
-    are found elsewhere. Lieutenant Simpson has described the ruins of the
-    Chaco, eleven in number, occurring within a distance of twenty-five
-    miles. The first of these met with in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>coming from the south is called
-    at present (we presume in the absence of the knowledge of the true
-    name) the Pueblo Pintado. The most remarkable feature of this great
-    structure is the beauty and precision of the masonry. The fine, hard
-    gray sandstone blocks are quite uniformly three inches in thickness and
-    are laid without mortar, always breaking joints. The crevices between
-    the ends of the blocks are filled with very thin pieces of stone, not
-    over a quarter of an inch thick. The walls of the pueblo now standing,
-    are at their greatest height, thirty feet, and furnish evidence from
-    the marks of the floor-timbers that the building was three stories. The
-    walls are between two and three feet thick at the base, though this is
-    diminished with each succeeding story by a jog of a few inches, upon
-    which the flooring timbers rest. These are from six to eleven inches in
-    diameter, always of uniform size in the same room. On these beams small
-    round sticks are laid transversely, and these in turn covered with thin
-    cedar strips, lying transversely of the round sticks. In some rooms the
-    chinks in the floor were filled with small stones and the whole covered
-    with a layer of mortar. One room, however, had a floor of smooth cedar
-    boards, seven inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick. The
-    edges and ends were squarely cut, and their smooth surfaces indicate
-    that they were polished by being rubbed with flat stones. The size of
-    these ruins may be better understood when we state that five buildings
-    measured in circumference respectively 872, 700, 1700, 1300 and 1300
-    feet; while the number of rooms, still well-defined on the ground
-    floor of each, is 72, 99, 112, 124 and 139. Some of these buildings
-    undoubtedly had as high as a thousand rooms, while the smallest of them
-    probably contained half that number. The smallest apartments are five
-    feet square, while the largest are eight by fourteen feet. The ground
-    plan of the buildings of this valley have three tiers of rooms, while
-    one building, the Pueblo Bonito, has four tiers of apartments. The
-    usual form of the buildings corresponds to three sides of a rectangle,
-    with the fourth (one of the long sides of the figure) left unbuilt
-    (except that in some cases it was inclosed by a semicircular stone
-    wall), thus affording a partially enclosed court of large dimensions.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
-    The exterior walls are in all cases perpendicular, thus differing from
-    the pueblos farther south. The terracing in the Chaco structures is
-    upon the inside (court side) of the buildings.</p>
-
-  <p>In some of the buildings, however, the angles of the quadrangle are
-    rounded, and in one instance—that of the Peñasca Blanco—the structure
-    is elliptical. From the nature of the plan of any of these buildings
-    it is evident that many of the apartments on the ground floor were
-    dark, and were probably used for granaries and store-rooms. There are
-    no doors whatever in the outer walls, and no windows except in the
-    upper stories. Windows and doors opening into the courts are, on the
-    contrary, numerous in all the stories but the first. The doors are
-    quite small, in many cases not exceeding two and a half feet square.
-    The lintels of the doors and windows are in most cases stone slabs, but
-    in some instances are small round timbers tied together with withes. A
-    remarkable feature of the construction is the presence of the Yucatan
-    arch formed of overlapping stones, illustrations of which may be seen
-    in our next chapter. Dr. Hammond, a companion of Lieutenant Simpson,
-    has minutely described a room of very perfect finish.<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> Each edifice
-    was provided with the sacred estufa, and some of the houses had as
-    many as seven, circular in form, excavated several feet deep in the
-    earth and enclosed with circular walls. One in the Pueblo Bonito was
-    of remarkable size, having been sixty feet in diameter, extending
-    twelve feet below the surface and rising two or three stories high.
-    Lieutenant Simpson found in close proximity to one of the ruins an
-    excavation in the cliff which had been enclosed with a front wall of
-    well-laid stone and mortar, thus associating one of the simplest of
-    the cave-dwellings to which we shall refer presently, with one of the
-    most extensive and perfect of the Pueblo buildings; a fact of no little
-    value in identifying the architects of both as one and the same.<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a>
-    This introduces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> us to another class of ruins, which, with a couple of
-    exceptions, were not discovered prior to the summer of 1874. We refer
-    to the cliff-dwellings, the most remarkable habitations ever occupied
-    by man. The descriptions of them seem more suitable to form parts of
-    the most romantic works of fiction than of sober and scientific memoirs
-    from the pens of government explorers. One hundred miles westward from
-    the ruins of the Chaco lies the Chelly Valley or Cañon. The Chelly is
-    one of the tributaries of the Rio San Juan from the south, having its
-    source in the Navajo country. The Chelly Cañon is described as from
-    one hundred and fifty to nine hundred feet wide, with perpendicular
-    sides between three hundred and five hundred feet high. Simpson in 1849
-    found several caves built up in front with stone and mortar in a side
-    cañon. About four miles from its foot or mouth he observed on a shelf
-    fifty feet high, accessible only by ladders, a stone ruin, the plan of
-    which resembles that of the Chaco Valley pueblos, except that it was
-    constructed on a considerably smaller scale. Three miles further up the
-    cañon a double ruin of an extraordinary nature was discovered. At the
-    base of the cañon stood an ancient pueblo in ruins, but with parts of
-    the first and second stories still erect. Fifty feet in a perpendicular
-    line, above and immediately back of the first edifice, in a shelf, or
-    in the mouth of a cavern in the cañon’s walls, stood another building
-    constructed of sandstone and mortar, and measuring one hundred and
-    forty-five by forty-five feet, with walls eighteen feet high still
-    standing. Broken pottery was plentiful, as around all the ruins we have
-    described. The building was lighted by square windows and provided with
-    a circular estufa.<a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The most surprising results in all the history of archæological
-    exploration in this country were obtained in September, 1874, by a
-    party connected with the United States Geological and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>Geographical
-    Survey Corps. This party was composed of only three persons, Mr. W.
-    H. Jackson and Mr. Ingersoll with their guide, Captain John Moss, a
-    resident of La Plata, who possessed both a knowledge of the country and
-    an acquaintance with the language of the Indians. In the south-western
-    corner of Colorado, the cañons of two of the tributaries of the San
-    Juan were examined, namely, the valleys of the Rivers Mancos and
-    McElmo.<a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> The former stream rises among the western foothills of the
-    Sierra La Plata, and flows south-westerly through fertile valleys to
-    a great table-land known as the “Mesa Verde,” thence to the San Juan
-    near the crossing of the boundary lines of the four territories. In
-    the upper valley of the Mancos, between the mountains and the mesa,
-    groups of undistinguishable ruins were discovered in great numbers.
-    An examination of the shapeless heaps revealed foundations composed
-    of great square blocks of adobe. The great multitude of these heaps
-    of masonry overgrown with pines indicates a general and unsparing
-    destruction of the houses of the people who once inhabited the valley,
-    at the hands of their enemies. The cañon through the Mesa Verde is
-    quite uniformly two hundred yards wide, with perpendicular walls of
-    grayish cretaceous sandstone ranging from six hundred to one thousand
-    feet in height. Numbers of the mounds of ruined adobe were met with at
-    each advance into the cañon, and upon promontories jutting out towards
-    the stream, remains of stone walls were seen as high as fifty feet
-    from the river’s bed. Every step revealed great quantities of broken
-    pottery, and with this statement we will let the subject of these
-    fragmentary relics of the by-gone civilization rest for the present.</p>
-
-  <p>One of the first cliff houses discovered by the explorers is a most
-    interesting structure, the position of which, over six hundred feet
-    from the bottom of the cañon in a niche of the wall, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>furnishes a
-    significant commentary on the straits to which this sorely-pressed
-    people were driven by their enemies. Five hundred feet of the ascent
-    to this aërial dwelling was comparatively easy, but a hundred feet
-    of almost perpendicular wall confronted the party, up which they
-    could never have climbed but for the fact that they found a series of
-    steps cut in the face of the rock leading up to the ledge upon which
-    the house was built.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_295.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-House in the Cañon of the Mancos.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, with a a
-    vertical space between it and the overhanging rock of fifteen feet.
-    The house occupied only half this space, the remainder having been
-    used as an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade resting
-    on abutments, built partly upon the sloping face of the precipice
-    below. The house was but twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the
-    walls did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain whether it
-    ever had any other roof. The ground plan showed a front room of six
-    by nine feet in dimensions, in the rear of which were two smaller
-    rooms, each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> measuring five by seven feet. The left-hand room projected
-    along the cliff, beyond the front room, in the form of an L. The rock
-    of the cliff served as the rear wall of the house. The cedar beams
-    upon which the upper floor had rested had nearly all disappeared.
-    The door opening on the esplanade was but twenty by thirty inches in
-    size, while a window in the same story was but twelve inches square.
-    A window in the upper story, which commands an extended view down the
-    cañon, corresponded in dimensions and position with the door below.
-    The lintels of the window were small straight cedar sticks laid close
-    together, upon which the stones rested. Opposite this window was
-    another and smaller one, opening into a semicircular cistern, formed by
-    a wall inclosing the angle formed by the side wall of the house against
-    the rock, and holding about two and a half hogsheads. The bottom of the
-    reservoir was reached by descending on a series of cedar pegs about
-    one foot apart, and leading downward from the window. The workmanship
-    of the structure was of a superior order; the perpendiculars were
-    true ones and the angles carefully squared. The mortar used was of
-    a grayish white color, very compact and adhesive. Some little taste
-    was evinced by the occupants of this human swallow’s nest. The front
-    rooms were plastered smoothly with a thin layer of firm adobe cement,
-    colored a deep maroon, while a white band, eight inches wide, had been
-    painted around the room at both floor and ceiling. An examination of
-    the immediate vicinity revealed the ruins of half a dozen similar
-    dwellings in the ledges of the cliffs, some of them occupying positions
-    the inaccessibility of which must ever be a wonder, when considered as
-    places of residence for human beings. Half-way down the cañon, one of
-    Mr. Jackson’s party discovered a rather remarkable watch-tower, which,
-    because of the accumulations of débris, he was not able to accurately
-    measure, though approximate figures were given. Since his visit, the
-    tower has been thoroughly examined by Mr. W. H. Holmes, to whose work
-    in this field we will refer on a future page. Mr. Holmes’ measurements
-    and ground-plan are, therefore, substituted for those of Mr. Jackson.</p>
-
-  <p>The diameter of the outer wall is forty-three feet, that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> of the inner,
-    twenty-five feet. The outer wall is still standing to the height of
-    twelve feet at one point, and is in a fair state of preservation,
-    with a thickness of twenty-one inches, and has the stones dressed to
-    the curve. The ring-shaped space between the inner and outer wall is
-    estimated to have contained ten compartments, two of which at present
-    have complete walls. No door or window was observed in the outer wall,
-    and it is supposed that access was obtained by means of a ladder. Two
-    nearly rectangular openings were found connecting the outer apartments
-    with the central part of the tower, which no doubt was used as an
-    estufa.<a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a> Mr. Jackson, after leaving the tower which Mr. Holmes has
-    so fully described (of which the above is but a condensed account), saw
-    similar towers on a somewhat <span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>smaller scale. His next discovery in the
-    face of the vertical rock, which here ran up from the bottom of the
-    cañon and at a height of from fifty to one hundred feet, were a number
-    of nest-like habitations, one of which is figured in the cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_297.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Ground Plan of Tower in the Mancos Cañon.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp79">
-    <img src="images/i_298.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-Dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The cliff-house in this case was reached by its occupants from the
-    top of the cañon. The walls are pronounced as firm as the rock upon
-    which they were built. The stones were very regular in size, and the
-    chinking-in of small chips of stone rendered the surface of the wall
-    remarkably smooth and well finished. The dwelling measured fifteen
-    feet in length, five feet in width, and six feet in height. A short
-    distance below this little dwelling, five or six cave-like crevices
-    were found walled up in front with very perfect walls, rendered smooth
-    by chinking. Three miles farther down the cañon, the party discovered
-    at heights ranging from six hundred and eight hundred feet above their
-    heads, some curious and unique little dwellings sandwiched in among
-    the crevices of the horizontal strata of the rock of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> which the bluff
-    was composed. Access to the summit of the bluff, a thousand feet
-    high, was obtained by a circuitous path through a side cañon, and the
-    houses themselves could only be reached at the utmost peril—of being
-    precipitated to the bottom of the dizzy abyss—by crawling along a
-    ledge twenty inches wide and only high enough for a man in a creeping
-    position. This led to the wider shelf on which the houses rested. The
-    perfection of the finish was especially noticeable in one of these
-    houses, which was but fifteen feet long and seven feet high, with a
-    side wall running back in a semicircular sweep. In every instance the
-    party found the elevated cliff-houses situated on the western side of
-    the cañon with their outlook toward the east, while the buildings at
-    the bottom of the cañon were indiscriminately built on both sides of
-    the river.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp48">
-    <img src="images/i_299.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-Dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A circular watch-tower, which may be said to serve as a fair type of
-    others met with at irregular intervals, is shown in the cut (p. 300).
-    The tower remained standing to a height of twenty feet. Its diameter
-    measured twelve feet and the thickness of the walls sixteen inches,
-    the stones being of uniform size and smoothly dressed to the curve of
-    the circle. A rectangular structure, divided into two apartments, each
-    about fifteen feet square, once joined the tower, but now is in ruins,
-    all but the foundation. It is supposed that this edifice was built over
-    a large subterranean keep or place of defence. The exploring party here
-    emerged from the cañon, and could discern, as they glanced down the
-    valley of the Rio Mancos, which now turned towards the west, mounds of
-    shapeless ruins at short distances from one another as far as the eye
-    could reach.</p>
-
-  <p>Bearing around the Mesa to the west, the party encamped upon the
-    site of the most extensive mass of ruins yet found in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> United States
-    territory, “known as the Aztec Springs.” As Mr. Jackson’s description
-    is but partial, we defer the treatment of this locality until we take
-    up the explorations of Mr. Holmes, already mentioned. Four miles
-    distant from “Aztec Springs,” the party reached a river-bed, dry during
-    most of the year, and known as the McElmo, which, when it flows at all,
-    empties into the San Juan farther to the west. On the <i>mesa</i>,
-    above this river-bed, a tower resembling that first met in the Mancos
-    was observed, but of much greater size, having a diameter of fifty
-    feet. Adjoining the tower were the ruins of large subdivided buildings
-    resembling the community dwellings of the Moquis and the old ruins of
-    the Chaco. This group of ruins was very extensive and complicated,
-    literally occupying all the available space in the vicinity.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_300.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Watch-Tower of the Cañon of the Mancos.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Half a dozen miles down the cañon of the McElmo, several of the little
-    nest-like dwellings peculiar to the Mancos were seen perched forty or
-    fifty feet above the valley. A couple of miles beyond these, the tower
-    shown in the cut (p. 301) was discovered standing on the summit of a
-    great block of sandstone forty feet high, and detached from the bluff
-    back of it.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp69">
-    <img src="images/i_301.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Square Tower on the McElmo.</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The building which surmounts this rocky pedestal is square and about
-    fifteen feet high at present. Windows open toward the north and east,
-    the directions from which the enemies of this people, according to
-    tradition, came down upon them. A wall at the base of the rock is
-    mostly in ruins and covered with débris from the building above.
-    Immediately beyond this point the boundary line into Utah was crossed,
-    and two or three miles distant the party came upon a very interesting
-    group, a historic spot in the career of this ancient race. In the
-    centre of the widening valley stands a solitary butte of dark-red
-    sandstone, upon a perfectly smooth floor of the same, dipping gently
-    towards the centre of the valley. This butte or <i>cristone</i> is
-    about one hundred feet high and three hundred feet in length, of
-    irregular form. All around the rock are remains of stone walls which
-    indicate an extensive structure and complicated system of walls and
-    towers. At the back of the rock two remains attract special attention.
-    One wall forming the corner of a building near the base of the rock,
-    seems to have served as an approach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> to the larger house up in the
-    side of the butte. This structure is about eighteen feet in length and
-    twelve feet in height, nearly reaching to the top of the rock. Part
-    of the walls have fallen, but those standing show a finish surpassing
-    those of any structure previously discovered in the region. In front is
-    a single aperture eighteen by twenty-four inches. On top of the rock
-    are remains of masonry, but too badly ruined to indicate their original
-    form. All the crevices and irregularities in the faces of the butte had
-    been smoothly walled up; it is supposed, to make its ascent impossible.
-    In the vicinity a tower with a rounded corner and twelve feet in
-    diameter by twenty feet high stood in a dry creek bed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cliff House in the Cañon of the McElmo.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>We remarked that this was a historic locality, as certainly it was if
-    the legend obtained by Captain Moss from an old man among the Moquis is
-    reliable. Mr. Ingersoll has rendered it in the <cite>New York Tribune</cite>
-    for November 3d, 1874, as follows: “Formerly, the aborigines inhabited
-    all this country we had been over as far west as the head-waters of
-    the San Juan, as far north as the Rio Dolores, west some distance into
-    Utah, and south and south-west throughout Arizona and on down into
-    Mexico. They had lived there from time immemorial—since the earth was
-    a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> small island, which augmented as its inhabitants multiplied. They
-    cultivated the valley, fashioned whatever utensils and tools they
-    needed very neatly and handsomely out of clay and wood and stone, not
-    knowing any of the useful metals; built their homes and kept their
-    flocks and herds in the fertile river-bottoms, and worshipped the
-    sun. They were an eminently peaceful and prosperous people, living
-    by agriculture rather than by the chase. About a thousand years ago,
-    however, they were visited by savage strangers from the North, whom
-    they treated hospitably. Soon these visits became more frequent and
-    annoying. Then their troublesome neighbors—ancestors of the present
-    Utes—began to forage upon them, and, at last, to massacre them and
-    devastate their farms; so, to save their lives at least, they built
-    houses high upon the cliffs where they could store food and hide away
-    till the raiders left. But one summer the invaders did not go back to
-    their mountains as the people expected, but brought their families with
-    them and settled down. So, driven from their homes and lands, starving
-    in their little niches on the high cliffs, they could only steal away
-    during the night, and wander across the cheerless uplands. To one who
-    has traveled these steppes, such a flight seems terrible, and the
-    mind hesitates to picture the suffering of the sad fugitives. At the
-    <i>Cristone</i> they halted and probably found friends, for the rocks
-    and caves are full of the nests of these human wrens and swallows. Here
-    they collected, erected stone fortifications and watch-towers, dug
-    reservoirs in the rocks to hold a supply of water, which in all cases
-    is precarious in this latitude, and once more stood at bay. Their foes
-    came, and for one long month fought and were beaten back, and returned
-    day after day to the attack as merciless and inevitable as the tide.
-    Meanwhile, the families of the defenders were evacuating and moving
-    south, and bravely did their protectors shield them till they were all
-    safely a hundred miles away. The besiegers were beaten back and went
-    away. But the narrative tells us that the hollows of the rocks were
-    filled to the brim with the mingled blood of conquerors and conquered,
-    and red veins of it ran down into the cañon. It was such a victory as
-    they could not afford to gain again, and they were glad,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> when the long
-    fight was over, to follow their wives and little ones to the south.
-    There, in the deserts of Arizona, on well-nigh unapproachable isolated
-    bluffs, they built new towns, and their few descendants, the Moquis,
-    live in them to this day, preserving more carefully and purely the
-    history and veneration of their forefathers than their skill or wisdom.
-    It was from one of their old men that this traditional sketch was
-    obtained.” In a side cañon, a tower eighteen feet high was seen perched
-    on a huge block of sandstone which had fallen from the top of the
-    <i>mesa</i> and lodged on a projecting shelf of rock, midway from top
-    or bottom. Eight or ten miles westward of the McElmo, Mr. Jackson and
-    his party discovered on a stream known as the Hovenweep, the ruins of
-    a city. Mr. Jackson’s description is as follows: “The stream referred
-    to sweeps the foot of a rocky sandstone ledge, some forty or fifty feet
-    in height, upon which is built the highest and better-preserved portion
-    of the settlement. Its semicircular sweep conforms to the ledge, each
-    little house of the outer circle being built close upon its edge. Below
-    the level of these upper houses some ten or twelve feet, and within
-    the semicircular sweep, are seven distinctly marked depressions, each
-    separated from the other by rocky débris, the lower or first series
-    probably of small community houses. Upon either flank, and founded
-    upon rocks, are buildings similar in size and in other respects to
-    the large ones on the line above. As paced off,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> the upper or convex
-    surface measured one hundred yards in length. Each little apartment
-    is small and narrow, averaging six feet in width and eight feet in
-    length, the walls being eighteen inches in thickness. The stones of
-    which the entire group is built are dressed to nearly uniform size and
-    laid in mortar. A peculiar feature here is in the round corners, one at
-    least appearing upon nearly every little house. They are turned with
-    considerable care and skill, being true curves solidly bound together.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Ruins of the Hovenweep.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp65">
-    <img src="images/i_306.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Niche Stairway of Chelly Cañon</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Here the labors of Mr. Jackson’s party ended for the year 1874, but
-    the work was again resumed in July of the following year with even
-    richer results. Two parties were put in the field by the Government
-    Surveying Corps, one headed by Mr. Jackson and the other by Mr. W. H.
-    Holmes, geologists of the San Juan division of the survey for 1875.
-    I am indebted to Prof. Hayden, United States geologist-in-charge,
-    for the memoirs prepared by these gentlemen, with the accompanying
-    illustrations.<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> The reader has already become acquainted with the
-    general character of the remains of the cliff-dwellers, and it will
-    not be necessary to repeat the descriptions of buildings or ruins
-    similar to those already described in these pages. We shall therefore
-    cite only the more remarkable ruins discovered by the above-named
-    explorers. Mr. Jackson was accompanied on his second tour, by Mr. E.
-    A. Barber, naturalist and correspondent of the <cite>New York Herald</cite>,
-    with Harry Lee as guide and interpreter. The party resumed their labors
-    in the arid, waterless region around the Hovenweep, and in fact the
-    same barren characteristics are peculiar to the whole basin of the
-    San Juan. The whole region is rapidly drying up and fast becoming a
-    desert. Down the cañon from the pueblo of the Hovenweep, broken towers
-    and rock shelters were passed in rapid succession. Seven miles distant
-    from their starting-point, they found on the western side of the valley
-    three elevated benches ranging one above another in the face of a
-    jutting promontory, each of which contained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>houses (see illustration,
-    <a href="#i_307">page 307</a>). The first bench was reached by climbing over a sloping
-    mass of débris to a height of one hundred feet from the base of the
-    cliff, while the upper benches were only accessible by means of a niche
-    stairway similar to the one shown in the figure.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp56" id="i_307">
-    <img src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-House of the Hovenweep.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Ruins and masses of charcoal were found at the base of the rock.
-    Numerous adobe foundations, probably of wooden buildings, always
-    circular in form and ranging from fifteen to twenty-five feet in
-    diameter, were met with a short distance down the cañon.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> Near the
-    junction of the Hovenweep and McElmo cañons an inscription covers sixty
-    feet of the face of a large rock. The figures are those of men, goats,
-    lizards, and hieroglyphic signs. As the party proceeded in the cañon
-    they met rock shelters and enclosures, the latter on the top of the
-    mesa in which slabs of stone three by five feet in size were set on
-    end. Mr. Jackson reports that a party connected with the survey corps
-    discovered near the head of the Hovenweep, on a ledge three hundred
-    feet long by fifty feet wide, one-third of the distance from the top
-    of the cañon, some forty houses crowded along the shelf all in a row.
-    On the San Juan west of the mouth of the Montezuma Cañon, upon a bench
-    fifty feet high, Mr. Jackson found a quadrangular structure of peculiar
-    design, as shown in the cut on <a href="#i_308">page 308</a>.</p>
-
-  <p>“We see that it is arranged very nearly at right angles to the river,
-    its greatest depth on the left, where it runs back one hundred and
-    twenty feet; the front sweeps back in a diagonal line, so that the
-    right-hand side is only thirty-two feet in depth. The back wall is
-    one hundred and fifty-eight feet long, and at right angles to the two
-    sides. In the centre of the building, looking out upon the river, is
-    an open space seventy-five feet wide, and averaging forty feet in
-    depth, its depressed centre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> divided nearly equally by a ridge running
-    through it at right angles to the river. We judged it to have been an
-    open court, because there was not the least vestige of a wall in front,
-    or on the ridge through the centre, while upon the other three sides
-    they were perfectly distinct; although it is difficult to explain why
-    it should have been hollowed out in the manner shown in the plan. Back
-    of this court is a series of seven apartments of equal size, springing
-    in a perfect arch from the heavy wall facing the court, leaving a
-    semicircular space in the centre, forty-five feet across its greatest
-    diameter. Each one is fifteen feet in length, and the same in width
-    across its centre, the walls somewhat irregular in thickness, but
-    averaging twenty inches, compact, and well laid. On the left are three
-    rooms extending across the whole width of the building, each averaging
-    forty-five by forty feet square; on the right only one was discernible.
-    Back of the circle, our impression was that the walls diverged in the
-    manner shown in the plan, although there is so much confusion resulting
-    from the heaping up of the débris that much must be left to conjecture.
-    There is also a slight shadow of doubt in regard to the wall facing the
-    river on the right; it is barely possible that it extended somewhat
-    farther out, although<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> there is here a steep inclination to the
-    brink of the bluff, and that it has become entirely obliterated by
-    its foundations giving way. The remains of the wall above, however,
-    led us to believe that it had been originally built in the way it is
-    shown in the plan. Extreme massiveness is indicated throughout the
-    whole structure by the amount of débris about the line of the walls,
-    forming long rounded mounds four to five feet high, with the stone-work
-    cropping out, twenty to twenty-four inches in thickness.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_308">
-    <img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">RUINS UPON THE RIO SAN JUAN</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp52">
-    <img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Rock-Shelters of the San Juan Cañon.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the face of the bluff immediately under this ruin and upon
-    a recessed bench three hundred feet long was a row of little
-    rock-shelters, with just enough room on the ledge in front of them
-    to admit of a promenade the entire length of the shelf. All down the
-    valley of the San Juan, rock shelters and dwellings similar to the
-    group shown in the cut, were met with.</p>
-
-  <p>In this instance the houses were situated sixty feet above the trail
-    without any visible means of access. If ladders were used, they were
-    made of timber taller than any of the trees now growing in the valley.
-    Twelve miles below the Montezuma the party discovered really one of
-    the most picturesque and wonderful of all the cliff-dwellings. On the
-    opposite side of the river, where the bluff was two hundred feet high,
-    near the top of the cliff, they observed a deeply receding cave with
-    an opening nearly circular “two hundred feet in diameter, divided
-    equally between the two kinds of rocks, reaching, within a few feet,
-    the top of the bluff above and the level of the valley below. It runs
-    back in a semicircular sweep to a depth of one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> hundred feet; the
-    top is a perfect half dome, and the lower half only less so from the
-    accumulation of débris and the thick brushy foliage, the cool dampness
-    of its shadowed interior, where the sun never touches, favoring a
-    luxuriant growth. A stratum of harder rock across the central line of
-    the cave has left a bench running around its entire half circle, upon
-    which is built the row of buildings which caught our attention half a
-    mile away.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_310.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="center xsmall">Row of 11 Rooms, one story in height, from 4 to 10
-      feet in width, by 130 feet.</div>
-    <div class="caption"><span class="xsmall">HORIZONTAL SECTION</span>
-      of the<br />
-      GREAT ECHO CAVE<br />
-      on the<br />
-      <span class="xsmall">RIO SAN JUAN</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>“It will be seen that the houses occupy the left-hand or eastern half
-    of the cave, for the reason, probably, that the ledge was wider on
-    that side, and the wall back of it receded in such a manner as to give
-    considerable additional room for the second floor, or for the upper
-    part of the one-story rooms. It is about fifty feet from the outer edge
-    in to the first building, a small structure sixteen feet long, three
-    feet wide at the outer end, and four at the opposite end; the walls,
-    standing only four feet on the highest remaining corner, were nearly
-    all tumbled in. Then came an open space eleven feet wide and nine deep,
-    that served probably as a sort of workshop. Four holes were drilled
-    into the smooth rock floor, about six feet equidistantly apart, each
-    from six to ten inches deep and five in diameter, as perfectly round
-    as though drilled by machinery. We can reasonably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
-    assume that these
-    people were familiar with the art of weaving, and that it was here
-    they worked at the loom, the drilled holes supporting its posts. At
-    <i>b</i>, in this open space, are a number of grooves worn into the
-    rock in various places, caused by the artificers of the little town
-    in shaping and polishing their stone implements. The main building
-    comes next, occupying the widest portion of the ledge, which gives an
-    average width of ten feet inside; it is forty-eight feet long outside,
-    and twelve high, divided inside into three rooms, the first two
-    thirteen and a half feet each in length, and the third sixteen feet,
-    divided into two stories, the lower and upper five feet in height. The
-    joist holes did not penetrate through the walls, being inserted about
-    six inches, half the thickness. The beams rested upon the sloping
-    back-wall, which receded far enough to make the upper rooms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> about
-    square. Window-like apertures afforded communication between each room,
-    all through the second story, excepting that which opened out to the
-    back of the cave. There was also one window in each lower room, about
-    twelve inches square, looking out toward the open country, and in the
-    upper rooms several small apertures not more than three inches wide
-    were pierced through the wall, hardly more than peep-holes. The walls
-    of the large building continued back in an unbroken line one hundred
-    and thirty feet farther, with an average height of eight feet, and
-    divided into eleven apartments, with communicating apertures through
-    all. The first room was nine and a half feet wide, the others dwindling
-    down gradually to only four feet in width at the other extremity.
-    The rooms were of unequal length, the following being their inside
-    measurements, commencing from the outer end, viz.: 12½, 9½, 8, 7½,
-    9, 10, 8, 7, 7, 8, 31 feet; the ledge then runs along, gradually
-    narrowing, fifty feet farther, where another wall occurs across it,
-    after which it soon merges into the smooth wall of the cave. The first
-    of these rooms had an aperture leading outward large enough to crawl
-    through; the wall around it had been broken away so that its exact size
-    could not be determined; all the others, of which there were about two
-    to each room, were mere peep-holes, about three inches in diameter, and
-    generally pierced through the wall at a downward angle.” The apartments
-    were well plastered, and in one or two places even the delicate lines
-    on the thumbs and fingers of the plasterers had been plainly retained.
-    At one point an entire hand had left its impress in the cement.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Great Echo Cave.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>All these marks indicated that the hands of these people were much
-    smaller than those of the explorers, and it is supposed that they were
-    those of women and children. A circular hollow place, all begrimed
-    and blackened by smoke, seemed to indicate the locality of a common
-    kitchen. The surroundings of this little community of that ancient
-    people indicated that they were well-to-do, and were probably the lords
-    of the neighboring country. From their home in this elevated gallery,
-    under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> nature’s arching roof of rock, they were in a position to give
-    defiance to their enemies and enjoy the pursuit of their pastoral
-    occupations. This unique residence was named by the explorers the
-    Casa del Eco. Over the plateau westward, the remains of this ancient
-    people were numerous and of the same general character as already
-    described. The party after reaching the Cañon of the Chelly (the stream
-    flowing, as already stated, into the San Juan from the south) found
-    several circular caves averaging about one hundred feet in diameter and
-    containing the ruins of old houses.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_313.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Village in the Valley of the Rio Chelly.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>About five miles southward from the San Juan, and in a valley of the
-    Chelly, a cave-village of considerable extent was discovered, perched
-    upon a recessed bench about seventy feet above the valley, and overhung
-    by a solid wall of massive sandstone, extending up over two hundred
-    feet farther. Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> Jackson describes it in detail as follows: “The
-    left-hand side of the bench supporting the buildings sweeps back in a
-    sharp curve about eighty feet under the bluff, and then gradually comes
-    to the front again until, on the extreme right hand, the buildings are
-    built upon a mass of débris, but partially protected overhead. The
-    total length over the solidly built portion of the town is five hundred
-    and forty-five feet, with a greater width in no place of more than
-    forty feet. There are somewhere in the neighborhood of seventy-five
-    rooms upon the ground-plan, with some uncertainty existing as to many
-    of the subdivisions on the right; but in the cave-built portion every
-    apartment was distinctly marked. Midway in the town is a circular
-    room of heavily and solidly built masonry, that was probably meant
-    for an estufa or council-hall; that is, if we can reasonably assume
-    any similarity in the methods of building or worship to those of the
-    pueblos of New Mexico. Starting from this estufa is a narrow passage
-    running back of the line of houses on the left to a two-story group,
-    where it ends abruptly, further access being had through the back
-    row of rooms, or over the roofs of the lower front row, probably the
-    latter, for it is likely that these roofs served as a platform from
-    which to enter the rooms back of it. At the extreme end a still higher
-    ledge occurs, with the overhanging wall coming down close over it, its
-    outer edge enclosed by a wall, and a little store-room in its farther
-    corner; it was reserved, probably, as an out-door working-room. All
-    the buildings of this half are of one story, with the exception of one
-    group, the residence probably of the chief or of some other important
-    family in the community. The rooms just back of it are the store-rooms
-    of the family, where the corn and squashes were put away for the
-    winter’s consumption. Near these store-rooms, there are two half-round
-    enclosures of stone-work, that are very likely the remains of small
-    reservoirs or springs. The rock back of them is dug out beneath, and
-    had, even in the dry season, when we were there, a damp appearance, as
-    though water was not far removed, and might easily be coaxed to the
-    surface. The front line of wall of this left side of the town is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> built
-    upon a steep angle of smooth rock, with the interior of the apartments
-    filled up with earth so as to make their floors level, bringing them a
-    little below the passage-way. In two or three instances the front wall
-    has given way, precipitating all but the back wall to the bottom of the
-    cliffs. Holes have been drilled into the rock in a few places beneath
-    the walls, evidently to assist in retaining them in their places.
-    The whole front of this portion of the town is without an aperture,
-    save very small windows, and is perfectly inaccessible, both from the
-    solidity of the wall and the precipitous nature of the foundation-rock
-    beneath it. Admittance was probably gained from near the circular
-    building in the centre, by ladders or any other well-guarded approach
-    over the rocks.”</p>
-
-  <p>Two miles down the Cañon of the Chelly, below the mouth of the fertile
-    Cañon Bonito Chiquito, the house figured on <a href="#Page_306">page 306</a> was found with its
-    niched stairway cut in the face of the rock. The house is two-storied,
-    twenty feet in height, the lower story of which is eighteen by ten feet
-    square, divided into two rooms. A natural reservoir of water was found
-    in the rock only twenty rods distant. Eight miles up the Chelly they
-    came to the cave Pueblo, seen by Simpson and mentioned on <a href="#Page_293">page 293</a>.
-    From this point it was but forty miles to the inhabited Moquis town
-    Tegua. The explorers after visiting that interesting place returned
-    northward again to the San Juan, reaching Epsom Creek, a tributary of
-    the same from the north, a short distance from the mouth of the Chelly
-    Cañon. Among a number of remains found in the Cañon of Epsom Creek,
-    one in particular is of interest; this was the remnant of a square
-    tower, of most perfect masonry, built upon a point of rock entirely
-    inaccessible to the explorers.</p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp52">
-    <img src="images/i_316.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Elevated Tower on Epsom Creek.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A few miles farther up the Epsom Valley, the ruins of quite a town
-    were discovered. “It lay upon both sides of a small, dry ravine, some
-    twenty or thirty rods back from the bed of the creek, and consisted
-    of a main rectangular mass sixty by one hundred feet, occupying quite
-    an elevation, dominating all the others. Just below it and close
-    upon the edge of the ravine, was a round tower, twenty-five feet in
-    diameter; and seventy-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> below that, and also close to the ravine,
-    was a square building, twenty-feet across, nearly obscured by a
-    thicket of piñon-trees, growing about it. On the opposite bank were
-    two small round towers, each fifteen feet in diameter, with two oblong
-    structures between, twelve by fifteen feet square; at right angles to
-    these four, which were arranged in a straight line, another square
-    building occurred, the same size as the one just opposite on the other
-    bank.” The surroundings of this ancient village are described as truly
-    picturesque and the valley fertile, contrasting considerably with
-    the Chelly Cañon. The exploring party followed the Epsom to a point
-    thirty miles above the San Juan, and in the head cañons between it and
-    the Montezuma found themselves in the midst of ruins which mark the
-    former presence of a dense population. No ruins were found near the
-    Sierra Abajo nor in the great basin lying between it and the Sierra
-    La Sal. In the deep cañon of the Montezuma (fifteen hundred feet
-    deep), cliff-dwellings and other remains were found in great numbers.
-    Cave-shelters, with the orifice of the oval and circular crevices
-    in the rocks walled up with neat masonry and accessible by means of
-    niche-steps for the hands and feet, leading up the perpendicular cliff
-    to the little nest-like houses above, were especially numerous. In one
-    of these a skeleton was found, but examination proved it to be that of
-    a Navajo, and quite certainly not that of one of the ancient residents.
-    At different points midway down the cañon, narrow promontories jut out
-    into the valley a hundred yards or more, ranging from twenty to one
-    hundred feet in height. Within a distance of sixteen miles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> eighteen
-    of these were observed, covered with ruins of massive stone-built
-    structures. They were rectangular in form, ranging from one hundred
-    by two hundred feet, down to thirty by forty feet in size. We cannot
-    devote further attention to the vast number of ruins found by Mr.
-    Jackson and party in the Montezuma Valley, except to note the curious
-    little house shown in the cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp54">
-    <img src="images/i_317.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Dwelling in the Montezuma Valley.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Among a colony of these cave-dwellings, occurring at the first bend
-    of the West Montezuma, a dozen miles above its junction with the
-    east fork, this one commands attention as much for the neatness and
-    perfection of its masonry as for the snug little cave in which its
-    architect lodged it. A block of sandstone resting on the edge of the
-    mesa bench fifty feet above the valley, had a deep oval hole worn in it
-    by the winds and sands. This was occupied by the little house, ten feet
-    long, six feet high and five feet deep; a space, however, was reserved
-    at one end to serve as a platform from which to enter.</p>
-
-  <p>In addition to the explorations of Mr. Jackson and party, Mr. W. H.
-    Holmes of the Geological and Geographical Survey, was also assigned
-    the duty of examining ancient remains in the valley of the Upper San
-    Juan, during the summer of 1875.<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>Mr. Holmes and party examined
-    an area of nearly six thousand square miles, chiefly in Colorado on
-    the San Juan and its tributaries. Most of the ruins met with were of
-    the same general character and description as those examined by Mr.
-    Jackson, and to repeat in detail the majority of descriptions contained
-    in Mr. Holmes’ memoir, would be to weary the reader with repetitions
-    without affording additional advantage. However, a few remarkable ruins
-    described by Mr. Holmes command our attention. The first of these which
-    may be pronounced unique in this section of the country, and quite
-    unlike anything met with thus far in the exploration, is situated on
-    the Rio La Plata, about twenty-five miles above its junction with
-    the San Juan. The remains of an extensive village with structures of
-    various forms, are scattered upon a terrace some twenty feet above
-    the river-bed. The distribution of the works viewed in connection
-    with plans upon which they were constructed are suggestive of the
-    remains of the mound-builders of the Ohio valley. The forms are chiefly
-    rectangular and circular, one or two seem to have been elliptical while
-    a number have consisted of irregular groups of apartments. All now
-    lie in ruins with their outlines marked by ridges of débris composed
-    of earth, water-worn pebbles, and small fragments of sandstone. The
-    walls of the main structure are still prominently defined, while those
-    of a circular enclosure, used probably as an estufa, are standing to
-    the height of four feet. Three hundred feet directly north of this
-    enclosure is a truncated rectangular mound nine feet high, measuring
-    fifty by eighty feet. In one of the angles of the east end are the
-    remains of what may have been a tower rising above the platform of the
-    mound. One hundred feet north of this mound is a rectangular enclosure
-    measuring sixty by one hundred feet. Its wall ranges from four to six
-    feet in height. The ruins of a wall extending between the mound and the
-    enclosure, indicate that they were once connected. A system of works
-    joined these to a range of low hills, lying to the north. Southward
-    from the large central circle are earthworks and ruins covering an
-    area of fifteen thousand square feet. A large number of small circles
-    and mounds occupy the southern extremity of the terrace. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> is
-    impossible to account for the sudden change in the plan of works so
-    contiguous to those of a well-marked pueblo origin. On the San Juan
-    River, thirty-five miles below the mouth of the La Plata and ten miles
-    above the Mancos, Mr. Holmes observed an interesting combination of
-    cave-shelters and towers united in a system for giving signals upon the
-    approach of the enemy. In the face of a vertical bluff thirty-five feet
-    high and about half way from the trail below, caves had been quarried
-    or weathered in considerable numbers in the shales which constitute one
-    of the strata in the bluff. A hard platform of rock formed the floor,
-    and afforded sufficient protection for a narrow platform in front of
-    these openings. Immediately above these caves upon the summit of the
-    bluffs, a system of ruined circular towers, enclosed by semicircular
-    walls with the open side of the semicircle facing the precipice, was
-    observed. The caves were accessible from the valley below only by means
-    of ladders, and the towers in turn only by ladders from the caves
-    through the open side of their semicircular enclosures. The walls of
-    these enclosures presented no openings to the plateau above, and it is
-    inferred that the towers which they enclosed served as outlooks from
-    which the sentinel could signal the people who were engaged in tilling
-    the valley below to flee to their cave-shelters at the approach of the
-    enemy, and when too closely pressed by an enemy upon the plateau the
-    sentinel himself could make his retreat by means of his ladder to the
-    caves beneath.</p>
-
-  <p>The most remarkable cliff-dwellings, discovered by Mr. Holmes, are
-    shown in the cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp87">
-    <img src="images/i_320.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Fortresses of the Rio Mancos.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>These extraordinary fortresses, lodged in caves eight hundred feet
-    above the level of the valley, are situated in the cañon of the Mancos,
-    a few miles from its mouth. The first five hundred feet of the ascent
-    from the level of the stream, is over a rough cliff-broken slope, the
-    remainder of massive sandstone, full of niches and caves. The upper
-    house is situated in a deep cavern with overhanging roof about one
-    hundred feet from the cliff’s top. The front wall of the house is
-    built upon the very edge of the giddy precipice. The larger house is
-    lodged in a niche or cave thirty feet below. The lower house was easily
-    accessible. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> wall was built flush with the precipice and remained
-    standing to a height of fourteen feet at the highest point, though
-    other portions had crumbled away considerably. The house occupied the
-    entire floor of the niche, which measures sixty feet long by fifteen
-    feet wide. Mr. Holmes described these structures as follows; of the
-    first he says:</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p>
-
-  <p>“The arrangement of the apartments is quite complicated and curious,
-    and will be more readily understood by a reference to the ground-plan
-    (figure 1). The precipice line or front edge of the niche-floor,
-    extends from <i>a</i> to <i>b</i>. From this the broken cliffs and
-    slopes reach down to the trail and river, as shown in the accompanying
-    profile (figure 3). The line <i>b c d</i> represents the deepest part
-    of the recess, against which the walls are built. To the right of
-    <i>b</i>, the shelf ceases, and the vertical face of rock is unbroken.
-    At the left, beyond <i>a</i>, the edge is not so abrupt, and the cliffs
-    below are so broken that one can ascend with ease. Above, the roof
-    comes forward and curves upward, as seen in the profile.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp61">
-    <img src="images/i_321.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><i>FIG. 1.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FIG. 3.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FIG. 2.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>“The most striking feature of this structure is the <em>round-room</em>,
-    which occurs about the middle of the ruin and inside of a large
-    rectangular apartment. * * * Its walls are not high and not entirely
-    regular, and the inside is curiously fashioned with offsets and
-    box-like projections. It is plastered smoothly, and bears considerable
-    evidence of having been used, although I observed no traces of fire.
-    The entrance to this chamber is rather extraordinary, and further
-    attests the peculiar importance attached to it by the builders, and
-    their evident desire to secure it from all possibility of intrusion. A
-    walled and covered passage-way, <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, of solid masonry,
-    ten feet of which is still intact, leads from an outer chamber through
-    the small intervening apartments into the circular one. It is possible
-    that this originally extended to the outer wall, and was entered from
-    the outside. If so, the person desiring to visit the estufa would have
-    to enter an aperture about twenty-two inches high by thirty wide,
-    and crawl, in the most abject manner possible, through a tube-like
-    passage-way nearly twenty-feet in length. My first impression was that
-    this peculiarly-constructed doorway was a precaution against enemies,
-    and that it was probably the only means of entrance to the interior
-    of the house; but I am now inclined to think this hardly probable,
-    and conclude that it was rather designed to render a sacred chamber
-    as free as possible from profane intrusion. The apartments <i>l</i>,
-    <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, do not require any especial description,
-    as they are quite plain and almost empty.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> The partition walls have
-    never been built up to the ceiling of the niche, and the inmates, in
-    passing from one apartment to another, have climbed over. The row of
-    apertures indicated in the main front wall are about five feet from
-    the floor, and were doubtless entered for the insertion of beams,
-    although there is no evidence that a second floor has at any time
-    existed. In that part of the ruin about the covered passage-way, the
-    walls are complicated, and the plan can hardly be made out, while the
-    curved wall enclosing the apartment <i>e</i> is totally overthrown.
-    * * * * The rock-face between this ruin and the one above is smooth
-    and vertical, but by passing along the ledge a few yards to the left
-    a sloping face was found, up which a stairway of small niches had
-    been cut; by means of these, an active person, unincumbered, could
-    ascend with safety. On reaching the top, one finds himself in the very
-    doorway of the upper house (<i>a</i>, figure 2) without standing-room
-    outside of the wall, and one can imagine that an enemy would stand but
-    little chance of reaching and entering such a fortress if defended,
-    even by women and children alone. The position of this ruin is one of
-    unparalleled security, both from enemies and from the elements. The
-    almost vertical cliff descends abruptly from the front wall, and the
-    immense arched roof of solid stone projects forward fifteen or twenty
-    feet beyond the house (see section, figure 3). At the right the ledge
-    ceases, and at the left stops short against a massive vertical wall.
-    The niche-stairway affords the only possible means of approach.</p>
-
-  <p>“The house occupies the entire floor of the niche, which is about one
-    hundred and twenty feet long by ten in depth at the deepest part. The
-    front wall to the right and left of the doorway is quite low, portions
-    having doubtless fallen off. The higher wall <i>f g</i> is about thirty
-    feet long, and from ten to twelve feet high, while a very low rude wall
-    extends along the more inaccessible part of the ledge, and terminates
-    at the extreme right in a small enclosure, as seen in the plan at
-    <i>c</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>“In the first apartment entered, there were evidences of fire, the
-    walls and ceiling being blackened with smoke. In the second, a member
-    of the party, by digging in the rubbish,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> obtained a quantity of beans,
-    and in the third a number of grains of corn; hence the names given.
-    There are two small windows in the front wall, and doorways communicate
-    between rooms separated by high partitions.</p>
-
-  <p>“The walls of these houses are built in the usual manner, and average
-    about a foot in thickness.</p>
-
-  <p>“The upper house seems to be in a rather unfinished state, looking as
-    if stone and mortar had run short. And when one considers that these
-    materials must have been brought from far below by means of ropes, or
-    carried in small quantities up the dangerous stairway, the only wonder
-    is that it was ever brought to its present degree of finish.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_324.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Triple-Walled Tower on the McElmo.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The ruins of a triple-walled tower with fourteen sectional apartments
-    between the outer and second walls were examined near the McElmo. One
-    of these sectional apartments was still standing to the height of
-    twelve feet.</p>
-
-  <p>We have already referred to the group of ruins at Aztec Springs near
-    the divide between the McElmo and the lower Mancos tributaries. “These
-    ruins,” says Mr. Holmes, “form the most imposing pile of masonry yet
-    found in Colorado. The whole group covers an area of about four hundred
-    and eighty thousand square feet, and has an average depth of from
-    three to four feet.” The accompanying plan, with the measurements and
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>dimensions indicated upon it, precludes the necessity of a detailed
-    description.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp60">
-    <img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="xsmall">RUINS</span>
-      at<br />
-      AZTEC SPRING<br />
-      <span class="xxsmall">SOUTH WEST COLORADO<br />
-      <i>W. H. Holmes</i></span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The walls are twenty-six inches thick, and in some cases are built
-    double. The whole resembles in plan one of the ruined pueblos of the
-    Chaco, with the addition that it was designed to be an impregnable
-    fortress.</p>
-
-  <p>The plate from Mr. Jackson’s memoir shows specimens of pottery
-    collected during his explorations among the cliff-dwellings. The pieces
-    <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are of modern make, and were obtained among the
-    Moquis of Tegua. The ware and finish of both these vessels are far
-    inferior as compared with the ancient fragments.</p>
-
-  <p>We have quoted on a previous page Mr. Ingersoll’s rendering of the
-    romantic legend which tells in few words the sad history of the ancient
-    architects of these aërial abodes. We have observed that, according to
-    this account, the remnant of this people who escaped the destruction
-    visited upon the cliff-dwellers by the warlike Utes fled to the
-    South—to the deserts of Arizona—and built the present Moqui towns. We
-    have already stated that Mr. Jackson’s party found it necessary to
-    travel forty miles due southward from the ruins of the Chaco Cañon in
-    order to reach Tegua, the nearest of the Moqui settlements.</p>
-
-  <p>It may be a matter of some interest to the reader, after having studied
-    the cliff architecture, to be introduced into one of the habitations
-    now occupied by the descendants of that remarkable people. Lieutenant
-    Ives, who visited the Moqui towns in 1858, has furnished an interesting
-    account of their general characteristics, from which we take condensed
-    extracts: “As the sun went down,” says Lieutenant Ives, “and the
-    confused glare and mirage disappeared, I discovered with the spy-glass
-    two of the Moqui towns eight or ten miles distant, upon the edge of a
-    high bluff overhanging the opposite side of the valley. They were built
-    close to the edge of the precipice. The outlines of the closely-packed
-    structures looked in the distance like the towers and battlements of a
-    castle, and their commanding position enhanced the picturesque effect.”
-    “The face of the bluff, on the summit of which the town was perched,
-    was cut up and irregular. We were led through a passage that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> wound
-    among some low hillocks of sand and rock that extended half-way to the
-    top. It did not seem possible, while ascending through the sand-hills,
-    that a spring could be found in such a dry-looking place; but presently
-    a crowd was seen collecting upon a mound before a small plateau, in
-    the centre of which was a circular reservoir fifty feet in diameter,
-    lined with masonry and filled with pure cold water. The basin was fed
-    by a pipe connecting with some source of supply upon the summit of the
-    mesa. Continuing to ascend, we came to another reservoir, smaller, but
-    of more elaborate construction and finish. From this the guide said
-    they got their drinking water,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> the other reservoir being intended for
-    animals. Between the two the face of the bluff had been ingeniously
-    converted into terraces. These were faced with neat masonry, and
-    contained gardens, each surrounded with a raised edge so as to retain
-    water upon the surface. Pipes from the reservoir permitted them at any
-    time to be irrigated. Peach trees were growing upon the terraces and in
-    the hollow below. A long flight of stone steps with sharp turns that
-    could be easily defended was built into the face of the precipice,
-    and led from the upper reservoir to the foot of the town. The scene,
-    rendered animated by the throngs of Indians in their gayly-colored
-    dresses, was one of the most remarkable I had ever witnessed.” “Without
-    giving us time to admire the scene, the Indians led us to a ladder
-    planted against the centre of the front face of the pueblo. The town is
-    nearly square and surrounded by a stone wall fifteen feet high, the top
-    of which forms a landing extending around the whole. Flights of stone
-    steps led from the first to a second landing, upon which the doors of
-    the houses open. Mounting the stairway opposite to the ladder, the
-    chief crossed to the nearest door and ushered us into a low apartment,
-    from which two or three others opened towards the interior of the
-    dwelling.” “The room was fifteen feet by ten; the walls were made of
-    adobes; the partitions of substantial beams, the floor laid with clay.
-    In one corner were a fireplace and a chimney. Everything was clean and tidy.
-    <span class="figright2 illowp35">
-      <img src="images/i_327a.jpg" alt="" />
-    </span>
-    Skins, bows and arrows, quivers, antlers, blankets, articles of
-    clothing and ornament, were hanging from the walls or arranged upon
-    shelves. Vases, flat dishes, and gourds filled with meal or water,
-    were standing along on one side of the room. At the other end was a
-    trough divided into compartments, in each of which was a sloping stone
-    slab two or three feet square, for grinding corn upon. In a recess of
-    an inner room was piled a goodly store of corn in the ear. I noticed,
-    among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell-shaped end
-    like a clarionet and a pair of painted drum-sticks tipped with gaudy feathers.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_327b.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cliff and Moqui Pottery.</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>“We learned that there were seven towns; that the name of that which
-    we were visiting was Mooshahneh. A second smaller town was half a mile
-    distant; two miles distant was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> third. * * * Five or six miles to the
-    north-east a bluff was pointed out as the location of three others; and
-    we were informed that the last of the seven, Oraybe, was still further
-    distant on the trail towards the great river.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_329.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Moqui (Wolpi), one of the Seven Pueblos.</span>
-    (From a photo taken by the U. S. exploring party in 1875.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>“Each pueblo is built around a rectangular court, in which we suppose
-    are the springs that furnish the supply to the reservoirs. The exterior
-    walls, which are of stone, have no openings,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> and would have to be
-    scaled or battered down before access could be gained to the interior.
-    The successive stories are set back one behind the other. The lower
-    ones are reached through trap-doors from the first landing. The houses
-    are three rooms deep, and open upon the interior court. The arrangement
-    is as strong and compact as well could be devised, but as the court is
-    common and the landings are separated by no partitions, it involves a
-    certain community of residence.”</p>
-
-  <p>In describing the gardens of Oraybe, distant eight or nine miles, he remarks:</p>
-
-  <p>“At the foot [of the bluff] was a reservoir and a broad road winding
-    up the steep ascent. On either side the bluffs were cut into terraces,
-    and laid out into gardens similar to those seen at Mooshahneh, and
-    like them irrigated from an upper reservoir. The whole reflected great
-    credit upon Moqui ingenuity and skill in the department of engineering.
-    The walls of the terraces and reservoirs were of partly-dressed
-    stone, well and strongly built, and the irrigating pipes conveniently
-    arranged. The little gardens were neatly laid out. * * * The walls of
-    the terraces and the gardens themselves are kept in good order and
-    preservation. The stone and earth for construction and repairs they
-    carry in blankets upon their shoulders from the valley below.”<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Bancroft has furnished the reader descriptions of several of the
-    New Mexican group of pueblos, which he has extracted from the reports
-    of various travelers. We do not consider it necessary to repeat
-    accounts so generally accessible.<a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> The New Mexican group, situated
-    on the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries, is the most numerous
-    in inhabited pueblos, but as they differ little if at all from those
-    of the Moquis, further treatment of them is unnecessary. The pueblos
-    which are and have been inhabited during the nineteenth century number
-    about twenty, some of which are well known to have been occupied by
-    the ancestors of their present inhabitants when first visited by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>the
-    Spaniards. The best specimen of inhabited pueblos is that of Taos,
-    situated on one of the northern forks of the river which gives it its
-    name. There are two large houses, each between three and four hundred
-    feet long by one hundred and fifty wide, situated on opposite sides of
-    a small creek, and tradition states that formerly they were connected
-    by a bridge. They are five and six stories high.</p>
-
-  <p>Besides the inhabited towns there are a number now unoccupied and fast
-    going to decay. The names of these are given with slight variations
-    by different writers; the following, however, are generally agreed
-    upon: Pecos, Quivira, Valverda, San Lázaro, San Marcos, San Cristóbal,
-    Socorro, Senacu, Abó, Quarra, Rita, Poblazon, old San Filipe, and old
-    Zuñi.<a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> The most important of all these ruins is Pecos, one of the
-    sacred cities of the pueblos. Here the everlasting fire dedicated to
-    their god Montezuma was kept burning from time immemorial down to the
-    abandonment of the town, which occurred some time during the second
-    quarter of the present century. The reader will remember, however, that
-    the culture-god of the Pueblos and the Aztec monarch are in no sense
-    to be associated with each other, since it is quite certain that they
-    were not confounded in the mythology of the worshippers of the deity.
-    Whether the Pueblos, Cliff-dwellers, etc., were ever in any way related
-    to the Aztecs or any Nahua people is difficult to determine. Certainly
-    there is no architectural nor traditional evidence that they were.
-    When the Spaniards under Coronado traversed the region in 1540 <span class="allsmcap">A.
-    D.</span>, no reports of inter-communication between the two peoples seem
-    to have been current. Father Escalante, who in 1776 visited many of the
-    pueblos, and mentions many ruins not since located, as well as many
-    inhabited towns now in ruins, found nothing to really substantiate the
-    “Aztec theory.”<a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> On the contrary, substantial arguments can <span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>be
-    presented for the intimate relationship of the Nahuas and some of the
-    Pueblos.</p>
-
-  <p>In the tenth chapter of this work will be found the basis of linguistic
-    affinities between the Nahua and Moqui languages, though none is
-    claimed between the Nahua and New Mexican Pueblos. Mr. Becker, in his
-    memoir addressed to the <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite> at Luxembourg,
-    refers to Camergo’s account of the migration of the Teo-Chichimecs,
-    the allies of the Toltecs, and to his statement that they came from
-    <i>Amaquetepic</i> (“the mountains of the Amaques”), and expresses the
-    belief that the words Amaques and Moquis are identical. Mr. Becker
-    considers the “A” prefix of the former to be an abbreviation of the
-    Nahua “atl” water, and Amaqui would mean the Maqui or Moqui living by
-    the water, just as Acolhuas means Culhuas near the water and Anahuac,
-    the Nahua land on the water. The tradition of the Moquis distinctly
-    states that they formerly lived on the river at the north-east
-    of their present home. The reader will remember that the Quichés
-    called the Nahuas <i>Yaqui</i>, the name of a river of Sinaloa and
-    Sonora where marked traces of the Nahua language are found, and the
-    supposed locality of the first Toltec station. Is it not possible that
-    <i>Yaqui</i> is a dialectic modification of Maqui or Moqui? It has been
-    observed in the pages of this chapter that in more than one instance
-    ruined pueblos were composed of either red adobe or had been painted, a
-    circumstance which had won for them such a designation as “Red-house”
-    or “Pueblo-pintado,” etc. Furthermore, the red glare of the desert
-    north of the Moqui settlements has received the name of the “Painted
-    desert.” The fact that Hue hue Tlapalan signifies “old red land” is
-    suggestive that this locality may have been the mysterious rendezvous
-    of the Toltecs. The Moquis like the Nahuas are sun-worshippers, though
-    the ceremonial of both people differ considerably.</p>
-
-  <p>Besides the mound-works observed on the upper San Juan by Mr. Holmes
-    associated with the work of the Cliff-dwellers, recent exploration has
-    shown that combinations of mound and pueblo features of architecture
-    exist in Utah. Dr. C. C. Parry found in a mound on the St. Clara River
-    in Southern Utah very fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> specimens of Pueblo pottery, and other
-    articles which clearly identify its architects with the people of the
-    cliffs or with the village builders at the South.<a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> The recent
-    exploration of several mounds in southern Utah by Dr. Edward Palmer
-    fully confirms this conclusion. In Kane County, Utah, the same explorer
-    discovered among a number of articles of apparent Moqui make in a
-    cave-shelter, a shovel of horn having a blade fourteen inches long by
-    five inches wide. Among the articles was a pair of shoes made of the
-    fibre of the <i>Yucca</i>, which in style, shape, manner of braiding,
-    etc., closely resemble shoes made of the leaves of the <i>Typa</i>
-    found by Prof. F. W. Putnam in a cave in Kentucky.<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The mound examined by Mr. Barrand on the west fork of the Little Sioux
-    of Dakota, and found to contain a large interior circular chamber,
-    probably was the work of the ancestors of this western branch of the
-    mound-building people.<a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> The circular chamber was much like an
-    estufa.</p>
-
-  <p>The many-sided culture-hero of the Pueblos, Montezuma, is the centre of
-    a group of the most poetic myths found in Ancient American Mythology.
-    The Pueblos believed in a supreme being, a good spirit, so exalted
-    and worthy of reverence that his name was considered too sacred to
-    mention, as, with the ancient Hebrews, Jehovah’s was the “unmentionable
-    name.” Nevertheless Montezuma was the equal of this great spirit, and
-    was often considered identical with the sun. The variety of aspects
-    in which Montezuma is presented to us is due to the fact that each
-    tribe of Pueblos had its particular legends concerning his birth and
-    achievements. Many places in New Mexico claim the honor of his nativity
-    at a period long before those village builders were acquainted with the
-    arts of architecture, which have since given them their distinguishing
-    name. In fact, this culture-god was none other than the genius who
-    introduced the knowledge of building among them.<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> Some traditions,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>
-    however, make him the ancestor and even the creator of the race;
-    others, its prophet, leader and lawgiver. Mr. Bancroft says, “Under
-    restrictions, we may fairly regard him as the Melchizedek, the Moses,
-    and the Messiah of these Pueblo-desert wanderers from an Egypt that
-    history is ignorant of, and whose name even tradition whispers not. He
-    taught his people how to build cities with tall houses, to construct
-    <i>Estufas</i>, or semi-sacred sweat-houses, and to kindle and guard
-    the sacred fire.” It has been aptly remarked by Mr. Tyler, that
-    Montezuma was the great “somebody” of the tribe to whom the qualities
-    and achievements of every other were attributed.</p>
-
-  <p>Fremont gives an account of the birth of the hero, in which his mother
-    is declared to have been a woman of exquisite beauty, admired and
-    sought for by all men. She was the recipient of rich presents of corn
-    and skins from her admirers, yet she refused the hands of all her
-    suitors. A famine soon occurred, and great distress followed. Now the
-    fastidious beauty showed herself to be a lady of charitable spirit
-    and tender heart. She opened her granaries, in which all her presents
-    had been stored, and out of their abundance relieved the wants of
-    the poor. The offerings of love were made to perform their mission a
-    second time. At last, when the pure and plenteous rains again brought
-    fertility to the earth, the summer shower fell upon the Pueblo goddess,
-    and she gave birth to a son, the immortal Montezuma. The intelligent
-    chief of the Papagoes, whose people occupy the territory between the
-    Santa Cruz River and the Gulf of California, related a legend of the
-    origin and offices of Montezuma, which, while it surprises the reader
-    with its close resemblances to some leading points in the Hebrew and
-    Chaldean genesis and deluge accounts, still is conspicuous for its
-    inconsistencies, and in its closing statements for the absence of any
-    knowledge of time or order.<a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span></p>
-
-  <p>In substance it is as follows: The Great Spirit, having made all
-    things—sky, earth, and the living creatures which inhabit it—descended
-    into the earth for the purpose of creating man also. Digging in the
-    earth, he found clay, such as a potter uses; this he carried back with
-    him to his celestial abode, and dropped it again from the sky into the
-    pit from which he had dug it. Instantly Montezuma, the genius of life,
-    sprang from the pit, and became a partner in the creation of other men.
-    The Apaches were the next formed, and were so wild that they severally
-    ran away as fast as created. Those were golden days which followed the
-    birth of the race; the sun was very much nearer the earth than now,
-    and his grateful presence rendered clothing useless. A common language
-    between all men, shared even by beasts, was one of the strongest
-    possible bonds of peace.</p>
-
-  <p>But at last this paradisiacal age was ended by a great deluge in
-    which all men and living creatures perished. Only Montezuma and his
-    friend, the coyote—a prairie-wolf—escaped. This wonderful animal, with
-    semi-divine attributes, plays a remarkable part in the religion of many
-    of the Pacific tribes, and furnishes us a parallel in our Occidental
-    mythology with the half-human, half-brute combinations of Greco-Roman
-    mythology. The coyote, gifted with prophetic powers, had foretold the
-    approach of this great calamity, and Montezuma, heeding the warning,
-    had built him a boat, which he kept in readiness on the summit of Santa
-    Rosa. His sagacious friend, the coyote, also escaped in an ark made
-    from a gigantic cane which grew by a river’s side; having gnawed it
-    down and crawled into it, he stopped up the ends with gum, and escaped.
-    When the waters subsided, the two met again on dry ground. Montezuma
-    then employed the coyote on several wearisome excursions in order to
-    discover the extent of the land, which developed the fact that upon the
-    east and south and west the water yet remained. Only on the north was
-    there land.</p>
-
-  <p>The Great Spirit and Montezuma again created men and animals, and the
-    former committed to his partner in the work the duties of governing
-    the new race. These were, however, neglected by Montezuma, who became
-    puffed up with pride, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> permitted all manner of wickedness to
-    prevail. The Great Spirit remonstrated with him, even descending
-    to the earth for the purpose of moving his faithless and haughty
-    vicegerent to restore order, but with no avail. Then, returning to
-    his abode in heaven, he pushed the sun back to a remote part of the
-    sky as a punishment on the race. At this, Montezuma became enraged,
-    collected the tribes around him, and set about the construction of a
-    house which should reach heaven. The builders had already completed
-    several apartments, lined with gold and silver and precious stones,
-    and progressed to a point which encouraged all to believe that their
-    defiant purpose would be accomplished, when the Great Spirit smote it
-    to the earth amid the crash of his thunder. Here the account becomes
-    very confused—a great leap is made from Montezuma the culture-hero to
-    Montezuma the emperor, and the two become confounded.</p>
-
-  <p>The legend states that upon the defeat of his rebellious scheme,
-    Montezuma still hardened his heart, and caused the sacred images to
-    be dragged through the streets for the derision of the villagers; the
-    temples were desecrated, and defiance to the Supreme declared. As a
-    punishment, the Great Spirit caused an insect to fly toward the east to
-    an unknown land, to bring the Spaniards, who utterly destroyed him.</p>
-
-  <p>The post-diluvian part of this story presents the hero in quite another
-    light than that generally accepted by most of the Pueblo tribes, in
-    which he is represented as having been the very model of goodness and
-    beneficence—the founder of their cities, of which Acoma was the first
-    and Pecos the second. Before taking his departure from his people,
-    he prophesied that they should suffer from drought and from the
-    oppressions of a strange nation, but promised them to return as their
-    deliverer. He then planted a tree upside down, and bade them preserve
-    the sacred fire notwithstanding their misfortunes, until the tree fell,
-    at which time he would return with a white race, who would destroy all
-    their enemies and bring back the fertile showers.</p>
-
-  <p>It is said that this tree fell from its place as the American army
-    entered Santa Fé, in 1846. In the cramped, subterranean estufa, the
-    Pueblo fed the sacred fire burning in the basin of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> small altar. It
-    was a warrior’s vigil, for by turns their heroes descended into its
-    suffocating atmosphere, thick with smoke, and charged with carbonic
-    acid, to wait often for two successive days and nights without
-    refreshment, often even until death relieved the guard.<a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></p>
-
-  <p>For generations these strange architects and faithful priests have
-    waited for the return of their god—looked for him to come with the sun,
-    and descend by the column of smoke which rose from the sacred fire. As
-    of old the Israelitish watcher upon Mount Seir replied to the inquiry,
-    “What of the night?” “The morning cometh,” so the Pueblo sentinel
-    mounts the house-top at Pecos, and gazes wistfully into the east for
-    the golden appearance, for the rapturous vision of his redeemer, for
-    Montezuma’s return; and, though no ray of light meets his watching eye,
-    his never-failing faith, with cruel deception, replies, “The morning
-    cometh.”<a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="tb" />
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p><span class="smcap">Explorations among the Pueblos.</span>—In the summer of 1879
-      the Smithsonian Institution undertook a thorough and extensive
-      examination of the Pueblo civilization of New Mexico and Arizona.
-      Major Powell sent an expedition to New Mexico in charge of Mr.
-      James Stevenson, and a large collection illustrative of the
-      manners and customs of the Pueblos was made. Mr. F. H. Cushing was
-      especially fortunate in obtaining minute information concerning
-      their traditions, rites, and ceremonies. The work of investigation
-      is still in progress, and at this writing (September, 1881) an
-      expedition is in the field. A full report will ultimately be
-      published. During the latter half of the year 1880 Mr. Baudelier,
-      the eminent Mexican scholar, visited Taos, and prepared a paper
-      on that interesting locality for the Archæological Institute of
-      America, under whose patronage his exploration was conducted.
-      During a residence of two months in the Pueblo of Cochití, occupied
-      by a branch of the Queres tribe, Mr. Baudelier made a thorough
-      study of the institutions of that interesting people. See Second
-      <cite>Ann. Report of Arch. Inst. of Amer.</cite></p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VIII</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center">ANCIENT AMERICAN CIVILIZATION AND SUPPOSED OLD WORLD
-    ANALOGIES—ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE AND HIEROGLYPHICS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Analogies, Real and Fancied—<span class="smcap">Maya Architecture</span>—The
-    American Pyramid—The Palace of Palenque—The French Roof at
-    Palenque—The Trefoil Arch—Yucatanic Architecture—Uxmal—The
-    Casa de Monjas—Kabah—Casa Grande of Zayi—<span class="smcap">Quiché
-    Architecture</span>—Copan—Circus of Copan—Description by
-    Fuentes—Utatlan—<span class="smcap">Nahua Architecture</span>—Remains in
-    Oajaca—Mitla—Grecques at Mitla—Remains in the State of
-    Vera Cruz—Cholula—Pyramid of Xochicalco—The Temple of
-    Mexico—Teotihuacan—Los Edificios of Quemeda—Maya and Nahua
-    Architecture Compared—Old World Analogies—<span class="smcap">Sculpture</span>—Of
-    the Mounds—At Palenque—At Uxmal—At Chichen-Itza—On the Isla
-    Mujeres—Of the Nahuas—Ancient American Art and its Old World
-    Analogies—Egyptian Tau at Palenqué—Serpent Sculpture—Nahua
-    Symbolism probably Asiatic—<span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>—Maya MSS.
-    and Books—Landa’s Alphabet—The Attempts at the Interpretation
-    of Maya MSS. by Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny—Rosny’s
-    Classification of the Hieroglyphics—Hopes that a Key has been
-    Discovered—The Mexican Picture-writing—Aztec Migration Maps.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">WITHOUT pretending to furnish an exhaustive treatment of the subject
-    proposed for this chapter, we desire to make observations on some
-    phases of the development of American civilization in the Pre-Historic
-    period. One of the most natural fruits of the study of the arts and
-    customs of any people, is a disposition on the part of the investigator
-    to institute a comparison with corresponding features of civilization
-    in all parts of the world. Unfortunately this disposition has led many
-    writers on America into wild and fanciful speculations, which tend only
-    to deceive the reader and add nothing to true investigation. In a few
-    instances pronounced old world analogies have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> been proven to exist in
-    ancient American institutions and arts, but their number bears a small
-    ratio to the multitude of fancied analogies which never existed, except
-    in the imaginations of their discoverers. To discuss the subject in
-    hand without transcending the limits of the period which is treated in
-    previous chapters, namely, the Primitive period—that which antedates
-    the era of the annals of those ancient peoples, is a somewhat difficult
-    task, since the question of dates is a very uncertain one in the
-    absence of any sufficient key to the hieroglyphic and picture records.
-    The customs and political organization, together with the Aztec
-    civilization, have been often treated, and by none better than our own
-    Prescott and Bancroft. The repetition of their labors here would be
-    highly superfluous. We shall, however, ask the attention of the reader
-    to some considerations upon the following divisions of the subject:</p>
-
-  <p>1. <span class="smcap">Architecture.</span> 2. <span class="smcap">Sculpture</span> and
-    <span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>. 3. <span class="smcap">Chronological</span> and <span class="smcap">Astronomical
-    Knowledge</span>. 4. <span class="smcap">Religious Analogies.</span></p>
-
-  <p><i>Architecture.</i>—The works of the Mound-builders and Pueblos have
-    already been described and their transitional forms or stages noted.
-    To seek for parallelisms or analogies between the Mound-builders and
-    the people of Asia because mounds are common to both continents, or
-    to seek to identify them with the people of Northern Europe because
-    the shell-heaps of our sea-board resemble those of Denmark, would
-    certainly be an unjustifiable use of the imagination, in anything
-    like a serious discussion of the question. We have no disposition
-    to speculate on this subject, since such speculation cannot furnish
-    any satisfactory results. Certain resemblances between American and
-    Hindoo-mounds have been supposed to exist, but the resemblance, if
-    any, proves nothing.<a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> That more fruitful and wonderful field of
-    ancient architecture in Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, furnishes
-    abundant opportunity for the discussion of our subject. Detailed
-    descriptions of the remains found in different localities <span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>have been
-    given by travelers, artists and authors, the latter availing themselves
-    of several accounts and instituting comparisons between the statements
-    of different explorers. Such works, savoring somewhat of the critical,
-    cannot be underrated, since their development of the true facts has
-    contributed largely to our knowledge of the subject. It has been
-    generally the rule for writers to undertake the description of remains
-    in a particular locality and treat them in detail, thus presenting to
-    the mind a pleasant picture of the whole, together with the relation
-    of parts. This is certainly a satisfactory plan to many readers,
-    but it seems to us that such a course is unnecessary, after it has
-    been once pursued by the explorer. By repetitions nothing is gained,
-    unless the work of classification (by which certain architectural
-    forms and methods are woven into a style and their variations noted)
-    receives attention. In preceding chapters we have treated of the Maya,
-    the Quiché, and the Nahua peoples, and in this, it is our purpose
-    to briefly note the main features of their styles of architecture,
-    sculpture, etc., as indicated in the divisions above laid down.</p>
-
-  <p><i>Maya Architecture</i> furnishes evidence of growth, and may be
-    classified into the Chiapan or ancient and the Yucatanic or modified
-    styles. The Chiapan or ancient style is exhibited in the imposing
-    remains of Palenque, with which the reader is supposed to be already
-    familiar, from the descriptions of several explorers.<a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> Palenque
-    is situated in the Usumacinta River region in Chiapas, on a small
-    stream sometimes called the Otolum, a tributary of the Tulija, which
-    is itself a branch of the Usumacinta. The ruins are situated in a
-    small valley of the foothills, from which rise the high table-lands
-    of the interior. They are known as the Palace, with a pyramidal base
-    measuring two hundred and sixty by three hundred and ten feet and forty
-    feet high; Temple of the three Tablets; Temple of the Beau Relief;
-    Temple of the Cross, and Temple of the Sun. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>most conspicuous
-    feature of the architecture employed, and seen in most of the Central
-    American structures, is the massive pyramidal foundation. The sides of
-    the pyramid of the Palenque palace are faced with regular blocks of
-    hewn stone, with extensive flights of stairs, upon the east and north
-    leading to its summit.<a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> Mr. Bancroft has analyzed the structure
-    of the American pyramid in a philosophical way, and no doubt has in
-    part explained its object. “I think,” he remarks, “that perhaps with
-    a view to raise this place or temple above the waters of the stream,
-    four thick walls, possibly more, were built up perpendicularly from the
-    ground to the desired height; then, after the completion of the walls,
-    to strengthen them, or during the progress of the work to facilitate
-    the raising of the stones, the interior was filled with earth, and the
-    exterior graded with the same material, the whole being subsequently
-    faced with hewn stone.”<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp63">
-    <img src="images/i_341.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Mode of Constructing Pyramid.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the above cut Mr. Bancroft illustrates his opinion. Stephens
-    and Waldeck, who excavated from the summit downwards, imply that
-    the interior D is of earth. Twenty years later Charnay found a
-    perpendicular wall on the eastern side, quite contrary to the
-    observations of all previous travelers. Mr. Bancroft accounts for this
-    on the supposition that the stone facing, loosened by the growth of
-    trees which covered it, had fallen from B to F, and that the earth
-    which filled the sides at E E had been washed away by the rain and left
-    the perpendicular wall <span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>exposed at B. Such a supposition we consider to
-    be perfectly probable in view of the rapid dilapidation of the ruins
-    since Dupaix’s visit in 1806. The ancient model thus established in
-    the construction of this, perhaps oldest of existing American cities,
-    may have determined the style of many similar edifices. A plan of the
-    palace has been furnished by several authors.<a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> The accompanying
-    restoration from Armin’s <cite>Das Heutige Mexiko</cite>, employed by
-    Mr. Bancroft, may serve to give an idea of the proportions of the
-    structure. The edifice occupies the entire summit platform of the
-    pyramid except a narrow passage-way around the edge, and measures 228
-    feet by 182, and about 30 feet in height. The doorways, of which there
-    are forty in the outer wall, are wider than the piers intervening
-    between them, and were constructed originally with flat wooden lintels,
-    all of which have disappeared. The main architectural features will <span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span>be
-    observed in the accompanying plate from Waldeck. The lower right-hand
-    figure shows the angle of the foundations of one of the interior
-    buildings and the manner in which the stones were laid. The left-hand
-    figure affords a sectional view of the eastern stairway descending
-    from the principal corridor into the grand court. It will be observed
-    that the height of the steps considerably exceeds their width. Waldeck
-    illustrates this singular disproportion by a diagram in which a native
-    is represented as sitting upon the stairway. The perpendicular face of
-    a step is shown to be considerably higher than the Indian’s knee, and
-    must have measured two feet. The upper left-hand figures represent the
-    forms of niches, which are of frequent occurrence. The T shaped niche
-    is the representative of a numerous class so resembling the Egyptian
-    <i>tau</i> or cross as to excite no little interest in its origin.
-    M. Waldeck found the marks of lamp-black upon the tops of some of
-    them, and supposes them to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> held torches which illuminated the
-    corridors; others, which extend through the walls, may have served for
-    the purposes of ventilation; while others perhaps contained idols.<a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a>
-    The right-hand upper figures represent the highly artistic double
-    cornices employed. Nothing of a definite nature is known of the style
-    of roof with which the palace was covered, since every vestige of it
-    has disappeared. Castañeda represents it as sloping and plastered,
-    while Dupaix refers to it as consisting of large stone flags, carefully
-    joined together.<a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_342.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Palace Restored.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_343.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Architectural Features at Palenque.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The neighboring buildings, such as the Temple of the Three Tablets,
-    the Temple of the Cross, and the Temple of the Sun, each have
-    well-preserved roofs of masonry, which are quite remarkable. The first
-    of these stands upon its lofty pyramidal base, measuring one hundred
-    and ten feet on the slope, with continuous steps on all sides. The
-    temple, which is thirty-five feet high, is crowned with a sloping
-    ornamental roof of great beauty. Stephens illustrated the temple in
-    several views, subsequently copied by Bancroft.<a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> The roof is
-    divided into three parts; the lower section recedes from the cornice
-    with a gentle slope, and resembles the corresponding section of a
-    French or Mansard roof. The stucco decorations of this lower section,
-    which is also painted, add considerably to the general effect. Five
-    solid square projections with perpendicular faces suggestive of the
-    attic windows of a modern French roof are found on this section,
-    corresponding to the several doors of the temple immediately below. The
-    second section, which slopes back at a more acute angle, is of solid
-    masonry. The crowning section seems to have been purely ornamental,
-    consisting of a line of pillars of stone and mortar, eighteen inches
-    high and twelve inches apart, surmounted by a layer of flat stones
-    with projecting sides. The Temple of the Cross and Temple of the Sun
-    both have roof-structures which may be described as resembling a
-    lattice-work of stone.</p>
-
-  <p>The most interesting feature of Palenque architecture is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span>the arch, of
-    which there are two styles, if one of them may be classed as an arch
-    at all; of this we have doubts. The style to which we allude is that
-    which has been designated as the Yucatan arch. A section of the double
-    corridor of the palace furnishes an example as shown in the cut from
-    Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp55">
-    <img src="images/i_345.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Section of Palace Corridor.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>This so-called arch is nothing more than the approach of two walls
-    toward each other in straight lines, nearly forming an acute angle at
-    the top. These inclining walls are constructed of overlapping stones,
-    with a small surface of exposed ceiling, produced by a lintel-like
-    covering. The principal doorway, which is eighteen feet high, is
-    constructed in the form of a trefoil arch, while niches or depressions
-    of the same trefoil form are ranged along the inclined face of the
-    gallery on each side of the entrance. This arch is suggestive of the
-    Moorish pattern, though the latter probably is the more modern. The
-    accompanying cut—a photographic reduction from Waldeck—will convey a
-    clear idea of its form.</p>
-
-  <p>The tower situated in the southern court is considered by Waldeck as
-    the crowning work of all. The frontispiece is a photographic reduction
-    from Waldeck’s drawing, and no doubt indicates the true number of its
-    stories, as well as the remarkable growth of vegetation upon its roof.
-    The descent of the little roots and tendrils of the trees above in
-    quest of nourishment, furnish a striking illustration of the luxuriant
-    vegetable growth which pervades the region. The very air is laden with
-    life, though the remains of man’s handicraft and power are but the
-    lifeless monuments of his vanished glory. The gentle evening breeze
-    which plays upon the tendrils stretching themselves down the tower’s
-    wall, produces a soft melodious sound, resembling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> that of the Æolian
-    harp, and gives rise to the apprehension in the minds of the natives
-    that the place is enchanted.<a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp81" id="i_346">
-    <img src="images/i_346.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Trefoil Arch, Palenque.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The second division of Maya architecture, namely, the Yucatan or
-    modified style, presents some variations from the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>or Chiapan.
-    Probably the most remarkable group of ruins in that richest of American
-    architectural fields—Yucatan—is situated at Uxmal, in Lat. 20° 27′ 30″,
-    thirty-five miles south of Merida. The reader is of course acquainted
-    with the detail of the survey of this remarkable city of antiquity
-    through the work of Stephens and Catherwood.<a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> These indefatigable
-    explorers examined about forty ruined cities, nearly all of which were
-    previously unknown to others than the natives, and many of them were
-    unknown at Merida, the capital of the country. While these travelers
-    are pre-eminently the explorers of Yucatan, there are others whose
-    services have been of great value in the same field.<a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Bancroft has divided the architectural remains in Yucatan into
-    four groups, classifying them geographically. We do not consider
-    it necessary to follow such a course, nor enter into the detailed
-    description of any group, but will content ourselves by simply noting
-    any variations from the Palenque models. At Uxmal our attention is at
-    once arrested by the irregular pyramidal base of the building known
-    as the Casa del Gobernador. The base of the pyramid is a figure of an
-    irregular rectangular form. The northern and eastern sides of the base
-    are equal, and measure about six hundred feet each; the southern and
-    western are, however, irregular. As all the angles are right angles,
-    and two contiguous sides are equal, it will be understood that the
-    figure of the base would have been a square, but for the irregularity
-    of the remaining two sides. These irregularities fall within the
-    figure of the square. The pyramid is terraced, the first promenade
-    when observed being but three feet from the ground. The second terrace
-    rises from <span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span>this to a height of twenty feet, and supports a platform
-    with sides 545 feet in length. A trifle west of the centre of this
-    platform rises the third terrace, nineteen feet high, and supporting
-    the summit platform, measuring about 100 by 360 feet, with an
-    elevation above the ground of upwards of forty feet.<a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> The pyramid
-    is composed of fragments of limestone thrown together, but with the
-    terraces substantially faced with walls of regular and smoothly-hewn
-    limestone-blocks, laid in mortar <span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span>which has become intensely hard.
-    The corners of the pyramid differ from those usually met with in that
-    they are rounded. The terrace walls incline slightly toward the centre
-    of the pyramid. The second platform was reached by a long inclined
-    plain on the south side one hundred feet wide. A regular stairway with
-    thirty-five steps, and one hundred and thirty feet wide, furnished the
-    means of ascent from the second platform to the summit. The crowning
-    feature of the structure is the Casa del Gobernador, a characteristic
-    Yucatan building, measuring three hundred and twenty-two feet long
-    but only thirty-nine feet wide. The Casa is surrounded by a promenade
-    thirty feet wide, and in its interior contains two parallel rows of
-    apartments (a plan of which is given by Mr. Stephens).<a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> A sectional
-    view of the Casa resembles the sectional view of the palace corridors
-    at Palenque, except that in the arches conspicuous in the latter, the
-    irregularities produced by the square overlapping stones (which are
-    filled up to an even surface by mortar and plastering), are avoided in
-    Yucatan, by the overlapping stones of the arch being dressed carefully
-    to the angle of inclination of the wall or ceiling, thus presenting
-    a smooth surface. The roof is formed by filling in the space between
-    the tops of the arches and between the arches and the outer walls with
-    stone, up to the desired level; after which a perfectly flat covering
-    of well-cut stones is laid over the whole, having a neat though small
-    projecting cornice, as will be observed in the accompanying cut from
-    Bancroft’s work. The rear wall is about nine feet thick and perfectly
-    solid. The comparative modernness of the building may be realized when
-    we state that Mr. Stephens found the top of each doorway supported
-    by a heavy beam of zapote-wood. One of these, which was elaborately
-    and beautifully carved, and measuring ten feet long and ten by twenty
-    inches wide, he brought to New York, where, unfortunately, it was
-    destroyed by fire with the remainder of his collection. It is presumed
-    that the zapote-wood was prized for its rarity, as it is not found at
-    present <span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span>near Uxmal. Inside of and above the doors of the Casa were
-    stone rings, which occur frequently in Yucatec structures, and are
-    supposed to have supported curtains for closing the doorways. Stephens
-    presents in a cut (<a href="#i_346">page 346</a>) a view of the imposing and elegant front
-    looking toward the south.<a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_348.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_350.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Section of Casa del Gobernador.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Of the several Uxmal edifices, one especially demands attention as
-    representing the highest state of ancient architecture and sculpture
-    in America. This is known as the Casa de Monjas, or Nunnery, and is
-    situated nearly three hundred yards north of the Casa del Gobernador,
-    on a pyramid with three terraces, and measuring three hundred and
-    fifty feet square at its base. On the summit platform, only nineteen
-    feet above the level of the ground, stand four of the characteristic
-    Yucatan buildings upon four sides of a nearly square court. The
-    northern building does not stand quite parallel to the building on the
-    opposite side of the court. The plan from Stephens will present clearly
-    the arrangement of the apartments, in which it will be observed that
-    of the eighty-eight rooms contained in the Casa de Monjas, not more
-    than two apartments open into each other, except in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>one instance,
-    which occurs in the eastern front.<a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> The court formed by these long
-    narrow edifices measures 258 by 214 feet, and according to M. Waldeck
-    was paved with 43,660 blocks of stone six inches square. In the centre
-    stood the fragments of a rude column similar to others observed in the
-    Casa del Gobernador.<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp87" id="i_351">
-    <img src="images/i_351.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Ground Plan of the Nunnery.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A cut of one of the beautifully sculptured façades of the Casa <span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>de
-    Monjas will be found on a future page. Near the Casa de Monjas stands
-    the pyramid and edifice generally known as the Casa del Adivino or
-    Prophet’s house, and named by M. Waldeck the Pyramid de Kingsborough.
-    The pyramid rises to a height of 80 feet from a base of 155 by 235
-    feet. The corners are rounded, and the sides, which are carefully faced
-    with cubical blocks of stone, rise so steep that the ascent and descent
-    by the grand stairway on the eastern face is giddy and dangerous. The
-    stairway measuring one hundred and two feet on the slope is inclined at
-    an angle of eighty degrees.<a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></p>
-
-  <p>About a dozen miles south-eastward from Uxmal are the remains of the
-    ancient city known as Kabah, where ruins quite similar and nearly
-    as extensive as those already described are found. However, new
-    architectural features here meet the observer. In one instance the
-    structure which surmounts a terraced pyramid is square, instead of
-    long and narrow as at Uxmal. The inner rooms of the edifice have
-    floors two feet higher than the floors of the outer rooms, and are
-    entered by two stone steps. In one instance these were cut from a
-    single block with the lower step in the form of a scroll. At Kabah
-    we meet with an entirely new feature in Maya architecture, and the
-    reader’s acquaintance with the terraced casas, of the New Mexican
-    region, will supply the lack of an illustration at this point. In the
-    style of building referred to, the pyramid instead of serving as a
-    foundation for the building, serves as a central support around which
-    the house with its receding stories, one above another, is built. The
-    first story of the building referred to is built upon the ground, with
-    the perpendicular sides of a mound for its rear wall. Just above,
-    on a level with the roof of the first story on the platform of the
-    first terrace of the mound, stands the second story, with the roof
-    of the first serving as a promenade in front of it, while the third
-    story rests upon the second platform of the mound. The platforms or
-    roofs of the first and second stories are reached by means of a stone
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>stairway supported upon a half arch. The first story is accessible
-    from the ground by doorways. The interior apartments are constructed
-    on the model of the Yucatec arch. Here, however, lintels of stone are
-    met with, supported in the centre by rude stone columns surmounted by
-    square capitals. These buildings are of large proportions, equalling
-    any we have thus far described. The decorations of the edifices were
-    considered by Mr. Stephens equal to those of any known era, even when
-    tried by the severest rules of art.<a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> At Zayi, one of the finest
-    illustrations of this style of architecture is to be seen in what is
-    known as the Casa Grande. The dimensions of the Casa Grande are as
-    follows: lower story, 120 by 265 feet; the second story, 60 by 220
-    feet; and the third, resting on the summit platform of the mound, 18
-    by 150 feet; a stairway thirty-two feet wide furnishes a means of
-    ascent to the third story on the front, while a narrow stairway leads
-    to the second story at the rear. Round columns both in doorways and
-    the façade constitute the chief variation from the styles already
-    observed. An “elephant trunk” ornament protruding from the cornice
-    (also found on Casa del Gobernador and the Casa de Monjas at Uxmal) is
-    a marked feature of decoration. It is unnecessary for us to say that
-    its presence has given rise to much speculation as to its origin. M.
-    Waldeck has given the figure the name which we have applied to it, and
-    perhaps with some reason.<a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a></p>
-
-  <p>At Labná ruins of a curious and extraordinary nature exist, though far
-    gone in decay. The accompanying cut, employed in Stephens’, Baldwin’s
-    and Bancroft’s works, will serve to show the extravagant decoration
-    lavished upon the cornices of the edifices. At Chichen-Itza, the
-    so-called “Nunnery” is supported by a solid mass of masonry, with
-    perpendicular walls. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>The dimensions of this base are one hundred and
-    twelve by one hundred and sixty feet and forty-two feet high. This was
-    crowned by a building having two receding stories. The great pyramid
-    of Chichen is celebrated for the solid stone balustrade which guards
-    its northern stairway of ninety steps, forty-four feet wide. These
-    balustrades terminate in colossal serpent heads, ten feet long.<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a>
-    Both at Chichen and at Mayapan circular structures are met with and
-    are figured by Stephens.<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> The same author has described the
-    rectangular watch-towers of Tuloom, which rise majestically amid the
-    extensive ruins of the ancient city of the same name, situated upon the
-    eastern coast in latitude 20° 10´. At Tuloom, Mr. Stephens (its only
-    describer), found the first walled city in Yucatan. He believes it to
-    have been occupied long after the conquest, and probably was one of the
-    cities whose many towers met the gaze of the wondering Spaniards, who
-    beheld them as they coasted along the shore.<a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp63">
-    <img src="images/i_354.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Corner at Labná.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><i>Quiché Architecture.</i>—The propriety of classifying the great
-    ruins of Honduras and Guatemala as Quiché in their origin and style,
-    may be questioned by some of our readers. It must be admitted that
-    great contrasts in style are found in this region, which was occupied
-    by the powerful kingdom of the Quichés and Cakchiquels, at the time
-    of the conquest. However, it is probable that the ancient Quichés
-    (who, as we have already seen, at an early day developed a religion
-    and literature), were the authors of the more ancient cities, like
-    Copan and Quirigua. The Quiché-Cakchiquels of more modern times were
-    quite another people, whose institutions, language, and no doubt their
-    architecture, had been largely influenced by Nahua people from the
-    Mexican plateau. Utatlan, the magnificent capital of this modern and
-    mixed people, was in the height of its glory just before the blighting
-    power of the conquerors laid it in ruins. As ours is not an attempt at
-    the history of discovery, we omit entirely that interesting feature
-    in the treatment of antiquities, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>and call attention at once to the
-    features conspicuous in Quiché architecture. The ancient city known as
-    Copan, on the eastern bank of a river of the same name, in latitude
-    14° 45´ and longitude 90° 52´ in Honduras, and four leagues from the
-    Guatemala line, is interesting in furnishing material for study in this
-    department. It is probably the most ancient city on the continent.
-    Copan no doubt could successfully contend with Palenque for the palm of
-    antiquity. It is again to the indefatigable Stephens and the skillful
-    Catherwood that we are most indebted for our knowledge of these
-    ruins.<a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> The period of the abandonment of Copan is a question with
-    reference to which we possess too few data to render an intelligent
-    decision concerning it. Following the example of Stephens and Bancroft,
-    we first introduce the account of Fuentes contained in Juarros.<a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a>
-    “In the year 1700, the great circus of Copan still remained entire.
-    This was a circular space, surrounded by stone pyramids about <span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>six
-    yards high and very well constructed; at the base of these pyramids
-    were figures, both male and female, of very excellent sculpture, which
-    then retained the colors they had been enameled with; and what was
-    not less remarkable, the whole of them were habited in the Castilian
-    costume. In the middle of this area, elevated above a flight of steps,
-    was the place of sacrifice. The same author (Fuentes) relates that,
-    a short distance from the circus, there was a portal constructed of
-    stone, on the columns of which were the figures of men, likewise
-    represented in Spanish habits, with hose, ruff round the neck, sword,
-    cap, and short cloak. On entering the gateway there are two fine
-    stone pyramids, moderately large and lofty, from which is suspended
-    a hammock that contains two human figures, one of each sex, clothed
-    in the Indian style. Astonishment is forcibly excited in viewing this
-    structure, because, large as it is, there is no appearance of the
-    component parts being joined together; and although entirely of stone
-    and of an enormous weight, it may be put in motion by the slightest
-    impulse of the hand. Not far from this hammock is the cave of Tibulca;
-    this appears like a temple of great size hollowed out of the base of a
-    hill, and adorned with columns having bases, pedestals, capitals and
-    crowns, all accurately adjusted according to architectural principles;
-    at the sides are numerous windows faced with stone exquisitely wrought.
-    All these circumstances lead to a belief that there must have been some
-    intercourse between the inhabitants of the old and new world at very
-    remote periods.” The swinging stone hammock is probably a work of the
-    fancy rather than that of the artist’s hand, though the padre at Gualan
-    told Stephens that he had seen it, and an Indian remembered to have
-    heard his grandfather speak of it. None of these remarkable remains
-    have been identified with certainty, though it is not improbable
-    that they might be discovered if the heavy growth of vegetation were
-    removed by a conflagration and explorers to extend their observations
-    farther from the banks of the Rio Copan. According to Stephens’ survey,
-    a wall encloses a rectangular area measuring about nine hundred by
-    sixteen hundred feet. The principal group of buildings is designated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>
-    as the temple. It is built of heavy blocks of cut stone, with walls
-    of about twenty-five feet in thickness, and when examined they were
-    between sixty and ninety feet high on the river’s bank. The temple
-    measured six hundred and twenty-four feet north and south by eight
-    hundred and nine feet east and west. The general feature of the ruin
-    is that of an immense pyramidal terrace, with a platform elevated
-    about seventy feet above the ground. The river side of the terrace
-    is perpendicular, while the remaining sides are sloping; viewing the
-    ruin from this general platform seventy feet high, depressions such
-    as amphitheatre-like courts descend from it in some instances thirty
-    or forty feet, or about half way to the level of the ground, while
-    above the level of the general platform pyramidal structures rise to
-    a considerable height, in one instance one hundred and twenty-two
-    feet. It is difficult to conceive of what might have been the nature
-    of the superstructure, if any surmounted the general platform. It is
-    probable that for the purposes of assembly the amphitheatres with their
-    sloping sides may have answered every purpose, while the pyramids
-    may have been surmounted by temples now in ruins. Of the sculptured
-    columns of this locality we will speak farther on. Utatlan, the former
-    capital of the modern Quiché kingdom, would naturally be selected as
-    a point at which to seek for remains of the newer Quiché styles of
-    architecture. The conquerors, however, left little that can serve
-    as the basis for architectural study. The city was surrounded by a
-    deep ravine or barranca, which can be crossed at only one point, and
-    there long lines of stone fortifications still guard the passage. A
-    fortress, called El Resguardo, is among these works. It rises one
-    hundred and twenty feet high in the form of a terraced pyramid, with
-    a stone wall plastered with cement enclosing its summit platform,
-    on which a circular tower provided with a stairway was built. Only
-    fragmentary walls of the Quiché palaces remain; their dimensions were
-    eleven hundred by twenty-two hundred feet, and nothing but their cement
-    covered floors have survived the vandalism of the conquerors and the
-    architects of the modern town; the latter having carried away the upper
-    portions for building purposes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> A pyramidal structure near by, known
-    as El Sacrificatorio, presents no architectural contrasts to pyramids
-    already described. Its stairway, composed of nineteen steps each eight
-    inches broad and seventeen inches high, is characteristically Central
-    American.<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> In the province of Vera Paz, especially in the Rabinal
-    Valley, Brasseur de Bourbourg observed numbers of tumuli, resembling
-    those of the Mississippi Valley both in material and structure. These
-    were especially prevalent in the neighborhood of the villages, and
-    sometimes were associated with pyramidal structures equal in finish
-    to any we have described. The name <i>cakhay</i>, “red houses,” is
-    generally applied to these tumuli.<a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p>
-
-  <p><i>Nahua Architecture.</i>—It would be quite impossible for us to
-    devote that space to this subject which the number of remains would
-    justify, and the presentation of the typal features of the architecture
-    of that interesting family of nations will be all that we shall here
-    attempt; of geographical and detailed treatments there are several
-    on the different departments of the subject.<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> In the pages which
-    follow we will select a few examples of Nahua architecture in order to
-    illustrate our subject, but we would state that many equally important
-    works, though perhaps presenting no new features, have been purposely
-    passed by unnoticed. In a preceding chapter we referred to those
-    intermediate nations which occupied the transition position between
-    the Mayas and Nahuas. The Miztecs, Zapotecs and others, were probably
-    a mixed people, related in different degrees to both of the great
-    families on the north and south of them. Oajaca and Guerrero were the
-    homes of these peoples, where they developed their own civilization
-    and styles of art in channels distinct from those of their neighbors.
-    The isthmus of Tehuantepec presents some interesting remains, chief
-    among <span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>which we may cite two stone pyramids situated three leagues west
-    of the city of Tehuantepec. One of these measures fifty-five by one
-    hundred and twenty feet at the base and thirty by sixty-six feet on the
-    summit. A grand stairway composed of forty steps and thirty feet in
-    width leads up the western slope. The summit is also made accessible by
-    smaller stairways on the north and south sides. The lower of the four
-    terraces composing the structure, is perpendicular; the others have
-    inclined walls. On the face of the second terrace were four ranges of
-    flat stones, one above another, extending entirely around the pyramid
-    and furnishing a series of shelves, devoted no doubt to some sacred
-    or sacrificial use. The whole structure was plastered with a cement,
-    colored brilliantly by red ochre. The adjoining pyramid presents an
-    architectural novelty in its gracefully curved sides. Castañeda has
-    sketched and Dupaix described it. The height of the pyramid is over
-    fifty feet while its general dimensions are about the same as those of
-    its neighbor. In close proximity to the pyramids, altar-like structures
-    were observed, one of which was composed of eight circular stones,
-    like mill-stones, placed one above another. The base measured ten and
-    a half feet, but the summit only four and a half feet; the height
-    measures twelve feet.<a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> Numerous earthen tumuli resembling those of
-    the Mississippi Valley were observed by the German traveler Müller,
-    scattered over the region, especially to the south-east.<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> The most
-    important group of ruins in Oajoca is that at Mitla, situated about
-    thirty miles south-east of the capital of the State. This is probably
-    the finest group of remains north of the isthmus of Tehauntepec.
-    Still they are not purely Nahua in their style, being, according to
-    tradition, the work of the Zapotecs. This group has been described
-    several times by explorers, whose accounts have differed considerably
-    in value. The most important of these are the descriptions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>and
-    drawings by Dupaix and Castañeda, made in 1806, and the description and
-    valuable photographs by Charnay, the latest explorer of this group,
-    whose work was performed in 1859.<a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The mitla ruins are distributed into four groups of buildings
-    (generally called palaces or temples) and two pyramids. The principal
-    edifice is described as follows: three low oblong mounds only six or
-    eight feet high but surmounted by stone buildings, enclose a court.
-    The court measures 130 by 120 feet. The eastern and western buildings
-    are in a fallen and ruined condition. The northern building, however,
-    presents a singular example of ancient grandeur. The southern portion
-    measures 36 by 130 feet, and the northern 61 feet square. The edifice
-    is about eighteen feet high, having walls varying from four to nine
-    feet in thickness. The accompanying cut, a photographic reduction of
-    Charnay’s photograph, gives a correct idea of the western façade of the
-    northern building.<a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The walls of this edifice are constructed in a somewhat novel manner,
-    their interior portions being nothing more than clay intermixed with
-    stones, thus furnishing a poor substitute for the cement and stone
-    filling in the inner parts of Yucatanic walls. However, the exterior
-    facing of the walls is of hewn stone blocks <span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>cut in different forms
-    and sizes, and so set in relation to each other as to present examples
-    of perhaps the finest variety of grecques found in any structure in
-    the world.<a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> Two layers of large stone blocks form the base of the
-    palace, from which rises buttresses and a framework of stone, filled
-    in with panels of mosaic, in patterns as described. We pronounce these
-    grecque patterns mosaics, because of the manner of their structure.
-    They are not of the nature of sculpture, since each pattern, with all
-    its regularity, is composed of small brick-shaped blocks of stone built
-    into the wall, mosaic-like, thus forming the graceful patterns shown in
-    the cut. No trace of mortar has been found at Mitla. The inner surface
-    of the wall in the northern building was smoothly plastered without any
-    ornament. Six round stone columns standing in line occupy the centre
-    of the apartment, and no doubt supported a roof of wood or stone, but
-    more probably of the former.<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> The cut in Baldwin’s work, copied by
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span>Bancroft showing the interior of the apartment and the six columns,
-    conveys an incorrect impression as to the form of the columns and the
-    character of the walls, as is proven by Charnay’s photograph.<a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a>
-    The façades of the inner court of the northern wing of the palace
-    are finished with mosaics of great beauty. Four or five feet of the
-    wall is plain at the bottom except that the plastering was evidently
-    frescoed in various colors. The remainder of the wall is decorated with
-    bands of mosaic grecques, as shown in the cut, which is a fac-simile
-    of Charnay’s photograph engraven for Mr. Bancroft’s work. We should
-    not fail to note the use of immense stones in the base, framework
-    and lintels of the southern wing of the building. One of these is
-    of granite, sixteen or nineteen feet long, with the pattern of the
-    adjacent grecques sculptured on its face. None of the other buildings
-    at Mitla present any architectural contrasts to the one already
-    described, and require no special attention. Under a temple on the
-    south-west side of the one we have just referred to, is a subterranean
-    gallery, constructed in the form of a cross. The opening is at the
-    base of the mound upon which the temple stands. The arms of the cross
-    pointing toward the East, North and West, are each twelve feet long,
-    five and a half feet wide, and six and a half feet high. The southern
-    arm is, however, about twenty feet long, and not more than four feet
-    high throughout most of its length. Near the centre of the cross (which
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>lies directly under the centre of the temple above) a flight of four
-    steps descends in the southern arm of the cross to a lower level, so
-    that the southern arm of the passage is somewhat lower than the others.
-    The entire subterranean chamber was roofed with large flat stones
-    reaching from side to side. The walls, besides being painted red, were
-    ornamented with panels of mosaic, but of a ruder style than that of the
-    superstructure, which is suggestive of an earlier period in the growth
-    of the art. A circular pillar resting on a square base, and called by
-    the natives “the pillar of death,” because of the belief entertained
-    among them that whoever embraced it would immediately die, supports
-    the large flagstone which covers the intersection of the galleries. An
-    immense fortification over a mile in circumference and with stone walls
-    six feet thick and eighteen feet high crowns the summit of a hill,
-    which stands three-fourths of a league south-west of Mitla. The place
-    was inaccessible except on the side toward the village where the wall
-    was double. Castañeda has delineated and Bancroft copied the plan of
-    this fortress.<a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_362.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Western Façade of the Palace at Mitla.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp36">
-    <img src="images/i_363.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Grecques of an Interior Room at Mitla.</span></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Passing into the state of Vera Cruz, the attention of the observer
-    is arrested by great numbers of mounds of all the varieties peculiar
-    to the Mississippi Valley. Excavations have yielded pottery of burnt
-    clay, idols, and flint and stone weapons, as well as implements of
-    agriculture, but no trace of iron or copper is recorded. As the Nahuas
-    are said by Duran and Sahagun to have landed on the Gulf coast not far
-    north of this region, and to have traversed it in their wanderings
-    southward, and since the tradition derives them from Florida, it is not
-    improbable that here we see the continuation of the works of the lower
-    Mississippi.<a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Of several interesting specimens of ancient architecture in the state
-    of Vera Cruz we have selected a few examples. At Puente <span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span>Nacional the
-    remarkable pyramid shown in the cut is situated. It was described by
-    J. M. Esteva in the <cite>Museo Mexicano</cite> in 1843. The pyramid is
-    six stories high, and the eastern side is faced by a grand stairway
-    in the form of a cross. Mr. Bancroft has described it, employing the
-    accompanying cut. At Centla, twenty-five or thirty miles north of
-    Cordova, a series of remarkable fortifications were discovered in
-    1821, which have been most thoroughly described by Sr. Sartorius, who
-    visited the locality in 1833, but whose account was not published until
-    1869.<a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp60">
-    <img src="images/i_365.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Pyramid near Puente Nacional.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The most notable fortification is situated at a narrow pass between
-    two ravines, with perpendicular walls several hundred feet deep. The
-    distance between the precipices at this point is only twenty-eight
-    feet. The defensive works consist of several pyramidal structures built
-    of stone and mortar. The largest of these has three terraces rising
-    from the rear until they approach a perpendicular wall, fronting a
-    narrow passage-way only three feet wide. This perpendicular wall is
-    surmounted with parapets and loop-holes for defence. A pyramid on the
-    opposite side of the passage-way, the platform of which is reached by
-    a single flight of steps, is possessed of the same defensive features,
-    with the addition of a ditch at its front eleven feet wide excavated
-    in the solid rock to a depth of five and a half feet. The object <span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>of
-    the fortress seems to have been the protection of an oval-shaped tract
-    of fertile land containing about four hundred acres, lying between
-    the barrancas. At the opposite end of the oval tract, the precipices
-    approach so closely to each other as to leave a narrow passage of only
-    three feet in width, which also is guarded by stone walls. Of numerous
-    pyramids in the region, the one figured in the cut (from Bancroft’s
-    work) is pronounced by Sr. Sartorius as typical of all of them.<a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_366.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Type of Pyramids at Centla.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Half a league below the town of Huatusco, Dupaix discovered a
-    remarkable pyramid crowning a hill on a slope of which was also a group
-    of ruins called the Pueblo Viejo. This structure known as El Castillo,
-    measures sixty-six feet in height, though there is some uncertainty
-    as to the size of the base.<a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> Dupaix’s text states it to be two
-    hundred and twenty-one feet square, but Mr. Bancroft calls attention
-    to the fact that Castañeda’s drawing makes it about seventy-five feet
-    square. The pyramid in three terraces measures thirty-seven feet
-    high. The superstructure is in three stories, with a single doorway
-    in the lowest. This seems to have been the only opening through the
-    walls of the castle, which were eight feet thick; we presume, however,
-    only at their base, as their exterior shows a sloping rather than a
-    perpendicular surface. The lowest story forms a single apartment with
-    three pillars in the centre supporting the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span>beams of the floor above.
-    Portions of the beams were visible when Dupaix visited the locality.
-    The walls of the castle are of rubble made of stone and mortar, as
-    in the Yucatan structures, having stone facings. The exterior of the
-    castle proper was coated with polished plaster and ornamented with
-    panels containing regular rows of round stones embedded in the coating.
-    Some unimportant fragments of sculpture in stone and terra-cotta were
-    found in the ruin. El Castillo is of special interest because of the
-    well-preserved condition of its superstructure. About one hundred and
-    fifty or sixty miles north-west of the city of Vera Cruz, the German
-    artist Nebel found a group of ruins known as those of <i>Tusapan</i>,
-    buried in a dense forest at the foot of the Cordillera. The only
-    structure which remains standing closely resembles the pyramid above
-    described, except that the walls of the pyramid are not terraced, and
-    the tower surmounting the pyramid is built with a single story. The
-    only opening in the tower is the doorway at the head of the stairway.
-    The interior contains a single apartment twelve feet square. The
-    ceiling is said to have been arched or pointed, but Herr Nebel has
-    failed to furnish definite information as to whether the arch was of
-    overlapping stones or not, an oversight of an unpardonable character,
-    since it would be of greatest interest to know whether the Maya arch
-    existed so far north. The pyramid is described as thirty feet square,
-    and built of irregular blocks of limestone, which was probably covered
-    with a coat of the plastering generally employed and so polished in
-    its appearance.<a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> One remaining structure in the State of Vera
-    Cruz merits special attention, namely, the pyramid of Papantla. This
-    pyramid, known as El Tajin, “the thunderbolt,” is situated in a dense
-    forest near the modern town of Papantla, which lies about forty miles
-    east of Tusapan. There is a wide divergence of expression as to
-    the dimensions of the pyramid. Herr Nebel, however, makes the base
-    something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> over ninety feet square and the height fifty-four feet. The
-    pyramid is seven stories high and apparently solid, except the topmost
-    story which contained interior departments. This crowning structure is
-    now sadly dilapidated. Dupaix’s statement, copied by Humboldt, that the
-    material of the pyramid is porphyry, cut in immense blocks, appears to
-    be an error, since later exploration has revealed the fact that the
-    pyramid was constructed of regularly cut blocks of sandstone laid in
-    mortar, and coated with a hard, smooth cement, three inches thick. A
-    stairway on the eastern front is divided as well as being guarded by
-    solid stone balustrades.<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></p>
-
-  <p>For Nahua monuments of the purest type we naturally turn to Anahuac
-    the home of Toltec and Aztec art during its most advanced period of
-    development. But alas! the hand of the conqueror and the zeal of the
-    fanatic have robbed irretrievably the antiquarian and the student
-    of the history of architecture and art, of the best and noblest
-    remains of that strangely interesting civilization. Our attention
-    is naturally directed to the architecture of that ancient religious
-    centre—Cholula—the origin of which, together with that of its great
-    pyramid, we have described in a previous chapter. We have already
-    seen that the prime object for erecting the immense pile, according
-    to Duran, was the worship of the sun, and not to afford a refuge from
-    a deluge as has been generally supposed. The pyramid of Cholula is
-    situated in the eastern portion of a village to which it has given its
-    name, and is reached by a ride of about ten miles westward from the
-    city of Puebla de los Angelos. The magnificent temple upon its summit
-    dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, fell a prey to the destroying vengeance
-    of Cortez, who no doubt was enraged at the stubborn resistance <span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span>with
-    which he was met by the devoted natives, in a hard-fought battle at
-    the foot and upon the slopes of the pyramid. Of the large number of
-    descriptions, either made from personal observation or written from a
-    comparison of accounts, none surpass that of Humboldt, which was the
-    result of a careful survey, performed in 1803. Humboldt’s drawing,
-    however, was a restoration and not a picture of the condition of
-    the shrub-grown hill as he saw it.<a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> The pyramid, according to
-    Humboldt, measures at the base six hundred and thirty-nine metres or
-    a trifle more than fourteen hundred and twenty-eight feet square; in
-    other words, about forty-four acres. The base is shown by Humboldt to
-    be more than twice as large as that of Cheops. Humboldt and Dupaix
-    give its height as fifty-four metres or one hundred and seventy-seven
-    feet; Mayer says it is two hundred and four feet; Tylor, two hundred
-    and five feet, and Heller<a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a> states that its summit platform covers
-    an area of 13,285 square feet. Its height is somewhat greater than
-    that of the pyramid of Mycerinus. Humboldt compares it to a mass of
-    brick, covering a square four times as large as the Place Vendôme and
-    twice the height of the Louvre. He considers it of the same type as
-    the temple of Jupiter Bélus—the pyramids of Meïdoùn Dahchoùr, and the
-    group of Sakharah in Egypt. This great monument was constructed in four
-    equal terraces of small sun-dried bricks, laid in a mortar which has
-    been pronounced by some a mixture of clay with fragments of stones and
-    pottery, by others a cement intermixed with small pieces of porphyry
-    and limestone. Herr Heller discovered that the entire structure had
-    been covered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>with a coating of cement composed of lime, sand and
-    mortar.<a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> The present appearance of the pyramid is sufficient to
-    induce the opinion that it was originally a natural eminence faced up
-    with adobes in terraces, in accordance with the architectural idea, but
-    its position in the centre of a plain, together with the revelations
-    as to its contents, disclosed by the construction of the Pueblo road
-    through one corner of its base, furnish partial if not conclusive
-    proof that it was entirely of artificial construction. The excavation
-    revealed the perfect regularity with which the bricks were laid in
-    the interior, and brought to light a tomb containing two skeletons,
-    two basalt figures, a collection of pottery and other articles not
-    described. Humboldt has fully described this chamber, which was
-    constructed with stone walls supported by cypress timbers. No doorway
-    could be found opening into the tomb.</p>
-
-  <p>At Xochicalco, the “hill” or “castle of flowers,” situated seventy-five
-    miles south-west from the city of Mexico and distant from Cuernavaca
-    fifteen miles in nearly the same direction, are found the most
-    remarkable specimens of ancient Mexican architecture north of the
-    isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most important descriptions of the ruins
-    are by Alzate y Ramirez,<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> Humboldt,<a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> Dupaix and Castañeda,<a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a>
-    Nebel,<a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> and one prepared by the authority of the Mexican
-    government.<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span></p>
-
-  <p>These ruins are both beneath and upon a natural hill of oval form
-    measuring about two miles in circumference and from three hundred to
-    four hundred feet in height, authorities differing considerably on
-    this point. At the foot of the hill on its northern side, are the
-    entrances of two tunnels, one of which extends to a point eighty-two
-    feet from the edge of the hill, where it terminates abruptly. The
-    second tunnel penetrates the solid limestone of the hill in the form
-    of a square gallery nine and a half feet high and broad, extending
-    inward for several hundred feet and branching into several auxiliary
-    galleries, which terminate in some instances abruptly. The floors are
-    paved with small blocks of stone, to a thickness of a foot and a half;
-    masonry in some places support the sides, and all the interior surface
-    shows traces of red paint upon the polished cement coating with which
-    it was finished. The principal gallery, after turning a right angle
-    toward the left and extending some hundred feet in a straight line,
-    enlarges into a subterranean chamber eighty feet long by about sixty
-    feet in width. Two circular columns of living rock were left in making
-    the excavation as supports for the roof. The most singular feature
-    connected with the chamber is the perfectly circular excavation found
-    at its south-east angle, or that corner of the room diagonally opposite
-    to the corner at which the passage-way enters it. This circular
-    apartment is only about six feet in diameter, and while it is no deeper
-    than the adjoining chamber, rises above its ceiling in a dome-shaped
-    roof, lined with stones hewn in curved blocks. The curve of this
-    dome-like ceiling corresponds with that of a well-proportioned Gothic
-    arch. At the apex of the dome, a round hole ten inches in diameter
-    extends vertically upwards; some suppose to the pyramid above, but a
-    moment’s calculation suffices to show that in view of the considerable
-    diameter of the hill and the comparatively short distance from the
-    chamber to its exterior slope, such is impossible. The exterior of the
-    hill presents a most wonderful display of masonry. Its entire circuit
-    is compassed with five terraces of well-laid stone and mortar, faced
-    with perpendicular walls. Each terrace of masonry is about seventy
-    feet in height, and is constructed in an irregular line,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> forming
-    sharp angles, like the bastions of a fortress; each wall supporting
-    the terraces rises above the level of their respective platforms in
-    parapets, evidently for defence. The pavements of the platforms are
-    of stone and inclined slightly toward the south-west, with a view to
-    draining off the rainfall. Dupaix is the only explorer who mentions
-    the means of ascent, which he describes as a roadway eight feet wide,
-    leading to the summit. The summit platform measures 285 by 328 feet,
-    and is surrounded by a wall which is perpendicular on the inside, and
-    on the outside conforms to the slope of the terrace wall of which it
-    is an extension. This parapet, built of stones without mortar, rises
-    five and a half feet above the plaza, and is two feet and nine inches
-    thick, we presume at its top, since the outer slope of the terrace
-    would make a difference between the top and bottom. Near the centre of
-    the plaza stands the base of a pyramid which presents some remarkable
-    architectural contrasts from anything we have thus far described. Its
-    sides face the cardinal points,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> and measure sixty-five feet from east
-    to west, and fifty-eight feet from north to south. One of the façades,
-    the northern, according to Nebel, and the western, according to the
-    Mexican Government Survey in the <cite>Revista</cite>, is cut in two in the
-    centre by an opening twenty feet wide, where it is supposed a stairway
-    formerly led to the superstructure. The cut from Nebel, and reproduced
-    by Mr. Bancroft, shows the façade to the left of the opening, as the
-    observer faces the pyramid.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp83">
-    <img src="images/i_372.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Pyramid at Xochicalco.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The great granite or porphyritic stones which constitute the facing
-    of the pyramid, some of them eleven feet in length and three feet in
-    height, must have been brought to the summit of the hill at the expense
-    of great labor, especially since they must have been transported from a
-    considerable distance, no such material being found within a circuit of
-    many leagues. The stones were laid without mortar, and so nicely that
-    it is said the joints are scarcely perceptible. Fragments of a ruined
-    superstructure surmount the pyramid. The foundation walls of the second
-    story were two feet and three inches from the edge of the cornice below
-    it, except on the west where the space was four and a half feet wide.
-    In 1755, so say the inhabitants of the vicinity, the structure was yet
-    complete, having five receding stories like the first, and probably
-    reaching a height of sixty-five feet. On its crowning summit, on the
-    eastern side, stood a large throne-like block of stone, ornamented
-    with elaborate sculptures. The second story foundations indicate the
-    position of three doorways at the head of the grand stairway, and the
-    account in the <cite>Revista</cite> describes an apartment twenty-two feet
-    square observable at the summit of the first story, but now filled with
-    fragments of stone. Mr. Bancroft suggests that from this apartment
-    there may have been some means of communication with the subterranean
-    galleries already described. The colossal sculpture on the face of the
-    pyramid will receive our attention on a future page.<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span></p>
-
-  <p>The general description given above, together with the reported
-    character of the superstructure of this magnificent monument, calls to
-    mind the main features of the great teocalli dedicated to the bloody
-    god Huitzilopochtli in the Aztec capital called Tenochtitlan or Mexico.
-    This blood-stained temple upon whose altars smoked the hearts of
-    countless human victims, is supposed to have occupied the site of the
-    cathedral fronting the Plaza Mayor of the modern city of Mexico. Not a
-    vestige of that terraced pyramid has survived the destructive hand of
-    fanaticism and the transforming work of man and nature which have been
-    going on ever since upon the old site of the capital of the Montezumas.
-    It is said to have been built in five stories, with flights of steps
-    affording access to the summit; but each flight was so constructed with
-    reference to the platform at its top, as to require almost a complete
-    circuit of the building before the next flight could be reached. It was
-    necessary, therefore, in order to reach the summit platform, to pass
-    four times around the pyramid. It is supposed that this was intended
-    to display to better advantage the solemn processions of the priests
-    as their long train mounted gradually the sides of the edifice. The
-    specialist is already familiar with the descriptions by Bernal Diaz,
-    whose particular extravagance of statement renders his work altogether
-    unreliable. Also with the accounts by Torquemada, Gomera, Cortez and
-    Clavigero. The reader has no doubt acquainted himself with the main
-    facts in the writings of the graceful and imaginative Prescott, whose
-    seeming romance, <cite>The History of the Conquest of Mexico</cite>, has been
-    proven by recent and reliable investigation to have approached much
-    nearer to fact than to fiction. Mr. Tylor, after careful exploration,
-    has expressed in his “Anahuac” his surprise and satisfaction at what
-    he considers to be the proof of Mr. Prescott’s general correctness
-    of statement as to the extent of the Aztec capital and the probable
-    character of its edifices.<a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a></p>
-
-  <p>For a description of the palaces of Mexico and Chapultepec, the
-    museums, mansions of the nobles, the pavements and aqueducts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> of that
-    buried city, we refer the reader who has not access to the sources, to
-    the admirable account by Prescott, especially since it more properly
-    belongs to the province of history (now that all traces of them have
-    disappeared) than to that of archæology.<a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Of many interesting localities where architectural remains still
-    exist, we select one more in the Central region, to illustrate our
-    subject. The ancient religious city of the early Nahuas, Teotihuacan,
-    with its famous pyramids—the traditional origin of which we have
-    already noted<a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a>—deserves our attention. The city of the gods has
-    had many describers, from the illustrious Humboldt to the observant
-    and philosophical Mr. Tylor. The most complete description, however,
-    is that given in the report of a scientific commission appointed
-    by the Mexican government in 1864, containing accurate plans and
-    views.<a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> Sr. Antonio Garcia y Cubas, a member of the commission,
-    subsequently published a most interesting memoir on the pyramids of
-    Teotihuacan, entitled <cite>Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo entre las
-    Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas</cite> (Mexico, 1871). The analogies
-    between Teotihuacan and Egyptian pyramids receive the greater share of
-    attention, though some valuable facts not mentioned in the report of
-    the commission are here made known. Mr. Bancroft has reproduced the
-    main features of the report of the Mexican Commission and compared it
-    with previous researches, thus presenting the reader with probably the
-    best critical version of the exploration of Teotihuacan, to be found
-    in any language.<a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> The cut reduced from Almaraz for Mr. Bancroft’s
-    work shows the plan of the Teotihuacan monuments on a scale of about
-    twenty-five hundred and fifty feet to an inch.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp39">
-    <img src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Plan of Teotihuacan.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The pyramid marked A in the plan is known as Metztli Itzacual, which
-    is interpreted “House of the Moon.” It measures 156 metres or 512
-    feet from east to west by 130 metres or 426 feet from north to south.
-    According to Almarez, its height is 42 metres or 137 feet, but Sr.
-    Garcia y Cubas, who took his measurement on the opposite side of the
-    pyramid from that measured by Almaraz, says that it is 46 metres or
-    150 feet high. The summit platform, according to Garcia y Cubas, is
-    six metres or nineteen and a half feet square; quite a discrepancy
-    is here observable between the estimated area given by Beaufoy and
-    copied by Mr. Bancroft as thirty-six by sixty feet, and this actual
-    measurement. The sides of the pyramid nearly face the cardinal points.
-    The eastern slope is 31° 30′, while the southern is somewhat steeper,
-    being 36°. The slope on the east seems to have been unbroken except
-    by a zigzag roadway, leading to the summit. The remaining sides
-    are plainly marked by the remains of three terraces, one of which
-    is still about three feet wide. Humboldt and Tylor both speak of
-    remains of stairways of which no mention is made by the Government
-    Commission. Most observers have described the pyramids as faced with
-    hewn stone, but the commissioners on the contrary found them coated
-    with successive layers of different conglomerates as follows: “1st,
-    small stones from eight to twelve inches in diameter, with mud forming
-    a layer of about thirty-two inches; 2d, fragments of volcanic tufa,
-    as large as a man’s fist, also in mud, to the thickness of sixteen
-    inches; 3d, small grains of tetzontli (a porous volcanic rock) of
-    the size of peas, with mud, twenty-eight inches thick; 4th, a very
-    thin and smooth coat of pure lime mortar.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> These layers are repeated
-    in the same order nine times and are parallel to the slopes of the
-    pyramid, which would make the thickness of the superficial facing
-    about sixty feet.”<a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> On the southern slope, sixty-nine feet from
-    the base, according to Almarez, a gallery large enough to admit a
-    man crawling on hands and knees, extends inward on an incline, a
-    distance of twenty-five feet, and terminates in two square wells or
-    chambers, each five feet square, and one of them fifteen feet deep.
-    Mr. Löwenstern, according to Mr. Bancroft, states that “the gallery
-    is a hundred and fifty-seven feet long, increasing in height to over
-    six feet and a half, as it penetrates the pyramid; that the well is
-    over six feet square, extending apparently down to the base and up to
-    the summit; and that other cross galleries are blocked up by débris!”
-    It is probable that these remarkable galleries never existed, except
-    in Mr. Löwenstern’s imagination, since Sr. Almarez in the report of
-    the official survey pronounces the tunnel already described as simply
-    excavations by treasure-hunters. The pyramid B of the plan, situated
-    five hundred and seventy-five yards south of the House of the Moon, is
-    called Tonatiuh Itzacual, or “House of the Sun.” This pyramid requires
-    no description, except to give its dimensions, since in all other
-    respects it is precisely similar <span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span>to the House of the Moon. The House
-    of the Sun, according to the measurement of Sr. Garcia y Cubas, which
-    is the most recent, is at the base 232 metres or 761 feet by 220 metres
-    or 722 feet. Its height is 66 metres or 216 feet, while the summit
-    platform measures 18 by 32 metres or 59 by 105 feet. Both this pyramid
-    and the preceding have each a small mound on one of their sides near
-    their base. In the latter instance this mound seems connected with
-    an avenue of mounds just west of it. An embankment marked <i>a</i>,
-    <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, one hundred and thirty feet wide on the
-    summit and twenty feet high, widening out at the extremities into
-    platforms, extends around three sides of the “House of the Sun.” Across
-    the Rio San Juan, and at the distance of twelve hundred and fifty yards
-    southward of the “House of the Sun,” stands the Texcalpa or “citadel.”
-    This is a quadrangular enclosure, measuring on its exterior twelve
-    hundred and forty-six by thirteen hundred and thirty-eight feet. The
-    embankments are of enormous strength, being two hundred and sixty-two
-    feet thick by thirty-three feet high, except on the western side,
-    which is but sixteen feet high. The enclosure is divided unequally by
-    a wall as strong as that upon the sides. On the centre of this wall
-    stands a pyramid ninety-two feet high. At its base are two small mounds
-    besides one in the western enclosure, while fourteen others averaging
-    twenty feet in height are arranged with regularity upon the summit of
-    the enclosing wall. An avenue two hundred and fifty feet wide formed
-    by mounds and measuring two hundred and fifty rods in length, extends
-    from a point south of the “House of the Moon” to the river, as is shown
-    from C to D, in the plan. The avenue is cut up into compartments by six
-    cross embankments, a rather strange feature for which no explanation
-    has been afforded. These mounds are mostly conical, built of fragments
-    of stone and clay, and some of them reach a height of thirty feet. The
-    native traditions call it Micaotli, which may indicate that they were
-    designed for the purposes of sepulture. Almaraz, who excavated one of
-    the multitude of mounds or <i>tlalteles</i> in the vicinity, found four
-    walls meeting at right angles, though a little inclined and forming
-    a small square. Connected with this were steps, at the top of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> which
-    four other walls enclosed a little room, supposed to have been a tomb.
-    The natives describe the discovery of a stone box in one of the mounds
-    containing a skull, with about such a collection of trinkets as is
-    commonly met with in the stone graves of Tennessee. Mayer describes a
-    massive stone column, ten feet long and four feet square, cut from a
-    single block. This resembles the elaborate capitol of a column resting
-    on a base with scarcely a shaft intervening. It is called the fainting
-    stone by the natives, who believe that whoever sits on it is sure to
-    faint instantly.</p>
-
-  <p>One additional group of ruins, as yet unclassified with any of the
-    types we have described, merits our attention. This group is known
-    as Los Edificios of Quemada, situated in southern Zacatecas north of
-    the Central plateau and probably the home of the Chichimecs.<a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> Mr.
-    Bancroft has attempted to reconstruct the unsatisfactory accounts of
-    the several explorers of Quemada, but with little success. We therefore
-    decline adding another comparative failure to the list of literature
-    on these ruins. Some general observations, however, may not be out of
-    place. The Cerro de los Edificios is a natural eminence about half a
-    mile long and between one hundred and two hundred yards wide, except at
-    its southern extremity where it increases to a width of five hundred
-    yards. The authorities differ as to its height, one saying from two
-    to three hundred feet, and another eight to nine hundred feet above
-    the plain. Ancient roads well paved radiate in various directions from
-    the hill, some of them <span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span>extending a distance of five or six miles. The
-    northern brow of the hill, where the descent is not so precipitous
-    as at the other points, is guarded by a stone wall, as are all other
-    points where the precipitous sides do not offer a sufficient barrier
-    to an intruder from without. The surface of the hill is quite uneven,
-    and these irregularities have been formed into terraces supported by
-    stone walls. Foundations have thus been secured for a multitude of
-    structures, some of them perfectly pyramidal and others consisting
-    of quadrangular enclosures or squares, terraced and having steps
-    descending to the court within, where pyramidal structures of stone are
-    found. On the eastern terrace of the Cerro, a round pillar, eighteen
-    feet high and nineteen feet in circumference, stands in proximity to a
-    wall of as great height as the pillar. Traces of nine similar pillars
-    are visible, and the probability is that they formed part of a balcony
-    or perhaps a portico. Adjoining this wall is an enclosure measuring 138
-    by 100 feet, in which are eleven pillars in line, each seventeen feet
-    in circumference and as high as an adjacent wall, namely eighteen feet.
-    The distance from the wall is twenty-three feet, and the presumption is
-    that the pillars supported a roof. There are no doorways, properly so
-    called, since the doorways are large quadrangular openings extending to
-    the full height of the halls. No windows were discovered anywhere. The
-    material is gray porphyry from hills across an intervening valley, and
-    the mortar is reddish clay, mixed with straw, and is of poor quality.
-    Sculpture, hieroglyphics, pottery, human remains, idols, arrow-heads,
-    and obsidian fragments are totally wanting, thus presenting a strange
-    contrast with all other Mexican ruins. Nevertheless, the massiveness
-    of the fortifications, the height and great thickness of the walls,
-    none of which are less than eight feet thick and in one instance over
-    twenty, the extensive system of paved roads, besides great elevated
-    stone causeways running through the city, the size of the enclosed
-    squares, one of which contains six acres, all indicate that this
-    might have been the capital city of a powerful people, a people whose
-    architectural affinities with all others that we are acquainted with
-    are very few, and whose contrasts are numerous. Certainly the type and
-    execution of the masonry, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> massive, is more primitive than found
-    elsewhere in Mexico. We do not mean that it is more ancient, for such
-    cannot be true, but inferior to that in other parts of Mexico and the
-    Central American region. The arch of overlapping stones is entirely
-    wanting, and but for the round columns without either base or capitol,
-    the steps toward advancement in the art would only be those common to
-    that generally vigorous and warlike period which, in the history of
-    every people, has preceded a higher civilization. Mr. Bancroft has
-    published Burghes’ plan of Quemada but to little purpose, since the
-    descriptive matter available does not contain a reference to more than
-    one-fourth of the many structures indicated.</p>
-
-  <p>In the course of the chapter, we have indicated the principal
-    resemblances and contrasts between the various styles treated. The
-    pyramidal structure we have found employed by both Mayas and Nahuas,
-    with certain modifications and with such resemblances as would seem to
-    indicate that both peoples had been originally, or at an early day,
-    near neighbors, and that the younger people, at least the more recent
-    in their occupancy of Mexico and Central America, the Nahuas, may
-    have copied the pyramid in its perfected form from the Mayas. We have
-    noted some difference between the ancient and modern Maya styles. In
-    the ancient or Chiapan, the irregularities in the face of the pyramid
-    caused by constructing it of tiers of rectangular stones were filled
-    with mortar, and an even surface produced. In the modern or Yucatec
-    style the blocks of stone-facing are bevelled to the angle of the
-    slope. Furthermore, in some instances the corners of the pyramids
-    were rounded. At Palenque the superstructures were of only one story,
-    while Yucatec structures were often formed of three receding stories.
-    Of the Copan ruins little can be said intelligently, except that the
-    pyramid combined with the terrace is all-pervading, but still is not
-    unlike the Palenque style in its main features. The Nahua architecture
-    offers a great variety of styles, but at the same time the pyramidal
-    structure is the fundamental feature of all kinds of structures. Mitla
-    offers an exception to this rule, but there are doubts as to whether
-    Mitla may be classified as a Nahua<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> ruin at all. The early writers
-    devoted much of their attention to seeming old world resemblances in
-    ancient American architecture, but their speculations in most cases
-    were puerile and trivial. Mr. Stephens, with the experience which
-    the careful study and observation of old world monuments afforded
-    him, strongly denies that any such analogies are to be found among
-    the Maya groups.<a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> M. Viollet-le-Duc considers the monuments of
-    Mexico, especially those of Maya origin, to have been influenced by
-    white and yellow races, the former of the Aryan from the north-east,
-    the latter the Turanian from the north-west. He seems to find some
-    analogy between ancient Japanese temples (and quotes a description
-    from Charlevoix, <cite>Histoire du Japan</cite>, ed. 1754, tom. i, chap.
-    x, p. 171) and those of ancient America. He thinks that the style of
-    architecture at Uxmal indicates clearly that the first structures
-    were of wood and resembled the style prevalent in Japan. However, the
-    wooden structures more properly originated with the white races, while
-    the use of stucco is characteristic of the Turanian or Yellow races
-    of the north-west. He thinks it certain that Mitla and Palenque were
-    influenced by a white race.<a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> Señor Garcia y Cubas has attempted
-    to prove in a careful argument that the pyramids of Teotihuacan were
-    built for the same purposes as were the pyramids of Egypt. He considers
-    the analogy established in eleven particulars, as follows: the site
-    chosen is the same; the structures are oriented with slight variation,
-    the line through the centres of the pyramids is in the astronomical
-    meridian; the construction in grades and steps is the same; in both
-    cases the larger pyramids are dedicated to the sun; the Nile has a
-    “valley of the dead,” as in Teotihuacan there is a “street of the
-    dead;” some monuments of each class have the nature of fortifications;
-    the smaller mounds are of the same nature and for the same purpose;
-    both pyramids have a small mound joined to one of their faces; the
-    openings discovered in the Pyramid of the Moon are also found in
-    some Egyptian pyramids; the interior arrangement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> of the pyramids is
-    analogous.<a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> Mr. Delafield by a less systematic argument advocates
-    the same theory. However, his capability to discern analogies is not
-    confined to a single structure, since in the pyramid of Cholula and
-    the teocalli of the city of Mexico he finds a counterpart to the
-    temple of Belus at Babylon, as described by Herodotus. The walls
-    around the hill at Xochicalco explain the use of similar embankments
-    at Circleville and Marietta in Ohio, while the order of the apartments
-    at Mitla bears a striking analogy to the arrangements of apartments
-    in the temples of upper Egypt. This and much more Mr. Delafield has
-    been able to discover, but unfortunately only with certainty to
-    his own mind.<a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> Löwenstern is equally certain that the American
-    monuments were not constructed by a nation analogous to that which
-    built the pyramids of Egypt.<a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> Ranking, on the other hand, finds
-    that Teotihuacan was named after the illustrious dead buried beneath
-    its pyramids, as was the custom in Egypt, but in this instance the
-    name is analogous to that of Thiautcan or Khan, the name of the grand
-    Khan of the Monguls and Tartars who occupied the throne of China at
-    the time of Sir John Mandeville’s visit to Pekin in the fourteenth
-    century; and as at Teotihuacan and among the Monguls the sun and moon
-    were worshipped, so, according to Ranking, those American monuments
-    are attributable to Mongul architects.<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> It would be easy for us to
-    continue the citation of these fancied analogies, but it is no doubt
-    already apparent to the reader that they are generally of too trivial a
-    character to serve the ends of science, and we therefore dismiss their
-    further consideration.<a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp58">
-    <img src="images/i_384.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.</span>
-      Fig. 1.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><i>Sculpture and Hieroglyphics.</i>—The mound sculpture, as has been
-    observed in the cuts illustrating a previous chapter of this work,
-    though comparatively rude in most cases, still, in a few instances,
-    is quite remarkable as affording true representations of animals
-    and possibly of the human face. Considerable progress in the art of
-    ornamentation in terra-cotta is displayed on many of the vases and
-    burial urns exhumed from the mounds. Many of the lines, figures and
-    borders traced in relief and sometimes in taglio on those vessels
-    indicate not only that a sense of the beautiful was present, but that
-    it had been cultivated to a considerable extent. The same remarks apply
-    to the pottery of the Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers. At Palenque, however,
-    the student of art meets with no mean attempts at delineating the
-    human form—in fact, the success obtained in this difficult field alone
-    characterized the work of the Palenque artists. It is presumed that
-    nearly all of the piers separating the doorways in the eastern wall of
-    the palace were ornamented with stucco bas-reliefs. Two out of six of
-    the best preserved are shown in the following cuts. The most remarkable
-    feature of the first (Fig. 1, reduced from Waldeck for Bancroft’s
-    work) is the cranial type, deformed to a shocking degree, probably by
-    artificial pressure, so generally employed by the ancient American
-    races. Possibly it is but a caricature.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp64">
-    <img src="images/i_385.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.</span>
-      Fig. 2.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Fig. 2 (a photographic reduction from Waldeck) presents us with a
-    subject which has called forth no little discussion. The “elephant’s
-    trunk” which protrudes from the elaborate head-dress of the priest has
-    been thought to indicate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span> an Asiatic influence.<a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> We have already
-    referred to the frequent occurrence of the “elephant trunk” ornament in
-    Yucatan. The hieroglyphic signs at the top and on the faces of these
-    reliefs no doubt hold locked up in their mysterious symbols the history
-    of the scene.</p>
-
-  <p>In all of these reliefs the flattened cranial type is present, and
-    no doubt represents the ideal of beauty among those ancient people.
-    The stuccoes appear to have been moulded upon the undercoating of
-    cement after it had become hard. The brush of the painter was then
-    employed in its final embellishment.<a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> Adjacent to the eastern
-    stairway leading downward into the main court of the palace are great
-    stone slabs, forming a surface on each side of the steps fifty feet
-    long by eleven feet high. Waldeck, Stephens and Bancroft furnish
-    views of gigantic human figures sculptured in low relief upon these
-    surfaces. Both the attitudes and expressions portrayed indicate that
-    the groups represented are either captives or possibly victims for
-    sacrifice.<a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> On the opposite side of the court, and on the stone
-    face of the balustrade of a stairway, two figures, male and female, are
-    sculptured, which, according to Waldeck, are of the Caucasian type. The
-    same artist has shown the beautiful grecques which adorn the panels of
-    the cornice.<a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> Waldeck and Bancroft have figured a remarkable stone
-    tablet of elliptical form, in which a princely personage is represented
-    as sitting cross-legged on a chair formed of a double-headed animal,
-    pronounced by Stephens to resemble a leopard. Catherword’s plate, in
-    Morelet’s <cite>Travels</cite>, shows an ornament suspended from the neck of
-    the chief figure resembling an effigy of the sun, while in Waldeck’s
-    drawing the Egyptian <span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span>Tau is graven upon the ornament.<a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> The
-    accompanying cut shows Waldeck’s drawing (employed by Mr. Bancroft).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp84">
-    <img src="images/i_387.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Tablet in the Palace.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Four hundred yards south of the palace stands the ruins of a pyramid
-    and temple, which, at the time of Dupaix’s and of Waldeck’s visits
-    were in a good state of preservation, but quite dilapidated when seen
-    by Charnay. The temple faces the east, and on the western wall of its
-    inner apartment, itself facing the eastern light, is found (or rather
-    was, for it has now entirely disappeared) the most beautiful specimen
-    of stucco relief in America. M. Waldeck, with the critical insight
-    of an experienced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> artist, declares it “worthy to be compared to the
-    most beautiful works of the age of Augustus.” He therefore named the
-    temple the Beau Relief. The above cut is a reduction from Waldeck’s
-    drawing used in Mr. Bancroft’s work, and is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> accurate. However,
-    the peculiar beauty of Waldeck’s drawing is such that it must be seen
-    in order to be fully appreciated.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp73">
-    <img src="images/i_388.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Beau Relief in Stucco.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It is scarcely necessary for us to call the reader’s attention to the
-    details of this picture, in which correctness of design and graceful
-    outlines predominate to such an extent that we may safely pronounce
-    the beautiful youth who sits enthroned on his elaborate and artistic
-    throne, the American Apollo. In the original drawing the grace of the
-    arms and wrists is truly matchless, and the chest muscles are displayed
-    in the most perfect manner. The embroidered girdle and folded drapery
-    of the figure, as well as the drapery around the leopards’ necks, are
-    arranged with taste. The head-dress is not unlike a Roman helmet in
-    form, with the addition of numerous plumes. The sandals of the feet are
-    secured by a cord and rosette, while ornaments on the animals’ ankles
-    seem secured by leather straps. The engraving does not do justice to
-    the face-like ornament suspended by the string of pearls upon the
-    youth’s breast. In the original drawing it is quite beautiful, and of a
-    female cast.<a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The next subject of interest to the student of sculpture is found in
-    the Temple of the Cross, in the inmost sanctuary of all, and is known
-    as the Tablet of the Cross. Three stones cover most of the surface of
-    the rear wall of the sanctum sanctorum, and present an area six feet
-    four inches high by ten feet eight inches wide. The central of the
-    three stones bears the celebrated sculpture of the cross which has
-    excited so much interest and comment, to say nothing of speculation
-    as to its origin. The cut is a photographic reduction from Waldeck’s
-    drawing. A priest and priestess appear to be offering an infant to an
-    ugly bird which stands perched upon the cross. The infant’s face is
-    completely hid by a fantastic mask or cap. The expression of pain on
-    the faces of the officiating personages is very marked. The symmetry
-    of proportion employed in the sculpture is conceded by all observers.
-    The two lateral stones (the left-hand one being shown in our cut) are
-    covered with hieroglyphics, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span>which begin at the left-hand upper corner
-    with a large capital letter. Some one had removed the central stone
-    from its position prior to Waldeck’s visit, and conveyed it to a point
-    in the forest not far distant. Stephens also found it in the same
-    locality. By referring to the hieroglyphic tablet at the left of the
-    cross<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> it will be observed that just below the large initial letter or
-    word is a threefold hieroglyphic, while seven others in the same column
-    are double. This would indicate, we should think, that the characters
-    were read from the top downwards, though it is possible that the lines
-    were read horizontally, each line beginning with a capital as in
-    poetry.<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_390">
-    <img src="images/i_390.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Tablet of the Cross.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp31">
-    <img src="images/i_391.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Palenque Statue.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>On either side of the doorway opening to the inner sanctuary of the
-    Cross, were originally two male figures sculptured in low-relief on
-    stone; one of them, which appears to represent an aged royal person,
-    is beautifully clad in a leopard’s skin, while the opposite figure,
-    designed probably to represent youthful manhood, is arrayed in what
-    may be an elaborate military dress and plumed crest of magnificent
-    character. He wears what appears to be a cuirass about his shoulders
-    and chest. These tablets were removed to the village of Santo Domingo
-    years ago and set up in a modern house, where they were offered to
-    M. Waldeck on the sole condition that he should marry one of the
-    proprietresses, though he at the time was more than sixty-four years of
-    age. Stephens could have obtained them by purchasing the house in which
-    they had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span>been placed, but did not.<a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> On the slope of the pyramid of
-    the Cross, M. Waldeck found two statues just alike, one of which was
-    unfortunately broken; the other, subsequently sketched by Catherwood,
-    is shown in the cut, a photographic reduction from Waldeck. These
-    statues were ten and a half feet high, though two and a half feet of
-    their length, not shown in the cut, formed a tenon by which they were
-    embedded in the floor of the pyramidal surface, where Waldeck supposes
-    they stood supporting a platform about twenty feet square, in front of
-    the central doorway. These are the only statues ever found at Palenque;
-    but it is doubted whether they can be technically called statues, since
-    the back is of rough stone, and unsculptured. They probably rested
-    against a wall and served as supports for an upper roof or floor, as
-    indicated by Waldeck. The head-dress has been pronounced Egyptian by
-    all who have seen it.<a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a></p>
-
-  <p>In the temple of the Sun, in a position precisely corresponding to
-    that occupied by the tablet of the cross, stands a somewhat similar
-    tablet cut in low-relief on three slabs covering an area of eight by
-    nine feet. The figure of the cross in this instance is displaced by
-    a hideous face or mask supposed to represent the sun, supported by a
-    framework resting on the shoulders of crouching men. The priest and
-    priestess occupy the same positions as occupied by them in the tablet
-    of the cross. Each is in the act of presenting a child with masked face
-    to the sun, and each is standing upon the back of a kneeling slave.
-    The lateral tablets are covered with columns or rows of hieroglyphics,
-    as in the tablet of the cross.<a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> The stuccoed roofs and piers of
-    both the temples—Cross and Sun—may be truly pronounced works of art
-    of a high order. On the former, Stephens observed busts and heads
-    approaching the Greek models in symmetry of contour and perfectness
-    of proportion. M. Waldeck has preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> in his magnificent drawings
-    some of these figures, which are certainly sufficient to prove
-    beyond controversy, that the ancient Palenqueans were a cultivated
-    and artistic people. In passing to Uxmal the transition is from
-    delineations of the human figure to the elegant and superabundant
-    exterior ornamentation of edifices, and from stucco to stone as the
-    material employed. The human figure, however, when it is represented,
-    is in statuary of a high order. The artists of Uxmal did not improve
-    upon the Palenque models so much in the design as in the execution
-    of their subjects. Uxmal statuary approximates more closely to what
-    properly may be called statuary, being cut more nearly “in the round”
-    and having less unfinished back surface than the Palenque statue. The
-    elegant square panels of grecques and frets which compose the cornice
-    of the Casa del Gobernador, delineated in the works of Stephens,
-    Baldwin and Bancroft, are a marvel of beauty, which must excite the
-    admiration of the most indifferent student of this subject. The
-    ornamentation of this great cornice, equal to one-third the height of
-    the building, is cut on blocks of stone and inserted in the wall with
-    the utmost precision, so that every line matches, and the graceful
-    arabesques and bas-reliefs, which sometimes cover several blocks with a
-    single figure, are unbroken by apparent joints. The grandest specimens
-    of American ornamental sculpture are, however, to be seen on the inner
-    fronts of the four buildings of the Casa de Monjas, a plan of which is
-    given on <a href="#i_351">page 351</a> of this work. It will be remembered that these fronts
-    face the court around which the buildings were constructed. The court
-    front of the eastern building is probably one of the most tasteful and
-    interesting specimens of sculpture to be met with in America.<a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> M.
-    Waldeck considers that it presents an appearance of grandeur of which
-    it would be difficult to give an idea, while Stephens considers its
-    chasteness of design a great relief from the gorgeous masses of other
-    façades. The cornice over the central doorway and the corners of the
-    eastern court <span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span>façade are ornamented with ugly masks and “elephant
-    trunks” protruding from them, as in the Governor’s home.<a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> If the
-    preceding façade is the most generally admired of those at Uxmal, “the
-    most magnificent and beautiful front in America” is that of the Serpent
-    Temple, or western court façade of the Nunnery, as is shown in the
-    accompanying engraving, which is a photographic reduction of Waldeck’s
-    drawing employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_394.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Western Court Façade—Casa de Monjas.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp14">
-    <img src="images/i_395a.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Sun Symbol.</span></p></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The marked feature of the sculpture is the formation of square panels
-    by the intertwined bodies of two huge stone serpents with monster
-    heads, surmounted by plumes and enclosing between the jaws of each a
-    human face. A head and tail as shown above occupy opposite extremes of
-    the front. This may be a representation of the plumed serpent of the
-    Central American mythology. The stone lattice-work (a feature of Uxmal
-    sculpture) underlying the serpents and covering the panels <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>formed
-    by their folds, is more complicated and beautiful than any other in
-    America. At regular intervals large grecques or arabesques, with their
-    connecting bars lengthened to the width of the entire sculptured
-    portion of the façade, are distributed. Several panels are ornamented
-    with life-sized human figures, while each panel contains a human
-    face, some of which are as beautiful as the Greek models. The upper
-    cornice is ornamented, as are all the other cornices of the Nunnery,
-    with what are supposed to be Sun symbols, one of which is shown in the
-    cut, reduced photographically from Waldeck’s drawing. The appended
-    “feathers” are almost Assyrian in their type, while the double triangle
-    within the circle is certainly an ancient symbol in the old world.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp18">
-    <img src="images/i_395b.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">“Elephant Trunk.”</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The “elephant trunks” and rude masks employed as ornaments above
-    the doorways of the other fronts, are also numerous here. Since
-    M. Waldeck’s visit portions of this wonderful example of ancient
-    decorative art have fallen.<a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> The northern building of the court
-    offers no sculptured contrasts with the other buildings, except that
-    above the upper cornice, thirteen turrets, each seventeen feet high
-    and ten feet wide, are distributed at regular intervals, and are
-    also covered with sculpture resembling the grecques of the Serpent
-    temple. Most of the sculptures at Uxmal were probably painted, as
-    traces of various colors were observed in sheltered localities. The
-    rich sculptures of the prophet’s house were painted blue, red, yellow
-    and white, according to M. Waldeck. The Mayas no doubt employed the
-    brush freely, and in some instances with skill. In the gymnasium at
-    Chichen-Itza, Stephens grew enthusiastic <span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span>over the exceedingly fine
-    series of paintings in bright colors, which cover the walls of one
-    of the chambers. Many of the pictures have been destroyed by the
-    falling of the plaster upon which they were painted. In this series of
-    pictures, battles, processions, houses, trees and a variety of objects
-    are represented—blue, red, yellow and green are the colors employed,
-    though the human figures are painted reddish brown.<a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> At Chichen, as
-    elsewhere, the favorite subject for the Maya sculpture was the serpent.
-    A colossal serpent balustrade is one of the wonders of this interesting
-    place.</p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon, during the last quarter of the year 1875,
-    made an extensive exploration of Chichen-Itza. The reports of his
-    discoveries seem at first well-nigh fabulous, though their authenticity
-    is so well attested as to leave no room for doubt. Mr. Stephen
-    Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Massachusetts, has in several memoirs
-    of intense interest and unusual scientific value, communicated the
-    progress and results of Dr. Le Plongeon’s exploration in Yucatan to
-    the American Antiquarian Society. Mr. Salisbury has also presented
-    the explorer’s original memoirs, accompanied by photographs made at
-    Chichen-Itza and on the Islands of Cozumel and Mugeres. These valuable
-    documents have reached the public in Mr. Salisbury’s publications
-    entitled, (1.) <cite>The Mayas, the Sources of their History</cite>
-    (Worcester, 1877, with heliotype reproductions of the photos); (2.)
-    <cite>Maya Archæology</cite> (Worcester, 1879, with heliotype reproductions
-    of photos and drawings).<a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> In these pages we are impressed with
-    the fact that the darkness which has so long enveloped the antiquity
-    of Yucatan is soon to be displaced by the noon-day of scientific
-    investigation. Still we cannot refrain from expressing the regret that
-    Dr. Le Plongeon’s enthusiasm is so apparent in his reports. A judicial
-    frame of mind, as well as the calmness which accompanies it, are
-    requisites both for scientific<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> work and the inspiration of confidence
-    in the reader. Notwithstanding this, our views have been most happily
-    expressed by the committee of the American Antiquarian Society, to
-    whom was entrusted the publication of Dr. Le Plongeon’s memoirs. Their
-    statement is as follows: “The successes of Du Chaillu, Schliemann, and
-    of Stanley, are remarkable instances of triumphant results in cases
-    where enthusiasm had been supposed to lack the guidance of wisdom.
-    If earnest men are willing to take the risks of personal research in
-    hazardous regions, or exercise their ingenuity and their scholarship in
-    attempting to solve historical or archæological problems, we may accept
-    thankfully the information they give, without first demanding in all
-    cases unquestionable evidence or absolute demonstration.”</p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Le Plongeon says of the columns at Chichen, “the base is formed by
-    the head of Cukulcan, the shaft by the body of the serpent, with its
-    feathers beautifully carved to the very chapter. On the chapters of
-    the columns that support the portico, at the entrance of the castle
-    in Chichen-Itza, may be seen the carved figures of long bearded men,
-    with upraised hands, in the act of worshipping sacred trees. They
-    forcibly recall to mind the same worship in Assyria.” In consequence
-    of the successful interpretation of certain hieroglyphic inscriptions
-    at Chichen, the explorer and his wife (who accompanied him in his
-    perilous enterprise), learned that the statue of Chaac Mol, or Balam,
-    (the tiger king), the greatest of the Itza monarchs, had been buried
-    below the surface of the ground at a certain point, distant four
-    hundred yards from the palace. The first result of excavation in
-    the locality indicated was the discovery of a sculptured tiger of
-    colossal size, having a human head, which, unfortunately, was broken
-    off. Several slabs bearing sculptures of tigers and birds of prey in
-    relief were unearthed. A pedestal supporting the sculptured tiger
-    apparently had once occupied the spot, and its destruction had left a
-    mound of débris. Seven metres below the surface of this mound a rough
-    stone urn containing a little dust was secured, and upon it an earthen
-    cover. This was near the head of the statue of Chaac Mol, which was
-    next<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> disclosed. The statue is of a white calcareous stone, one metre
-    fifty-five centimetres long, one metre fifteen centimetres in height,
-    and eighty centimetres wide, and weighed fifty kilos. The statue
-    represents the reclining figure of a man, who is naked except that he
-    is adorned with a head-dress, with bracelets, garters of feathers,
-    and sandals similar to those found upon the mummies of the ancient
-    Guanchies of the Canary Islands.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp74" id="i_398">
-    <img src="images/i_398.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The statue of Chaac Mol was seized by Mexican officials and sent to the
-    capital. Our friend, the Rev. John W. Butler, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> the city of Mexico,
-    writes to us (letter received October 10, 1878) concerning the statue:
-    “It is just as represented. It may be seen in the National Museum,
-    just opposite its exact duplicate, which was found under the Plaza of
-    the city of Mexico, some years ago. What is the meaning of this? The
-    tribe whose king (or god) it was, must have <em>migrated southward</em>,
-    for the one excavated in Mexico shows <em>greater age</em> than the one
-    from Yucatan.” In reply we would say that the evidences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> are sufficient
-    that the Maya civilization once extended farther north than the city of
-    Mexico, but the conquests of the Nahuas drove that ancient people no
-    doubt to abandon their northern territory and to confine themselves to
-    their lands farther south.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp72">
-    <img src="images/i_399.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter5 illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_400.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Statue of Chaac Mol.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Dr. Le Plongeon, in speaking of the historical value of the statue,
-    says Chaac Mol was one of the three brothers whom tradition declares
-    were the co-rulers of Yucatan at a very ancient period. Chaac Mol and
-    his beautiful queen Kinich-Kakmó were the powerful sovereigns of the
-    kingdom of Chichen-Itza. Aac, one of the brothers, becoming enamored of
-    his sister-in-law Kinich-Kakmó, slew Chaac Mol that he might make her
-    his wife. The funeral-chamber, the mural paintings, the statues, and
-    the monument of the murdered king found by the explorer, were memorials
-    of the sad event which the faithful queen caused to be executed by the
-    artisans and artists of the royal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> city. Dr. Le Plongeon remarks: “In
-    the funeral-chamber, the terrible altercation between Aac and Chaac
-    Mol, which had its termination in the murder of the latter by his
-    brother, is represented by large figures, three-fourths life size.
-    There Aac is painted holding three spears in his hands, typical of the
-    three wounds he inflicted on the back of his brother. These wounds are
-    indicated on the statue of the dying tiger (symbol of Chaac Mol) by two
-    holes near the lumbar region, and one under the left scapula, proving
-    that the blow was aimed at the heart from behind. The two wounds are
-    also marked by two holes near each other in the lumbar region, on the
-    <i>bas-relief</i> of the tiger eating a human heart that adorned the
-    Chaac Mol mausoleum (see sculptured slab on <a href="#i_398">page 398</a>).”<a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Stephen Salisbury, Jr., in his <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, has
-    reproduced one of Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon’s tracings of a mural
-    painting in the funeral-chamber of the Chaac Mol monument at
-    Chichen-Itza. Through the courtesy of Mr. Salisbury we have been
-    permitted to copy it for this work. The Doctor interprets it as
-    representing the queen Kinich-Kakmó when a child consulting an
-    <em>H-Men</em>, one of the Maya wise men or astrologers, in order to know
-    her destiny. The prediction is based upon the lines produced by fire on
-    the shell of an armadillo or turtle, and is expressed in the colors of
-    the elaborate scroll proceeding from the throat of the <em>H-Men</em>.
-    Referring to his tracings of mural paintings at Chichen-Itza, Dr. Le
-    Plongeon says “they represent war scenes with javelins flying in all
-    directions, warriors fighting, shouting, assuming all sorts of athletic
-    positions, scenes from domestic life, marriage ceremonies, temples
-    with complete domes, proving that the Itza architects were acquainted
-    with the circular arch, but made use of the triangular probably
-    because it was the custom and style of architecture of the time and
-    country.”<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> Besides the sculptures of long-bearded men seen by the
-    explorer at Chichen-Itza mentioned on a preceding <span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>page, were tall
-    figures of people with small heads, thick lips, and curly short hair or
-    wool, regarded as negroes. “We always see them as standard or parasol
-    bearers, but never engaged in actual warfare.”<a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> He pronounces the
-    features of the long-bearded men pictured on the walls of the queen’s
-    chambers to be Assyrian in their type. On the Isla Mugeres (in the
-    latter part of the year 1876), Dr. Le Plongeon exhumed portions of a
-    female figure in terra-cotta, which indicate an advanced state of art
-    among the ancient Mayas. The fragments of the statue, consisting of
-    the head and feet, were probably attached to the front of a brasero or
-    incense-burner used at the shrine of the Maya Venus, located on the
-    southern extremity of the island. It was immediately in front of this
-    shrine, visited by Cordova in 1516,<a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> that the remains of the statue
-    were found buried in the sand. The expression of the face is cruel and
-    savage, the nostrils are perforated and also the pupils of the eyes.
-    The teeth are filed as those of the statue Chaac Mol are said to be.
-    The head is surmounted by a head-dress eight inches high. The fragments
-    of this statue are now in the possession of Mr. Salisbury.<a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_402.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mural Painting from Chaac Mol Monument
-      Chichen-Itza.</span>—(From a copy by Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figright illowp50">
-    <img src="images/i_403.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span></p>
-
-  <p>Through the courtesy of the owner we are enabled to present a
-    photographic reduction of the relics in the preceding cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp48">
-    <img src="images/i_404.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Cara Gigantesca.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>At Izamel, the burial-place of the culture-hero Zamna, a remarkable
-    example of aboriginal sculpture is found upon the side of a mound now
-    enclosed in a private court-yard. This specimen of art, known as the
-    Cara gigantesca, or gigantic face, measures seven feet in width and
-    seven feet eight inches in height. “The features were first rudely
-    formed by small rough stones, fixed in the side of the mound by means
-    of mortar, and afterwards perfected with a stucco so hard that it has
-    successfully resisted for centuries the action of air and water.”
-    The accompanying cut from Mr. Bancroft’s work will show the type of
-    features.</p>
-
-  <p>The subject of Maya sculpture is almost a limitless one, but we trust
-    that the above-cited examples may give the reader a comprehensive
-    acquaintance with the existing types. The sculpture of Copan is no
-    less remarkable than its architecture. In fact, every object bore the
-    skillful marks of the graver’s chisel. The great number of sculptured
-    obelisks, pillars and idols have been the wonder of every reader of Mr.
-    Stephens’ description. Since his work is so generally known, we refrain
-    from presenting more than one example of Copan art. In the accompanying
-    cut employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work the elaborateness of the sculpture
-    will be observed, and may well be pronounced a marvel of aboriginal art.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp31">
-    <img src="images/i_405.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Copan Statue.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>But for the perfectly horizontal position of the eyes, the aspect of
-    some of the faces represented by Stephens would strike us as having
-    a Mongolian cast. The magnificently sculptured hieroglyphics which
-    cover the sides and backs of these huge idols, no doubt could tell
-    the sealed story of Copan’s greatness and the attributes of its many
-    gods, were the key once discovered. Everything is covered with these
-    significant symbols, differing slightly from those at Palenque; but who
-    will read them? In the court of the temple, a solid block of stone six
-    feet square and four feet high, resting on four globular stones was
-    sketched by Catherwood, and pronounced an altar by Stephens. Sixteen
-    figures in profile, with turbaned heads, breast-plates, and each
-    seated cross-legged on hieroglyphic-like cushions, are sculptured in
-    low-relief, four figures being on each side of the block. The top of
-    the altar is covered with thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics, shown
-    in a cut on a future page. Besides numbers of masks, effigies and rows
-    of death’s heads at Copan,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> there are sculptures of the face which we
-    may believe to have been portraits. The Copan sculpture is generally
-    admitted to be of a high order, and Stephens thinks it unsurpassed in
-    Egypt. The receding forehead of most of the portraits have excited
-    general interest, and are believed to be delineations of the priestly
-    or aristocratic type. No weapons are sculptured at Copan, but on the
-    contrary altars abound in considerable numbers, especially in front
-    of the sculptured obelisks or idols. The presumption is therefore
-    strong that this was a religious centre, unmolested by any enemy, and
-    undisturbed by the alarm of war.<a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp45">
-    <img src="images/i_406.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Figure from Monte Alban.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><i>Nahua Sculpture.</i>—The Nahua sculpture is not of as high an order
-    nor of as frequent occurrence as that of the Mayas. At Monte Alban in
-    Oajaca, in a gallery within a mound, Castañeda sketched the sculptured
-    profile shown in the accompanying cut, employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work.
-    It is cut upon the face of a granite block about three feet square, and
-    is interesting because of the Chinese-like queue which hangs from the
-    figure’s head. At Mitla the grecques and arabesques which cover the
-    façades of the several edifices are not sculptured, except in cases
-    where large stones serve as lintels over doorways. On them the running
-    borders are sculptured in low-relief, while the remainder of the
-    profuse ornamentation is of the nature of mosaic work, being built into
-    the wall.</p>
-
-  <p>Several minor objects of sculpture found in the States of Oajaca and
-    Vera Cruz might be cited, but their interest for the reader would be
-    too insignificant to justify a description.<a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> One <span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span>of the principal
-    objects of this class and much superior to any of the others is a
-    grotesque fountain cut in the living rock at Tusapan. The statue is
-    that of a woman in a kneeling posture, and measures nineteen feet in
-    height. The waters of a neighboring spring formerly ran into a basin
-    formed among the plumes of the female’s head-dress, from which it
-    found its way through the entire length of the figure, and flowed
-    forth from beneath her skirts.<a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> At Panuco the traditional point
-    of the arrival of the Nahuas, several rude limestone statues were
-    found, some of which have been figured in the <cite>Journal of the
-    London Geographical Society</cite>, by Mr. Vetch, one of which is copied
-    by Mr. Bancroft.<a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> The marked features of these statues is the
-    elaborateness of the style of head-dress worn. We cannot see that they
-    are far removed in their style from similar statues dug from mounds
-    in the Mississippi Valley. In the State of Puebla, at various points,
-    especially at Tepexe el Viejo, at Tepeaca, and at Quanhquelchula,
-    minor sculptures of animals, birds, reptiles, monsters, etc., were
-    observed by Dupaix.<a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> Rattlesnakes were found plentiful both in
-    sculptures and in a state of nature. At Cuernavaca, in the State of
-    Mexico, numerous boulder-sculptures, finely executed in low-relief,
-    exist. Dupaix has figured and Bancroft copied one in particular,
-    showing a beautiful coat-of-arms, sculptured on the smooth face of a
-    huge boulder. A circle of arrows and Maltese cross which compose them,
-    are all symbolical of power.<a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a> Similar coats-of-arms were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span>observed
-    in the State of Puebla. Probably the most remarkable sculpture found
-    in the country occupied by the Nahuas, is that upon the walls of the
-    pyramid of Xochicalco, illustrated on a preceding page.<a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> Most of
-    the sculptures are of colossal dragons’ heads, which occur at each of
-    the corners. Human figures, seated cross-legged and holding something
-    like the Assyrian sun symbol in the left are found on the frieze,
-    though some observers have considered this figure to be that of a
-    curved cross-hilted sword, a weapon never employed by the Nahuas.
-    The elaborate head-dresses and strings of enormous pearls worn by
-    the seated figures bear a striking resemblance to the stuccoes of
-    Palenque. At Xochimilco on the western shore of Lake Chalco, Dupaix
-    found several interesting specimens of ancient sculpture.<a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> The
-    most celebrated article of Aztec sculpture, unquestionably, is the
-    calendar-stone, which, together with the so-called sacrificial stone
-    and the idol Teoyaomiqui, was in December, 1790, dug up in the Plaza
-    Mayor, in the city of Mexico, on the supposed site of the great
-    teocalli, destroyed by the conquerors. The calendar-stone, now built
-    into the wall of the cathedral, where it can be seen by all passers-by,
-    is a rectangular block of porphyry, thirteen feet one inch square and
-    three feet three inches thick, and of the enormous estimated weight of
-    twenty-four tons. The sculptured portion of the block, on the exposed
-    face, is contained in a circle, eleven feet one inch and four-fifths
-    of an inch in diameter. The regularity and geometrical precision with
-    which the figures are executed called forth enthusiastic admiration
-    from Humboldt, and has been the source of equal wonderment to many
-    later observers. Our cut is a reproduction of Charnay’s photograph,
-    by means of the photo-engraving process, and may be relied upon as
-    absolutely correct. Prescott considers that the original weight of the
-    block before it was mutilated must have been nearly fifty tons; and
-    as no similar stone is found within a radius of twenty-five miles of
-    Mexico, that it must have been brought from the mountains beyond Lake
-    Chalco.<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> Some remarks upon the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span>Aztec calendar will be found in
-    the following chapter. The sacrificial stone is a cylindrical block of
-    porphyry, nine feet ten inches in diameter and three feet seven inches
-    thick, and is now lying in the courtyard of the University of Mexico.
-    If the reader will imagine the border of the calendar-stone outside of
-    the eight triangular points removed entirely, will substitute a concave
-    basin in the place of the central face or sun, also instead of all the
-    calendar signs intervening between the face and the circle, upon which
-    the base of the four principal triangular figures rest, will imagine
-    the existence of several concentric <span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>circles not unlike strings of
-    beads, he will have a general idea of the top of the stone. We should
-    not omit to state that a groove or channel leads from the central
-    basin to the outer circumference. The use of the stone is a matter of
-    controversy, Humboldt considering it the gladiatorial stone, Gama a
-    calendar-stone, and Tylor that it was an altar on which animals were
-    sacrificed. Fifteen groups of two human figures, each dressed in the
-    insignia of royalty, are sculptured around its circumference. Bancroft,
-    as well as several others, give cuts of the stone and sculptures.
-    The horrid monster Teoyaomiqui—goddess of death—is sculptured in
-    high-relief on a block of porphyry ten feet high and six feet wide
-    and thick. Probably no mythology nor all the mythologies of the world
-    besides could produce so hideous and unsightly a combination of
-    reptile, human and infernal forms, as make up the three sides of this
-    idol.<a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> Mr. Bancroft first figured the beautiful earthen burial
-    vase dug up in the Plaza Tlatelulco and sketched by Col. Mayer. It is
-    twenty-two inches high and fifteen and a half inches in diameter; a
-    closely fitting lid most chastely sculptured covered it, as will be
-    seen in the accompanying cut.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_409.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Aztec Calendar Stone in its Present Condition.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figleft illowp36">
-    <img src="images/i_410.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Burial Urn from Mexico.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Among the elegant sculptures upon one of its sides is a comely face
-    surmounted by a crown, from each side of which project wings of
-    the same character as were employed to symbolize the sun among the
-    Assyrians.<a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> The original is pronounced one of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span>finest relics
-    preserved in the Mexican Museum. M. Waldeck has figured many beautiful
-    examples of Mexican ceramic art preserved in the above collection as
-    well as in others. The finest specimens of ancient terra-cotta work of
-    which we have any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span> knowledge are shown in the cut, photographically
-    reduced from Waldeck’s plate.<a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p>
-
-  <p>No description can convey any idea of their beauty. The upper left-hand
-    vase, it will be observed, is supported on three feet, each perforated
-    by a perfect Maltese Cross. The central lower vase, of remarkable
-    symmetry, is distinguished by the perfect <i lang="la">crux ansata</i> which
-    adorns its side. The lower right and left hand figures are different
-    views of a swinging lamp. These vases cannot but command the admiration
-    of all who see them. M. Waldeck has delineated with remarkable artistic
-    skill three specimens of Mexican mosaic work now in the Christy
-    collection in London. One of these beautiful relics is shown in the
-    cut, reduced from Waldeck’s colored plate for Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp83" id="i_411">
-    <img src="images/i_411.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Vases from Waldeck.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp82">
-    <img src="images/i_412.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Mosaic Knife—Christy Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>However, the cut conveys but a faint idea of its beauty, especially
-    of the handle. The blade is of semi-translucent chalcedony from the
-    volcanic regions of Mexico, while the handle is a most artistic mosaic
-    of bright green turquoise, malachite, and white and red shells. The
-    blade is of a light straw-colored tint, and is mortised in the handle,
-    which is wrapped nearest to the blade with what appears to be a golden
-    braid. Mr. Bancroft remarks “it is certainly most extraordinary to
-    find a people still in the stone age, as is proved by the blade, able
-    to execute so perfect a piece of work as the handle exhibits.”<a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>
-    Among the few <span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span>relics recovered at Tula, the ancient Toltec capital
-    Tollan, the column shown in the cut (from Mr. Bancroft’s work) is very
-    interesting, both for its sculpture and for the exhibition it affords
-    of the manner in which the Toltecs formed their columns, namely, by
-    fastening the sections together by means of circular tenons. The
-    largest block measures four feet long by two and a half in diameter.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp63">
-    <img src="images/i_413.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">A Column from Tula.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Our National Museum at Washington contains numerous fine specimens of
-    Mexican terra-cotta ware, some of which have been figured recently
-    in Dr. Charles Rau’s “Archæological Collection of the U. S. National
-    Museum.”<a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> Two large vases in particular demand attention. These
-    were brought to the United States by General Alfred Gibbs at the close
-    of the Mexican war, and are shown in the cut.</p>
-
-  <p>The upper vase, which is thirteen and a half inches high, is very
-    elaborately wrought, being surrounded with ten female figures in
-    relief, each alternate figure bearing a child on the left arm. It is
-    noticeable that the head-dresses of the figures holding the children
-    are more elaborate than those of the remaining figures. The second or
-    lower vase, Dr. Rau considers equal to many Etruscan or Greek vases
-    in gracefulness of outline. “The vessel may be compared to a pitcher
-    with two handles, standing opposite each other, and with two mouths
-    projecting between them.” Among the terra-cotta images of Mexican
-    origin in the National Museum the two shown in the cut are of interest.
-    The left-hand figure is that of a woman pressing her hands upon her
-    ears. The face represents an aged <span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span>individual. The Museum possesses
-    almost an exact duplicate of this image. The right-hand figure is
-    much smaller and is hollow, enclosing a clay ball, and was probably
-    used as a rattle. It is scarcely necessary for us to remark that the
-    seeming analogies between the Maya (Central American) sculpture and
-    that of Egypt have often been noted. Juarros, in speaking of Palenque
-    art, says: “The hieroglyphics, symbols and emblems which have been
-    discovered in the temples, bear so strong a resemblance to those of
-    the Egyptians, as to encourage the supposition that a colony of that
-    nation may have founded the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> city of Palenque or Culhuacan.”<a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a>
-    Giordan found, as he thought, the most striking analogies between the
-    Central American remains, as well as those of Mexico, and those of
-    the Egyptians. The idols and monuments he considers of the same form
-    in both countries, while the hieroglyphics of Palenque do not differ
-    from those of ancient Thebes.<a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> Señor Melgar, in a communication
-    to the Mexican Geographical Society, has called attention to the
-    frequent occurrence of the (Τ) <i>tau</i> at Palenque, and has more
-    studiously advocated the early relationship of the Palenqueans to
-    Egypt than any other reliable writer.<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> He cites Dupaix’s <cite>Third
-    Expedition</cite>, page 77 and plates 26 and 27, where in the first figure
-    is a goddess with a necklace supporting a <i>tau</i> like medallion to
-    which the explorer adds the remark that such is “the symbol in Egypt
-    of reproduction or abundance.” In the second plate he finds an altar
-    dedicated expressly to the <i>tau</i>. He considers that the cultus
-    of this, the symbol of the active principle in nature, prevailed in
-    Mexico in many places. Señor Melgar also refers to two idols found
-    south of the city of Mexico, “in one of which two symbols were united,
-    namely, the Cosmogonic egg, symbolical of creation, and two faces,
-    symbols of the generative principle. The other symbolized creation
-    in the bursting forth of an egg. These symbols are not found in the
-    Aztec mythology, but belong to the Indian, Egyptian, Greek, Persian,
-    Japanese and other cosmogonies.” This, the Señor considers proof that
-    these peoples were the primitive colonists of that region, and seeks
-    to sustain his views by references to the Dharma Sastra of Manou and
-    the Zend Avesta. The reader has no doubt been surprised at the frequent
-    occurrence of the [Τ]-shaped niches in the Palenque palace, and has
-    observed the same symbol employed on some of the hieroglyphics of
-    the Tablet of the Cross. The Egyptian tau, one of the members of the
-    <i lang="la">Crux ansata</i>, is certainly present at Palenque, but whether it
-    was derived from any one of the Mediterranean peoples who <span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span>employed it,
-    cannot be ascertained. Among the Egyptians it signified “life,” as is
-    shown by the best Egyptologists.<a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> The tau was usually surmounted
-    by a roundlet, though such was not always the case. On a stele from
-    Korasabad, an eagle-headed man is depicted as holding the oval in one
-    hand and the cross in the other.<a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> M. Mariette recently, while
-    exploring the ancient temple of Denderah, discovered the sacred symbol
-    in a niche of the holy of holies. It is probable that this emblem was
-    the central object of interest in these inner precincts of the temple,
-    as it was preserved with scrupulous care as the hidden wisdom.<a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>
-    Macrobius tells us that the <i lang="la">crux ansata</i> was the hieroglyphic
-    sign of Osiris or the Sun,<a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> but other writers inform us that it
-    was an ancient symbol of majesty and divinity, and so employed in
-    a modified form in the hands of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.<a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a> The
-    associations of the tau in Central America are such as to lead us to
-    believe that it may have had a significance analogous to that which
-    it possessed on the shores of the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the
-    Ganges. The Palenque Cross tablet is a most singular work of American
-    antiquity, and though Mr. Stephens attempted to prove that no analogy
-    exists between it and Egyptian sculptures, still Mr. Bancroft has
-    shown that the former was unfortunate in his selection of Egyptian
-    specimens for the purpose of comparison, since marked analogies between
-    the sculpture of the Vocal Memnon of Thebes and the top of the fallen
-    obelisk at Carnac and the Palenque Tablets exist.<a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp84">
-    <img src="images/i_414a.jpg" alt="" />
-  </div>
-  <div class="figcenter illowp75">
-    <img src="images/i_414b.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Mexican Vases in the National Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_415.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Statuettes in the National Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span></p>
-
-  <p>It has been argued that the Egyptian and Palenque sculpture resemble
-    each other in that both are generally in profile; but the trivialness
-    of the reasoning will be at once apparent. On the contrary, Mr.
-    Bancroft remarks, “Sculpture in Egypt is for the most part in intaglio,
-    in America it is usually in relief.” Notwithstanding the oft-repeated
-    assertion that a resemblance between Egyptian and Maya hieroglyphics
-    exist, no one of the Egyptologists so successful in their chosen field
-    have been able to decipher the Maya writing. It is not improbable
-    that the Palenque and Copan civilization received its first impulse
-    from some of the peoples of the southern or eastern shores of the
-    Mediterranean, but from which it would be impossible to say even if we
-    were certain that such was the case. Whatever of a foreign character
-    it may have had at first has been mostly lost in the independent
-    development of new and original characteristics, the natural outgrowth
-    of new wants and new conditions, arising through the lapse of many
-    centuries. The latter remark we think may be applied with even more
-    certainty to the Nahua civilization as displayed in its sculpture.
-    All through Mexico the favorite subject for the Toltec or Aztec
-    sculptor was the serpent, generally the rattlesnake. Mr. Bancroft in
-    his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span>fourth volume has given numerous examples of this fact. Serpent
-    sculpture was also common among the Mayas, but to a less extent, and
-    it is not improbable that the symbol entered into their art through
-    the Quichés—a mixed people composed of Mayas and Nahuas. We have
-    already observed the same disposition to sculpture the rattlesnake
-    among the Mound-builders. In the great serpent upwards of a thousand
-    feet in length on Brush Creek, Adams County, Ohio, we find a striking
-    analogy to the tendency of Mexican art. Furthermore, the great serpent
-    grasps in its jaws (if they may be so called) an immense oval figure
-    of precisely the shape of an egg, and “the combined figure is regarded
-    as a symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the
-    serpent and the egg.” We have seen in the remarks of Señor Melgar that
-    two examples of the egg possessing precisely the same significance
-    which is attached to it in Eastern Asia were found near the City of
-    Mexico. The part which the serpent symbol plays in the south and east
-    Asiatic sculpture and mythology is probably well known to the reader;
-    and if not, a perusal of Maurace’s <cite>Indian Antiquities</cite> or Moor’s
-    <cite>Hindu Pantheon</cite> will satisfy him that it occupied a place equally
-    important among Nahuas and Hindoos. The great serpent in Ohio may be a
-    connecting link between the art of both Mexicans and Asiatics. In the
-    course of independent development which the Nahuas underwent during
-    thousands of years, the cosmological symbol of the egg may have been
-    lost and supplanted by that of the serpent alone, the emblem of the
-    life principle in both America and Asia. However, we may safely close
-    these speculations with the conclusion that though the Mayas and Nahuas
-    were probably descendants of foreign stock, their civilization, so far
-    as we are able to judge from their arts, was indigenous—developed upon
-    our soil, and offering but few analogies to any other.</p>
-
-  <p><i>Hieroglyphics.</i>—No well authenticated Mound-builder hieroglyphics
-    have as yet come to light. The Grave Creek Mound tablet we believe is
-    now shown unquestionably to be an archæological fraud. The Cincinnati
-    tablet figured in our first chapter seems to bear some symbolic signs
-    upon its face, but no resemblance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span> can be traced between them and any
-    other known hieroglyphic signs. The Davenport tablet if genuine is
-    of great interest in that it abounds in hieroglyphics, some of which
-    are not unlike some of the signs employed by the Aztecs; besides, the
-    element of picture-writing so common to that people plays a prominent
-    part on both sides of that mysterious stone. Col. Charles Whittlesey,
-    in the second chapter of his <cite>Report to the Centennial Commission
-    of Ohio</cite> (already cited), has figured and described rock sculpture
-    near Barnesville, Newark, Independence, Amherst and Wellsville, most of
-    which are of the lowest grade of savage art, and we think can only be
-    attributed to the red Indian.</p>
-
-  <p>Mr. W. H. Holmes has furnished specimens of picture-writing of a
-    rude character found engraven in the rocks of the cañon of the Rio
-    Mancos and San Juan, but there is no evidence that they are or are not
-    the work of the Cliff-dwellers whose works abound upon neighboring
-    rocks.<a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> We have already called attention to the tablets of
-    hieroglyphics at Palenque, Copan and in Yucatan, a specimen of which is
-    shown in a cut on <a href="#i_390">page 390</a>. The accompanying cut, employed by Stevens,
-    Baldwin and Bancroft, show the thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics
-    engraven upon the top of a Copan altar.</p>
-
-  <p>In addition to these stone and stucco records, the Mayas had books,
-    which Bishop Landa describes as written on a large leaf doubled in
-    folds and enclosed between two boards which they ornamented; they wrote
-    on both sides of the paper, in columns accommodated to the folds;
-    the paper they made from the roots of trees, and coated it with a
-    white varnish on which one could write well. These books were called
-    <i>Analtees</i>, a word which, according to Villagutierre, signifies
-    the same as history.<a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> Bishop Landa confesses to having burned
-    a great number of the Maya books because they contained nothing in
-    which were not superstitions and falsities of the devil.<a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> Bancroft
-    has quoted from Peter Martyr a description of these books, which
-    conveys the additional <span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span>information that they were written on many
-    leaves joined together but folded so that when opened two pages are
-    presented to view.<a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> Three of the Maya manuscripts are known to
-    have escaped the vandalism of the early Fathers. These are, first, the
-    Mexican MS. No. 2 of the Imperial Library at Paris, called by Rosny
-    the <cite>Codex Peresianus</cite>, which has been photographed by order of
-    the French government, but we believe is still unedited. The second,
-    the <cite>Dresden Codex</cite>, in the Royal Library at Dresden, a complete
-    copy of which was published by Lord Kingsborough. It is a Maya, and not
-    an Aztec MS., as is proven by its marked resemblance to the tablets
-    of Palenque and Copan, a fact pointed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span>out by Mr. Stephens, though at
-    the date of his exploration everything was pronounced Aztec.<a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> The
-    third, the <cite>Manuscript Troano</cite>, found by Brasseur de Bourbourg at
-    Madrid in 1865 in the possession of Señor Tro y Ortolano, from whom
-    it derives its name, is a Maya MS. of unknown origin and history. The
-    French government and the Commission Scientifique du Mexique reproduced
-    it in fac-simile by means of chromo-lithography, and Brasseur, with
-    the expenditure of great labor, attempted to translate part of it,
-    which he has published; but in a subsequent work he confesses that
-    he began his reading at the wrong end of the manuscript, which, as
-    Mr. Bancroft humorously remarks, was a “trifling error perhaps in the
-    opinion of the enthusiastic Abbé, but a somewhat serious one as it
-    appears to scientific men.”<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> Mr. Bancroft has reproduced a page
-    of the MS. Troano in his work, and accompanied it with a condensed
-    account from the Abbé’s description as follows: “The original is
-    written on a strip of maguey paper about fourteen feet long and nine
-    inches wide, the surface of which is covered with a whitish varnish,
-    on which the figures are painted in black, red, blue and brown. It is
-    folded fan-like in thirty-five folds, presenting when shut much the
-    appearance of a modern large octavo volume. The hieroglyphics cover
-    both sides of the paper, and the writing is consequently divided into
-    seventy pages, each about five by nine inches, having been apparently
-    executed after the paper was folded, so that the folding does not
-    interfere with the written matter. * * * The regular lines of written
-    characters are uniformly in black, while the pictorial portions, of
-    what may perhaps be considered representative signs, are in red and
-    brown, chiefly the former, and the blue appears for the most part as
-    a background in some of the pages.”<a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> Notwithstanding the bigoted
-    spirit exhibited by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span>Bishop Landa in his destruction of the native Maya
-    books in the presence of their sorrowful and helpless owners, he did
-    one act of service for the antiquarian, which will ever entitle him to
-    the gratitude of every student of ancient American civilization. That
-    act was the record which he made of the Maya hieroglyphic alphabet. The
-    Bishop has left us scarcely two and a half octavo pages (of his work as
-    edited by Brasseur de Bourbourg) upon this important subject, yet it is
-    the only known key to the mysteries of Palenque, Copan and the numerous
-    inscriptions found in Yucatan. His explanation of the manner in which
-    letters are combined into words is not clear, and though Mr. Bancroft
-    has translated it literally and introduced parenthetic explanations,
-    still the sense is not very apparent. Brasseur de Bourbourg in his
-    French translation has not succeeded much better, and complains of
-    Landa’s style as being untranslatable. One important fact, however,
-    is deducible from the Bishop’s remarks and example, namely, that the
-    Maya letters were formed into words in much the same order as in the
-    English and other languages which read from the left to the right.<a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a>
-    Landa’s alphabet is given in the accompanying cut which is an exact
-    photographic reproduction of the original.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_421.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Hieroglyphics on the Copan Altar.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Landa adds nothing after this table except the remark: “Of the letters
-    which here fail, this language is wanting and has others added of
-    ours, for other things of which they have need, and already they do
-    not use these characters of theirs, especially <span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span>the young people who
-    have learned ours.”<a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> Landa has left us other hieroglyphic signs,
-    relating to the Maya months and days, which will be given in the
-    next chapter. Many of the hieroglyphics in his alphabet are plainly
-    recognizable in the three Maya MSS. which we have named, though it is
-    quite certain that other signs, which are wanting in his list, are
-    found not only in the MSS. but also among the inscriptions of the
-    several localities we have already described. Besides the attempts
-    made by Brasseur de Bourbourg to decipher the Maya writing, three
-    Américanistes in particular have bestowed labor upon the subject. These
-    are Mr. Wm. Bollaert,<a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> M. Hyacinthe de Charencey,<a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> and M. Leon
-    de Rosny,<a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> the latter of whom is the honorable president of the
-    Société Américaine de France.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp83">
-    <img src="images/i_424.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Landa’s Alphabet.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>By means of Landa’s key, Mr. Bollaert obtained encouraging results
-    from hieroglyphics figured in Stephens’ works. In that author’s
-    <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, page 292, is seen a sculptured figure with
-    hieroglyphics represented on the upper part of the door called Akatzeeb
-    at Chichen-Itza. This tablet is examined by Mr. Bollaert with the
-    following result: “The figure (male) is nude; the cap is like those on
-    the figures at Kabab, and has an ornament round the neck; the large
-    crucible-form before him contains fire, in which some small animal
-    is being burnt or sacrificed. Comparing the hieroglyphs on either
-    side of the figure with the Maya key, I get the following words:
-    <i>Ahau</i>, ‘king’; <i>oc</i>, ‘leg’; <i>Muluc</i>, ‘to unite’;
-    <i>ik</i>, ‘courage’; <i>cib</i>, ‘copal’; <i>eznab</i>, ‘magician’;
-    <i>no</i>, ‘frog’; which may mean that the magician has in the crucible
-    a frog to be sacrificed, in which copal as incense is used. The two
-    lines of hieroglyphs give something like the following: Kings must
-    die—they have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span>courage, and after death are united to those who went
-    before them. The king is with his fathers; the chief and his family
-    burn copal and mourn for his death.”<a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> On the tablet of the cross
-    at Palenque, Mr. Bollaert found in squares <i>eznab</i>, “magician”;
-    <i>dz</i>, “a hand”; the “aspiration sign” ⋃; and a part
-    of <i>zip</i>, “tree.” Among the hieroglyphs he traced <i>ahau</i>,
-    “king”; <i>zip</i>, “tree”; <i>akbal</i>, “a plant”; <i>pax</i>,
-    “a musical instrument.” Mr. Bollaert has attempted to read several
-    other inscriptions with no more satisfactory results.<a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> One or
-    two of the same scholar’s attempts with the <cite>Dresden Codex</cite>
-    yield the following: <em>We come to thy presence to implore. The young
-    female implores before the deity, she weeps but has courage.</em> In
-    a group representing a king and a young female, he reads: <em>She has
-    made a vow about the king to the magician, the king is happy.</em>
-    Again: <em>The sacred bird chel is sacrificed, there is weeping; the
-    bride weeps for the bird, she makes a vow or prays for the king, she
-    offers a tortoise, a great feast is given.</em><a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> M. de Charencey
-    translates the hieroglyph found just above the child which is being
-    offered to the bird on the tablet of the cross at Palenque, by the
-    word <i>Hunabku</i>, “the only holy one.” He also finds the name of
-    <i>Kukulcan</i> and <i>eznab</i>, “magician,” the name of a month.<a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a>
-    M. de Rosny in his able essay on the decipherment of the hieratic
-    writings of Central America has undertaken the solution of this
-    interesting and perplexing problem in a scientific manner, and we have
-    the fullest confidence that his system constructed on Landa’s key
-    will open to us the books and inscriptions of the Mayas. But two of
-    the four parts which constitute the work have been published, still
-    we think sufficient data has been placed at the hands of scholars
-    by M. de Rosny to justify the opinion that if the remainder of his
-    essay should never appear, the work of interpreting some of the Maya
-    writings might be carried on with reasonable certainty. Landa’s key
-    contains seventy-one signs (twenty for the days, eighteen for the
-    months, and thirty-three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span> in the alphabet.) M. de Rosny, by a careful
-    examination of all the hieratic texts of the Mayas which are known,
-    has discovered more than seven hundred different signs. Of this number
-    he has deciphered and classified four hundred and thirty-nine as
-    follows: Alphabetic signs, including Landa’s (of which all the others
-    are but varieties), two hundred and sixty-two; signs of the days, one
-    hundred and fifty-nine; and the eighteen signs of the months given by
-    Landa. All these signs are classified in a double folio plate (Pl.
-    XIII) which we believe deserves to be regarded as the larger portion
-    of the much-sought-for Maya Rosetta stone. Considerable difference of
-    opinion has existed as to the direction in which the hieroglyphics
-    should be read. Brasseur held the view that the proper order was from
-    right to left, and that the beginning of a book was where our books
-    end. This mistake brought down the ridicule of scholars upon the Abbé’s
-    head, when it was discovered that he had begun at the wrong end to
-    translate the <cite>Troano MS.</cite> Mr. Bollaert says, “I have read from
-    the bottom upwards and from right to left.”<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> Dr. Brinton<a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> has
-    suggested some such order as the following arrangement of the word
-    <em>marvellous</em>:</p>
-
-  <div class="center">
-    o&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ll &nbsp;&nbsp;m<br />
-    u&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a<br />
-    s&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;v&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;r</div>
-
-  <p>M. de Rosny has shown that the statement of Landa and the fact that the
-    human faces shown in the hieroglyphs look toward the left, indicate
-    that the signs should be read from left to right.<a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> In rare cases
-    this order is reversed, as is seen on a couple of leaves of the
-    <cite>Codex Peresianus</cite>. There are, no doubt, numerous instances in
-    which the signs are arranged in perpendicular columns, and the order in
-    which such columns are to be read is not the same in all manuscripts.
-    In the Maya inscriptions and manuscripts, the “illustrations” or
-    pictorial figures are interwoven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span> with the alphabetic signs forming
-    an important part of the writing. In many cases a page of MS. (as
-    shown in Rosny’s plates) is divided into sections or squares, in which
-    the hieroglyphics are inseparably connected with grotesque figures
-    which accompany them and form a part of the writing. M. de Rosny has
-    undertaken the classification and interpretation of all these figures
-    which are found in the existing Maya MSS. This doubtless will prove
-    an important auxiliary to the table of signs already alluded to. We
-    may reasonably expect that since M. de Rosny has shown the extensive
-    character of the Maya phonetic and symbolic alphabet, he will furnish
-    us examples of its application in the practical interpretation of
-    the hieroglyphics, in the latter part of his work. Recently Dr. Ph.
-    Valentini has pronounced the Landa alphabet a Spanish fabrication, of
-    later date than the conquest. See <cite>Proceedings of Amer. Antiquarian
-    Soc.</cite> for April, 1880.</p>
-
-  <p>We do not deem it necessary to assure the reader that while the Aztec
-    picture-writing was not as far advanced in the scale of graphic
-    development as the system employed by the Mayas, still it was an
-    accurate means of communication and of recording events. The “scribes”
-    of the Mexicans were an educated class of men, who with strictest
-    accuracy painted in hieroglyphic symbols the record of national,
-    historic and traditional affairs, as well as the tribute rolls, the
-    calendar with its feast days, the stated services of the gods, the
-    genealogical tables of noble and royal personages, and even the
-    customs of the humble classes. No doubt many educated persons who did
-    not belong to the priestly and lettered class, were acquainted with
-    the system employed, and many others understood it sufficiently to
-    recognize calendar and feast signs. The Aztec books were painted mostly
-    on cotton cloth, prepared skins and maguey paper, and when not rolled
-    were folded fan-like and bound with thin wooden covers, like the Maya
-    books. The priests who accompanied the conquerors and immediately
-    followed them, mistook the pictured figures painted in these books to
-    be representations of heathen deities, and consequently inaugurated a
-    system of wholesale destruction of all the picture-writing. Las Casas
-    informs us that they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span> actuated by the fear that in matters of
-    religion the existence of these books would be injurious. The infamous
-    crime committed against the cause of knowledge and the irreparable
-    injury done to the natives, their successors, and to students of
-    history for all time, by the destruction of those valuable MSS., must
-    ever remain an unerasable blot upon the name of the early church in
-    Mexico, and must be ranked with the worst deeds of Goths and Vandals.
-    Juan de Zumárraga, the chief of these sacrilegious destroyers who
-    committed the annals of the Mexican States publicly to the flames
-    in his tour of the principal cities of the country, will ever be
-    remembered with proper contempt. Fortunately, many of the MSS. were
-    hidden by their owners and have since come to light; the greater
-    number of these, however, were tribute rolls, which, down to the last
-    century, played an important part in the Mexican courts of justice.
-    Prescott informs us that “until late in the last century, there was
-    a professor in the University of Mexico especially devoted to the
-    study of the national picture-writing. But as this was with a view to
-    legal proceedings, his information probably was limited to deciphering
-    titles.” In the course of time the priests became acquainted with the
-    harmless nature of the hieroglyphics, through their use by the natives
-    in their making confessions and in recording the Lord’s prayer. Many
-    documents written since the conquest were provided by their authors
-    with a Spanish translation or with an explanation in Aztec written
-    with Spanish letters. Many of these are in existence, and with a few
-    authentic documents, written previous to the conquest, are preserved
-    in public and private libraries of Europe and this country, the finest
-    collection of which is that of the National Museum of the University
-    of Mexico. The reader is no doubt already familiar with the splendid
-    fac-similes of several Mexican MSS. published in Lord Kingsborough’s
-    work. Mr. Bancroft has concisely narrated the events and vicissitudes
-    which have attended the transmission of some of these documents through
-    the hands of successive owners to their present depositories.<a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a>
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span>Several writers on hieroglyphic systems, and the above author among
-    them, have classified the progressive steps of picture-writing into
-    <em>representative</em>, <em>symbolic</em>, and <em>phonetic</em>. Of these,
-    the first is by far the simplest, and has invariably preceded the
-    others in the development of the graphic art. It was natural for the
-    savage to represent an object by a picture, in which that object was
-    surrounded with certain conditions; at first the entire object was
-    pictured, but subsequently only a portion of the object, as in the
-    case of a bird, the head or foot or wing in the more advanced stages
-    of art, would be substituted for the object itself. In symbolic
-    picture-writing, we find an attempt at representing abstract ideas and
-    actions. Some quality or attribute of a person is portrayed by means of
-    the representative process, by symbols which would naturally seem to
-    suggest the distinguishing characteristic of the person or occasion. A
-    certain Aztec festival might be symbolized by the conventional calendar
-    sign, an altar, a flint knife held by a human hand, and a smoking human
-    heart. Phonetic picture-writing is, of course, dependent upon the
-    sounds of the language for which it is designed. Its province is to
-    represent those sounds by pictures of objects in whose names the sounds
-    occur. Words, syllables and elementary sounds which are represented
-    by alphabets, are thus gradually evolved in the progression which
-    follows. Mr. Bancroft, by a most ingenious example, has illustrated
-    this principle as applied to our own language. “According to this
-    system,” he says, “the <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand.png" alt="hand pointing up" /> signifies successively
-    the word ‘hand,’ the syllable ‘hand’ in handsome, the sound ‘ha’ in
-    happy, the aspiration ‘h’ in head, and finally, by simplifying its
-    form or writing it rapidly, the <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand.png" alt="hand pointing up" />
-    becomes <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand2.png" alt="hand outline" /> and then the ‘h’ of the alphabet.”<a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> The
-    Aztecs never reached the last stage of phonetic development, namely,
-    the alphabet. They, however, employed the system in the syllabic
-    formation of words to a very considerable extent. The priests soon
-    found the natives applying their art of writing to the record of the
-    standard expressions employed in teaching the new faith. Amen was
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span>expressed by the sign of water, <i>atl</i> associated with a maguey
-    plant, <i>metl</i> which united gave the word <i>atl-metl</i>, or after
-    the ever present Aztec termination <i>tl</i> is stricken off, we have
-    <i>a-me</i>, an approximation to our word Amen. Mr. Bancroft gives also
-    the following example of the manner in which the name Teocaltitlan was
-    expressed by this syllabic-phonetic writing: “It is written in one of
-    the manuscripts of the Boturini collection by a pictured pair of lips,
-    <i>tentli</i>, for the syllable <i>te</i>; footsteps, symbolic of a
-    road, <i>otli</i> for <i>o</i>; a house, <i>calli</i> for <i>cal</i>;
-    and teeth, <i>tlantli</i> for <i>tlanti</i>, being a common connective
-    syllable.” We think the reader will find a clearer illustration in the
-    word Chapultepec, which literally means “hill of the grasshopper.”
-    By reference to the Aztec migration map which has been published by
-    several authors<a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a> (the most correct copy accessible to the general
-    reader is that by Bancroft).<a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> A hill surmounted by a grasshopper
-    will be observed among the figures. The same representation in
-    different form will be seen in Boturini’s picture-map of the migration.
-    Chapultepec is well known as the royal hill, a short distance west of
-    the city of Mexico, celebrated as the country residence of Montezuma.
-    Numerous similar examples might be selected from the migration maps
-    of this combination of the three methods employed. Proper names were
-    always expressed in a similar manner. An example of the representative
-    and symbolic stages of the picture-writing of the Aztecs has been given
-    by Mr. Bancroft from the <cite>Codex Mendoza</cite> in Kingsborough.<a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> We
-    here reproduce the plate used in the <cite>Native Races</cite>. It describes
-    four steps or periods in the education of children; each period is
-    supposed to refer to a particular year. In the upper left-hand group
-    we see a father (fig. 3) punishing his son by holding him over the
-    fumes of burning chile (fig. 5); in the right-hand group the mother
-    threatens her daughter with similar punishment. In the second group
-    (figs. 12–13), a father punishes his son by exposing him <span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span>bound hand
-    and foot on the damp ground. A bad boy twelve years of age, according
-    to Aztec custom was always punished in this way, and his punishment
-    lasted during an entire day. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span> disobedient girl of the same age was
-    obliged to rise in the night and sweep the whole house, as is shown
-    in the right-hand group, or, as no tear is seen in her eye, she may
-    be learning. At the age of eight years children were only shown the
-    instrument of punishment; at ten they were pricked with maguey thorns,
-    or if still unruly, were whipped. The above groups show the methods
-    employed during the eleventh and twelfth years, after which age a child
-    was supposed to be pretty well disciplined. In the third group a father
-    directs his boys (fig. 21) how to transport wood, both upon the back
-    and in the canoe, while the mother teaches the daughter (fig. 23) to
-    make tortillas and use the mealing stone and other utensils (figs. 25,
-    26, 28); the tortillas are also represented (fig. 27). In the fourth
-    group the son learns the use of the fish-net and the daughter that of
-    the loom. The allowance of tortillas apportioned to the children at the
-    ages represented are shown in figs. 2, 8, 11, 16, 20, 24, 30 and 34.
-    The remaining figures are not representative, but symbolic. The small
-    circles (figs. 1, 10, 19, 29) are numerals indicating that the child
-    was successively eleven, twelve, thirteen and fourteen years of age. A
-    circle or dot was always used for a unit. The comma-like figure issuing
-    from the mouth of the parent is the symbol of speech. The tears in the
-    children’s eyes need no explanation. The singular figure (17) above
-    the girl in the second group is said to be symbolical of night, and to
-    indicate that the sweeping was required in the night.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp69">
-    <img src="images/i_432.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">Education of Children according to the Codex Mendoza.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>For most interesting specimens of Aztec picture-writing as well as
-    their supposed explanation, we refer the reader to the Gemelli Carreri
-    and Boturini Migration maps in the Atlas of Garcia y Cubas, or in the
-    second volume of Mr. Bancroft’s work, which are the only places where
-    they are to be found correctly reproduced. Mr. Delafield sought to
-    find an analogy between the Aztec and Egyptian hieroglyphic systems
-    on no other ground than that both were representative, symbolic and
-    phonetic, a most wonderful discovery indeed.<a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> Notwithstanding this
-    fact, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>and many similar efforts, no marked analogy between the Aztec
-    picture-writing and the hieroglyphic systems of any other peoples has
-    yet been pointed out.<a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="tb" />
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p><span class="smcap">Map of Yucatan.</span>—We have found it impossible in this
-      chapter to convey any adequate idea of the number and extent of the
-      ruins scattered over Central America and Mexico. Only by reference
-      to an accurately prepared map, having distinctness and detail, can
-      a proper understanding of this interesting field be reached. Maps
-      of Northern and Central Mexico alone, meeting the requirements,
-      have for some time been accessible, but a reliable map of Yucatan
-      and of neighboring States has long been a desideratum. This great
-      want has recently been supplied by the publication in New York of
-      a rare specimen of cartography, bearing the title, <cite>Mapa de la
-      Peninsula de Yucatan, compilado por Joaquin Hübbe y Andres Azuar
-      Perez y revisado y aumentado con datos importantes por C. Hermann
-      Berendt</cite>, 1878—size, 28 × 36 inches. Stephens, in his work on
-      <cite>Yucatan</cite>, indicated the sites of many remains discovered by
-      him; but Señor Perez has for the first time brought before us a
-      view of the whole field, including Yucatan and Campeachy, together
-      with the greater part of Tabasco and Belize, and portions of
-      Guatemala and Chiapas, showing, by means of appropriate symbols,
-      the great number of known ruins. The map has met with merited
-      approval from the American Antiquarian Society, and has been
-      reproduced in <cite>Dr. A. Petermann’s Mittheilungen aus Justus
-      Perthes Geographische Anstalt, Gotha, Band 25</cite>, No. VI, 1879.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_IX"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IX</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">CHRONOLOGY, CALENDAR SYSTEMS AND RELIGIOUS ANALOGIES.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">No Mound-builder Chronology known—Maya Calendar—Landa on the
-    Calendar—Maya Days—Maya Months—The Katun—The Ahau Katun or
-    Great Cycle—The Maya System Adjusted to our Chronology—The
-    Adjustment by Perez—Intercalary Days—The Nahua Calendar—The
-    Sources—Divisions of Mexican Calendar—The Aztec Year—The
-    Nemontemi—Aztec Months—Aztec Days—Nahua Ritual Calendar—Mexican
-    Calendar Stone—Sources of Interpretation—History of the
-    Stone—Interpretation of the Stone—Date of the Origin of
-    the Calendar Stone—Date of the Nahua Migration—Analogies
-    with the Nahua Calendar—Religious Analogies—Jewish
-    Analogies—Deluge Traditions—Supposed Parallels in Jewish
-    and Mexican History—Analogies of Doctrine—Analogies
-    of Ceremonial Law—Yucatanic Trinity Myth—Mexican and
-    Asiatic Analogies—Buddhism in the New World—Scandinavian
-    Analogies—Mexican and Greek Analogies—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s
-    Comparisons.</div>
-
-  <p><i>Chronology and Calendar Systems.</i>—No tablet or relic of
-    Mound-builder origin has yet been discovered, which can be said to
-    give any clue to the system of chronology employed by that people.
-    Several supposed calendar stones have been found, such, for instance,
-    as the Cincinnati Tablet referred to in Chapter I, and the Tablet
-    from Mississippi in the possession of Wm. Marshall Anderson, Esq.,
-    of Circleville, Ohio. However, their character is only a matter of
-    conjecture, since no progress whatever has been made toward evolving
-    any system from them. Farther south, on the soil where a higher
-    civilization flourished, we meet with two calendar systems, which,
-    while they have several points of resemblance, are quite distinct from
-    each other.</p>
-
-  <p>The first of these, the Maya, is probably the most ancient. Bishop
-    Landa is our chief authority in this field, though Don Juan Pio
-    Perez, a more recent writer, also familiar with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span> Maya language,
-    has furnished us some material.<a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> Bishop Landa informs us that the
-    Mayas had a year of 365 days and 6 hours divided into months (a month
-    being called a <i>U</i>) in two ways, first into months of thirty days
-    each, and second, into eighteen months of twenty days each. As the
-    Bishop makes no explanation of the former statement, we are unable
-    to determine whether the months of thirty days each were employed in
-    Yucatan prior to the conquest, or not, but we are rather inclined to
-    the opinion that they were not.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp84" id="i_436">
-    <img src="images/i_436.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Maya Days.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The month of twenty days was called the <i>Uinal-Hun-ekeh</i>, and
-    might commence on any of the days represented by the hieroglyphics in
-    the left-hand column of the table of days. These months were eighteen
-    in number, thus making a year of 360 days. The Mayas, however,
-    corrected the error by adding five intercalary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span> days and six hours to
-    the 360 days; and once every four years, Landa informs us, they counted
-    366 days a year. The five supplementary days were considered unlucky,
-    and were known as the “nameless days” because they were never called
-    by any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span> particular designation. The accompanying cut is a photographic
-    reproduction of Landa’s plate, and shows accurately the Maya days in
-    their proper order.<a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a>
-    (<a href="#i_436">Page 436</a>.)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp74" id="i_437">
-    <img src="images/i_437.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Maya Months.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Though the intercalary days were “nameless” and characterized as
-    the “bed or chamber of the year,” “the mother of the year,” “bed of
-    creation,” “travail of the year,” “lying days,” or “bad days,” etc.,
-    still five of the above twenty were reckoned for them in regular order.</p>
-
-  <p>The year began on a day corresponding to our 16th of July—“a date,” as
-    Mr. Bancroft observes, “which varies only forty-four hours from the
-    time when the sun passes the zenith—an approximation as accurate as
-    could be expected from observation made without instruments.”<a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Maya months as figured in Landa’s work are shown in the
-    accompanying photo-engraving. (<a href="#i_437">Page 437</a>.)</p>
-
-  <p>The translation of the names of the days and months is somewhat
-    uncertain. The following equivalents are the same as those given by
-    Señor Perez, except in a few instances where Brasseur and Rosny have
-    made corrections.</p>
-
-  <div class="center small">TRANSLATION OF THE DAYS.</div>
-
-  <ol class="small">
-    <li><i>Kan</i>, “string of twisted hemp” (yellow).</li>
-    <li><i>Chicchan</i>, signification unknown.</li>
-    <li><i>Cimi</i>, preterit of <i>cimil</i>, to kill = “dead.”</li>
-    <li><i>Manik</i>, “wind that passes” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Lamat</i>, signification unknown.</li>
-    <li><i>Muluc</i>, “reunion” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Oc</i>, “that which may be held in the palm of the hand.”</li>
-    <li><i>Chuen</i>, “board” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Eb</i>, “ladder.”</li>
-    <li><i>Ben</i>, “to distribute with economy” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Ix</i>, “fish-skin” (Rosny), “witch, witchcraft” (Brasseur), “roughness” (Perez).</li>
-    <li><i>Men</i>, “builder.”</li>
-    <li><i>Cib</i>, “gum copal.”</li>
-    <li><i>Caban</i>, “heaped up” (Brasseur).</li>
-    <li><i>Ezanab</i>, “flint” (Brasseur).</li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span><i>Cauac</i>, signification unknown.</li>
-    <li><i>Ahau</i>, “king, or period of twenty-four years.”</li>
-    <li><i>Ymix</i>, signification unknown. “Corn” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Ik</i>, “wind,” “spirit,” according to Rosny, one of the symbols of Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl.</li>
-    <li><i>Akbal</i>, “approach of night” (Brasseur).</li>
-  </ol>
-
-  <div class="center small">TRANSLATION OF THE MONTHS.</div>
-
-  <ol class="small">
-    <li><i>Pop</i>, “mat of cane.”</li>
-    <li><i>Uo</i>, “frog.”</li>
-    <li><i>Zip</i>, “a tree” (Perez), “fault, error” (Brasseur).</li>
-    <li><i>Tzoz</i>, “a bat.”</li>
-    <li><i>Tzec</i>, signification unknown.</li>
-    <li><i>Xul</i>, “end or conclusion.”</li>
-    <li><i>Yaxkin</i>, signification unknown. “Summer” (??)</li>
-    <li><i>Mol</i>, “to re-unite, to recover.”</li>
-    <li><i>Chen</i>, “a well.”</li>
-    <li><i>Yax</i>, “first,” or <i>Yaax</i>, “blue.”</li>
-    <li><i>Zac</i>, “white.”</li>
-    <li><i>Ceh</i>, “a deer.”</li>
-    <li><i>Mac</i>, “a lid or cover.”</li>
-    <li><i>Kankin</i>, “yellow sun,” “because in this month of April the atmosphere
-      is charged with smoke,” owing to the work of clearing the soil.</li>
-    <li><i>Muan</i>, “cloudy weather” (Brasseur).</li>
-    <li><i>Pax</i>, “musical instrument.”</li>
-    <li><i>Kayab</i>, “singing.”</li>
-    <li><i>Cumhu</i>, “thunder-clap,” “detonation.”<a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a></li></ol>
-
-  <p>Though these translations may seem uninteresting by themselves, they
-    are of great value when taken in connection with Landa’s alphabet and
-    M. de Rosny’s interpretations. They must ever be important factors in
-    attempts to translate the inscriptions and codices.</p>
-
-  <p>Another division of time among the Mayas of a complicated character
-    was the Katun or Cycle of 52 years. The Katun was composed of four
-    periods (indictions or weeks) of 13 years each, enumerated by a system
-    of reckoning kept simultaneously with the current reckoning of days,
-    months and years. The mode of computing the Katunes was, according to
-    Landa and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span>
-    Perez, briefly as follows:<a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> The year was divided into twenty-eight
-    periods of thirteen days each. These periods for convenience have
-    been called weeks, and the number of days of which each is composed
-    may have been suggested by the number of days embraced in the moon’s
-    <em>increase</em>, and <em>decrease</em>, twenty-six days constituting
-    about the actual time in which the moon is seen above the horizon
-    during each lunation.<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> The weeks were divided off by counting
-    thirteen days from the beginning of the list of days shown on <a href="#i_436">page
-    436</a>, Kan constituting the first day of the first week and according to
-    usage applying its name to the weeks. The week was consequently called
-    by the name of the day on which it began. Caban being the fourteenth
-    day of the current month, became the first day of another week; but
-    as not enough days remain to complete it, the enumeration is begun
-    again and continued down to Muluc, the sixth day of the next month.
-    Oc, the seventh day, then becomes the starting point for another week,
-    which assumes its name, and thus the computation is carried on <i>ad
-    infinitum</i>. A numeral preceded each day designating its position in
-    the week. The people of Yucatan painted a small circle in which they
-    placed the four hieroglyphics of the initial days which constitute
-    the left-hand column of signs given on <a href="#i_436">page 436</a>. Kan was placed in
-    the east, Muluc in the north, Ix in the west and Cauac in the south.
-    These signs were termed the “carriers of the years” because no month or
-    year could begin on any of the twenty days, but on one of these. Since
-    twenty days constitute a current month, it is apparent that every month
-    in a given year must begin with the same day. However, the introduction
-    of the five intercalary days at the end of the year, changed the
-    initial day on which the months of the different years began. In
-    reckoning the Katun it is further observed that the numeral which
-    indicates the day of the week (of thirteen days) which falls upon the
-    first of a given month, varies. Supposing the month to begin on Kan and
-    the numeral of the first day to be 1, the numerals indicative <span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span>of the
-    days of the week (composed of thirteen days) falling on Kan throughout
-    the eighteen months, would be, 8, 9, 3, 10, 4, 11, 5, 12, 6, 13, 7, 1,
-    8, 2, 9, 3.</p>
-
-  <p>The Katun year consisted, as we have seen, of twenty-eight weeks of
-    thirteen days each, and <em>one additional day</em>, making in all 365
-    days. If the year commenced with number one of the week, the additional
-    day (the 365th) caused it to end on the same number. The ensuing year
-    would then begin with number two, and so on through the thirteen
-    numbers of the week, as follows: 1. Kan, 2. Muluc, 3. Ix, 4. Cauac,
-    5. Kan, 6. Muluc, 7. Ix, 8. Cauac, 9. Kan, 10. Muluc, 11. Ix, 12.
-    Cauac, 13. Kan, thus completing an indiction or week of years. The same
-    combination of names and numerals can only occur after the lapse of the
-    Katun or cycle comprising four of these indictions or fifty-two years.
-    Not only the years of the week, but also the indictions themselves were
-    named by the four initial symbols. The first indiction of each Katun
-    being named Kan, the second Muluc, the third Ix, and the fourth Cauac.
-    The completion of a Katun or fifty-two years was celebrated with feasts
-    and rejoicings as an event of great moment. A monument was reared as a
-    memorial of the event. It is not impossible that the great number of
-    pillars, observed by Stephens at Chichen-Itza were of this character,
-    serving as landmarks to Maya chronology.<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a></p>
-
-  <p>A third division of time employed by the Mayas was the great cycle of
-    312 years, composed, according to Señor Perez,<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a> of thirteen periods
-    of time, each embracing twenty-four years. Each of these thirteen
-    periods was called an Ahau Katun, and was divided into two parts.
-    The first part, embracing twenty years, was enclosed in a square and
-    called <i>Amaytum lamayte</i>, or <i>lamaytum</i>; and the other part
-    of four years, which formed as it were a pedestal for the first, was
-    called <i>Chek oc Katun</i>, or <i>lath oc Katun</i>, meaning “stool”
-    or “pedestal.” He affirms that the latter were intercalated, therefore
-    believed to be unfortunate as were the five supplementary days of the
-    year. This may account <span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">442</span>for their not being reckoned with the Ahau
-    Katun by any other writer. Just here lies the discrepancy which has
-    created most of the confusion in the investigation of this subject.
-    However, if we accept the statement of Señor Perez, that the Ahau Katun
-    embraced twenty-four years instead of the testimony of every other
-    writer that it included but twenty years, we shall have moderately
-    fair sailing until we split upon the rock of his inaccuracies as to
-    dates. He tells us that these periods took their name from Ahau, the
-    second of those years that began in Cauac, and from the order of the
-    numerals accompanying those days would succeed each other according
-    to the numbers 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2. The Indians
-    established the number 13 Ahau as the first, because some great event
-    happened in that year. If the 13 Ahau Katun began on a second day of
-    the year, it must have been the year which began on 12 Cauac, and the
-    12th of the indiction. The next or the 11 Ahau would commence in the
-    year 10 Cauac, which combination in its rotation would happen after a
-    lapse of twenty-four years. The third or 9 Ahau would begin in 8 Cauac
-    twenty-four years later, in illustration of which we follow out the
-    rotation of the four names of the years, Kan, Muluc, Ix and Cauac,
-    through the indictions of thirteen years each, until we have noted the
-    numerals accompanying them during twenty-four years. Our starting point
-    will be the commencement of the second Ahau Katun on the second day of
-    10 Cauac.</p>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya calendar">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Year of 13 Year Indiction.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Name of Year.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Year of Period of 24 Years.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt2 bl2 br"><i>Year of 13 Year Indiction.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl2">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Name of Year.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl2 bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="bl bb">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Year of Period of 24 Years.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>9</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>13</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>10</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>14</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>11</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>15</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>16</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>13</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>17</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>18</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>2</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>19</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>3</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>20</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>21</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Kan</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>22</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Muluc</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>23</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="bl">Ix</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl br"><div>24</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl2 bb"><div>8</div></td>
-        <td class="bl bb">Cauac</td>
-        <td class="tdc bl bb br"><div>1st of a new period.</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span></p>
-
-  <p>As above stated the new Ahau Katun begins in the year 8 Cauac, and as
-    it invariably began on the second day of the year, that day would be
-    9 Ahau, as Ahau is the next letter in the alphabet after Cauac. An
-    extension of the table will show that the next period will begin in 6
-    Cauac on 7 Ahau, and so on in the order of the numerals given above.
-    Thirteen Ahau Katunes, as previously stated, constituted a great cycle
-    of three hundred and twelve years. Sr. Perez states that according to
-    all sources of information, confirmed by the testimony of Don Cosme de
-    Burgos, one of the conquerors and a writer (but whose observations have
-    been lost), the year 1392 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> corresponded to the Maya year
-    7 Cauac, and as the second day of that year was the beginning of an era
-    of twenty-four years, it must have been 8 Ahau Katun. By dividing off
-    the time between that date and the beginning of the present century
-    into periods of twenty-four years each, and extending a table of the
-    rotation of the four names of the years, the reader will observe
-    that 13 Ahau will fall in the year 1800; 11 Ahau in 1824; 9 Ahau in
-    1848; 7 Ahau in 1872, and 5 Ahau in 1896, three hundred and twelve
-    years intervening before this, and any similar combination of Ahau
-    Katunes either have occurred or can be repeated. This would be highly
-    satisfactory if Sr. Perez could be relied upon in this particular,
-    which is doubtful. We are sorry to say that he is certainly chargeable
-    with inaccuracies, which impair the value of his whole system. Most
-    conspicuous of these is one pointed out by Mr. Bancroft, to which we
-    refer the reader below. Señor Perez sets about the verification of his
-    system by citing the death of a notable personage named Ahpula. He
-    states that Ahpula died in the sixth year of 13 Ahau, when the first
-    day of the year was 4 Kan, on the day 9 Imix, the eighteenth of the
-    month Zip. It is seen that 13 Ahau is the second day of the year 12
-    Cauac which falls in the year 1488, also that the year 1493 is the
-    sixth from the beginning of 13 Ahau, and that its first day is 4 Kan,
-    which is the title of the year. The day is the eighteenth of the month
-    Zip, corresponding to the eleventh of September. The statement is also
-    made that this date fell on 9 Imix. This is tested as follows:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span> The
-    first month of that year commenced on 4 Kan, which combination names
-    the year. The number (of the week of thirteen days) is found by adding
-    seven to the number of the first day of each month successively. The
-    number of the first day of the first month, Pop, in this case being 4,
-    the number of the first day of the second month (Uo) would be 4 + 7 =
-    11, and that of the first day of the third month (Zip) would be 11 + 7
-    = 18, but as the week consists of but thirteen days, that number must
-    be substracted, leaving 5 Kan as the first day of Zip. If Zip begins on
-    the twenty-fifth of August, the day 9 Imix will be found to correspond
-    both with the eighteenth of Zip and the eleventh of September, if the
-    Katun week of thirteen days is counted off regularly, beginning with 5
-    Kan. Sr. Perez is correct enough in his calculations, but unfortunately
-    his system of twenty-four years to the Ahau Katun or his informant
-    as to the correspondence of the Ahau Katunes with our chronology (no
-    doubt the latter) is incorrect, since the Maya manuscript furnished
-    and translated by Perez and published in the works of Stephens and
-    Landa, states explicitly that Ahpula died in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1536,
-    instead of 1493 (incorrectly printed 1403 in Bancroft’s work), a
-    date which is irreconcilable with the system of twenty-four years to
-    the Ahau, reckoned from 1392 as a starting point. Neither will the
-    statement of Landa that the year 1541 corresponded with the beginning
-    of 11 Ahau relieve the difficulty, but rather increases it, since it
-    will neither harmonize with the date of Ahpula’s death given in the
-    MS. nor with the system by Perez. Furthermore, while Landa gives the
-    same succession of numerals for the recurrence of the Ahaus, he states
-    that they embraced but twenty years each, thus making it impossible
-    for the combinations of names and numerals to correspond to the order
-    which he lays down for their succession. Landa is no doubt incorrect
-    in his statement. Sr. Perez is at least consistent in his adaptation
-    of the length of the Ahau Katun to the order of numerals given by
-    Landa and others. Recently, M. Delaporte, a member of the Société
-    Américaine de France, has, by a series of extended calculations,
-    vindicated the correctness of the statement of Sr. Perez,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span> that the
-    Ahau Katun embraced twenty-four years. M. de Rosny agrees with M.
-    Delaporte in his conclusions. The fault of Perez, probably, lies in
-    his adaptation of the Ahaus to our chronology, and in carelessness.
-    Amidst these discrepancies it is impossible to fix accurately the
-    dates of the Maya history, though they can be approximated.<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> Señor
-    Perez cites Boturini as stating that the day introduced every four
-    years to compensate for the annual loss of six hours, was observed by
-    counting the symbol for the three hundred and sixty-fifth day twice,
-    as the Romans did with their bissextile days, thus leaving the order
-    undisturbed.<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></p>
-
-  <p><i>The Nahua Calendar</i> system closely resembles that of the Mayas, a
-    fact which adds to the abundant proof that both civilizations had grown
-    up under nearly the same influences, and that they had largely affected
-    each other. If the trifling differences of a few writers concerning
-    some of the details of the Aztec calendar be overlooked, and the best
-    authorities (together with a little exercise of judgment) be followed,
-    the system becomes comparatively simple. Sahagun, Leon y Gama,
-    Humboldt, Veytia, Galatin, McCulloch, Müller, Bancroft, Chavero, and
-    Prof. Valentini, are the authorities to whom we refer the reader.<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span></p>
-
-  <p><i>The Mexican Calendar</i> contains divisions as follows: The age,
-    called <i>huehuetiliztli</i>, embraced two cycles of fifty-two years
-    each, thus equalizing one hundred and four years. The cycle of
-    fifty-two years was named <i>xiuhmolpilli</i>, <i>xiuhmolpia</i>,
-    and <i>xiuhtlalpilli</i>, signifying the “binding up of the years”
-    and consisted of four periods of thirteen years each. These periods
-    or indictions were called “knots,” while the single years were
-    called <i>xihuitl</i> or “new grass,” because anciently, before the
-    invention of the calendar, the Nahuas were only able to distinguish the
-    revolution of the years by the annual appearance of fresh vegetation
-    and new grass. The age was but little used, the cycle being the common
-    measure for long periods. The years in a given cycle were designated
-    as among the Mayas, by means of the consecutive rotation of four
-    signs, each accompanied with a numeral. The signs were <i>tochtli</i>,
-    “rabbit”; <i>acatl</i>, “cane”; <i>tecpatl</i>, “flint,” and
-    <i>calli</i>, “house.” The following table illustrates the rotation
-    occurring in one cycle:</p>
-
-  <table class="xsmall mt2 mb2" summary="Mexican calendar">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">1st Tlalpilli.</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">2d Tlalpilli.</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">3d Tlalpilli.</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl br">4th Tlalpilli.</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th>
-        <th class="bt bl bb br"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">1. House.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">2. Rabbit</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">3. Cane.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">4. Flint.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">5. House.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. House</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">6. Rabbit.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">7. Cane.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">8. Flint.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">9. House.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">10. Rabbit.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">11. Cane.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. House.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">12. Flint.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Tochtli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Rabbit.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Acatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Cane.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Tecpatl</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Flint.</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Calli</td>
-        <td class="tdlh bl br bb">13. House.</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span></p>
-
-  <p>As in the Maya rotation of years no confusion could occur, so with the
-    Mexican, as the same combination could be made only once in fifty-two
-    years. The cycles themselves were distinguished by numbers. Confusion
-    is liable to arise in studying the early writers, since the Toltecs
-    and Aztecs began their reckoning on different signs, the former on
-    Tecpatl, and the latter on Tochtli. The year consisted of eighteen
-    months of twenty days each, to which were added five days called
-    <i>nemontemi</i> or “unlucky days.” Every superstition seemed to centre
-    in the <i>nemontemi</i>, for no business of importance nor enterprise
-    of the most insignificant character would be undertaken upon these
-    days. Both the names of the months and the particular month which
-    served to begin the year, as well as the date of the first day of the
-    year, have been fruitful subjects of controversy between authors. Mr.
-    Bancroft has tabulated the names given by twenty-one writers, and shown
-    the disagreements existing between them.<a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> The dates for the first
-    day of the year range between the ninth of January and the tenth of
-    April. Gama, Humboldt and Gallatin, by careful calculations, have shown
-    that the first year of a Nahua cycle commenced on the thirty-first day
-    of December, old style, or on the ninth day of January, new style, with
-    the month Titill and the day Cipactli.<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The names and order of the months, together with their etymologies,
-    as adopted by Mr. Bancroft, are as follows: 1. Titill, meaning “our
-    mother,” according to Boturini, or “fire,” according to Cabrera; 2.
-    Itzcalli, translated “regeneration” by Boturini, “skill” by the Codex
-    Vaticanus, and the “sprouting of the grass” by Veytia; 3. Atlcahualco,
-    meaning the “abating of the waters.” Another name (Quahuillehua)
-    applied to this month signified “burning of the mountains,” referring
-    to the forests; 4. Tlacaxipehualiztli, is translated “the flaying of
-    the people.” Another name applied to this month, Cohuailhuitl, means
-    the “feast of the snake”; 5. Tozoztontli is rendered “small fast”
-    or “penance”; 6. Hueytozoztli, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span>means “great fast” or “penance”; 7.
-    Toxcatl, a “necklace”; 8. Etzalqualiztli, “bean stew” or “maize gruel”;
-    9. Tecuilhuitzintli, “small feast of the Lord”; 10. Hueytecuilhuitl,
-    “great feast of the Lord”; 11. Miccailhuitzintli, translated “small
-    feast of the dead”; 12. Hueymiccailhuitl, “great feast of the
-    dead”; 13. Ochpaniztli, “cleaning of the streets”; 14. Teotleco,
-    “arrival of the gods.” The names Pachtli, “moss hanging from trees,”
-    and Pachtontli, “humiliation,” were often applied to this month;
-    15. Hueypachtli, “great feast of humiliation,” sometimes called
-    Tepeilhuitl, “feast of the mountains”; 16. Quecholli, “peacock”; 17.
-    Panquetzuliztli, “the raising of flags and banners”; 18. Atemoztli,
-    means the “drying up of the waters.”</p>
-
-  <p>The month, consisting of twenty days, was divided into four weeks
-    of five days each. Mr. Bancroft states that each of the weeks began
-    with one of the four signs—Tochtli, Calli, Tecpatl or Acatl, used
-    to designate the years; but his own engraving of the Aztec month,
-    and the order of the days on the Calendar-Stone, contradict this
-    statement.<a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> The following are the days in their proper order, with
-    their translations affixed: 1. Cipactli, “sea-animal,” “sword-fish,”
-    or “serpent with harpoons.” 2. Ehacatl, “wind.” 3. Calli, “house.” 4.
-    Cuetzpalin, “lizard.” 5. Coatl, “snake.” 6. Miquiztli, “death.” 7.
-    Mazatl, “deer.” 8. Tochtli, “rabbit.” 9. Atl, “water.” 10. Itzcuintli,
-    “dog.” 11. Ozomatli, “monkey.” 12. Mollinalli, “brushwood” or “tangled
-    grass.” 13. Acatl, “cane.” 14. Ocelotl, “tiger.” 15. Quanhtli, “eagle.”
-    16. Cozcaquauhtli, “vulture.” 17. Ollin, “movement.” 18. Tecpatl,
-    “flint.” 19. Quahuitl, “rain.” 20. Xochitl, “flower.”</p>
-
-  <p>The day was divided into sixteen hours.<a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> Sahagun and several
-    authors state that the loss of six hours in each Aztec year was
-    counterbalanced by the addition of a day every four years. Gama
-    demonstrates this to be a mistake, and states that they added twelve
-    and a half days at the close of every cycle of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span>fifty-two years. Mr.
-    Bancroft cites this fact, and states the time added to have been
-    thirteen days.<a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Nahuas had also a ritual calendar, for the purpose of reckoning
-    their religious feasts, which was altogether different from the civil
-    system, except that it employed the twenty days, the year of 365
-    days, and at the end of a cycle added the thirteen days to compensate
-    for the time lost during that period.<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> The year consisted of two
-    parts, the first composed of twenty weeks of thirteen days each (for
-    there were no months in the ritual year) making 260 altogether. This
-    portion of the year was called <i>Meztli pohualli</i> or the “lunar
-    computation,” from the fact that half of the time during which the
-    moon is visible is thirteen days. The smaller part, composed of 105
-    days reckoned by a continuation of the periods of thirteen days, was
-    called <i>Toualpohualli</i> or “solar computation.”<a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> The days were
-    numbered from one up to thirteen, the fourteenth day of the first solar
-    month being counted the first of another lunar week, and thus the
-    reckoning continued. However, it will be observed that the same number
-    would fall twice on one name in the course of a year; accordingly
-    accompanying signs were provided for the regular names of days. The
-    duplication could not occur if the second division embraced 104 days
-    instead of 105.</p>
-
-  <p>The distinguishing signs were nine in number, called <i>quecholli</i>,
-    “lords of the night.” They were as follows: Tletl, “fire”; Tecpatl,
-    “flint”; Xochitl, “flower”; Centeotl, “goddess of maize”; Miquiztli,
-    “death”; Atl, “water”; Tlazolteotl, “goddess of love”; Tepeyollotli, “a
-    mountain deity”; Quiahuitl, “rain,” the god Tlaloc. The lords of the
-    night, though reckoned from the first of the year, were not mentioned
-    except in connection with the 105 days of the second division.</p>
-
-  <p>The reader will more clearly understand the relation of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span>two
-    systems to each other by constructing a table of four parallel columns.
-    In the left-hand column place the months of one year, numbering the
-    days of each month in order, but beginning on the ninth day of January.
-    In the second column place the names of the Mexican months, numbering
-    the days of each month from one to twenty in regular order. In the
-    third column place the <em>names</em> of the Mexican days, twenty in
-    number, repeating them in their regular rotation throughout the year,
-    but in addition prefix to the names such numerals as will fall opposite
-    to each in the process of dividing them off into thirteens. These
-    divisions into thirteens represent the ritual weeks. Acatl being the
-    13th day of the month will end the first week of the year, and Ocelotl
-    being the 14th day of the month will constitute the 1st day of the
-    second week. In the fourth column place the nine signs of the “lords
-    of the night” in regular order. Divide the year into periods of nines,
-    and it will be found that the same combination of days of the month
-    (twenty days), of days of the week (thirteen days), and the “lords of
-    the night,” will not recur for a considerable period.</p>
-
-  <p>The most remarkable embodiment of this complex system is found in the
-    symbols and concentric zones graven upon the face of the Calendar
-    Stone, described in the last chapter. The interpretation of its
-    mysterious disk was partly accomplished by the learned antiquarian Leon
-    y Gama; Gallatin, and after him Bancroft presented those investigations
-    to the public. In 1875 (Nov.), Don Alfredo Chevero, of the Liceo
-    Hidalgo of Mexico, published his <cite>Calendario Azteca</cite>, in which
-    it was shown that many of Gama’s interpretations would have to be
-    abandoned. It was proven that the “Calendar Stone” was a sun-disk or
-    stone of sacrifice, and that Gama had pursued his investigations with
-    a mistaken view of its character. Chevero’s account of the history of
-    the stone is full and satisfactory, Duran being the authority cited. An
-    interpretation of some of the concentric zones, two in particular, is
-    attempted with a result somewhat different from that obtained by any
-    other investigator. Recently, Prof. Ph. Valentini, by the light of his
-    extensive researches into Nahua literature, has compelled the sun-disk
-    to give up its secrets. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span> illustration on the preceding page is a
-    reproduction of a pen-and-ink drawing made by the Professor from the
-    most recent and correct photograph which has been made of the Calendar
-    Stone. It was kindly furnished for this work. The same conclusion
-    concerning the character of the stone was reached independently by
-    both Chevero and Valentini. The latter’s account of the stone and
-    its history is drawn from Tezozomoc, and though agreeing in the main
-    facts with Duran’s account as rendered by Chevero, bears the evidence
-    upon its face of independent research.<a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> The originality of Prof.
-    Valentini is vindicated in his masterly interpretation of all the zones
-    of the Calendar Stone. Whether the interpretation will ever give way to
-    some other is a question of the future, though it is probable that it
-    will not.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter illowp100">
-    <img src="images/i_451.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption smcap">The Mexican Calendar Stone.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>We are indebted to Professor Valentini for a communication on the
-    History of the Calendar Stone, condensed from his unpublished MS.
-    <cite>Description and Interpretation of the Mexican Calendar Stone</cite>.
-    An extract from the communication is as follows: “King Axayacatl of
-    Mexico, 1466–1480, the builder of the large pyramid, at the approach
-    of the last year of the national cycle (1479), ordered the altar
-    standing on the platform of the pyramid to be covered with a stone
-    disk, the surface of which was to be sculptured with the image of the
-    Sun-god, and, as the text says, ‘to be surrounded by all the national
-    deities’ (see Alvaro de Tezozomoc, 1598, <cite>Chronica Mexicana</cite>,
-    Ternaux-Compans, vol. i, chap. xlvii, pp. 249 <i>et seq.</i>). A large
-    slab, carried for the purpose from the quarries of Cuyoacan, when
-    rolled over the bridge of Xoloc, crushed this structure, fell to the
-    bottom of the lake and remained there. Another slab was broken and a
-    new bridge built, and 50,000 Indians succeeded in transporting the
-    slab to the foot of the pyramid, where the sculptor accomplished his
-    task to the satisfaction of the king. The cyclical festival of the sun
-    (1479) was celebrated, and on the disk which now had been inserted
-    into the surface of the sacrificial altar, thousands of captives were
-    slaughtered. The king is said to have overworked <span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span>himself, slaying one
-    hundred of the victims, and feasting upon their flesh and blood—that
-    very soon after he died in consequence of these exertions. In the year
-    1512, Montezuma II, for reasons unknown, expressed the wish to replace
-    the altar cover, which his father had consecrated, by a new and still
-    larger one. The people, horrified and out of patience with the bloody
-    proceedings connected with these consecration festivals of sacrificial
-    disks, contrived to let the slab, brought expressly for the purpose,
-    fall into the lake again, pretending as an excuse, that the stone
-    had spoken and said that it was to go back to the quarry. Montezuma,
-    superstitious as he was, took the accident for a bad augury, desisted
-    from his plan, and left the stone in its place. We may thus infer that
-    it was <em>our</em> disk on which, in the year 1520, those Spaniards
-    of Cortes’ troops which were made captives had been immolated, and
-    the screams and cries of whom reached the ears of their comrades, and
-    as Bernal Diaz narrates, ‘filled their hearts with the most awful
-    forebodings.’ Cortez demolished the pyramid, and with its débris filled
-    the canals of the city. The disk was preserved, for we know from Duran,
-    who wrote a <cite>Historia de la N. España</cite>, 1588, that he and many of
-    his fellow-citizens had often been standing before this disk admiring
-    it, until the Archbishop Montufar, scandalized by the existence of such
-    a barbarous relic, caused it to be buried in the immediate neighborhood
-    of the Metropolitan cathedral in the year 1551. This procedure was
-    forgotten; so much so, that when this disk was disinterred in the year
-    1790, even Gama the archæologist and its later interpreter, had not the
-    remotest idea what purpose it could have served, for the manuscript
-    chronicles of Duran and Tezozomoc still slumbered in the dust of the
-    archives. The viceroy, Reviellagigedo, ordered the disk to be fitted
-    into the outer wall of one of the towers of the cathedral. There it is
-    to this day.”</p>
-
-  <p>We now ask your attention to the stone itself. The central circle
-    contains the face of the Sun-god bedecked with ornaments, earrings,
-    and jeweled lip. In the next zone we observe four large parallelograms
-    containing hieroglyphic signs: Nahui Ocelotl, Nahui Ehecatl, Nahui
-    Quahuitl and Nahui Atl. Between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span> upper and lower enclosures on both
-    sides of the central disk are circular figures containing hieroglyphics
-    resembling claws, said to represent two ancient astrologers, man and
-    wife, who, according to the early writers, invented the calendar.
-    These four signs are identical with the days on which, according to
-    the traditions, the world was destroyed at four different times.
-    These destructions mark four ages represented by the signs of the day
-    on which they occurred. These ages were also called suns. The first
-    destruction occurred in Ce Acatl, and is represented by the sign
-    Nahui Ocelotl, or 4 Tigre, seen in the upper right-hand tablet. The
-    small figure above and towards the left is the sign for 1. Tecpatl, a
-    feast-day kept by the Aztecs in memory of the first destruction. The
-    second tablet bears the symbol for Ehecatl or Wind, in memory of the
-    destruction of the world by hurricane, which occurred in the year Ce
-    Tecpatl or Nahui (4) Ehecatl. Between the tablet and the triangular
-    figure to the right is a sculpture in which a broken wall with
-    towers appears. The sign 1. Calli is associated with it, indicating
-    a ritualistic feast-day kept on that sign. The third tablet bears
-    the symbol of the rain-god Tlaloc, in memory of the destruction of
-    the world from frequent rains. The last tablet represents the fourth
-    destruction by a flood on Nahui Atl in the year Ce Calli.</p>
-
-  <p>The faces of Cox-Cox, the Mexican Noah, and his wife are delineated in
-    the picture. The symbol for water is seen immediately below the faces.
-    Between the two lower tablets, two small quadrilateral enclosures will
-    be observed, each containing five round points, supposed to mean 10
-    Ollin (the sun being called <i>ollin tonatiuh</i>). Below the lower
-    tablets and almost in contact with the next concentric circle are the
-    hieroglyphics 1. Quiahuitl and 2. Ozomatli. The first, namely 10 Ollin,
-    corresponds with our twenty-second of September in the first year of
-    a cycle, and its hieroglyphic on this astronomical disk represents
-    the autumnal equinox. At the extreme top of the Calendar Stone is a
-    central figure, well known to be the hieroglyphic for 13 Acatl. This
-    fact known, the interpretation of the two remaining symbols is easy.
-    In the year 13 Acatl, the day 1. Quiahuitl would correspond to our
-    twenty-second of March,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span> and represent the vernal equinox. In the same
-    year 2. Ozomatli would correspond with our twenty-second of June, or
-    summer solstice. Thus it is that the stone speaks and testifies to
-    the astronomical knowledge of the Aztecs, the accuracy of which casts
-    into the shade the imperfect Julian Calendar in use by Europeans at
-    the time of the conquest. In the next zone, encircling that which
-    contains the tablets of the cosmological ages, are twenty enclosures,
-    containing the symbols of the twenty days. The triangular pointer
-    which extends upwards from the crest of the sun-face indicates the
-    dividing line between the first and last days of the month. Cipactli,
-    whose hieroglyphic stands at the left of the pointer is unquestionably
-    distinguished as the first day of the month. The second symbol to the
-    left is that of the second day Ehecatl, wind, the third Calli, house,
-    the fourth Cuetzpalin, lizard, the fifth snake, and so on to the end
-    of the list. In the next zone we find a succession of small squares,
-    each enclosing five round points. The circle is divided into four parts
-    by four large triangular pointers or gnomons. In each division of the
-    zone are ten squares containing five points each, or in the four,
-    we have 200 points. Gama states that the space for sixty additional
-    points is occupied by the feet or curves of the large indices. By
-    experiment it is found that the mean of the space occupied by the
-    feet of the pointers is equal to the width of one and a half of the
-    square enclosures. Eight times this space gives us twelve squares with
-    sixty points. Thus we have the ritualistic division or lunar reckoning
-    (Metzli pohualli) of 260 days. In the next zone the symbols of the
-    remaining 105 days or solar reckoning of the ritualistic year is found.
-    Eight pointers divide the circle; the six upper divisions of which
-    contain each ten figures resembling a grain of maize, while the two
-    lower divisions have but five figures in each. This gives us seventy
-    figures. Under each limb of the pointers is space for one and a half of
-    the figures, giving twenty-four more or ninety-four in all. The space
-    of ten additional figures is occupied by the helm-plumes of the heads
-    which are figured at the lower margin of the stone. This gives us 104
-    figures, or one less than the required number. It will be remembered
-    that the five intercalary days<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span> called the nemontemi, or unlucky
-    days, though reckoned in regular order at the close of each year,
-    were considered separate and apart from it. The artist who executed
-    the Calendar Stone has carried out this custom in placing the figures
-    of the nemontemi between the tablets of the two last destructions of
-    nature, where they will be found by themselves. It will be observed
-    that four of the signs correspond to those wanting under the lower
-    pointer and the adjacent plumes, with this further departure from the
-    general plan of the design, that the central figure or maize grain
-    corresponds to the space between the limbs of the great pointer below.
-    Here, then, we have the missing symbol, and are able to find the 105
-    hieroglyphics of days for the lesser division of the year. The two
-    zones consequently represent the complete year of 365 days.</p>
-
-  <p>The most conspicuous of the remaining zones is the outer, and last of
-    all. The attention is asked to one of the twenty-four quadrangular
-    figures composing it. The Mexican Codices in the Kingsborough
-    collection furnish similar symbols for the cycle of 52 years.<a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> The
-    ancient Mexicans had a superstition that in the last night of the 52d
-    year of their cycle the sun would destroy the world. Consequently, at
-    every recurrence of the eventful night, all fires were extinguished,
-    the people clothed themselves in mourning, and forming a long
-    procession, repaired to a neighboring mountain, where at midnight a
-    priest sacrificed a man in their presence. A second priest placed a
-    round block of dry wood over the ghastly wound from which the heart
-    had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span>been torn; while a third, kneeling over the corpse, rested a hard
-    shaft or stick upon the block, revolving it between his two hands
-    with pressure until the friction produced fire. This was considered
-    a promise from the god that the destruction of the world would be
-    postponed until another cycle had elapsed.<a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> A moment’s observation
-    will disclose the fire symbol in the hieroglyphics for the cycle
-    as delineated on the stone; the perpendicular shaft with handles,
-    surrounded by flames and smoke, rising from a hole below. In the same
-    zone, above, we have two groups of pleats or bow-like figures, which
-    are clearly proven to be the symbol for the binding of two 52-year
-    cycles into an age.<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The zone immediately within the one we have been considering, contains
-    the symbols of the rain-god Tlaloc. No writer has as yet given a
-    satisfactory explanation of the plumed head at the bottom of the stone.
-    It will be readily seen that the two serpent heads, plumed, and with
-    extended jaws, armed above and below with great fangs, enclose two
-    human faces. These are but the heads of the serpents whose bodies
-    constitute the outer zone of the disk and terminate in the triangular
-    points above.</p>
-
-  <p>If the reader will but turn to our cut of the serpent temple at Uxmal
-    (p. 394), the same symbol of Cukulcan or Quetzalcoatl, the feathered
-    serpent, will be seen. Dr. Le Plongeon, in his recent researches, is
-    convinced that Uxmal was built, or more properly rebuilt, by Nahua
-    invaders, who afterwards became amalgamated with the Mayas.<a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a> Most
-    of the Mexican historians represent Quetzalcoatl as the founder of
-    the Nahua civilization. Torquemada states that he was their leader
-    when they first arrived in Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> If the “Feathered Serpent”
-    was the founder <span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span>of their institutions, it was not inappropriate for
-    the Aztec artist to place the hero’s face at the bottom of the stone,
-    and represent the symbols of the cycles as huge scales upon his body,
-    since the influence of the civilization which he established had been
-    felt throughout their entire history. To return to Prof. Valentini’s
-    investigations, it will be observed that there are twenty-four of the
-    cycle symbols, two of which are nearly hidden under the helm-plumes.
-    The product of 24 and 52 gives us a period of 1248 years. But what have
-    we to do with this result? The triangular-shaped figures which point to
-    the central tablet cut at the top of the stone, indicate that we must
-    make a calculation, and it remains for us to interpret that symbol. It
-    is recognizable as the sign Acatl accompanied by the number thirteen; a
-    year which, according to the authentic tables of reduction, corresponds
-    to the year 1479 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; a date which is confirmed as being the
-    year in which the Calendar Stone was finished and set up in the great
-    pyramid of Mexico by the statement of the native writer Tezozomoc,
-    that its author, King Axayacatl, became ill from his exertions at the
-    tragic celebrations of the completion of the temple and lived scarcely
-    a year, at the same time fixing the date of his death in 1480. If we
-    subtract 1248 years from the known date 1479 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, we have
-    the year 231 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; a date which no doubt marks the beginning
-    of the national era of the Nahuas, and probably designates the year of
-    their arrival in Mexico by the ports of Tampico, Xicalanco and Bacalar.
-    Thus it is that the uncertainty of the traditions relating to the
-    obscure events of early Nahua history is removed, and we are enabled to
-    settle upon the third century of our era as the period when the great
-    migration took place. We will say more than Professor Valentini or his
-    predecessor; we believe this to be the date of the migration from Hue
-    hue Tlapalan, the country of the Mound-builders of the Mississippi
-    valley, and we further think we are sustained in this view both by the
-    early writers and by the condition of the mounds and shell-heaps of the
-    United States. At first thought, it would seem that the year 231 might
-    be the date in which the astrologers assembled in Hue hue Tlapalan for
-    the correction of the calendar (a fact to which we have previously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span>
-    referred), but it is distinctly stated that the assembly convened in
-    the year 1 Tecpatl; a date which, according to the received reduction
-    tables, corresponds to the year 29 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span></p>
-
-  <p>Humboldt by an elaborate discussion has satisfactorily shown the
-    relative likeness of the Nahua Calendar to that of Asia. He cites the
-    fact that the Chinese, Japanese, Calmouks, Mongols, Mantchoux and
-    other hordes of Tartars have cycles of sixty years duration, divided
-    into five brief periods of twelve years each. The method of citing
-    a date by means of signs and numbers is quite similar with Asiatics
-    and Mexicans.<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> He further shows satisfactorily that the majority
-    of the names of the twenty days employed by the Aztecs are those of
-    a zodiac used since the most remote antiquity among the peoples of
-    Eastern Asia.<a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> Cabrera thinks he finds analogies between the
-    Mexican and Egyptian calendars. Adopting the view of several writers
-    (Acosta, Clavigero and others) that the Mexican year began on the 26th
-    of February, he finds the date to correspond to the beginning of the
-    Egyptian year. He also observes that both peoples intercalated five
-    days at the close of their year.<a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> M. Jomard, quoted by Delafield,
-    denies that the Egyptians intercalated, but believes sufficient
-    analogies exist to prove a common origin for the Theban and Mexican
-    calendars;<a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> his argument, however, is worthless, as are many others
-    of a similar character.</p>
-
-  <p><i>Religious Analogies.</i>—In contrast with the obscure subject of the
-    calendar requiring such close attention, we present to the reader a few
-    of the analogies supposed to exist between Mexican and other religious
-    systems. The majority of our references will be made more with a
-    view to satisfying curiosity than for the establishment of a theory.
-    Argument from analogy is at best unscientific—it proves nothing. It
-    is a matter of surprise how much has been written to establish the
-    theory that the Mexicans <span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span>were descendants of the Jews both in race
-    and religion. Mr. Bancroft has collected many of Lord Kingsborough’s
-    arguments in proof of the theory to which he devoted his fortune and
-    sacrificed his life. We have done a similar work with a somewhat
-    different arrangement, and call the attention of the reader to some of
-    the fanciful and we must add mirth-provoking analogies to which the
-    great Americanist attached so much importance. “The Mexicans spoke
-    of their god as the <em>invisible and incorporeal Unity</em>, and they
-    furthermore believed man to be created in his image.”<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> He states
-    further that the doctrine of the trinity was also held by them.<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> He
-    considers that Eden and the temptation were portrayed by the American
-    artists. “The Toltecs had paintings of a garden with a single tree
-    standing in the midst, one especially drawn on coarse paper of the
-    Aloe, round the root of which tree is entwined a serpent, whose head
-    appearing above the foliage displays the features and countenance of a
-    woman. * * * Torquemada admits the existence of this tradition amongst
-    them, and agrees with the Indian historians who affirm this was the
-    first woman in the world who had children, and from whom all mankind
-    are descended.”<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Lord Kingsborough is no doubt warranted in holding that the Nahuas
-    were of old world origin at a very remote period prior to their having
-    developed any special tribal characteristics, because of their singular
-    and we think certain knowledge of the Mosaic deluge; but he is not
-    justified in claiming for them any particular relationship to the
-    Jewish or any Shemitic people.<a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p>
-
-  <p>In a preceding chapter we have given the deluge tradition from
-    Ixtlilxochitl, who states that the waters rose <em>fifteen cubits</em>
-    (caxtolmoletltli) above the highest mountains, and that a few escaped
-    in a close chest (toptlipetlacali), and after men had multiplied, they
-    erected a very high <i>zacuali</i> or tower, in order to take refuge
-    in it should the world be again destroyed. He further states that then
-    their speech was confused, so that they could not understand each
-    other, and that they dispersed to different parts of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a>
-    Whether the native historian of Tezcuco who gives us this account,
-    so remarkable for its similarity to the Mosaic, was influenced by
-    Spanish priests and warped from the truth, we are not prepared to
-    affirm at this distant day, since such an assumption would strike the
-    very keystone from the arch upon which all historical evidence rests.
-    Much of the aversion to the view that the Mexican deluge legends
-    are authentic and of old world origin, has been generated by the
-    unscientific and presumptuous style of most of its advocates. Lord
-    Kingsborough himself is ever ready to catch at a straw, and out of
-    customs the most remote to evolve an analogy. Nevertheless, we are
-    not at liberty to reject the Mexican deluge legend as a fable without
-    assuming the burden of proof.<a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> Remarkable parallels (?) in the
-    history of both Jews and Mexicans are thought to be discovered by
-    the sanguine Kingsborough. Of a number, two or three specimens will
-    suffice. Hue hue Tlapalan is claimed to have been situated on the
-    Californian coast since the Gulf of California until a late period was
-    called the <i>red river</i> or <i>gulf</i>, a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span>name they brought with
-    them.<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> Again: “As the Israelites were conducted from Egypt by Moses
-    and Aaron who were accompanied by their sister Miriam, so the Aztecs
-    departed from Aztlan under the guidance of Huitziton and Tecpalzin, the
-    former of whom is named by Acosta and Herrera, Mixi, attended likewise
-    by their sister Quilaztli, or as she is otherwise named Chimalman or
-    Malinatli, both of which names have some resemblance to Miriam as Mixi
-    has to Moses.”<a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> “The destruction of the rebellious Kohra (Gen.
-    xvi) is repeated after the arrival of the Mexicans at Tulan, who,
-    enchanted with the land, were unwilling to go further in search of
-    their promised land. They murmured at Huitzilopochtli, and suffered a
-    dreadful punishment at his hands that night by the death of every one
-    who had rebelled against his will.”<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Lord Kingsborough discovers in a Mexican painting in the Bodleian
-    library, a symbol resembling the jaw-bone of an ass, from the side
-    of which water flows forth. This, of course, commemorated the story
-    of Sampson.<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> Among the conspicuous doctrines held by both Jews
-    and Mexicans, we note that the latter believed their children to be
-    the gift of Tezcatlipoca as the former ascribed them to the favor
-    of Jehovah.<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> The doctrine of sin and atonement was held by
-    the Mexicans. Confession and sacrifice of atonement were common,
-    for “half the offerings represented in the Mexican paintings were
-    trespass-offerings, or sacrifices for the commission of sins.”<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a>
-    “The Mexicans, like the Jews, were accustomed to do penance by sitting
-    on the ground, in which posture their priests are often represented
-    in the Mexican paintings.”<a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a> “The Mexicans were as punctilious
-    about washings and ablutions as the Jews.”<a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a> Baptism was considered
-    the means of regeneration in Yucatan,<a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> and was practised by the
-    Mexicans as a religious ceremony.<a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> Both peoples had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span>devils and the
-    leprosy,<a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> both considered women who died in child-bed as worthy
-    of honor as soldiers who fall in battle.<a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> The doctrine of hell,
-    according to the most orthodox theology, was held by the Mexicans.<a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a>
-    Both Jews and Mexicans believed in the resurrection of the body and the
-    immortality of the soul.<a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> The latter people sprinkled the face of
-    a corpse with water as a baptism after death.<a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> Numerous analogies
-    are found to exist between the Mosaic and the religious code of the
-    Mexicans, as in profanity, sabbath-keeping, disobedience to parents,
-    the smiting of a servant to death, and in the punishment by stoning of
-    persons guilty of fornication and adultery.<a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> Kingsborough maintains
-    that circumcision was performed on the eighth day, declaring it to
-    have “prevailed thousands of leagues along the coast of the Atlantic,
-    amongst nations very remote from each other, and who spoke very
-    different languages.”<a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> Both peoples had a mutual disgust for swine
-    flesh, and refused to eat the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span>blood of any animal.<a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a> The latter
-    statement is altogether unwarranted in fact. The ceremonial of both
-    peoples have many features in common. As the Jews killed the paschal
-    lamb in the evening, so the Mexicans offered up their sacrifices at
-    night.<a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a> The Jews in Mexico substituted llamas for sheep in their
-    sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Both Jews and Mexicans worshipped toward the east, or
-    toward their chief temples, and both called the <em>south</em> by the
-    designation of “right-hand of the world.”<a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a> Both burned incense
-    toward the four corners of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a> As David leaped and danced
-    before the ark of the Lord, so did the Mexican monarchs before their
-    idols.<a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a> Both peoples had an ark, and Duran states that in the ark
-    of the Aztecs which figured so prominently in their migration, was
-    the image of their invisible god.<a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a> Numerous analogies relating
-    to astrology, omens, witchcraft, dreams, etc., are recorded.<a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a>
-    References to prophecy are not wanting: Quetzalcoatl predicted the
-    destruction of the temple of Cholula, furnishing a parallel to Christ’s
-    prophecy of the destruction of the temple.<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> In the Mexican
-    mythology, by means of an active imagination, he finds an allusion to
-    the “stone which was carved without hands.”<a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a> A tiger represented
-    in the Bologna MS. he supposes to be the lion of the tribe of Juda—the
-    Jews of the New World having metamorphosed it into a tiger.<a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a>
-    Kingsborough supposes that the crosses found in Mexico may have been
-    carried there by Irish monks, “especially,” he adds, “as M. de Humboldt
-    informs us that the first Spanish monks and missionaries gravely
-    discussed the question of whether Quetzalcoatl was an Irishman.”<a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a>
-    The fanaticism of the eminent Americanist, however, reaches its
-    culmination in his supposed discovery of analogies to Christ in Mexican
-    mythology. The story of the virgin, the annunciation, and the identity
-    of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span>Christ and Quetzalcoatl, are clearly discernible to his practised
-    eye.<a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> Christ stilled the tempest, and, like Quetzalcoatl, was god
-    of the air.<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> In Yucatan, in the priestly fable of Bacab, he finds a
-    complete and true account of the trinity.<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> It is hardly necessary
-    for us to remark that these ingenious comparisons, tinged with a
-    coloring of fanaticism and yet so full of interest, are useless to the
-    cause of science and prove nothing. With the single exception of the
-    remarkable tradition of the deluge and its literal correspondence in
-    detail to the Mosaic account, we must dismiss the multitude of supposed
-    analogies between Mexican and Hebrew traditions, customs and religion,
-    which Kingsborough and others have discovered, as either imaginary or
-    accidental.<a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The hypothesis that the Nahua religion may have received some of its
-    characteristics from India is altogether plausible and not without
-    support in resemblances. The cosmological conception of the egg and
-    serpent is found, as previously stated, on Brush Creek, in Adams
-    County, Ohio. It certainly comes to us from Asiatic India. Serpent
-    worship, not only among the people of the mounds but especially of
-    Mexico, is the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span>most patent fact revealed to us in ancient American
-    sculpture. “Humboldt thinks he sees in the snake cut in pieces, the
-    famous serpent Kaliya or Kalinaga, conquered by Vishnu, when he took
-    the form of Krishna, and in the Mexican Toua-tiuh, the Hindu Krushna,
-    sung of in the Bhagavata-Purana.”<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> Count Stolberg and Tschudi have
-    both made arguments in favor of this view.<a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> Humboldt characterizes
-    Quetzalcoatl as the Buddha of the Mexicans, the founder of the monastic
-    establishments resembling those of Thibet and Western Asia.<a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a> He
-    further considers the flood of which they speak, identical with that
-    of which traditions are preserved by the Hindoos, the Chinese, and the
-    Shemitic peoples.</p>
-
-  <p>Advocates of Scandinavian analogies in religion are not wanting.
-    Although Viollet-le-Duc finds parallels existing between the
-    Brahmanistic ideas of divinity and passages of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>,
-    still he is of the opinion that the strongest resemblances have been
-    found to exist between the religious customs of the Scandinavians and
-    those recorded in the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> Humboldt remarks, “we have
-    fixed the special attention of our readers upon this Votan or Wodan,
-    an American who appears of the same family with the Wods or Odins of
-    the Goths and of the peoples of Celtic origin. Since, according to the
-    learned researches of Sir William Jones, Odin and Buddha are probably
-    the same person, it is curious to see the names of <i>Bondvar</i>,
-    <i>Wodansdag</i> and <i>Votan</i> designating in India, Scandinavia,
-    and in Mexico, the day of a brief period.”<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Lafitau, in his <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages</cite>, is as enthusiastic in
-    his advocacy of the theory that the ancient Americans derived their
-    religion from the Greeks, as Kingsborough is certain that it was of
-    Jewish origin. He devotes his fourth chapter, and furnishes numerous
-    illustrations, in support of his view.<a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> Our limited space precludes
-    the possibility of presenting in full the analogies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span> discovered
-    by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg between the Mexican deities and
-    those of Greece and Egypt. If we hesitate sometimes in accepting his
-    conclusions, we cannot but wonder at his erudition and his zeal in
-    research. He calls attention to the fact that the cult of Pan and
-    Hermes were identical in Greece, and refers to Maia, a personification
-    of the earth, and the mother of the Hermes having been the consort
-    of Zeus or Pan himself. So in Mexico he finds Pan in the person of
-    <i>Cipactoual</i>, who, under the name of <i>Cuextecatl</i>, has
-    for his consort <i>Maia</i> or <i>Maiaoel</i>. This god was adored
-    in all parts of Mexico and Central America, and at <i>Panuco</i> or
-    <i>Panco</i>, literally <i>Panopolis</i>, the Spaniards found upon
-    their entrance into Mexico, superb temples and images of Pan.<a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a>
-    The names of both Pan and Maia enter extensively into the Maya
-    vocabulary, <i>Maia</i> being the same as <i>Maya</i>, the principal
-    name of the peninsula, and <i>pan</i>, making Mayapan, the ancient
-    capital. In the Nahua language <i>pan</i> or <i>pani</i> signifies
-    “equality to that which is above,” and <i>Pantecatl</i> was the
-    progenitor of all beings. The Abbé has little difficulty in proving
-    the identity of Zamna, Hunab-ku and other Maya deities, with the
-    gods of Greece.<a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> In the name of the Egyptian god Horus, he finds
-    the significance of hurricane, or in the dialects of the Antilles,
-    <i>huracan</i> or <i>urogan</i>, the god Hurakan of the Quichés. Also
-    in the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol which Salvolini found equivalent
-    to the phonetic K, namely, the singular reptile <i>Uraeus</i>, which
-    resembles a serpent in an erect position with an enlarged body, and
-    employed extensively as a decoration in hair of the Egyptian deities
-    and the Pharaohs; he sees the emblem of Quetzalcoatl (Ketzalcohuatl)
-    the feathered-serpent, called Gukumatz in Quiché, and Kukulcan in
-    Maya. The same symbol is represented on the Egyptian monuments with
-    a feather rising from the serpent’s crest.<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> It would be easy to
-    pursue these ingenious comparisons through a number of pages, but we
-    question their value in throwing any light on the subject in hand. The
-    reader will find them <span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span>scattered in profusion through the voluminous
-    writings of the learned Abbé. It is sufficient to say that most of the
-    seeming analogies between the new and old world religions cannot be
-    other than accidental, since it is probable that the aborigines entered
-    our continent at a very remote antiquity, long before the religions
-    with which theirs have been so persistently compared, took on their
-    distinctive features. If after they were separated from the rest of
-    the world by seas and mountains, the Americans developed religious
-    systems presenting analogies to those of other lands, it furnishes
-    us but another proof of the common parentage and brotherhood of the
-    race, of the universal outgoing of the human mind after the deity, and
-    the sameness of mental operations and processes under the same given
-    conditions.<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_X"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER X</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc bold">LANGUAGE AND ITS RELATION TO NORTH AMERICAN MIGRATIONS.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Diversity of Languages in America—Causes of Diversity—Richness of
-    American Languages—Polysynthesis—Grimm’s Law—The Maya-Quiché
-    Languages—Stability of the Maya—Oldest American Language—The
-    Maya compared to the Greek, the Hebrew, the North European,
-    the Basque, West African, and the Quichua Languages—Epitome
-    of Maya Grammar—The Mizteco-Zapotec Languages—The Nahua or
-    Aztec—The Classic Tongue—Ancient and Modern Nahua—Epitome
-    of Aztec Grammar—Geographical Extension of the Aztec—In
-    the South—In the North-west—Buschmann’s Researches—Sonora
-    Family—Opata-Tarahumar-Pima Family—Moqui and Aztec
-    Elements—Aztec in the Shoshone and in the Languages of Oregon
-    and the Columbian Region—Line of Aztec Elements—The Nahua
-    probably the Language of the Mound-builders—The Otomi—Supposed
-    Chinese Analogies—Japanese Analogies—Geographical Names.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">LANGUAGE in aboriginal America may be pronounced a mystery of mysteries
-    and a Babel of Babels. Mr. Bancroft has catalogued nearly six hundred
-    distinct languages, existing between northern Alaska and the Isthmus
-    of Panama. Many of these, however, scarcely deserve to be called more
-    than dialects; while each has its individuality, it is true that all
-    have certain characteristics in common, a fact which by some has been
-    considered sufficient ground for belief in the unity of the American
-    race, a hypothesis which is by no means tenable. The geographical
-    division and intermixture of languages, for instance, in California,
-    is without a parallel elsewhere in the world. By the accidents
-    attendant upon savage life, resulting from ceaseless hostilities and
-    the frequent inroads of tribes upon their neighbors, a nation has often
-    been scattered in fragments, and its refugees, separated into small
-    bands, have taken up their residence in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span> midst of other tribes at
-    localities far removed from their central home. In a generation or
-    two a modification of the parent speech has been brought about by the
-    surrounding influences, all of which vary in the several localities in
-    which the refugees have found their new homes. New tribes thus formed,
-    soon become unintelligible to their brothers, who have developed a
-    dialect under different influences from theirs. When we consider that
-    for thousands of years this wholesale division and subdivision of
-    tribes and languages has been going on, as the result of ceaseless
-    hostilities, we can easily account for the multitude of languages
-    and dialects on the one hand, and the existence of a thread of unity
-    or similarity on the other, said to run through them all. Supposing
-    the continent to have received its population from several different
-    quarters, the natural expectation would be that in the course of time
-    this process of general intermixture would result in developing in
-    each language much that was common to the others—hence the foundation
-    for the hypothesis of their unity of origin. In the study of American
-    languages it has often been a matter of surprise that their structure
-    and expressiveness indicates a degree of perfection far in advance of
-    the civilization out of which they had sprung. This superiority, we
-    think, can be accounted for on the principle, first, that the evolution
-    of languages on this continent has been more active and constant
-    here than elsewhere, though unfortunately not always operating under
-    favorable conditions; and second, that in the frequent catastrophes
-    which have resulted from inter-tribal warfare, even in language, the
-    law of the survival of the fittest is apparent, in the preservation
-    of those etymological forms and principles of structure which are
-    most useful. We by no means agree with the eminent philologist Dr.
-    W. Farrar, F.R.S., chaplain to the Queen, and others who, taking
-    but a partial and second-hand view of American languages, pronounce
-    their elaborateness a childish excess, and their vaunted wealth a
-    concealment of their poverty.<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> An examination of the poems of
-    Nezahualcoyotl, king of Tezcuco, recorded by Ixtlilxochitl, will afford
-    sufficient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span>proof of the expressiveness and richness of the Aztec
-    language.<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> The song on the “Mutability of Life” and the ode on the
-    tyrant Tezozomoc have often been translated and admired.<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> One of
-    the leading characteristics of American language, it has been said,
-    is “<i>agglutination</i>,” but we must add that the term employed is
-    not sufficiently comprehensive. “Agglutination,” says Farrar, “may be
-    described as that principle of linguistic structure which consists
-    in the mere placing of unaltered roots side by side; as when to
-    express ‘discipline’ the Chinese say ‘law-soldier,’ or for ‘elders’
-    ‘father-mother,’ or for ‘enjoyment’ ‘luxury-play-food-clothes.’”<a id="FNanchor_704" href="#Footnote_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The term <em>polysynthesis</em>, the synthesis of many words into
-    one, with a little explanation will describe the characteristic, so
-    prominent, to which we allude. In their polysynthesis, the syllables or
-    words which are compressed into one long word, no longer retain their
-    individual forms, but are clipped and altered so as to be scarcely
-    recognizable. A sentence by this process of fusion is compressed into
-    a single long word. Dr. Farrar cites the following example from the
-    Aztec: <i>achichillacachocan</i>, means “the place where people weep
-    because the water is red.” The component parts are: <i>atl</i> “water,”
-    <i>chichiltic</i> “red,” <i>tlacatl</i> “man,” <i>chorea</i> “weep,”
-    all of which have nearly lost their identity in the inflection and
-    contraction necessary in the synthesis.<a id="FNanchor_705" href="#Footnote_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a> As in the Aryan and other
-    families, Grimm’s system of <i>Lautverschiebung</i>—sound changing, or
-    shunting—better known by Prof. Max Müller’s designation as “Grimm’s
-    law” prevails, so there are groups or families in northern Mexico
-    pointed out by Buschmann to which this law is clearly applicable.
-    No doubt the number of relationships already established between
-    aboriginal languages, as the result of classification, will be greatly
-    augmented when, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span>if ever, the subject receives special attention.<a id="FNanchor_706" href="#Footnote_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a>
-    Mr. Bancroft classifies the languages in his catalogue under three
-    great families, namely, the Tinneh, Aztec and Maya. The first, which
-    covers the territory around the northern extremity of the Rocky
-    Mountains, and sends its offshoots as far south as northern Mexico,
-    only concerns us incidentally in treating the ancient languages of
-    North America.<a id="FNanchor_707" href="#Footnote_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> The two families (and their far-reaching branches)
-    in which we are interested, are the Maya and the Aztec, the latter the
-    survivor of the speech of the Nahuas.</p>
-
-  <p>To the Maya, or rather, the Maya-Quiché stock, no doubt belongs the
-    greatest antiquity assignable to any language or languages on the
-    continent. The mother tongue, the Maya, prevails throughout all of
-    Yucatan, and together with its dialects extends itself over Tabasco,
-    Chiapas and Guatemala, and is even present in the states of Tamaulipas
-    and Vera Cruz, in the Huastic and Totonac languages. Numerous
-    catalogues of the branches of this family have been made, but the most
-    recent, and we think the most complete, is one constructed in 1876 on
-    Señor Pimentel’s classification by the Mexican scholar, Señor Garcia y
-    Cubas. It is as follows: 1. Yucateco or Maya; 2. Punctunc; 3. Lacandon
-    or Xochinel; 4. Peten or Itzae; 5. Chañabal, Comiteco, Jocolobal; 6.
-    Chol or Mopan; 7. Chorti or Chorte. 8. Cakchi, Caichi, Cachi or Cakgi;
-    9. Ixil, Izil; 10. Coxoh; 11. Quiché, Utlatec; 12. Zutuhil, Zutugil,
-    Atiteca, Zacapula; 13. Cachiquel, Cachiquil; 14. Tzotzil, Zotzil,
-    Tzinanteco, Cinanteco; 15. Tzendal, Zendal; 16. Mame, Mem, Zaklohpakap;
-    17. Poconchi, Pocoman; 18. Atche, Atchi; 19. Huastic, and probably
-    20. the Haytian, Quizqueja or Itis, with their affinities, the Cuban,
-    Boriguan and Jamaican languages.<a id="FNanchor_708" href="#Footnote_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span></p>
-
-  <p>The author of the above list has compensated us for its length by
-    giving each of the names with its variation in orthography according
-    to different writers. The classification is altogether superior to any
-    other. The Maya is of peculiar interest to us, especially since within
-    the territory over which it extends are found the most celebrated
-    architectural remains known to Central American archæology. The
-    majority of the sculptured tablets which are preserved are no doubt
-    in the Maya or some of its dialects. What is most satisfactory to us,
-    is the probability that the language is spoken to-day by the mass of
-    the native population of Yucatan as it was anciently, for says Señor
-    Pimentel, “the Indians have preserved this idiom with such tenacity
-    that to this day they will speak no other,” and he adds that it is
-    necessary for the whites to address them in their own tongue in order
-    to communicate with them.<a id="FNanchor_709" href="#Footnote_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Señor Orozco y Berra furnishes us evidence that little change has
-    taken place in the language since the earliest times, in the statement
-    that all the geographical names of the peninsula are Maya, which
-    is considered proof in his judgment that the Mayas were the first
-    occupants of the country.<a id="FNanchor_710" href="#Footnote_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> It is but a reasonable expectation,
-    therefore, that at no distant day, by the aid of Landa’s alphabet, the
-    inscriptions will be compelled to reveal their mysterious contents.
-    The Tzendal, the language in which Votan is said to have written a
-    history of the foundation of his city, and still spoken near the ruins
-    of Palenque, is said to have been the oldest of American languages,
-    but linguistic investigations have proven that it is an offshoot from
-    the Maya, the mother tongue.<a id="FNanchor_711" href="#Footnote_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a> It is probable that the Maya was
-    first planted at some point in the territory which it now occupies, and
-    gradually extended its domain until its colonies reached northern Vera
-    Cruz and southern Nicaragua. Whether at any time it was the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span>language
-    of a people inhabiting central and southern Mexico at a date anterior
-    to the arrival of the Nahuas, is unknown though probable. Señor Orozco
-    y Berra has shown by linguistic studies that probably the Mayas
-    occupied the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, having in their
-    migration passed from the Floridian peninsula to Cuba and thence to the
-    other Caribbean isles, and to Yucatan. He states that the Mayas possess
-    traditions of a northern home from which they passed by means of the
-    islands of the Gulf to Yucatan. Both he and Señor Pimentel agree that
-    the languages of the West Indies belong to the Maya family.<a id="FNanchor_712" href="#Footnote_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The characteristics of the Maya-Quiché languages are; flexibility,
-    expressiveness, vigor, approximating harshness, yet on the contrary
-    rich and musical in sound. The Maya itself has more than once been
-    compared to the Greek, and even said to be derived from it. Dr. Le
-    Plongeon, who for four years has been exploring the ruins of Yucatan
-    and especially of Chichen-Itza, writes thus in connection with the
-    discovery of a well-sculptured bear’s head at Uxmal: “When did bears
-    inhabit the peninsula? Strange to say, the Maya does not furnish the
-    name for bear. Yet one-third of this tongue is pure Greek. Who brought
-    the dialect of Homer to America? Or who took to Greece that of the
-    Mayas? Greek is the offspring of the Sanscrit. Is Maya? Or are they
-    coeval? A clue for ethnologists to follow the migrations of the human
-    family on this old continent. Did the bearded men whose portraits
-    are carved on the massive pillars of the fortress at Chichen-Itza,
-    belong to the Mayan nations? The Maya is not devoid of words from the
-    Assyrian.”<a id="FNanchor_713" href="#Footnote_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> He does not hesitate to say that “the Maya, containing
-    words from almost every language, ancient or modern, is well worth
-    the attention of philologists,” a statement which might with but
-    little breach of propriety be made as well concerning almost any
-    other language. In referring to its antiquity, the writer says, “I
-    must <span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span>speak of that language which has survived unaltered through the
-    vicissitudes of the nations that spoke it thousands of years ago, and
-    is yet the general tongue in Yucatan—the Maya. There can be no doubt
-    that this is one of the most ancient languages on earth. It was used by
-    a people that lived at least 6000 years ago, as proved by the Katuns,
-    to record the history of their rulers, the dogmas of their religion, on
-    the walls of their palaces, on the façades of their temples.”<a id="FNanchor_714" href="#Footnote_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a> The
-    Mexican scholar, Señor Melgar, is convinced that he sees resemblances
-    between the names employed by the Chiapenecs in their calendar, and
-    the Hebrew, and furnishes comparative lists to sustain his hopeless
-    theory.<a id="FNanchor_715" href="#Footnote_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">476</span></p>
-
-  <p>The speculations of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg are none the
-    less remarkable and about equally as plausible as those of Dr. Le
-    Plongeon or Señor Melgar. The Abbé after years of study among the
-    peoples of Central America, was convinced beyond a doubt that a marked
-    relationship existed between the Quiché-Cakchiquel and Zutugil and the
-    languages of the north of Europe. He considers the evidence sufficient
-    that peoples speaking the Germanic and Scandinavian languages migrated
-    to Central America and infused their idioms into the Maya.<a id="FNanchor_716" href="#Footnote_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></p>
-
-  <p>With Mr. Bancroft we agree that no value can be attached to these
-    speculations, until impartial comparisons are made by scholars who
-    have no theories to substantiate. It is worthy of note that several
-    eminent scholars have observed the remarkable similarity of grammatical
-    structure between the Central American and certain transatlantic
-    languages, especially the Basque<a id="FNanchor_717" href="#Footnote_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">477</span>and some of the languages of
-    Western Africa.<a id="FNanchor_718" href="#Footnote_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon, after several years spent amid
-    the antiquities of Peru and in the study of the Quichua language,
-    says, “The Quichua contains many words that seem closely allied to the
-    dialects spoken by the nations inhabiting the regions called to-day
-    Central America, and the Maya tongue.” In referring to the mural
-    paintings at Chichen-Itza, he further remarks, “By comparing them with
-    those of the Quichuas, I cannot but believe that Manco’s ancestors
-    emigrated from Xilbalba or Mayapan, carrying with them the notions of
-    the northern country.”<a id="FNanchor_719" href="#Footnote_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> Interesting as these speculations are, they
-    must be received with allowance and viewed with doubt, until thorough
-    linguistic researches test their value.</p>
-
-  <p>The most important features of Maya grammar are as follows: The letters
-    of the alphabet are, a b c ɔ e, ch, c<i>h</i>, h, i, k, l, m, n, o,
-    p, <i>p</i>, ó, pp, t, th, tz, u, x, y, <i>y</i>, z. The letter ɔ is
-    pronounced like the English <i>dj</i>, <i>h</i> is not aspirated,
-    <i>th</i> is hard, and the <i>k</i> guttural. Much of the beauty of the
-    pronunciation depends on the elision of certain vowels and consonants,
-    as for instance instead of <i>ma in kati</i> they say <i>min kati</i>,
-    or instead of <i>ti ca otoch</i> they would say <i>ti c otoch</i>. The
-    plural is distinguished from the singular by the addition of <i>ob</i>
-    (those). Verbs ending in <i>an</i> take <i>tac</i> in the plural. The
-    masculine of rational beings <span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">478</span>is denoted by the prefix <i>ab</i>,
-    the feminine by <i>ix</i>. The words <i>xibil</i> and <i>chupul</i>,
-    signifying male and female respectively, are used to express the gender
-    of animals. The case of nouns is determined by their position in the
-    sentence and their relation to the prepositions, the most frequent
-    of the latter being <i>ti</i>, which has various significations.
-    Adjectives accompanying substantives always precede them, but the
-    number is only expressed by the substantive. The comparative is formed
-    by adding <i>l</i> to the adjective, sometimes <i>il</i>, and prefixing
-    <i>u</i> or <i>y</i> the pronoun of the third person. The superlative
-    is formed by prefixing <i>hach</i> to the positive.</p>
-
-  <p>The Maya pronouns are as follows:</p>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya pronouns">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb"><i>Personal Pronouns.</i></th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb bl"><i>Possessives.</i></th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb bl"><i>Reciprocals.</i></th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Ten, en,</td>
-        <td>I</td>
-        <td class="bl">In, u,</td>
-        <td>Mine.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Inba,</td>
-        <td>Myself.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Tech, ech,</td>
-        <td>Thou.</td>
-        <td class="bl">A, au,</td>
-        <td>Thine.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Aba,</td>
-        <td>Thyself.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Lay, laylo, lo,</td>
-        <td>He, that.</td>
-        <td class="bl">U, i,</td>
-        <td>His, of that.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Uba,</td>
-        <td>Himself.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Toon, on,</td>
-        <td>We.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Ca,</td>
-        <td>Ours.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Caba,</td>
-        <td>Ourselves.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Teex, ex,</td>
-        <td>You.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Aex, auex,</td>
-        <td>Yours.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Abaex,</td>
-        <td>Yourselves.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Loob, ob,</td>
-        <td>They, those.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Uob, yob,</td>
-        <td>Of those.</td>
-        <td class="bl">Ubaob,</td>
-        <td>Themselves.</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>The verb has four conjugations and that of the auxiliary <i>teni</i>,
-    to be, the present tense of which is the same as the personal pronouns
-    given in the left hand column, <i>Ten</i>, <i>Tech</i>, etc. The other
-    cases are as follows: Imperfect, <i>Ten cuchi</i>; Perfect, <i>Ten
-    hi</i>; Pluperfect, <i>Ten hi-ilicuchi</i>; Future, <i>Bin ten-ac</i>;
-    Future perfect, <i>Ten hi-ili coshom</i>; Imperative, <i>Ten-ac</i>;
-    Subjunctive present, <i>Ten-ac en</i>; Imperfect, <i>Hi ten-ac</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>The verb <i>Nacal</i>, to ascend, of the first conjugation, is
-    inflected as follows:</p>
-
-  <div class="center smcap">Present Indicative.</div>
-
-  <p>Singular, 1st per., <i>Nacal in cah</i>; 2d per., <i>Nacal a cah</i>;
-    3d per., <i>Nacal u cah</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>Plural, 1st per., <i>Nacal ca cah</i>; 2d per., <i>Nacal a-cah-ex</i>;
-    3d per., <i>Nacal-u-cah-ob</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>The Imperfect, <i>Nacal in cah-cuchi</i>; Perfect, <i>Nac-en</i>;
-    Pluperfect, <i>Nacen ili cuchi</i>; Future, <i>Bin nacac-en</i>; Future
-    perfect, <i>Nacen ili-cuchom</i>; Imperative, <i>Nacen</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">479</span>
-    The Lord’s Prayer in Maya.
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="translation">
-    <span class="pair">Cayum<br />Our Father</span>
-    <span class="pair">ianeeh<br />who art</span>
-    <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span>
-    <span class="pair">càannob<br />Heaven</span>
-    <span class="pair">cilichthantabac<br />blessed be</span>
-    <span class="pair">akaba<br />Thy name;</span>
-    <span class="pair">tac a<br />it may come</span>
-    <span class="pair">ahaulil<br />Thy kingdom</span>
-    <span class="pair">c’<br />us</span>
-    <span class="pair">okol.<br />over.</span>
-    <span class="pair">Mencahac<br />Be done</span>
-    <span class="pair">a<br />Thine</span>
-    <span class="pair">nolah<br />will</span>
-    <span class="pair">uai<br />as</span>
-    <span class="pair">ti<br />on</span>
-    <span class="pair">luum<br />earth</span>
-    <span class="pair">bai<br />as</span>
-    <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span>
-    <span class="pair">caanè.<br />heaven.</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">Zanzamal<br />Daily</span>
-    <span class="pair">uah<br />bread</span>
-    <span class="pair">ca<br />us</span>
-    <span class="pair">azotoon<br />give</span>
-    <span class="pair">heleae<br />to-day</span>
-    <span class="pair">caazaatez<br />us forgive</span>
-    <span class="pair">c’<br />our</span>
-    <span class="pair">ziipil<br />sins</span>
-    <span class="pair">he bik<br />as</span>
-    <span class="pair">c’<br />we</span>
-    <span class="pair">zaatzic<br />forgive</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">uziipil<br />their sins</span>
-    <span class="pair">ahziipiloobtoone,<br />to sinners,</span>
-    <span class="pair">ma ix<br />not also</span>
-    <span class="pair">appatic<br />let</span>
-    <span class="pair">c’<br />us</span>
-    <span class="pair">lubul<br />fall</span>
-    <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span>
-    <span class="pair">tuntah<br />temptation</span>
-    <span class="pair">caatocoon<br />us deliver</span>
-    <span class="pair">ti<br />from</span>
-    <span class="pair">ob.<a id="FNanchor_720" href="#Footnote_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a><br />evil.</span>
-    <span class="pair"><br /></span>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the state of Oajaca and occupying the western portion of the Isthmus
-    of Tehuantepec, in a position intermediate between the Maya on the
-    one hand and the Nahua on the other, is found the ancient family of
-    languages known as the Mizteco-Zapotec, the various dialects of which
-    are spoken to this day by the natives occupying those regions. No
-    tradition throws any light on the origin of this group, nor do any
-    affiliations in vocabulary or grammmatical structure seem to exist
-    between them and any other family, American or foreign. The Miztec
-    language is exceedingly difficult to acquire, being characterized by
-    words of extraordinary length. The Zapotec on the contrary, with its
-    several dialects, is elegant, sonorous, and <em>less</em> difficult.<a id="FNanchor_721" href="#Footnote_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The language pre-eminent above all others in Mexico for its territorial
-    extent, for the refinement and civilization which it <span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">480</span>represented, and
-    its own inherent beauty and elegance, is known as the Nahua or Aztec,
-    or more modernly the Mexican. It was the language of the Toltecs and
-    of their advanced civilization, and after them of the seven tribes of
-    <i>Nahuatlacas</i>, that in the year 1196 established themselves in
-    the Mexican plateau. The Aztecs, one of these tribes, in the course of
-    events gaining the ascendency, gave their name to the language which
-    their conquests speedily extended over a territory four hundred leagues
-    in length, and in width from the Gulf to the Pacific, in the latitude
-    of the capital. The Aztec tongue prevailed continuously from a point
-    on the Gulf of California, under the twenty-sixth parallel of latitude
-    south-easterly to Rios Goatzacoalco and Tobasco; and southward to the
-    fifteenth parallel, extending along the coast of San Salvador and
-    appearing in the interior of Nicaragua. Its dialectical extension north
-    of Mexico we will consider on a future page. Twenty languages besides
-    the Aztec are said to have been spoken throughout Montezuma’s empire,
-    but the Aztec alone was recognized as the official and classic tongue.
-    The Chichimecs are said to have spoken a language of their own, until
-    the ruler Techotlalatzin commanded them to learn the Mexican.<a id="FNanchor_722" href="#Footnote_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> Mr.
-    Bancroft is of the opinion that the Nahua was the original language of
-    the Chichimecs, and consequently does not agree with Señor Pimentel
-    who advocates the opposite view, and, we think, sustains it.<a id="FNanchor_723" href="#Footnote_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> The
-    copiousness and grace of the Aztec has furnished a theme for many
-    Spanish writers whose praises have found an echo in the works of our
-    most able scholars and historians. If the Maya has been compared to the
-    Greek, the Aztec has often been likened to the Latin, not in structure
-    or vocabulary, but in its relation to ancient American civilization,
-    in its expressiveness, politeness, its capacity for the sublime, and
-    for the romantic coloring with which it is able to clothe that which is
-    humble and even insignificant. “It was the court language,” says Mr.
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">481</span>Bancroft, “of American civilization, the Latin of medieval and the
-    French of modern times.”<a id="FNanchor_724" href="#Footnote_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The Nahua attained its highest development during the century preceding
-    the conquest in the schools of oratory, poetry and history, established
-    at Tezcuco, to which the sons of nobles were sent, as much to acquire
-    the purity of the idiom as the science which they taught.<a id="FNanchor_725" href="#Footnote_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> Señor
-    Orozco y Berra says that the difference existing between the ancient
-    Nahua and the modern, may be compared to that difference observed
-    between the Castilian of the Romance of the Cid and that of the present
-    day.<a id="FNanchor_726" href="#Footnote_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The outlines of the Aztec grammar are briefly as follows: The alphabet
-    contains the letters a, ch, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, tl, tz, u, v,
-    x, y, z, but lacks our consonants b, d, f, r, g, s. No word commences
-    with l. The <i>a</i> is clear; <i>ch</i> before a vowel is pronounced
-    as in Spanish, but before a consonant or when final it differs
-    somewhat; <i>e</i> is clear; <i>h</i> is moderately aspirated and soft,
-    but strong when it precedes <i>u</i>; <i>t</i> is omitted except when
-    it comes between two <i>l’s</i>. The <i>tl</i> in the middle of a word
-    is soft as in Spanish, but at the end is pronounced <i>tle</i>, the
-    <i>e</i> being half mute. The pronunciation of <i>tz</i> is similar
-    to the Spanish <i>s</i>, but stronger. The <i>v</i> is pronounced by
-    the women as in Spanish and French, but by the men like <i>hu</i> in
-    Spanish; <i>x</i>, soft like the English <i>sh</i>, and <i>z</i> like
-    the Spanish <i>s</i>, but not quite so hissing.<a id="FNanchor_727" href="#Footnote_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">482</span></p>
-
-  <p>By composition, words containing sixteen syllables are formed,
-    though many simple words are quite long. We have already explained
-    the process of polysynthesis or compounding by means of clipping the
-    syllables and words with a view to brevity and euphony. The following
-    example furnished by Pimentel and copied by Mr. Bancroft, further
-    illustrates the principle: <i>tlazotli</i>, esteemed or loved;
-    <i>maviztik</i>, honored or reverenced; <i>teopixki</i>, priest;
-    <i>tatli</i>, father, and <i>no</i>, mine, furnishes as a result:
-    <i>notlazomaviztcopixkatatzin</i>, “my esteemed father and reverend
-    priest.” An example of the termination <i>tzin</i>, signifying respect,
-    is presented in this word. Several illustrations of the same principle
-    are furnished by Señor Pimentel, showing that often a sentence is
-    compounded into a single word. Indeed a great many of the component
-    parts of these long words, though words in themselves, are incapable of
-    being used separately. In composition the verb succeeds the nominative
-    and is placed at the end of the sentence. The adverb precedes the verb,
-    as does the adjective the substantive.</p>
-
-  <p>The Aztec is rich in terminations for the formation of the plural.
-    Generally no change is required for inanimate objects, as multiplicity
-    is expressed by means of numerals or the adverb <i>miek</i> (much),
-    e. g., <i>ze tetl</i>, one stone; <i>yei tetl</i>, three stones;
-    <i>miek tetl</i>, many stones, though often the terminations used for
-    the plural of persons is applied to inanimate objects, particularly
-    when they are connected with persons, as <i>zoquitl</i>, mud;
-    <i>tizoquime</i>, we are earth; however, there are exceptions to the
-    rule, as in the Aztec words for the heavens, the mountains and the
-    stars. Furthermore, the first syllable is often doubled in order to
-    form the plural of inanimate things. Señor Pimentel has embraced the
-    entire subject of the formation of the plural in six rules.</p>
-
-  <p>1. Primitive words form their plural in <i>me tin</i> or <i>ke</i>, as
-    <i>ichkatl</i>, a ewe, a sheep; <i>ichkame</i>, sheep; <i>zolin</i>, a
-    quail; <i>zoltin</i>, quail; <i>kokoxki</i>, sick; <i>kokoxke</i>, sick
-    (plural).</p>
-
-  <p>2. Derivatives form their plural as follows: the so-called
-    “reverentials” in <i>tzintli</i>, have the plural in <i>tzitzintin</i>;
-    the diminutives in <i>tontli</i> form the plural <i>totontin</i>,
-    and the diminutives in <i>ton</i> and <i>pil</i>, augmentatives in
-    <i>pol</i> and reverentials in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">483</span> <i>tzin</i> double the final syllable;
-    as, <i>tlakatzintli</i>, person; <i>tlakatzitzintin</i>, persons, etc.</p>
-
-  <p>3. Words either primitive or derived into which the possessive
-    pronouns enter, form the plural in <i>van</i> (<i>huan</i> according
-    to the common orthography); as, <i>noichkavan</i>, my sheep,
-    <i>noichkatotonvan</i>, my little sheep.</p>
-
-  <p>4. The words <i>tlakatl</i>, person; <i>zivatl</i>, woman; terms of
-    gentilitious character or expressive of office and profession, form
-    their plural by the omission of the final letters, as <i>Mexicatl</i>,
-    a Mexican; <i>Mexika</i>, Mexicans; in which case the final vowel is
-    accented.</p>
-
-  <p>5. Some words form the plural by omitting the terminals and by doubling
-    the first syllable, while others double the first syllable without
-    omitting the terminal; as, <i>teotl</i>, god; <i>teteo</i>, gods;
-    <i>zolin</i>, quail; <i>zozoltin</i>, quails; <i>telpochtli</i> and
-    <i>ichpochtli</i>, double the syllable <i>po</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>6. Some adjectives have various plurals, as <i>miek</i>, much; whose
-    plural is <i>miektin</i>, <i>miekintin</i> or <i>miekin</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>In most cases the adjective and its substantive agree in number. The
-    only means of expressing gender is by adding the words <i>okichtli</i>,
-    male, and <i>zivatl</i>, female.</p>
-
-  <p>In the absence of a regular declension the cases are formed as
-    follows: The genitive is indicated by the possessive pronoun or by
-    the juxtaposition of the words, the dative by means of verbs called
-    applicatives, the accusative by certain particles accompanying the verb
-    or by juxtaposition, the vocative by adding e to the nominative or by
-    the change of <i>i</i> into <i>e</i> in words ending in <i>tli</i>
-    or <i>li</i> and the <i>in</i> into <i>e</i> in words ending in
-    <i>tzin</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>The ablative is indicated by various particles and prepositions. The
-    language surpasses the Italian in the number of its augmentatives
-    and diminutives. The former take the syllable <i>pol</i>, the latter
-    <i>tontli</i> and <i>ton</i>. The Aztec is richer in verbal nouns
-    than any other language. Those derived from active, neuter, passive,
-    reflective and impersonal verbs, terminate in <i>ni</i>, <i>oni</i>,
-    <i>ya</i>, <i>ia</i>, <i>yan</i>, <i>kan</i> or <i>ian</i>, <i>tli</i>,
-    <i>li</i>, <i>liztli</i>, <i>oka</i>, <i>ka</i>, <i>ki</i>, <i>k</i>,
-    <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>tl</i>.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">484</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center smcap">Table of Pronouns.</div>
-
-  <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Table of pronouns">
-    <thead>
-      <tr>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap">Personals.</th>
-        <th colspan="2" class="smcap bl">Possessives.</th>
-      </tr>
-    </thead>
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Nevatl</i>, <i>neva</i>, <i>ne</i>,</td>
-        <td>I.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>No</i>,</td>
-        <td>Mine.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Tevatl</i>, <i>teva</i>, <i>te</i>,</td>
-        <td>Thou.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>Mo</i>,</td>
-        <td>Thine.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Yevatl</i>, <i>yeva</i>, <i>ye</i>,</td>
-        <td>He, or somebody.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>I</i>,</td>
-        <td>His.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Tevantin</i>, <i>teva</i>,</td>
-        <td>We.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>To</i>,</td>
-        <td>Ours.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Amevantin</i>, <i>amevan</i>,</td>
-        <td>You.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>Amo</i>,</td>
-        <td>Yours.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Yevantin</i>, <i>yevan</i>,</td>
-        <td>They.</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>In</i> or <i>im</i>,</td>
-        <td>Theirs.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="bl"><i>Te</i>,</td>
-        <td>Of or belonging to others.</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>“The possessives,” says Pimentel, “are always used in composition, and
-    change the final syllable of the word to which they are joined; as,
-    <i>teotl</i>, God, <i>noteuh</i>, my God,” etc.<a id="FNanchor_728" href="#Footnote_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The modes of the verb are: the indicative, imperative, optative
-    and subjunctive. The indicative has the following tenses: present,
-    imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future. The subjunctive has one tense
-    which is translated by the imperfect.</p>
-
-  <p>The following example of the conjugation is given from Pimentel:</p>
-
-  <table summary="Aztec conjugation">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap">Indicative.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Present.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Ni-chiva</i>,</td>
-        <td>I make.</td>
-        <td><i>Ti-chivâ</i>,</td>
-        <td>We make.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Ti-chiva</i>,</td>
-        <td>Thou makest.</td>
-        <td><i>An-chivâ</i>,</td>
-        <td>You make.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Chiva</i>,</td>
-        <td>He makes.</td>
-        <td><i>Chivâ</i>,</td>
-        <td>They make.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Imperfect.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>Ni-chiva-ya</i>,</td>
-        <td>I made.</td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Perfect.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>Oni-chi-uh</i>,</td>
-        <td>I have made.</td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Pluperfect.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>Oni-chi-uhka</i>,</td>
-        <td>I had made.</td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Future.</i></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td><i>Ni-chiva-z</i>,</td>
-        <td>I shall make.</td>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1">Imperative.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Present</i>:</td>
-        <td><i>Ma xi-chiva</i>,</td>
-        <td colspan="2">Make thou.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Future</i>:</td>
-        <td><i>Ma ti-chiva-z</i>,</td>
-        <td colspan="2">Make thou presently.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">485</span>Optative.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Imperfect</i>:</td>
-        <td><i>Ma ni-chiva-ni</i>,</td>
-        <td colspan="2">Would that I should make.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Perfect</i>:</td>
-        <td><i>Ma oni-chi-uh</i>,</td>
-        <td colspan="2">Would that I have made.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1">Subjunctive.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><i>Imperfect</i>:</td>
-        <td><i>Ni-chiva-zkia</i>, or<br /><i>Ni-chiva-zkiayo</i>,</td>
-        <td colspan="2">That I should make.</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>There is no infinitive in the conjugation, it being expressed by the
-    future indicative. Only verbs in <i>liztli</i> have this mode. The
-    passive voice, save in a few exceptional cases, is formed as follows:
-    <i>lo</i> is added to the present indicative of the active voice. In
-    the perfect tense, <i>k</i> is added to the previously affixed <i>o</i>
-    in the singular and <i>ke</i> in the plural. The other modes and tenses
-    form their passive voice by adding to the present indicative passive
-    their own final termination, as, for instance, we have <i>nichiva</i>,
-    I make, <i>nichivalo</i>, I am made, <i>onichivalok</i>, I was made,
-    <i>onichivaloka</i>, that I should be made, etc. The Aztec contains
-    only six irregular verbs.</p>
-
-  <div class="center smcap mt3">The Lord’s Prayer in Aztec.</div>
-
-  <div class="translation">
-    <span class="pair">Totatzine<br />Our reverend Father</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />who</span>
-    <span class="pair">ilvikak<br />heaven in</span>
-    <span class="pair">timoyetztika<br />art</span>
-    <span class="pair">ma yektenevalo<br />be praised</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">motokatzin<br />thy name</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">mavallauh<br />may come</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">motlatokayotzin<br />thy kingdom</span>
-    <span class="pair">ma chivalo<br />be done</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">tlaltikpak<br />earth above</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">motlanekilitzin<br />thy will</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">yuh<br />as</span>
-    <span class="pair">chivalo<br />is done</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">ilvikak.<br />heaven in.</span>
-    <span class="pair">In<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">totlaxkal<br />our bread</span>
-    <span class="pair">mo<br />every</span>
-    <span class="pair">moztlae<br />day</span>
-    <span class="pair">totech<br />to us</span>
-    <span class="pair">moneki<br />is necessary</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">ma axkan<br />to-day</span>
-    <span class="pair">xitechmomakili,<br />give us</span>
-    <span class="pair">ivan<br />and</span>
-    <span class="pair">ma xitechmopopolvili<br />forgive us</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">totlatlakol<br />our sins</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">yuh<br />as</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">tikintlapopolvia<br />we forgive</span>
-    <span class="pair">intechtlatlakalvia<br />those who us offend</span>
-    <span class="pair">ivan<br />and</span>
-    <span class="pair">makamo<br />not</span>
-    <span class="pair">xitechmomakavili<br />lead thou us</span>
-    <span class="pair">inik<br />that</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">amo<br />not</span>
-    <span class="pair">ipan<br />in</span>
-    <span class="pair">tivetzizke<br />we fall</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">teneyeyekoltiliztli,<br />temptation,</span>
-    <span class="pair">zanye<br />but</span>
-    <span class="pair">ma xitechmomakixtili<br />deliver us</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-
-    <span class="pair">ivikpa<br />against</span>
-    <span class="pair">in<br />()</span>
-    <span class="pair">amo<br />not</span>
-    <span class="pair">kualli.<a id="FNanchor_729" href="#Footnote_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a><br />good.</span>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">486</span></p>
-
-  <p>Language has ever been an important factor in determining the original
-    home and the migrations of peoples. With this view the Aztec has
-    received the attention of some of the best scholars of both continents.
-    The most prominent results merit attention. The Nahua language is
-    unquestionably spoken far to the south, in Guatemala, Honduras and
-    Nicaragua, and this fact has been persistently cited as conclusive
-    proof of the southern origin of the Nahuas; but even Mr. Bancroft, the
-    most eminent of the advocates of this hypothesis, admits that there
-    “it is dialectic rather than aboriginal in appearance, so that the
-    testimony of language is all in favor of the plateau of Anahuac having
-    been the primal centre of the Aztec tongue.”<a id="FNanchor_730" href="#Footnote_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The reports of several of the adventurers into the unexplored north,
-    were to the effect that the aborigines whom they encountered spoke
-    Aztec. Father Roque of Oñate’s expedition into New Mexico at the close
-    of the sixteenth century, and Father Gerónimo de Zárate subsequently
-    at the Rio del Tizon, are authority for the most positive statements
-    that the Mexican was encountered. Mr. Anderson, a companion of Captain
-    Cook in 1778, discovered the Aztec terminal <i>l</i> <i>tl</i> or
-    <i>z</i> of frequent occurrence among the Nootkas of the North-west
-    coast. With this data and the traditions of the Aztecs, which all point
-    to the north as their ancient home, sufficient basis was found for a
-    general belief that the Mexican peoples had migrated down the coast
-    of California and left an unbroken linguistic line along the entire
-    route of their wanderings. At the beginning of the present century, the
-    great German philologist, Vater, sought to establish this line by his
-    extensive investigations, published in his <cite>Mithridates</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_731" href="#Footnote_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a>
-    Unfortunately for his labors, later researches have shown his
-    generalizations too sweeping. Wilhelm von Humboldt considered the Cora,
-    under the twenty-second degree of latitude <span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">487</span>on the Rio de Santiago,
-    to be a mixture of Aztec and some older and rougher language.<a id="FNanchor_732" href="#Footnote_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> In
-    1855–59, Dr. Buschmann of Berlin issued two celebrated works,<a id="FNanchor_733" href="#Footnote_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> in
-    which the subject was critically examined, and as far as possible,
-    with the data at hand, the true proportion of Aztec elements entering
-    into all the languages spoken north of the Mexican plateau, was
-    indicated. The researches were systematically made, beginning with
-    the North Mexican, languages and proceeding northward in the supposed
-    line of the Aztec migration. In four languages of North-western Mexico
-    in particular, did Dr. Buschmann find the conspicuous presence of
-    Aztec elements. These are the Cora of Jalisco, referred to above;
-    the Tepehuana of northern Sinaloa, Durango and southern Chihuahua,
-    spoken between the twenty-third and twenty-seventh parallels, in a
-    crescent-shaped territory the points of which touch the Aztec on
-    the west, intervening between it and the Gulf of California; the
-    Tarahumara, spoken in the Sierra Madre, of the State of Chihuahua and
-    Sonora, and fourthly, the Cahita occupying the east coast of the Gulf
-    of California between the twenty-sixth and twenty-eighth parallels.
-    By a liberty in classification, Buschmann calls this group the Sonora
-    family, although the languages are entirely different from each other,
-    with the exception that they are all pervaded by the Aztec element.
-    This is their only bond of union. They contain about two hundred
-    Aztec words, and about eight hundred words derived from the Aztec in
-    the several idioms.<a id="FNanchor_734" href="#Footnote_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> “The Aztec <i>tl</i>, and <i>tli</i> in the
-    Cora, are found changed in <i>ti</i>, <i>te</i> and <i>t</i>; in the
-    Tepehuana into <i>de</i>, <i>re</i> and <i>sci</i>; in the Tarahumara
-    into <i>ki</i>, <i>ke</i>, <i>ca</i> and <i>la</i>, and in the Cahita,
-    into <i>ri</i>. In all four of the languages substantive endings are
-    dropped, first, in composition when the substantive is united with
-    the possessive pronoun; secondly, before an affix; thirdly, in the
-    Cora alone, before the ending of the plural and before affixes in the
-    formation of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">488</span>words.”<a id="FNanchor_735" href="#Footnote_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> North-east of the Tarahumara and reaching
-    to the Rio Grande is the Cnocho, and directly to the east of the
-    Cnocho, is the territory of the Toboso, also bounded on the north
-    by the Rio Grande. It is uncertain whether the Aztec was ever the
-    language of these large districts, though testimony is not wanting
-    that it was understood by both peoples.<a id="FNanchor_736" href="#Footnote_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a> In fact throughout all
-    northern Mexico, the Aztec was understood, and, in some instances,
-    entered prominently into the languages of the north-western tribes.
-    Grimm’s law of <i>Lautveränderung</i>, sound changing or shifting,
-    is as conspicuous in its application to the Aztec-Sonora family of
-    Buschmann as it is to the members of the Aryan family, and often far
-    more so. Occupying the north-western extremity of Mexico are the
-    Pima-Alto and Bajo, and the Opata, the principal dialect of the latter
-    being the Eudeve. Here again the Aztec appears both in the identity
-    of words and the similarity of grammatical structure. These languages
-    are recognized as branches of the Aztec-Sonora family, so much so
-    that Orozco y Berra has classified them together under the name of
-    the Opata-Tarahumar-Pima. He accounts for the presence of the Aztec
-    element upon the supposition that the language and civilization of
-    Mexico once extended over this region, but were subverted and displaced
-    by the incursions of northern peoples toward the close of the twelfth
-    century.<a id="FNanchor_737" href="#Footnote_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> Not only is this probable, but, on the other hand, it
-    would be a matter of surprise if traces of the Aztec were not found
-    in languages bordering upon so vast and powerful an empire as that of
-    Montezuma. Still this fact alone is scarcely sufficient to account for
-    the prominence of the Aztec element in the northern languages, while it
-    is almost totally wanting in others more central and southern. Crossing
-    into the United States territory, we first encounter the Moqui of the
-    pueblo towns of Arizona; to the west in south-eastern California, we
-    meet the Cahuillo, Chemehuevi,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">489</span> Kizh, Netela and Kechi; at the other
-    extreme on the east, we have the Comanche of New Mexico and Texas,
-    while to the north, in Utah, Nevada, Idaho and Oregon, we have the
-    great Shoshone and Utah families. But why group these languages in
-    such a wholesale manner? Is it because of inter-linguistic affinities?
-    No. Simply because of the Aztec element (though insignificant it is
-    true), which unquestionably pervades them all.<a id="FNanchor_738" href="#Footnote_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> Six of the Moqui
-    towns speak the language which bears their name. But, strange to say,
-    Harno the Seventh uses the Tequa, a language of one of the New Mexican
-    Pueblos. The Moqui language contains much that is Aztec, and because of
-    its substantive endings in <i>pe</i> and <i>be</i>, etc., is considered
-    by Buschmann a branch of his Shoshone-Comanche family of the Sonora
-    idiom.<a id="FNanchor_739" href="#Footnote_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a> Coupling this fact with the traditions of the Moquis (see
-    <a href="#Page_302">pages 302–304</a>) descriptive of their migrations from the North under the
-    pressure of the hordes of savages who deprived them of their cultivated
-    lands and slaughtered their families, we are at a loss to account for
-    this infusion of Aztec elements, except on the hypothesis that at a
-    remote day large numbers of Nahuas came in contact with the ancestors
-    of this people in their ancient home. Equally conspicuous is the Aztec
-    element in south-east California languages and the great Shoshone and
-    Utah families, which occupy the great central basin and stretch away
-    into Idaho and Oregon. Grimm’s law of sound-shifting is seen in their
-    adjective and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">490</span>substantive endings, <i>p</i>, <i>pa</i>, <i>pe</i>,
-    <i>pi</i>, <i>be</i>, <i>wa</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>pee</i>, <i>rp</i>, and
-    <i>rpe</i>. The Shoshone and Utah still retain <i>ts</i>, <i>tse</i>,
-    and <i>tsi</i>, all of which are but variations of the Aztec <i>tl</i>,
-    <i>tli</i>, according to the law above-named. Buschmann pronounces
-    this group the capstone of his Sonora edifice.<a id="FNanchor_740" href="#Footnote_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> In Western Oregon,
-    from the source to the mouth of the Willamette River, the Yamkally and
-    Calapooya languages preserve traces of the Aztec both in words and
-    terminal sounds.<a id="FNanchor_741" href="#Footnote_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> The same is even more evident concerning the
-    Chinook, of the lower Columbia River, in which the Aztec <i>thl</i>
-    and <i>tl</i> is a regular termination.<a id="FNanchor_742" href="#Footnote_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> Throughout the entire
-    region drained by the Columbia and its tributaries, Dr. Buschmann
-    found well-marked Aztec elements. The Clallum and Lummi languages of
-    the great Salish or Flathead family, which touches the coast opposite
-    Vancouver’s Island and extends into the interior, have the <i>tl</i>
-    termination and other phonetic resemblances to the Aztec.<a id="FNanchor_743" href="#Footnote_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a>
-    Furthermore, Mr. Gibbs has discovered that the cardinals employed by
-    the Clallam and Lummi in their system of enumeration are of a threefold
-    character, and, as Mr. Gallatin has shown, are similar to those of the
-    Mexicans and Mayas.<a id="FNanchor_744" href="#Footnote_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">491</span></p>
-
-  <p>Whether the Aztec is represented in the language of the Nootkas
-    on Vancouver’s Island is uncertain. Certainly strong marks of
-    similarity are observable. Buschmann, while admitting the existence
-    of resemblances, thinks that hardly enough of them exist to warrant
-    relationship.<a id="FNanchor_745" href="#Footnote_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a> The inquiry naturally arises, how came this Aztec
-    element which, three and a half centuries <span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">492</span>after the overthrow of the
-    Aztec empire, we observe in faint, though unbroken lines running from
-    the centre of Mexico to the vicinity of Vancouver’s Island to find its
-    way into a multitude of languages, some of which are separated from
-    others by a vast region more than two thousand miles in width? How
-    did it come to be the only bond of union between so many languages
-    in all other respects so dissimilar? It has been suggested that this
-    wide-spread dissemination of the Aztec is owing to the trade probably
-    carried on between Mexico and the North. However, this is merely
-    conjecture and is incapable of proof. It will be observed that the
-    linguistic line is faintest in the central basin among the Shoshones
-    and Utahs, where the relationship is established mainly by the
-    sound-shifting of the terminals according to Grimm’s law, but in the
-    languages of the Columbia River and its tributaries, and especially of
-    the Salish or Flathead family bordering on the strait of Juan de Fuca,
-    the Aztec terminal is actually present and in constant use. The most
-    critical researches have established this as an incontestable fact. In
-    this connection it is worthy of note (as shown in our first chapter)
-    that the works of the Mound-builders abound in this region in great
-    numbers, extending into the interior, appearing upon the upper Missouri
-    and its tributaries, and continuing to the Mississippi Valley and
-    thence into Mexico instead of following the coast or the central basin
-    at the west. Whether the Nahua was the language of the Mound-builders
-    of the United States, we are unable to determine, but the probabilities
-    that it was are considerable; because (1) the people of the mounds
-    built structures similar to those which prevail all over Mexico,
-    though in a less degree of perfection; (2) they carried obsidian
-    from Mexico to the North Mississippi Valley, showing both regions
-    to have enjoyed intimate commercial relations. This is no evidence
-    that the Mound-builders were colonists sent out from Mexico, since it
-    is improbable that colonists would have penetrated into the extreme
-    North-west by way of the Missouri River. Furthermore we have the
-    valuable argument of Baron von Hellwald made at the Luxembourg session
-    of the Congrès International des Américanistes in favor of a migration
-    from north to south, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">493</span> his reply to Mr. Robert S. Robertson’s paper
-    on “the Mound-builders,” namely, that no evidence exists of the
-    Mexicans or Central Americans having worked copper mines anterior to
-    the conquest; hence it follows that since copper was employed by both
-    Mexicans and Mound-builders, it must have been carried southward by the
-    latter.<a id="FNanchor_746" href="#Footnote_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> (3) We have testimony of the early writers that the Nahuas
-    came from the North-east; Sahagun says from the direction of Florida,
-    which then embraced the Mississippi Valley. (4) We have the statements
-    of Acosta and Sahagun that the Apalaches occupying the region east of
-    the Mississippi extended their colonies far into Mexico. According to
-    Acosta the Mexicans called them Apalaches, Tlautuics or Mountaineers.
-    “Sahagun speaking of them says: ‘They are Nahuas and speak the Mexican
-    language.’ This is by no means improbable, as the Aztec is found
-    eastward in the present states of Tamaulipas and Coahuila, and thence
-    the distance to the Mississippi is not so far.”<a id="FNanchor_747" href="#Footnote_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> In their search
-    for the Aztec element in the North, every investigator—Buschmann
-    among the rest—has made a great oversight. They have expected to
-    find resemblances to the Aztec as it was spoken at the time of the
-    conquest after centuries of culture had been bestowed upon it in the
-    schools of Mexico and Tezcuco. It appears never to have occurred to
-    these scholars, that if Mexican similarities exist at the North they
-    are with the ancient form of the Nahua, which Orozco y Berra tells us
-    “differs as much from the modern Nahua or Aztec as the Spanish of the
-    Romance of the Cid from the Spanish of to-day,” or coming nearer home,
-    we may say that it probably differed as much as the Anglo-Saxon of
-    King Alfred and the English of the present. The linguistic researches
-    referred to have certainly been made over a wide chasm of time and
-    change, as viewed in this light, and when we consider the instability
-    of language in America, the wonder is that any <span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">494</span>Nahua traces exist
-    at the North-west at this late date.<a id="FNanchor_748" href="#Footnote_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a> This phenomenon can only
-    be accounted for on the supposition that, at a remote period, large
-    numbers of Nahua-speaking people resided for a considerable length of
-    time in those regions. The presence of the mounds in such numbers in
-    Washington and the British possessions north of it, leads to this view,
-    provided it can be established that the Mound-builders were Nahuas.
-    The fact that the line of mounds is toward the interior precludes the
-    expectation that the Nahua is to be found prominently present west of
-    the Rocky Mountains. It is plausible to consider the Moquis a branch
-    from the Nahuas, separating from them at an early day and establishing
-    themselves in Southern Oregon and Utah, whence, according to their
-    tradition, they were driven by the Utes. In the course of time, their
-    language, which contains a Nahua element, may have become changed and
-    lost much of its original character. To their residence, migration, and
-    the possible captivity of many of their number, the traces of Aztec
-    found in the Shoshone and Utah tongues may be due.</p>
-
-  <p>Analogies between the Nahua and all the other languages of the world
-    have been assiduously sought for, and supposed affiliations advocated
-    by theorists, but in the present unsatisfactory state of philological
-    science it would be presumptuous for us to pretend that any claim for
-    linguistic analogies with the old world could be sustained. There is no
-    doubt that strong analogies are observable between the Otomi and the
-    Chinese. Señor Najera, to whom the former is vernacular, has appended
-    to his excellent grammar of the Otomi a comparative table of Chinese
-    and Otomi words, which while it shows strong resemblances, is not
-    sufficient in itself to establish relationship.<a id="FNanchor_749" href="#Footnote_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">495</span></p>
-
-  <p>Warden has treated the grammatical resemblances, which in many respects
-    are striking.<a id="FNanchor_750" href="#Footnote_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> It is one of the most singular phenomena met with
-    in the whole range of ethnography and philology, that a monosyllabic
-    language should be found in the very heart of Mexico surrounded by
-    the most remarkable poly-syllabism in the world, touching the capital
-    on the south-east and extending north-west into San Luis Potosi and
-    over portions of Queretaro and Guanajuato. It is no doubt a language
-    of great antiquity, and whether Chinese in origin is not fully
-    determined.<a id="FNanchor_751" href="#Footnote_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> Numerous claims have been set forth that some of the
-    Californian languages bear a striking resemblance to the Chinese, and
-    that Indians and Chinese in some cases have found so much in common in
-    their respective languages as to be able to hold conversations with
-    each other. These claims have in most instances been supported by
-    persons having little knowledge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">496</span> of the principles of philology, and
-    who are scarcely aware of the difficulty of comparing two monosyllabic
-    languages in which the finest shade of pronunciation carries with
-    it the greatest significance.<a id="FNanchor_752" href="#Footnote_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a> Japanese claims have been urged
-    with some reason by ethnologists no less eminent than Latham, who is
-    confident that the “Kamskadale, Koriak, Aino-Japanese and the Korean
-    are the Asiatic languages most like those of America.”<a id="FNanchor_753" href="#Footnote_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Comparisons of the Indian languages with those of the old world
-    have often been made, most frequently in a haphazard manner and
-    to little purpose. Recently, however, Herr Forchhammer of Leipzig
-    published a truly scientific comparison of the grammatical structure
-    of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Muskogee and Seminole languages, with the
-    Ural-Altaic tongues, in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">497</span>which he has developed many interesting points
-    of resemblance.<a id="FNanchor_754" href="#Footnote_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> Prof. Valentini has called attention to the fact
-    that Ptolemy (Geography, Asia Minor, Chapter X, Armenia Major) gives
-    in his list of cities belonging to the Roman province in his time
-    (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 140), the names of five cities situated in the region
-    of the historic Ararat, which have nearly their counterpart in five
-    proper names applied to localities in Mexico by its ancient colonists.
-    The cities of Armenia Major, according to Ptolemy, are: Chol, Colua,
-    Zuivana, Cholima, Zalissa. “The first name <i>Chol</i> is contained
-    in <i>Cholula</i>; the second, <i>Colua</i>, in <i>Coluacan</i>;
-    the third, <i>Zu vana</i>, in <i>Zuivan</i>, which is the ancient
-    name of the Yucatanic province of Bacalab (see Perez in Stephens’
-    <cite>Yucatan</cite>, Appendix, vol. ii, <cite>Chronology of Yucatan</cite>).
-    <i>Cholima</i> is to-day written <i>Colima</i>, <i>Zalissa</i> is
-    contained in <i>Xalisco</i>, the Spanish <i>x</i> sounding in the
-    Nahua language like the English <i>sh</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_755" href="#Footnote_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> Generally we have
-    been disposed to pronounce all such coincidences accidental, as most
-    of them certainly are. In this case we leave the decision to the
-    reader. In this chapter we have noticed two prominent families of
-    languages, (1) the Maya-Quiché, having such transatlantic affinities
-    as to furnish presumptive evidence that if it did not originate from,
-    it was at least influenced by the West European or African languages.
-    (2) The great Nahua family, which linguistic researches, together
-    with the circumstantial evidence furnished by architectural remains,
-    commercial intercourse and the testimony of early writers, assign to at
-    least a temporary occupancy of the Columbian region on the North-west
-    coast. Concede this fact, and you must look elsewhere, possibly to the
-    opposite continent, for the early beginnings of a language so ancient
-    and polished.</p>
-
-  <p>While the proof is not conclusive, yet we think it is presumptive that
-    both of these families, as well as some other American languages, are
-    of old world origin.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">498</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_XI"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER XI</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc">THE PROBABILITIES THAT AMERICA WAS PEOPLED FROM THE OLD WORLD,
-    CONSIDERED GEOGRAPHICALLY AND PHYSICALLY.</div>
-
-  <div class="subhead">Legends of Atlantis—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory—The Subject
-    Examined Scientifically—Retzius’ View—Le Plongeon’s
-    Observations—Identity of European and American Plant
-    Types—Revelations of the <i>Dolphin</i> and <i>Challenger</i>
-    Expeditions—The Atlantic Floor—Challenger and Dolphin
-    Ridges—Challenger Plateau probably once Dry Land—Identity of
-    European and South American Fauna—Elevation and Depression of
-    Coast Level of Greenland, United States, and South America—Gulf
-    Stream—Equatorial Current—The Trade-Winds—Accidental
-    Discovery of Brazil—America Probably Reached by Ancient
-    Navigators—The Caras—Atolls of the Pacific Ocean—A Pacific
-    Continent—Contiguity of the Continents at the North—Aleutian
-    Islands—Kuro-Suvo—Behring’s Straits—Inviting Appearance of
-    the American Shore—Remoteness of the Migration—Prof. Grote’s
-    View—Prof. Asa Gray’s Observations—Conditions Favorable to a
-    Migration—John H. Becker’s Observations.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">WE have observed that traditional and linguistic evidence seems to
-    point to a trans-Atlantic origin for some of the American peoples. In a
-    preceding chapter (iii), we quoted the story of the Platonic Atlantis,
-    as recorded in the <cite>Critias</cite>, and alluded to the advocacy by
-    the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg of the hypothesis that the submerged
-    continent of Egyptian tradition was a reality. In support of this
-    view, the Abbé has cited the opinions of geologists and the remarkable
-    traditions preserved by the Central Americans, the Mexicans, and the
-    Haytians, concerning the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which
-    submerged beneath the ocean a continent, of which the Antilles are but
-    its mountain summits. Attach as little importance as we may to these
-    ancient legends, which no doubt refer to some extraordinary cataclysm,
-    the memory of which was preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">499</span> for ages by periodic feasts and
-    religious celebrations,<a id="FNanchor_756" href="#Footnote_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a> in which the gods were besought by princes
-    and people for security against a similar calamity, still our minds
-    naturally associate them with the story of the Platonic Atlantis.<a id="FNanchor_757" href="#Footnote_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">500</span></p>
-
-  <p>Until recently the mere expression of belief in the former existence
-    of an Atlantic continent has been the signal for criticism, and has
-    called forth the smile of pity, if not of contempt. Such, however, is
-    no longer true, since scientific investigation, consisting chiefly in
-    deep-sea soundings and the study of the fauna and flora of the opposite
-    shores of the Atlantic, call for the respectful attention of all who
-    are interested in the ancient history of this continent. Prominent
-    among the men of science who have expressed confidence in this
-    hypothesis is Prof. Andres Retzius of Stockholm, who was convinced from
-    a study of comparative craniology, that the primitive dolichocephalic
-    skulls of America, especially of the ancient Caribs of the Antilles,
-    were nearly related to the <i>Guanches</i> of the Canary Islands.<a id="FNanchor_758" href="#Footnote_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Le Plongeon observed that the sandals upon the feet of the
-    statue of Chaacmol, discovered at Chichen-Itza, and of the statue
-    of a priestess found on the island of Mugeres, “are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">501</span>exact
-    representations of those found on the feet of the <i>Guanches</i>,
-    the early inhabitants of the Canary Islands, whose mummies are yet
-    occasionally met with in the caves of Teneriffe and the other isles
-    of the group.”<a id="FNanchor_759" href="#Footnote_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a> The great number of American plant-types in the
-    Miocene flora of Switzerland, led Prof. Unger to espouse the view
-    that a continent formerly existed in the present Atlantic ocean.<a id="FNanchor_760" href="#Footnote_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a>
-    Professor Heer, the celebrated botanist of Zurich, for the same
-    reasons promulgated this hypothesis, and in his <cite>Flora Tertiaria
-    Helvetiæ</cite>, defines the location of the continent, which he believes
-    to have been as wide as Europe.<a id="FNanchor_761" href="#Footnote_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> In opposition to this view, it
-    is urged by Professors Oliver and Asa Gray, that the flora of America
-    and Europe are united by means of a former overland communication at
-    Behring’s Straits.<a id="FNanchor_762" href="#Footnote_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> The conformation of the ocean-bed is the next
-    matter of importance in examining the subject. The deep-sea soundings
-    taken for the submarine cable between Newfoundland and Ireland, led
-    to the impression that the Atlantic floor was comparatively a level,
-    forming but one great trough between the continents. The United States
-    exploring ship <cite>Dolphin</cite>, however, subsequently dispelled this
-    illusion, by revealing the fact that a great submarine plateau or
-    mountain chain which has been denominated the “Dolphin Rise,” divided
-    the North Atlantic into two longitudinal troughs running north and
-    south. This is described as a seal-shaped ridge with its tail joining
-    a connecting ridge at the south in 15° North Lat. and 45° West Long.,
-    while its body widens as it runs towards the north, reaching its
-    maximum width under the forty-fifth parallel, and finally tapering to
-    a narrow isthmus at 52° North Lat. and 30° West Long., which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">502</span>connects
-    the ridge with the great northern submarine table-land.<a id="FNanchor_763" href="#Footnote_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a></p>
-
-  <p>This work was prosecuted further by the German frigate <cite>Gazelle</cite>,
-    and by H. M. ships <cite>Lightning</cite> and <cite>Porcupine</cite>, with
-    confirmatory results.<a id="FNanchor_764" href="#Footnote_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> The most thorough and satisfactory work
-    of this character, however, was performed during the cruise of H. M.
-    ship <cite>Challenger</cite>, from December 30, 1872, until May 24, 1876,
-    inclusive. Sir C. Wyville Thomson, the director of the expedition, in
-    his excellent work, <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, has contributed much exact
-    information relative to the contour of the sea-bed. The frontispiece
-    to his second volume is a chart illustrative of the relative depths of
-    different localities in the Atlantic ocean. Almost its entire length
-    from north to south, the great chain whose loftiest summits tower above
-    the sea in the Azores Islands, St. Paul’s Rocks, Ascension and St.
-    Helena Islands, is indicated by a white irregular belt representing
-    a depth of one thousand fathoms, but shading off into the blue,
-    indicative of the depths on either hand. Professor Thomson says,
-    “Combining our own observations with reliable data which have been
-    previously or subsequently acquired, we find the mean depth of the
-    Atlantic is a little over 2000 fathoms. An elevated ridge rising to
-    an average height of about 1900 fathoms below the surface, traverses
-    the basin of the North and South Atlantic, in a meridional direction
-    from Cape Farewell, probably as far south, at least, as Gough Island,
-    following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the old and new worlds.
-    A branch of this elevation strikes off to the south-westward, about the
-    parallel of 10° North, and connects it with the coast of South America
-    at Cape Orange; and another branch across the eastern trough, joining
-    the continent of Africa, probably about the parallel of 25° South.”<a id="FNanchor_765" href="#Footnote_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">503</span></p>
-
-  <p>The width of the great land ridge as well as its relation to the
-    North Atlantic islands is indicated in the following: “One of the
-    most remarkable differences between the Azores and Bermuda is, that
-    while Bermuda springs up an isolated peak from a great depth, the
-    Azores seem to be simply the highest points of a great plateau-like
-    elevation, which extends for upwards of a thousand miles from west
-    to east, and appears to be continuous with a belt of shallow water
-    stretching to Iceland in the north and connected probably with the
-    ‘Dolphin Rise’ to the southward, a plateau which in fact divides the
-    North Atlantic longitudinally into two great valleys, an eastern and a
-    western.”<a id="FNanchor_766" href="#Footnote_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> A member of the <cite>Challenger</cite> staff, in a lecture
-    delivered in London soon after the termination of the expedition,
-    expressed the fullest confidence that the great submarine plateau is
-    the remains of the “lost Atlantis,” citing as proof the fact that the
-    inequalities, the mountains and valleys of its surface, could never
-    have been produced in accordance with any laws for the deposition of
-    sediment nor by submarine elevation, but, on the contrary, must have
-    been carved by agencies acting above the water level.<a id="FNanchor_767" href="#Footnote_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> The volcanic
-    character of the Azores and Philippines, together with the prevalence
-    of volcanic deposits found upon the entire ridge by the officers of
-    the <cite>Challenger</cite>, lend probability to the Egyptian and American
-    legends of a tremendous catastrophe in which a continent was submerged
-    beneath the waves.<a id="FNanchor_768" href="#Footnote_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Sir C. Wyville Thomson found that the fauna of the coast of Brazil
-    brought up in his dredging machine, were similar to that of the western
-    coast of South Europe.<a id="FNanchor_769" href="#Footnote_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> This is of particular interest, since
-    at a short distance north of the Amazon an arm of the central ridge
-    connects the sunken plateau with the coast of South America. Mr. J.
-    Starke Gardner, the eminent English geologist, is of the opinion that
-    in the Eocene period a great extension of land existed to the west of
-    Cornwall. The extraordinary mingling of American, Asiatic, Australian
-    and African <span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">504</span>genera in all European floras of the Tertiary period leads
-    him to the conviction that at a remote time they were all connected.
-    Referring to the locations of the <cite>Dolphin</cite> and <cite>Challenger</cite>
-    ridges, he asserts that a great tract of land formerly existed where
-    the sea now is, and that Cornwall, the Scilly and Channel islands,
-    Ireland and Brittany are the remains of its highest summits.<a id="FNanchor_770" href="#Footnote_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> The
-    question at once arises, “What ground have we for believing that the
-    great Atlantic ridges ever occupied a higher altitude than at present?”
-    The answer is found in the comparison of facts with the following
-    theory set forth by Prof. Joseph Le Conte: “Any increase in the height
-    and extent of the whole amount of land on the globe must be attended
-    with a corresponding depression of the sea-bottoms, and therefore an
-    actual subsidence of the sea-level everywhere. Hence if it be true, as
-    is generally believed, that the continents have been, on the whole,
-    increasing in extent and in height, in the course of geological
-    history, then it is true also that the seas have been subsiding, and
-    that therefore the relative changes are the sum of the two.”<a id="FNanchor_771" href="#Footnote_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> It
-    cannot be denied that the processes of elevation and depression are now
-    actively going on along the eastern coast of both the Americas. The
-    coast of Greenland is sinking along a distance of 600 miles so markedly
-    that ancient buildings on low rock-islands are now submerged, and the
-    Greenlander has learned by experience never to build near the water’s
-    edge.<a id="FNanchor_772" href="#Footnote_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a> The subsidence along our Atlantic seaboard is slowly going
-    on, being most marked on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, while
-    on the other hand the elevation of the eastern coast of South America
-    has been accomplished by the hidden forces, volcanic or otherwise,
-    on a stupendous scale. “Raised beaches” have been traced 1180 miles
-    down the eastern shore and 2075 miles along the western, ranging from
-    100 to 1300 feet above the sea, and Alexander Agassiz has recently
-    identified them at a height of 3000 feet above the present sea-level
-    by means of corals found adhering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">505</span> to the rocks.<a id="FNanchor_773" href="#Footnote_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> In view of these
-    facts, so familiar to any student of geology, it is not difficult to
-    conceive of the former existence of Atlantis where the <cite>Dolphin</cite>
-    and <cite>Challenger</cite> locate the mid-Atlantic ridge, described as
-    1000 miles in width in the latitude of the Azores. Supposing the
-    existence of an Atlantic continent in the Tertiary period conceded,
-    we have no means at present of determining the approximate time of
-    its subsidence, unless we associate it with the dim and uncertain
-    legends of the Egyptian priests and the ancient Americans. Whether the
-    Atlantidæ who threatened to overthrow the earliest Greek and Egyptian
-    states, but who were swallowed up by the sea in the engulfment of
-    their island continent, were the inhabitants of the <cite>Dolphin</cite> and
-    <cite>Challenger</cite> ridges and the colonists of Eastern America, must for
-    the present at least remain in doubt, though strong probabilities point
-    to the conclusion that they were.<a id="FNanchor_774" href="#Footnote_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a></p>
-
-  <p>The colonization of America by transatlantic peoples, it seems to us,
-    did not depend upon the existence of a land bridge at a remote period,
-    but could have been accomplished without the aid of the compass, either
-    intentionally or accidentally, through the agency of the equatorial
-    current and the trade-winds, two mighty forces perpetually tending
-    toward the shores of the new world. The return current of the Gulf
-    Stream which describes a semicircle in the east Atlantic washes in
-    its sweep the Azores, the Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verde Islands,
-    approaching in its southern course the shores of Portugal, Morocco, and
-    the Sahara Desert, and finally uniting with the stronger equatorial
-    current which rushes up the coast of Africa, crosses the Atlantic under
-    the equator, and skirts the coast of South America until it reaches the
-    Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_775" href="#Footnote_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> The north-east trade-winds
-    blowing perpetually from the coast of Europe in a belt from eighteen to
-    twenty degrees in width (or from 1245 to 1275 miles) reach the coasts
-    of the American continent over an area which extends from the mouth of
-    the Amazon to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">506</span>the northern boundary of Florida. Through the agency
-    of these mild but almost unvarying forces Columbus was steadily borne
-    on to the accomplishment of the greatest event of modern history. The
-    companions of the Admiral were dismayed by the persistency with which
-    they were wafted beyond the bounds of the known world, and ascribed the
-    unceasing east wind, which they supposed offered them no hope of return
-    to their homes, to a device of the devil. In one of the houses on the
-    island of Guadaloupe Columbus on his second voyage saw the stern-post
-    of a vessel, supposed to have been the fragment of some ship that had
-    drifted across the Atlantic and been cast, together with the crew, upon
-    unknown shores. How often and how long this same process had operated
-    it is impossible to conjecture.<a id="FNanchor_776" href="#Footnote_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> The accidental discovery of Brazil
-    by Cabral furnishes an additional reason for believing that anciently
-    vessels may have reached the new world. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral was
-    dispatched by the Portuguese on the 9th of March 1500, with a fleet of
-    thirteen vessels on a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope, to Calicut.
-    After passing the Cape Verde Islands he bore away to the west, in
-    order to avoid the calms prevailing on the Guinea coast. On the 25th
-    of April, to his surprise he discovered what proved to be the South
-    American continent, at a point which he named Porto Securo.<a id="FNanchor_777" href="#Footnote_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a> When
-    we consider that the distance from the coast of Africa to Cape Frio,
-    Brazil, is but 1530 miles, and realize that twelve centuries <span class="allsmcap">B.
-    C.</span> the Phœnicians and probably other maritime peoples of the
-    Mediterranean visited Britain at the north and coasted Africa to the
-    south, the probabilities are strong that, through the natural agency
-    of the Atlantic currents and the trade-winds, some ancient mariners
-    reached the American coast.<a id="FNanchor_778" href="#Footnote_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">507</span></p>
-
-  <p>Brasseur de Bourbourg, on the authority of Baron de Eckstein and his
-    own researches, points to the fact that the Barbarians who are alluded
-    to by Homer and Thucydides, are a race of ancient navigators and
-    pirates called <i>Cares</i> or <i>Carians</i>, who occupied the islands
-    of Greece and a part of the coast of the Peloponnesus, Arcanania and
-    Illyria, before the Pelasgi. They ruled in Phrygia and other states
-    of Asia Minor, antedating the Phœnicians in their sovereignty of the
-    sea and the Indo-European peoples in their domination of the land.
-    The same people extended their borders into Nubia and Libya and
-    became the ancestors of the nations of the Barbary States. The Abbé,
-    to all appearances, easily identifies them with <i>Caracars</i> or
-    <i>Caribs</i> of the Antilles, the <i>Caras</i> or <i>Cariari</i> of
-    Honduras, and even with the <i>Gurani</i> of South America. We submit
-    the question for the investigation of the student, rather than with
-    our endorsement.<a id="FNanchor_779" href="#Footnote_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a> Whether a great continent ever existed in the
-    Pacific Ocean since man’s appearance on the earth, or whether the great
-    area occupied by Oceanica and the Coral Islands of the Central Pacific
-    was once a continent, are questions which cannot now be determined.
-    It is certain, however, as Professor Dana has shown in his study of
-    the atolls and barriers of the Pacific, that if not a continent, at
-    least a great archipelago measuring 6000 miles in length by from 1000
-    to 2000 miles in breadth, has subsided to a depth ranging from 3000 to
-    6000 feet. Professor Dana states that two hundred islands have thus
-    been lost.<a id="FNanchor_780" href="#Footnote_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a> Professor Le Conte estimates the loss of land to equal
-    20,000,000 square miles, and defines its boundaries by the Hawaiian
-    and Feejee groups, north <span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">508</span>and south, and the Paumotu group and Pelews,
-    east and west. He fixes the extreme subsidence at 1000 feet, since
-    the average height of the high islands of the Pacific at present is
-    not less than 9000 feet above the sea level, while some of them reach
-    14000 feet.<a id="FNanchor_781" href="#Footnote_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> Professor Dana is of the opinion that this vast area
-    has subsided since the <i>Tertiary age</i>. Whether such is the case
-    or not is a matter of conjecture, but it is certain that much of it
-    has been accomplished within the human era. That a higher civilization
-    once prevailed throughout Polynesia we need only cite the remains found
-    on Easter Island by Captain Cook, and refer to the Appendix of Mr.
-    Baldwin’s work, where ruins of a high order are named as existing on
-    Ascension, Marshall, Gilbert, Kingsmill, Ladrones, Swallow, Strong’s,
-    Navigators and Hawaiian Islands. A quadrangular tower forty feet high
-    and several stone-lined canals are to be seen at the harbor at Strong’s
-    Island. On the adjoining isle of Lele, cyclopian walls forming large
-    enclosures are overgrown by forests. “These walls are twelve feet
-    thick, and within are vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages.”
-    “Not more than five hundred people now inhabit these islands; their
-    tradition is that an ancient city formerly stood around this harbor,
-    mostly on Lele, occupied by a powerful people whom they called ‘Anut,’
-    and who had large vessels, in which they made long voyages east and
-    west, ‘many moons’ being required for these voyages.”<a id="FNanchor_782" href="#Footnote_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> It is
-    altogether probable that not only a higher civilization once prevailed
-    in Polynesia, but that within the history of man, the greater extent
-    of land, now submerged, made the passage to America comparatively
-    easy. If we turn to the North Pacific, all doubts vanish in the
-    presence of the most favorable conditions for a migration from our
-    continent to the other. With Latham, we believe that if America had
-    first been discovered from the west, and Alaska and the north-west
-    coast been as well known as our Atlantic coast, North-eastern Asia
-    would have naturally passed for the <em>fatherland</em> of North-western
-    America.<a id="FNanchor_783" href="#Footnote_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> It is scarcely <span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">509</span>necessary to occupy space in pointing
-    out the facilities which the Aleutian Islands offer for a migration
-    even in inferior boats, and at all seasons of the year. The climate,
-    though cool, is not severe, owing to the proximity of the warm current
-    of the Kuro-suvo, and it only requires an inspection of the map to
-    convince the most conservative. Col. Barclay Kennon, formerly of the
-    United States North Pacific Surveying Expedition, after referring
-    to the conspicuousness of the volcano Petropaulski on the shores of
-    Kamtschatka, says: “Proceeding along this coast to Cape Kronotski,
-    which lies north of Petropaulski, the distance to Behring’s Island is
-    about one hundred and fifty miles—course east. Fifteen miles only from
-    it is Copper Island, and about one hundred and fifty miles south-west
-    of it is Attou Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian group, which
-    is an almost unbroken chain, connecting the American continent to the
-    peninsula of Alaska.”<a id="FNanchor_784" href="#Footnote_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> It is evident that the voyage from the
-    Asiatic to the American coast can be made as far south as the Aleutian
-    Islands without losing sight of land but a few hours at a time—a matter
-    of no consequence to the intrepid navigators found everywhere among
-    the aborigines upon the islands and coast.<a id="FNanchor_785" href="#Footnote_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> The Kuro-suvo or Japan
-    current sweeps along the Asiatic coast, bears away to the east, and
-    describing a semicircle, bends its course southward to the shores of
-    California and Mexico, until it reaches about the tenth parallel of
-    north latitude, when it returns to the Japanese coast.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_510">510</span></p>
-
-  <p>This Gulf Stream of the Pacific, which nearly every season casts
-    wrecks of Japanese junks upon our shores, no doubt has been an
-    active agent in giving character to our ancient population.<a id="FNanchor_786" href="#Footnote_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a>
-    Added to these twofold facilities for communication—of currents and
-    an almost continuous chain of islands—we have a third in the narrow
-    channel at Behring’s Straits. These straits, according to Sir John F.
-    Herschel, are now “only thirty miles broad where narrowest, and only
-    twenty-five fathoms in their greatest depth.”<a id="FNanchor_787" href="#Footnote_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> Sir Charles Lyell,
-    in alluding to the above fact, remarks: “Behring’s Straits happen to
-    agree singularly in width and depth with the Straits of Dover, the
-    difference in depth not being more than three or four feet.”<a id="FNanchor_788" href="#Footnote_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> With
-    this statement before us while standing upon the deck of a vessel
-    midway between Calais and Dover, with the shores of France and England
-    in full view, we felt, as never before, how absurd is the opinion
-    which has been advanced more than once, that no general migration
-    was likely to take place across Behring’s Straits. As well say that
-    no general migration was likely to take place across the Straits of
-    Dover; yet we learn that Britain was known to be inhabited as early
-    as the twelfth century <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span><a id="FNanchor_789" href="#Footnote_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> The weather at Behring’s
-    Straits, though cold even in summer, is not nearly as cold as the
-    winters of Japan.<a id="FNanchor_790" href="#Footnote_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> In winter the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">511</span>waters of the straits are frozen
-    over generally as late as April, furnishing a continuous connection
-    between the continents, while in summer the communication at present
-    between the aborigines inhabiting opposite shores is continuous.<a id="FNanchor_791" href="#Footnote_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a>
-    Frederick von Hellwald furnishes an argument for the naturalness of
-    a migration to the American shores the fact that, “while the Asiatic
-    projection near Behring’s Straits is almost a sterile rocky waste, the
-    opposite coast presents a much more inviting appearance, abounding
-    in trees and shrubs. Moreover, the climate when we pass southward of
-    the peninsula of Alaska, is of a genial character, the temperature
-    continuing nearly the same as far down as Oregon.”<a id="FNanchor_792" href="#Footnote_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a> The difference
-    in the two shores is owing to the fact that the cold current from the
-    Arctic Ocean passes southward along the Asiatic coast, while a portion
-    of the water of the warm current passes up the American shore.<a id="FNanchor_793" href="#Footnote_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a>
-    It is impossible to approximate the period of the world’s history in
-    which the migration must have taken place. No doubt it was in a remote
-    age, before the old world peoples had developed their present or even
-    historic peculiarities and types of civilization. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">512</span>If this be true, the
-    futility of all old world comparisons, and the unceasing search for
-    analogies which has been going on since the discovery of the continent,
-    is at once apparent.<a id="FNanchor_794" href="#Footnote_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Prof. Grote thinks the first migration may have taken place in the
-    Tertiary period in Pliocene time, and that the subsequent advent
-    of the ice period cutting off all communication with the old world
-    until recent times, produced a modification in the race, and that man
-    retired with the glacier on its return to the north, where we see his
-    descendants in the Eskimo.<a id="FNanchor_795" href="#Footnote_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> If Prof. Croll’s theory of climatic
-    change resulting from the maximum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit be
-    true, or even if the ordinary time at which the American glacial period
-    is supposed to have occurred be taken into consideration, we hardly
-    think the evidences of man’s pre-glacial residence on this continent
-    are sufficient on which to base a safe hypothesis.<a id="FNanchor_796" href="#Footnote_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> Of course Prof.
-    Grote would assign a comparatively recent migration to the civilized
-    nations. Whether a continuous land communication ever existed between
-    the continents at the Aleutian Islands<a id="FNanchor_797" href="#Footnote_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a> or at Behring’s Straits
-    cannot be determined, though the probabilities seem to favor the view
-    that they were once united.<a id="FNanchor_798" href="#Footnote_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a></p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">513</span></p>
-
-  <p>Prof. Asa Gray has satisfactorily shown the intimate relationship
-    between the North American and Asiatic vegetation, while many of our
-    fauna are clearly of Asiatic origin.<a id="FNanchor_799" href="#Footnote_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> However, it is of little
-    moment in this discussion whether the land bridge ever existed; the
-    conditions for migration from one continent to the other are now,
-    and no doubt ever have been favorable, and that different peoples at
-    different times have availed themselves of those conditions is equally
-    certain. We have already alluded to the climatic conditions south of
-    Alaska which would naturally allure a migrating tribe down the coast
-    to Oregon and the Columbian region. Once there, however, a tribe of
-    considerable numbers and enterprise would soon be stimulated to push
-    farther, because of the demands for a more ample support than could be
-    found on the Pacific coast in the region of the Columbia and Frazier
-    Rivers. Still, progress to the south is practically cut off, since
-    the dryness and sterility of the Californian coast, the ice-capped
-    mountains intervening between the north and the Sacramento and San
-    Joaquin rivers and the desert highlands which rise with bleak and
-    forbidding aspect between the Sierra Nevada and the eastern Rocky
-    Mountains, combine in forming a barrier sufficient to turn the course
-    of a migration.<a id="FNanchor_800" href="#Footnote_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a> Add to this the fact that the country south
-    of Oregon rises over 2000 feet above the head of the waters of the
-    Columbia and Missouri rivers, and it is apparent that an outlet must be
-    sought in another direction. Nature has provided the highway. Alluding
-    to this fact and to the unbroken line of mounds from the north and west
-    down the Missouri valley, Mr. Becker remarks: “On the head of (canoe)
-    navigation we have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">514</span>what is known as ‘portages.’ These are depressions
-    in the continuous range of the Rocky Mountains of such a nature that
-    they fairly invite a travelling tribe to cross from the river system
-    of the upper Columbia, emptying into the Pacific Ocean to that of the
-    Missouri, on which a canoe need but be floated in order to arrive in
-    the far distant Gulf of Mexico. Canoes can easily be carried from
-    one river system to the other. Nothing like it exists in the whole
-    mountain range southward, until we arrive at Nicaragua Lake in Central
-    America.”<a id="FNanchor_801" href="#Footnote_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a> It will not require long for the matter of fact reader,
-    who comprehends the well-nigh insurmountable difficulties which lie in
-    the way of populating America in tropical or southern latitudes, and
-    compares with them the facilities which the proximity of the continents
-    and the topography of our country afford, to determine from what
-    quarter America received the greater part of its inhabitants.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">515</span>
-    <h2 id="CHAPTER_XII"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER XII</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc">CONCLUSION.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">THE dim uncertainty which envelopes the most ancient period of American
-    antiquity, like that which obscures the beginnings of Egyptian,
-    Assyrian and Trojan history, to say nothing of the origin of the
-    venerable Asiatic civilizations, renders much of the effort in this
-    field unsatisfactory. Still the results are of surpassing interest. A
-    new cosmogony, mythology and traditional history full of weird poetic
-    inspiration, an inspiration such as is begotten in contemplating the
-    struggles of nature’s children after a higher development, is added to
-    the fund of human knowledge. The poetry of the Quiché cosmogony must
-    some day find expression in verse of Miltonic grandeur. The fall of
-    Xibalba will no doubt afford the materials for a heroic poem which will
-    stand in the same relation to America that the Iliad does to Greece.
-    The doctrines of the benign and saintly Quetzalcoatl or Cukulcan
-    must be classed among the great faiths of mankind, and their author,
-    alone of all the great teachers of morals except Christ himself,
-    inculcating a <em>positive</em> morality, must be granted a precedence
-    of most of the great teachers of Chinese and Hindoo antiquity. It is
-    the custom of many Europeans to regard America as having no heroic or
-    legendary period, no heroes like Achilles, Æneas, Sigfried, Beowolf,
-    Arthur and the Cid; but who will review the romance of American
-    antiquity and longer entertain this view? A few years ago, writers
-    dated North American history from the discoveries made by Columbus
-    and his immediate successors. Now they go back to the Northmen for a
-    starting-point. May not the beginning be pushed even farther back, and
-    the <em>ancient history of America</em> receive the attention of the
-    historiographer?</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">516</span></p>
-
-  <p>The origin of the North American population cannot be positively
-    settled at present, though the probabilities are that new facts will be
-    brought to light establishing the relationship of the ancestors of the
-    Nahuas with some ancient Asiatic race, as the Eskimo have clearly been
-    proven to belong to the Arctic race which encircles the globe near the
-    North pole.<a id="FNanchor_802" href="#Footnote_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> We have seen that groups of facts unquestionably point
-    to Northern Asia as the ancient home of a large share of the tribes of
-    North America, civilized and savage. The autochthonic hypothesis which
-    had its first great advocate in Dr. Morton, receives no support from
-    his mistaken argument for the unity of the American race. We think
-    we have shown, as did Prof. Wilson before us, that no such fact as
-    ethnic unity exists in America. Dr. Morton’s own measurements of crania
-    which we have classified, and the recent measurements of mound skulls,
-    disprove the argument which he sought to establish. The autochthonic
-    hypothesis owed much of its popularity to the support which it received
-    from Prof. Agassiz’s doctrine of the separate creations of races of
-    men, a hypothesis which has rapidly lost ground since the decease of
-    its eminent advocate. It is impossible to determine whether the people
-    of the mounds of the United States were preceded in this country by any
-    other people. Certainly they had intercourse with some race having a
-    cranial type quite different from their own, as several low-type skulls
-    taken from the mounds testify. If the rude weapons found in New Jersey
-    are as old as Dr. Abbott supposes<a id="FNanchor_803" href="#Footnote_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a>—belonging to the inter-glacial
-    age—the question of man’s antiquity on this continent may have to
-    be viewed in a different light from that in which it has hitherto
-    appeared. It is conjectured that this supposed inter-glacial race were
-    the ancestors of the Eskimo of to-day, and retired or were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">517</span>driven
-    to the Arctic regions, where their racial characteristics became
-    permanent. The traditional history of both Mayas and Nahuas seem to
-    indicate an old world origin. The former people clearly claim an origin
-    which, if their traditions are worth anything, must be assigned to some
-    Mediterranean country. While, on the contrary, the Nahuas persistently
-    state that they came from the north or north-west. It is certain that
-    many of their cosmological traditions closely resemble those of Central
-    and Western Asiatic peoples. Why should the traditions of the ancient
-    Americans be less reliable than those of the most ancient Egyptians,
-    Greeks, or Hindoos?<a id="FNanchor_804" href="#Footnote_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a></p>
-
-  <p>Tradition, language and architectural remains furnish us the data by
-    which to trace the migrations of peoples. In addition to the testimony
-    of tradition, the languages of the Mayas and Quichés present affinities
-    to the west European and African languages; also to the languages
-    of the West Indies and the Antilles. Whether the Quiché traditions
-    concerning their ancient home have reference to the Atlantic coast of
-    the United States is uncertain, though Señor Orozco y Berra believes
-    their ancestors to have migrated from Florida to Cuba and thence
-    to Yucatan. Linguistic and architectural evidences show that the
-    Maya-Quiché family extended its civilization north as far as Panuco,
-    and south as far as Honduras.</p>
-
-  <p>The Nahua migrations are more numerous and their accounts somewhat
-    obscure. It is not improbable that while few in number the Nahuas
-    arrived on our north-western coast, where they found a home until they
-    had become a tribe of considerable proportions. Crossing the watershed
-    between the sources of the Columbia and Missouri Rivers, a large
-    portion of the tribe probably found its way to the Mississippi and
-    Ohio Valleys, where it laid the foundations of a wide-spread empire,
-    and developed a civilization which reached a respectable degree of
-    advancement.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">518</span></p>
-
-  <p>The remainder of the Nahuas, we think, instead of crossing the
-    Rocky Mountains, migrated southward into Utah, and established a
-    civilization the remains of which are seen in the cliff-dwellings
-    of the San Juan Valley and such extensive ruins as exist at Aztec
-    Springs. It must be conceded that this hypothesis rests on linguistic
-    and traditional evidence, as no affinity between the architecture
-    of the Cliff-dwellers and either the Mexicans or Mound-builders is
-    traceable. We have in a preceding chapter summarized our reasons for
-    considering the Mound-builders to have been Nahuas. The Olmecs, the
-    first Nahuas to reach Mexico, came in ships from the direction of
-    Florida, landed at Panuco, and journeyed southward until they came in
-    contact with the advanced and already old civilization of the Mayas.
-    The Toltecs came into Mexico by land from the North. The Chichimecs,
-    their former neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan, whether Nahuas or not
-    originally, followed them and adopted their language. The Nahuatlaca
-    tribes, speaking the same language, arrived centuries afterward from
-    the same quarter—the North. Finally the Aztecs, the last of the Nahuas,
-    reached Anáhuac four centuries before the Spanish conquest. Mr. Becker
-    has conjectured that Aztlan (land of whiteness) was the name applied
-    to the southern Mississippi Valley and the region of the Gulf States;
-    that Hue hue Tlapalan (old red land), the ancient empire of the Nahuas,
-    was situated on the great plains of the west and in the region occupied
-    by the Cliff-dwellers and Pueblos, and further, that the “seven caves”
-    or “ravines,” the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, is the region of the
-    Colorado River, the land of cañons.</p>
-
-  <p>At best these can be but conjectures, yet the probabilities are
-    that Hue hue Tlapalan bordered upon the great Mississippi Valley.
-    Traditional and architectural evidence lead us to this conclusion. The
-    linguistic argument is wanting, except the statement of the historians
-    that the people of the Floridian region spoke Nahua. It remains for
-    some one to compare the Aztec with the languages of the southern
-    Indians before the investigation is complete. While the probability is
-    pre-eminent that the ancient Americans are of old world origin and that
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">519</span> Mayas and Nahuas reached this continent from opposite directions,
-    it is certain that the civilization developed by each people is
-    indigenous—that it grew up on the soil where we find it, and was shaped
-    by the wants of man as influenced and modified by the conditions of
-    nature and physical surroundings. The most persistent investigation has
-    failed to disclose any marked resemblance between the architecture,
-    art, religion and customs of the North Americans considered as a whole
-    and of any old world people. It is true that occasional analogies
-    suggest intercourse and even relationship with particular races, as
-    for instance the serpent and phallus worship common to the aboriginal
-    Americans and the people of India. Sun-worship, so wide-spread, may
-    also indicate an ancient community of residence for those peoples who
-    practise it. The Calendar systems of Mayas and Nahuas present analogies
-    to the systems employed by the Persians, Egyptians and certain
-    Asiatic nations, and the presumption is very strong that the latter
-    furnished the ground-plan upon which the Nahua system was constructed.
-    The accuracy of the Aztec calendar must ever be a monument to their
-    intellectual culture, and an undeniable proof of the advanced state of
-    ancient Mexican civilization. The fact that Cortez found the Julian
-    reckoning, employed by his own and every other European nation, to be
-    more than ten days in error when tried by the Aztec system—a system
-    the almost perfect accuracy of which was proven by the adjustments
-    which took place under Gregory XIII in 1582 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>—excites our
-    wonder and admiration. How the Nahuas, whether Toltec or Aztec we know
-    not, were able to approximate the true length of the year within two
-    minutes and nine seconds, thus almost rivalling the accuracy of the
-    learned astronomers of the Caliph Almamon, is a mystery. The venerable
-    civilization of the Mayas, whose forest-grown cities and crumbling
-    temples hold entombed a history of vanished glory, no doubt belongs to
-    the remotest period of North American antiquity. It was old when the
-    Nahuas, then a comparatively rude people, first came in contact with
-    it, adopted many of its features, and engrafted upon it new life. Like
-    Rome, overwhelmed by the Teutons of the North, it no doubt succumbed
-    to the vigorous aggressions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">520</span> of the invaders, and was compelled to
-    resign the dominion of much of its northern territory. The powerful
-    empire of the Quiché-Cakchiquels was the result of the union of the
-    old and new races. The otherwise inviting picture of ancient American
-    civilization is marred by the introduction of human sacrifices which
-    in each instance occurred in the period of the political decadence
-    of the people practising it, and no doubt was the most potent factor
-    in the downfall of both Toltec and Aztec monarchies. Still, when we
-    reflect upon the Druidical horrors of the Britons at the time of the
-    Roman conquest, and realize that our Anglo-Saxon ancestors in the sixth
-    century sold their relatives and even their own children into slavery,
-    and were but slightly removed from the condition of cannibals if they
-    were not actually such, the ancient American civilization with its many
-    humane features and advanced culture rises up in splendor before us, in
-    marked contrast with our barbarous origin. Although this civilization
-    was indigenous and peculiar to itself, we find all of the American
-    tribes possessed of certain arts and traditions which seem common to
-    mankind in all parts of the world. The character of flint weapons and
-    implements are the same among all primitive peoples. The modes of
-    producing fire by friction and of grinding grain differ little, if
-    any, in America, from those employed by ancient peoples elsewhere. The
-    first efforts toward the development of the architectural idea all
-    round the globe, seem to find expression in the rude mound and then in
-    the more perfect pyramid. These and other considerations which have
-    been noted in the preceding pages, lead us to the conclusion that at a
-    remote period, before racial and national characteristics had been well
-    defined, this continent received its population from the old world, at
-    different times and from different quarters.</p>
-
-  <p>The uniformity with which the human mind operates in all lands for the
-    accomplishment of certain ends, has in many instances resulted in the
-    independent development of institutions common to several peoples. This
-    fact, together with the probability that occasionally foreigners were
-    cast upon the American shores, will be sufficient to account for many
-    features which have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">521</span> been discovered in Mexican and Central American
-    architecture, art, and religion, presenting analogies with the old
-    world. The fact that civilizations having such analogies are developed
-    in isolated quarters of the globe, separated from each other by broad
-    seas and lofty mountains, and thus indicating a uniformity of mental
-    operation and a unity of mental inspiration, added to the fact that the
-    evidence is of a preponderating character that the American continent
-    received its population from the old world, leads us to the truth that
-    God “hath made of one blood all nations of men.”</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">523</span>
-    <div class="xlarge center"><b>APPENDIX.</b></div>
-    <hr class="short mt3" />
-    <h2 id="MADISONVILLE_EXPLORATIONS" title="APPENDIX A.">A.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc">MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">SINCE the greater part of this work was put in type, the exploration
-    of ancient mounds in several localities in the United States has
-    yielded gratifying results. Most conspicuous for rich returns,
-    both in pottery and human remains, are the researches which have
-    recently been prosecuted with such rare intelligence and vigor by
-    the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio, in the
-    aboriginal burying-grounds and among the mound-works of the Little
-    Miami Valley. Through the liberality of the society and the courtesy
-    of its secretary, Mr. Frank W. Langdon, we are enabled to present
-    an authorized account of the explorations. We take this opportunity
-    of expressing our obligations to the society, and especially to Mr.
-    Langdon, who has kindly prepared the following report:</p>
-
-  <p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Notice of Some Recent Archæological Discoveries in the Little
-    Miami Valley.</span> <cite>By <span class="smcap">Frank W. Langdon</span>, Secretary of the
-    Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio.</cite></p>
-
-  <p>The valley of the Little Miami River, in South-western Ohio, has long
-    been noted for the number and extent of its pre-historic earthworks,
-    which, distributed on either side of the river, from its confluence
-    with the Ohio to the well-known Fort Ancient and beyond, form an almost
-    continuous chain of mounds, forts, circles, and embankments, extending
-    for more than fifty miles, and constituting an important division of
-    the great earthworks system of the Mississippi Valley.</p>
-
-  <p>Of the few publications relating more especially to the ancient works
-    of this series, one of the most important, perhaps, is the paper by
-    Dr. Charles L. Metz, entitled “The Prehistoric Monuments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">524</span> of the
-    Little Miami Valley,”<a id="FNanchor_805" href="#Footnote_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> accompanied by a chart showing the location
-    and character of more than forty of these earthworks, situated in
-    Columbia, Spencer and Anderson Townships of Hamilton County. The Hon.
-    Joseph Cox, H. B. Whetsel, Esq., Mr. Charles F. Low, and the several
-    other gentlemen composing the organization known as the Literary and
-    Scientific Society of Madisonville, have also, at various times,
-    given considerable attention to archæological investigations in this
-    vicinity, and the valuable and interesting collections of objects
-    of pre-historic art accumulated by these gentlemen afford abundant
-    evidence of the long-continued occupation of this region by a numerous
-    and somewhat intelligent people of whom we have no historic record.</p>
-
-  <p>A renewed interest in the subject has been recently developed by the
-    discovery, near Madisonville, of one of the cemeteries of this unknown
-    people, and the explorations therein by the above-named society, are
-    perhaps among the most interesting that have ever been conducted in the
-    Mississippi Valley.</p>
-
-  <p>This cemetery, which is distant about one and one-half miles south-east
-    from Madisonville, occupies the western extremity of an elevated
-    plateau overlooking the Little Miami River, and situated from eighty
-    to one hundred feet above the water-line. It is bounded on the south
-    by the river “bottom”; on the north and west by a deep ravine, through
-    which flows a small stream known as Whisky Run; on the east the plateau
-    slopes gradually up to the general level of the surrounding country,
-    of which it is in fact a continuation or spur, its character of an
-    isolated plateau being derived from its position between the eroded
-    river valley and the deep ravine above referred to. The precipitous
-    but well-wooded bluff which forms the southern limit of this plateau
-    extends eastward, facing the river, for perhaps half a mile, and
-    distributed along its edge are a number of mounds and other earthworks;
-    at its base are the Cincinnati and Eastern and Little Miami Railways,
-    the nearest station being Batavia Junction, distant about half a mile
-    east of the cemetery.</p>
-
-  <p>The original forest still covers the site of the cemetery, and
-    measurements of some of the principal trees are recorded by Dr. Metz
-    in his paper before mentioned, as follows: a walnut, 15½ feet in
-    circumference; an oak, 12 feet; a maple, 9½ feet; an elm, 12 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">525</span>feet. The
-    locality has long been known to local collectors and others interested
-    in archæological matters, as the “Pottery Field,” so called on account
-    of the numerous fragments of earthenware strewn over the surface; and
-    it was until recently supposed to be a place where the manufacture of
-    pottery had been carried on by the ancient inhabitants of the valley,
-    the fragments found being considered the <i>debris</i>. A few scattered
-    human remains had also been found in the adjoining ravines, but it was
-    not until some time in March, 1879, that its true character and extent
-    as a cemetery were brought to light.</p>
-
-  <p>It then became apparent that some concerted action would be necessary,
-    in order to secure the best scientific results from the discovery; and
-    early in April excavations were begun under the auspices of the before
-    mentioned organization, the proprietors of the premises, Messrs. A.
-    J. and Charles K. Ferris, having kindly granted to it the exclusive
-    privilege of making a thorough and systematic exploration of the
-    ground. From that time until the present (July 19, 1879) excavations
-    have been continued with a force varying from one to three men,
-    assisted by members of the society, every foot of the ground gone over
-    being thoroughly explored, and full notes taken as the work progressed.</p>
-
-  <p>The following brief outline of the results, taken from the records of
-    the society, will but serve to convey an idea of the general features
-    of the discovery and of its importance to archæological science, time
-    and space not permitting a detailed account in the present connection.</p>
-
-  <p>Of the four or five acres of ground over which the cemetery is believed
-    to extend, only a small segment of the south-western portion has been
-    explored. The exploration, however, has been exceedingly thorough and
-    comprises an extent of perhaps half an acre of ground, from which have
-    been exhumed in all one hundred and eighty-five skeletons. Of these,
-    however, but a small proportion are in a good or even tolerable state
-    of preservation, as with the utmost care only about forty crania could
-    be preserved sufficiently well for measurement. The preservation of
-    even this number must probably be attributed to the favorable character
-    of the soil, a compact gravelly drift, as the various surroundings,
-    position of some skeletons under large trees, etc., all indicate for
-    these interments a remote antiquity.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">526</span></p>
-
-  <p>With respect to the mode of burial, this is far from being uniform. A
-    large majority of the skeletons are found at a depth of from two to
-    three feet, in a horizontal position, face upwards; but exceptions
-    to this rule are numerous, many interments being made in a sitting
-    position, and some in groups of from three to six individuals
-    irregularly disposed. There has been no attempt in any instance at
-    the construction of a stone coffin, but in one case the skeleton was
-    covered with a layer of small flat limestone from the adjacent stream.
-    The heads of those in the horizontal position are generally directed to
-    the east or south-east; but this rule is not constant, several being
-    found at right angles to these. It is worthy of note, however, that,
-    with scarcely an exception, those skeletons accompanied by the finer
-    vases, pipes and other choice relics, have their heads directed east or
-    south-east.</p>
-
-  <p>During the progress of the work on April 12, a cranium, unaccompanied
-    by other bones, was exhumed; in searching for the rest of the
-    skeleton, a circular excavation, three and a half feet in diameter
-    and four and a half feet in depth, was made, from which were taken
-    bones sufficient to represent twenty-two skeletons. But two of the
-    crania, both evidently those of females, could be preserved; they are
-    remarkable for their whiteness and smooth texture as compared with the
-    average crania from this cemetery. A sacrum taken from this pit has
-    imbedded in its anterior surface, near the promontory, one of the small
-    triangular flints known as “war arrows,” which had passed obliquely
-    from above downwards, and to the right, necessarily penetrating the
-    abdominal walls and viscera in order to reach its final lodging place.
-    The bottom of the pit was paved with the common river mussel shells
-    (<i>unios</i>), and there appeared to have been some attempt at a
-    natural disposition of the bones, those of the lower extremities being
-    placed at the bottom, the crania at the top.</p>
-
-  <p>Among the human remains from this cemetery are many possessing features
-    of surgical and anatomical interest, as, for instance, an adult male
-    cranium in which complete anchylosis of the atlas to the condyles
-    has occurred, the posterior arch remaining free. Other crania show
-    evidences of severe injury with subsequent repair, and among the long
-    bones are several showing characteristic lesions strongly indicative
-    of rachitis and of syphilis, a fact of considerable interest in its
-    relation to the geographical distribution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">527</span> of the latter disease, and
-    also as bearing on the theory of its introduction into Southern Europe
-    from America in the fifteenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>Among the graves opened are several of children, who are usually buried
-    in close proximity to adults, and with them are found various ornaments
-    or toys of perforated shell, bone, etc., as well as small earthen
-    vessels.</p>
-
-  <div class="figright2 illowp54">
-    <img src="images/i_527.jpg" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap0">Bowl from Ancient Cemetery, Little Miami Valley.</span><br />
-      (Collection of W. C. Rogers, Madisonville, O.)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The pottery ware which accompanies the skeletons is usually situated
-    near the head and presents many features of special interest. It is
-    made of clay, finely tempered with pounded unio shells, and much care
-    has evidently been bestowed upon its manufacture, some pieces being
-    scarcely thicker than an ordinary teacup. Many specimens are in a
-    perfect condition, or nearly so, and they usually contain a single
-    unio shell when found, the shell being evidently intended for use as a
-    spoon. The vessels range in capacity from a third of a pint, or even
-    smaller, up to a gallon or more, the smaller ones, as before stated,
-    being usually found in the graves of children. They are symmetrical
-    in shape and varied in design, some being artistically ornamented
-    with scroll work, handles representing lizards, human heads, etc.,
-    and are almost invariably provided with four handles. Among the
-    few exceptions to this latter rule is an eight-handled bowl (see
-    cut), in the collection of W. C. Rogers, Esq., which is a two-story
-    affair, apparently made by combining two distinct vessels, and then
-    removing the bottom of the upper one. Vessels having but two handles
-    occasionally occur, and others with holes in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">528</span> lieu of handles; but
-    these are exceptions to the general rule as above noted.</p>
-
-  <p>The total number of vessels taken from the cemetery to date is
-    eighty-eight. There is good reason to believe, however, that each
-    interment has been originally accompanied by a vessel, the present
-    disparity between the number of vessels and the number of skeletons
-    being accounted for by the fragments thickly strewn over the surface
-    and intermingled with the surrounding soil, which have doubtless at one
-    time constituted portions of the missing burial urns. To the growth
-    of trees, action of frost and rooting of hogs, the destruction of so
-    much of this valuable ware must be attributed, and to the latter cause,
-    irregularities observed in the disposition of some of the skeletons are
-    probably due.</p>
-
-  <p>Among the other articles of utility or ornament found in the graves
-    are twelve pipes, of various patterns, three of them being made from
-    the Minnesota Catlinite or Red Pipestone; also stone disks, axes
-    and chisels, flint knives and spear-heads, and many ornaments and
-    implements of bone, such as beads, awls, needles, perforated teeth,
-    etc., together with others of unknown uses. Two small cylinders of
-    rolled copper, about two inches in length, and two flat pieces of the
-    same metal an inch or more square, are among the collections, as are
-    also two stones bearing inscriptions as follows: one, an irregular
-    piece of sandstone, measuring about 3 × 2 × 1 inches, on the flat
-    surface of which are cut two parallel figures made of straight lines
-    and apparently intended to represent arrows; this specimen is now in
-    the writer’s collection. The other stone, which is in the collection of
-    E. A. Conkling, Esq., is a flattened dark-green boulder measuring about
-    3½ × 2½ inches, one side of which is completely covered with a network
-    of lines from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch apart and crossing each other at nearly
-    right angles, thus forming quadrangular divisions of various sizes.</p>
-
-  <p>An interesting feature of these excavations has been the discovery of
-    what may be designated as “ashpits”; being circumscribed deposits of
-    ashes, shells, sand, etc., from two to three feet in thickness, placed
-    at varying distances below the surface. A perpendicular section made
-    of one of these pits answers to the following description, which will
-    serve to convey a fair idea of them all. Diameter of pit, three feet;
-    the first eighteen inches consisted of leaf mold and sandy soil; then
-    followed nine inches of clay, burnt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">529</span> earth and charcoal; next, ashes
-    and charcoal, twelve inches; clay, three inches; white ashes, two
-    inches; sand and unio shells, six inches; pure ashes, twelve inches;
-    total depth, five feet two inches.</p>
-
-  <p>Of these ashpits, more than fifty have been opened, situated in
-    continuous rows near the edge of the bluff. They are quite uniform in
-    size, measuring from three to four feet in diameter and from four to
-    six feet in depth, and with one or two exceptions have not been found
-    in any other than the above-mentioned situation. Intermingled with the
-    ashes are pipes, implements of bone, shell, and stone, a mastodon’s
-    tooth, bones of various wild animals, including birds and fishes, and
-    in some of them large sherds of pottery-ware indicating vessels of from
-    ten to twelve gallons capacity or even larger. With the exception of a
-    single dorsal vertebra no human remains have yet been found in these
-    pits, unless the ashes be so considered.</p>
-
-  <p>From the uncharred condition of the above articles it is evident that
-    the ashes have been placed in the pits <em>as ashes</em>, after having
-    been burned elsewhere, as in no case do the relics or the walls of the
-    pits show any traces of the action of fire.</p>
-
-  <p>With respect to the length of time that has elapsed since these
-    interments, mention has already been made of the situation of some of
-    the skeletons under large trees, an instance of which may be cited: On
-    Saturday, April 5, the ground was visited by Judge Cox and Mr. Low,
-    in company with Dr. Metz, and in excavating beneath an oak tree, six
-    feet two inches in circumference, a skeleton was discovered, its lower
-    extremities extending under the tree; overlying the lower extremities
-    of this skeleton was another, its body situated directly under the
-    trunk of the tree and the skull so surrounded and penetrated by roots
-    as to prevent its removal except in fragments. The bones of both
-    skeletons were much decayed and exceedingly fragile.</p>
-
-  <p>In forming an estimate as to the probable antiquity of these
-    interments, the time that must necessarily have elapsed between the
-    abandonment of the cemetery and the springing up of the forest; the age
-    of the trees now present and of others that have fallen and decayed;
-    the advanced state of decay in which the human remains are found; the
-    character of the pottery-ware; and lastly, the total absence of any
-    evidences of communication with civilization, in the shape of glass
-    beads or other trinkets, must all be taken into account; and it does
-    not appear at all unreasonable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">530</span> to conclude that the use of this ground
-    as a cemetery probably antedates the discovery of America by Columbus.</p>
-
-  <p>As regards the particular race to which this people belonged,—whether
-    they were identical with, or related to, the celebrated “stone-grave
-    people” of Tennessee,<a id="FNanchor_806" href="#Footnote_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> as some of their pottery-ware and the shape
-    and dimensions of their crania would seem to indicate; or whether they
-    were the last remnants of the once powerful nation that erected Fort
-    Ancient and other gigantic works in this region,—these and similar
-    queries remain as yet unanswered. More extended investigations and a
-    careful comparison of large amounts of material from this and other
-    localities, may be expected to assist in the solution of these obscure
-    but interesting problems.</p>
-
-  <p>At the present writing excavations are still in progress, with new
-    developments daily, and a publication of the entire results, with full
-    details and illustrations, may be looked for in due season.</p>
-
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p><span class="smcap">Madisonville</span>, Hamilton County, Ohio, <i>July</i> 19, 1879.</p>
-
-    <p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—An illustrated report of the continuation of the
-      Madisonville exploration, so remarkable in results, will be found
-      in the <cite>Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History</cite>,
-      vol. iii, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; also a sketch by F. W. Putnam in
-      <cite>Harvard University Bulletin</cite> for June 1, 1881.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <h2 id="ELEPHANT_PIPE" title="APPENDIX B.">B.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">THE question as to whether man and the mastodon were contemporaneous in
-    America, has long been a matter of dispute as the reader is aware after
-    the perusal of our second chapter and other sources. The “elephant
-    <span class="figleft2 illowp58">
-      <img src="images/i_530.jpg" alt="" />
-      <span class="caption smcap">Elephant Pipe from Louisa Co., Iowa.</span>
-    </span>
-    pipe” figured in the accompanying cut has been the means of calling
-    fresh attention to the subject. Dr. R. J. Farquharson, of the Davenport
-    Academy of Sciences, who kindly furnished us the photo from which our
-    illustration is a reduction, states that six or seven years ago Mr.
-    Peter Mare, a farmer (whose estate was situated on both <span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">531</span>sides of the
-    line dividing Muscatine and Louisa Counties, Iowa) found the elephant
-    pipe while plowing corn on his land in Louisa County. The finder,
-    who had no idea of its archæological value, kept it with a number of
-    “Indian stones,” as he termed them, until last year (1878), when it
-    became the property of the Davenport Academy. Dr. Farquharson says:
-    “The ancient mounds were very abundant in that vicinity (Louisa Co.),
-    and rich in relics which are deposited on the surface of the soil (not
-    in excavations), as we found in exploring a number. In such a case
-    it is not strange that a mound having been gradually removed by long
-    cultivation, the relics so deposited should be reached and turned up
-    by the plow.” * * * “The pipe, which is of a fragile sandstone, is of
-    the ordinary Mound-builder’s type, and has every appearance of age and
-    usage. Of its genuineness I have no doubt. Together with the ‘Elephant
-    mound’ of Wisconsin, the elephant head of Palenque (depicted in Lord
-    Kingsborough’s great work), our pipe completes the series of what the
-    French would call ‘documents’ proving the fact of the contemporaneous
-    existence on this continent of man and the mastodon.”<a id="FNanchor_807" href="#Footnote_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> The above
-    facts, as stated by Dr. Farquharson, were substantially embodied in a
-    paper read by Mr. Pratt before the Davenport Academy, April 25, 1879.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <h2 id="CHARNAY_EXPLORATION" title="APPENDIX C.">C.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc">THE CHARNAY EXPLORATION.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">THE exploring expedition under French and American patronage, led by
-    M. Désiré Charnay, began its labors in Mexico, May 1st, 1880, and
-    continued them nearly a year. During this time a large number of ruins,
-    scattered over the area extending from Teotihuacan and Tollan, on the
-    north, and Palenque, on the south, are reported to have been examined.
-    How thorough the examination was, or how scientifically accurate
-    were the published reports, it would at present (September, 1881) be
-    impossible to determine. Suffice it to say that they are generally
-    viewed with distrust, partly on account of the disjointed, haphazard
-    form in which they have appeared in the <cite>North American Review</cite>
-    (September, 1880-June, 1881—doubtless without blame on the part of the
-    editor), where the splendid heliotype illustrations have been rendered
-    nearly valueless by the frequent omission, from the text and elsewhere,
-    of descriptive reference; and partly on account of the over-confident
-    style of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">532</span>writer. It is to be hoped that the ground for criticism
-    may be removed when M. Charnay shall formally publish his reports.</p>
-
-  <p>It would be superfluous in this connection to summarize his work, since
-    his papers are accessible to all.</p>
-
-  <p>It is worthy of note, however, that he reports Teotihuacan, on the
-    authority of several authors, to have contained twenty-seven thousand
-    dwellings, besides its temples, and that the heaps of ruins which
-    remain justify the statement. The whole area of five or six miles
-    in diameter was found covered with heaps of ruins. Cement roadways,
-    containing broken pottery, seemed to afford evidence of occupancy
-    in even a more ancient epoch than that in which Teotihuacan was
-    founded. Excavations revealed two halls of a supposed temple at the
-    base of one of the pyramids. One of these halls is reported to be
-    nearly fifty feet square, in the middle of which stood six pillars
-    which had served to sustain the roof. At Tula, the ancient capital of
-    Tollau, north-west of the city of Mexico, hitherto so fruitless of
-    archæological, and especially of architectural remains, M. Charnay
-    made remarkable discoveries of pyramids, and several Toltec houses of
-    immense proportions, one of which contained forty-three apartments,
-    besides corridors and a staircase. Sculptures were numerous, and bricks
-    of burnt clay, twelve inches long by five inches wide, were found to
-    have been used in constructing stairways.</p>
-
-  <p>Near the village of Comalcalco, thirty-five or forty miles
-    north-west of San Juan Bautista, the capital of Tabasco, vast ruins
-    were discovered, particularly pyramids, towers, and edifices, all
-    forest-grown, equalling and even surpassing in proportions those at
-    Palenque. Upon a pyramid 115 feet high an edifice of brick and mortar
-    234 feet in length was explored.</p>
-
-  <p>At the village of Palenque, M. Charnay found the two bas-reliefs seen
-    by Waldeck and Stephens a half century ago, now built into the outer
-    wall of a church (see this work, p. 391).</p>
-
-  <p>At the ancient city itself the explorer discovered the ruins to be
-    more extensive than ever heretofore supposed, and estimates that it
-    would require the labor of five hundred men for six months, under the
-    direction of a corps of topographers, simply to determine the general
-    plan of the city. Eight hundred and sixty-one square feet of casts of
-    bas-reliefs were taken. It was ascertained at Palenque, by breaking off
-    portions of the vesture upon the stucco reliefs, that the human body
-    had in all cases been first carefully modeled, and that the drapery had
-    subsequently been superposed. Whether this fact throws light simply
-    upon the process employed, or indicates a reaction or evolution in art,
-    is equally interesting and uncertain.</p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">533</span>
-    <h2 id="HOUSE_ARCHITECTURE" title="APPENDIX D.">D.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="subheadc">HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS.</div>
-
-  <p class="drop-cap">AMONG the unsolved problems of American archæology is that of the
-    use to which the extensive systems of embankments attributed to the
-    Mound-builders were put. The Newark (Ohio) system of works, now
-    covering two miles square, but formerly presenting twelve miles of
-    embankment, reaching at some points a height of thirty-five feet,
-    with sufficient width for a carriage-way on top, has been a veritable
-    sphinx to all inquirers. Nor does it stand alone in an architectural
-    aspect. Its square is precisely of the dimensions of a similar figure
-    found at Hopetown, in the Scioto Valley. Its circles are connected
-    with squares or octagons, a typical combination of features generally
-    prevalent in mound structures. Furthermore, its trenches are all within
-    the enclosures. The probability is that the clew to the solution of
-    the problem has come to light. The discovery of what are pronounced
-    to be mound-works, in connection with the Pueblo ruins of Colorado
-    and New Mexico and Arizona, has given us the hint. Mr. Wm. H. Holmes
-    in “A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western Colorado, examined
-    during the Summer of 1875,”<a id="FNanchor_808" href="#Footnote_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> shows us the Mound and Pueblo ruin in
-    close proximity. In describing a ruined village on the Rio La Plata,
-    he says: “North of this, about 300 feet, is a truncated rectangular
-    mound, 9 or 10 feet in height and 50 feet in width by 80 in length.
-    On the east end, near one of the angles, is a low, projecting pile
-    of débris that may have been a tower. There is nothing whatever to
-    indicate the use of this structure. Its flat top and height give it
-    more the appearance of one of the sacrificial mounds of the Ohio Valley
-    than any other observed in this part of the West. It may have been,
-    however, only a raised foundation, designed to support a superstructure
-    of wood or adobe.... South of this, and occupying the extreme southern
-    end of the terrace, are a number of small circles and mounds, while
-    an undetermined number of diminutive mounds are distributed among the
-    other ruins.” Mr. W. H. Jackson, in the same document (p. 29) that
-    contains Mr. Holmes’ report, mentions the remains of “many circular
-    towns” <span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">534</span>on a high plateau between the Montezuma and the Hovenweep. The
-    year following, the lamented scholar, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, acting on
-    the suggestion or originating a hypothesis of his own, announced in the
-    <cite>North American Review</cite> for July, 1876, what has since been called
-    his “Pueblo Theory.” A fuller exposition of his views were embodied
-    in his paper “On Houses of the American Aborigines,” published in the
-    <cite>Report of the Archæological Institute of America for 1879–1880</cite>.
-    Mr. Morgan illustrates the prevalence of communal houses among the
-    aborigines east of the Mississippi, citing the long houses of the
-    Iroquois; and west of the river the communal lodges of the Minnitares
-    and Mandans, and of Columbia River Indians seen by Lewis and Clark in
-    1805. The writer further illustrates the communal architecture of the
-    aborigines by discussions relating to the joint tenement houses of the
-    Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona. Having thus laid his foundation, he
-    applies the communal idea and its expression in the Mandan and Pueblo
-    structures in a conjectural restoration of the mound villages. He
-    supposes that, as adobe would not withstand the frosts and rains of
-    the Ohio Valley, the Mound-builder people resorted to the structure of
-    wooden edifices. He says: “They might have raised these embankments
-    of earth, enclosing circular, rectangular, or square areas, and
-    constructed their long houses upon them.” Mr. Morgan would build upon
-    the squares and circles houses having a wooden framework, upon which
-    turf and grass were placed both upon roof and sides. In order that this
-    should be possible, the sides are supposed to have been inclined at the
-    same angle with the embankment, the superstructure being a continuation
-    of the earthern foundation so far as outline and geometrical figure
-    is concerned. To preserve analogy with the closed, windowless
-    ground-storey of New Mexico Pueblos, Mr. Morgan supposes that the
-    outer side or sides of the edifice were closed, presenting only blank
-    walls of heavy turf or gravel to view; while the walls facing within
-    the enclosure were windowed, and pierced with doors. The entrances to
-    the enclosures, he supposes, were guarded with palisades. There the
-    defensive feature of the Pueblo house was preserved. In his elaborate
-    work, the “Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines,”<a id="FNanchor_809" href="#Footnote_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> that
-    last touch of a vanished hand, the author has discussed at length the
-    development of the joint tenement house among the Mound-builders. After
-    illustrating the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_535">535</span>principle, as applied in the restoration of High Bank
-    works (Ross County, Ohio), he adds: “These embankments, therefore,
-    require triangular houses of the kind described, and long houses as
-    well, covering their entire length. But the interior plan might have
-    been different; for example, the passage-way might have a long exterior
-    wall, and the stalls or apartments on the court side, and but half as
-    many in number; and, instead of one continuous house, in the interior,
-    450 feet in length, it might have been divided into several, separated
-    from each other by cross partitions. The plan of life, however, which
-    we are justified in ascribing to them, from known usages of Indian
-    tribes in a similar condition of advancement, would lead us to expect
-    large households formed on the basis of kin, with the practice of
-    communism in living in each household, whether large or small.” The
-    plausibility of Mr. Morgan’s hypothesis is, to say the least, striking.
-    However, his supposition that the Mound-builders and Pueblos were of
-    the same race, is not unattended with difficulties. Conspicuous among
-    them is the marked dissimilarity of the ceramic ornament employed by
-    the two peoples. Nothing is more stable than the art of a race or
-    age. Nothing more truly reveals the inner life of a people than its
-    pottery. The Mound-builders and Pueblos each had their ceramic types.
-    But they were wholly unlike—apparently the work of unrelated races.
-    Yet, community of burial, as well as community of residence, to which
-    may be added similarity of cranial type, are facts that declare for Mr.
-    Morgan’s hypothesis as to the relation of the peoples in question.<a id="FNanchor_810" href="#Footnote_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a></p>
-
-  <hr class="chap" />
-  <div class="chapter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_537">537</span>
-    <h2 id="INDEX"><span class="gespertt1">INDEX</span>.</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="short" />
-
-  <ul>
-    <li class="ifrst">A.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Abbott, discoveries in New Jersey. <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">view of Eskimo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aboriginal painting of sun, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">trade, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Rau on, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aborigines, American, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Acolhuas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Agassiz on Floridian jaw-bone, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on origin of nations, <a href="#Page_158">158–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on physical life and nature, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of untenable, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ages of stone and bronze in Mississippi valley, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Age of trees on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Agglutination in languages, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Alabama mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71–72</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Alaska, climate of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aleutian islands, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">migration by, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Alleghany Mts., boundary of Mound country, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Alligator mound, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Allighewi, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Allouez, Father, on aboriginal copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Al-Mamoun, state of learning during kalifate of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Altar mounds, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Squier and Davis on, <a href="#Page_83">83–87</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stratification of, <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Prof. Andrews on, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Alton, mounds at, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Amaquemecan, Chichimec home, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">American civilization (ancient) contrasted with that of Britons, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">“Bottom,” recent discoveries in, <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">languages, number and variety of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">instability of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">race not unique, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of old world origin, <a href="#Page_201">201–2</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Anahuac, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Analogies in geographical names, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in religion, <a href="#Page_459">459–68</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of ceremonial law, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Scandanavian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Hindoo and Mexican, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Greek and Mexican, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Egyptian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Anchylosis (bony) observed in mound-builder remains, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_89">89–94</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ancient forts of New York, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Col. Whittlesey on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Foster on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Anderson’s, W. M., “Calendar Stone,” <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Andrews, E. B., explorations by, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Antiquity of man, chap. ii;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">testimony of geology, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Europe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Antiquity of mounds, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Red man, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Antipodes, St. Augustine on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Aristarchus of Samos on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Apes, American group of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ararat, Mt., <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the Mexican, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Arch, pueblo, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Architecture, analogies in, real and fancied, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_340">340–55</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">classification of styles, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Palenque, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Yucatan style, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Uxmal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Kabah, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Zayi, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Labná, <a href="#Page_353">354</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Quiché, <a href="#Page_355">355–59</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Nahua, <a href="#Page_359">359–83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Mitla, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Maya and Nahua compared, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Architectural progress in mound works, <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Argyll, Duke of, on Negroid type, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Art, unity of style in savage, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">high order at Palenque, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Copan, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Palenque and Egyptian compared, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Astronomical knowledge of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_94">94–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, floor of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">submerged land ridge of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">mean depths of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">sea-board, changes in level of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">continent, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Atlantis, Platonic, tradition of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498–505</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Brasseur de Bourbourg on, <a href="#Page_498">498–500</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Legends of from <i>Popol Vuh</i> and <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Retzius on, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Unger, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Heer, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Atolls of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dana and Le Conte on, <a href="#Page_507">507–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Atoyac, Mexican river, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Autochthones, mound-builders not, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Autochthon, the American an, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Autochthonic origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Axayacatl, Mexican king, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Azores, volcanic character of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztec calendar, <a href="#Page_446">446–59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">weeks and days, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">inter-calation, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Ritual year, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lords of night, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">lunar reckoning, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">chronology, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztec language, richness of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">extent of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the classic tongue, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">ancient and modern, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">grammar, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lord’s prayer in, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">traces of north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_486">486–90</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">elements in Nootka languages, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztec picture-writing, <a href="#Page_428">428–33</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztec springs, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324–26</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Aztec-Sonora languages, <a href="#Page_487">487–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Aztec theory,” the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztecs, migrations of, <a href="#Page_259">259–263</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stations, <a href="#Page_260">260–61</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">southern origin of considered, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztlan, Nahua home, <a href="#Page_257">257–9</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">location of, <a href="#Page_257">257–9</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–65</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">description of by Duran, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Aztlan, Wis., mound works at, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">B.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Babel myths, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">tower of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Cholula, <a href="#Page_235">235–37</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bacab myth, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Balam-Agab, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Balam-Quitzé, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Baldwin, J. D., on mounds of North-west, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bancroft, H. H., on Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_251">251–53</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">resumé of Toltec annals by, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">observations on Cox-cox myth, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Maya chronology, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Aztec language, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Baptism, Mexican, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Barber, E. A., <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Barrandt on Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Basque and Maya languages compared, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Farrar on, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bartlett’s exploration of Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_276">276–83</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bayou St. John, earthworks on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Beard mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bearded men at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Beau Relief in Stucco, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Becker, J. H., on traditions of Nahua Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, n.;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on ancient home of Nahuas, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_248">248–50</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Behring’s Straits, Bancroft’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">width and depth of, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lyell and Herschel on, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Hellwald on migration by, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dall, W. H., on migration <i>via</i>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Berthoud, E. L., stone implements collected by, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Big Harpeth valley works, <a href="#Page_60">60–65</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Blake, J. H., collection of Peruvian skulls by, <a href="#Page_176">176–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bollaert’s interpretation of hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Books used by Mayas, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">by Aztecs, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Bourbeuse River, mastodon discovered at, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brasseur de Bourbourg, estimate of by Bancroft, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, n. 1.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on the Platonic Atlantis, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498–500</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Igh and Imox, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, n. 1;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Maya hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_421">421–25</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on religious analogies, <a href="#Page_467">467–8</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Scandinavian and Maya languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brachycephalic crania classified, <a href="#Page_162">162–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brazil, accidental discovery of by Cabral, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brentwood, Tenn., stones graves at, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brick, sun-dried, from mounds, <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brinton, Dr., phonetic alphabet, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Buddha and Quetzalcoatl compared by, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Brown, Thos., mounds of, <a href="#Page_63">63–4</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Browne, Ross, explorations by, <a href="#Page_282">282–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Buckle, on learning in Spain, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Buddhist missionaries in America, <a href="#Page_148">148–50</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Burial, “intrusive” in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">ceremony, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in stone coffins, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">vase from Mexico, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Butler, J. W., on Chaac-Mol, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Buschmann’s researches on American languages, <a href="#Page_487">487–88</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Sonora family, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Aztec element in Nootka language, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">C.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cabots, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cabral, discovery of Brazil by, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cabrera on the origin of the Votanites, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Votanic document, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cahita, language of New Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Calapooya language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Calaveras Co. (Cal.) cranium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of Whitney, Wyman and others on, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Calendar systems, mound-builder, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">days, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">the Katun, <a href="#Page_439">439–40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Ahau Katun, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">succession of, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Nahua or Mexican, its construction, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446–59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">perfection of, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">days and weeks, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">inter-calation, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Ritual year, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">lords of night, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_408">408–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">interpreted by Gama, Chevero and Valentini, <a href="#Page_450">450–58</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">history, <a href="#Page_452">452–3</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">California, traces of antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">California languages and their affinities to Chinese, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Japanese, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Canals constructed by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_98">98–100</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Caras or Carians ancient navigators, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Brasseur on, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Carr’s Measurements of Crania, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on low-type mound crania, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Carter, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Carter, Dr. J. Van A., on stone implements, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Carthaginian colonization of America, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a></li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cara Gigantesca, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Casa del Ecó, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Gobernador (Uxmal), <a href="#Page_347">347–50</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Grande of Zayi, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">de Monjas, sculptures of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Aztec station at, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of the Gila, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cataclysm, traditions of a, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cave explorations, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">dwellings, <a href="#Page_292">292–311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">village of Rio Chelley, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">shelters of San Juan, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">fortresses of Rio Mancos, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cemetery, aboriginal, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Centennial Report of Ohio Arch. Asso., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Centla, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_365">365–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cephalic index of crania, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ceremonial law, analysis of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chaac-Mol, statue of, <a href="#Page_397">397–400</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chaco Valley, ruined pueblo in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">peculiarity of architecture, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chalcas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chalco, lake, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Challenger, voyage of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">“Challenger plateau,” <a href="#Page_502">502–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chalcatzin, Toltec chief, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chamber, interior in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chanes, ancient races, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Charencey, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chelly Cañon, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">cave-village of, <a href="#Page_313">313–14</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">house in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chevero, interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone by, <a href="#Page_450">450–2</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chiapan architecture, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chiapas, ancient civilization of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chichen-Itza, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_353">353–5</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397–403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">mural paintings at, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chichilticale, “red house,” <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chichimecs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">dynasty of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">language of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Pimentel on, <a href="#Page_255">255–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chicomoztoc (Chichimostoc) Nahua home, <a href="#Page_256">256–7</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">identical with “seven caves,” <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, n.; <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chihuahua, Casas Grandes of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">original descriptions of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">material and dimensions of, <a href="#Page_276">276–77</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Children’s graves in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_66">66–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chimalhuacan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chinook language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, n. 3.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cholula pyramid, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">not related to a flood, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">origin according to Duran, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368–70</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Christ myth in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Christy collection, Mosaic knife from, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chinese colonization of America, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Chronology, accepted faulty, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Duke of Argyll on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">adjusted to ours, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cibola, seven cities of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cincinnati mound-works. <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Circumcision, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cists, stone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Civilization, American contrasted with that of ancient Britons, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Clallam and Lummi languages, Aztec element in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Clarke, Robert, on Cincinnati Tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Morgan’s Pueblo theory, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Classification of crania, <a href="#Page_160">160–3</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of mound-works by Squier and Davis, and Foster, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of mound relics by Rau, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Clavigero, views on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, n. 1.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on first colonists of America, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">their traditional history, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cliff-dwellings of the Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_298">298–99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">McElmo Cañon, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Hovenweep, <a href="#Page_305">305–7</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">San Juan, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">and Rock Shelters on San Juan, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">house of Chelly Cañon, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Montezuma Cañon, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cloth from mounds, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Coast level, elevation and depression of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Coffins, stone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Columbus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stern-post of ship seen by, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Colonists, first in Mexico, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Color, variety in human races, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Darwin on origin of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Color of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Pritchard on, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Colorado River, ruins in Grand Cañon of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Major Powell’s exploration, <a href="#Page_285">285–87</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Colorado Chiquito, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Columbia River languages, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Conant, A. J., explorations by, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on ancient canals, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Conflict of science and dogmatism, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Confusion of tongues, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Connett mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Conquest of Xibalba, <a href="#Page_222">222–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Copan, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">ruins of, <a href="#Page_356">356–59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">sculpture of, <a href="#Page_404">404–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Copper in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">ancient mines of, <a href="#Page_89">89–94</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">theory of Mexican supply, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">relics from Wisconsin, <a href="#i_099">99</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cora language and its relation to Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cosmogonic egg, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Coronado’s journey to New Mexico, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cox, Prof., discoveries cited, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cox-cox, Mexican Noah, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cox-cox, Bancroft’s observations on, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx"><i>Crania Americana</i>, measurements of, classified, <a href="#Page_161">161–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cranial measurements, <a href="#Page_159">159–60</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Crania from mounds, testimony of, <a href="#Page_105">105–6</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">River Rogue, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">measurements by Gillman, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Davenport, Farquharson’s measurements, <a href="#Page_169">169–70</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">from Ohio, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">from Kentucky, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">from Tennessee, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">comparison, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">compression of common, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">among Chinooks, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">among other American tribes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cranium, low type, discovered by Conant, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cremation probable, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cristone of McElmo Cañon, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cross, subterranean temple of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Tablet of, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cruciform works at Trenton, Wis., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Crux Ansata at Palenque, <a href="#Page_416">416–17</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Cukulcan culture hero, <a href="#Page_230">230–31</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Culhuacan, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Culhuas (Nahuas) sometimes applied to Mayas, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Curtiss, Ed., explorations by, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">D.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dablon, Father, on aboriginal use of copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dall, W. H., on migration by Behring’s Straits, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dana, J. D., review of Dr. Koch’s discoveries, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Darwin on old world origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Davenport Academy, explorations conducted by, <a href="#Page_37">37–40</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Davenport Tablet, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Davenport mound crania, <a href="#Page_169">169–70</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">elephant pipe, <a href="#ELEPHANT_PIPE">Appendix B</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Days, Maya, <a href="#Page_436">436–38</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Deguignes, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Deluge myths, Mexican, <a href="#Page_262">262–3</a>, notes.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Tezpi, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, n.;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Analogies, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Development of American Race (see Evolution).</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dickson, Dr., examination of “Mammoth Ravine” by, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Diseases of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dogmatism and science, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dolechocephalic crania classified, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Dolphin Rise,” the, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Domenech, Abbé, note on works, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, n. 4.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dowler, Dr., skeleton discovered by, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">estimate of antiquity, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Drake, account of works at Cincinnati by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Drift (modified), fossil from, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Dwellings of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">E.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Earth, globular form discovered, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Echevarria y Veitia on the origin of the Americans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Eckstein, Baron de, on the Caras, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Eden, Mexican analogies with, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Edificios de Quemada, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Education of Aztec children, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Effigy mounds of Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_33">33–36</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Ohio, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Georgia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Egypt and Teotihuacan compared, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Egyptian influence on American civilization, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Egyptian painting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Egyptian Tau at Palenque, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">El Castillo, pyramid, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Elephant mound. <a href="#Page_35">35–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">“Trunk,” <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">pipe, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">El Moro, ruins on, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Elyria cave, Whittlesey on, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Engleman, Dr. J. G., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Enoch, H. R., discovery by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Epsom Creek, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">elevated tower on, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Eric the Red, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ericson, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Eskimo, the first occupants of America, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Estufa (Pueblo sanctuary), <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">entrance peculiar, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Etowah valley mounds, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Europe, antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Evolution, origin of the Americans by, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of Hellwald on, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">regarded improbable by Hæckel and Darwin, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">F.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fanaticism of early writers on America, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Farquharson, Dr., reports by, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Farrar, Dr. W., on American language, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl, Gucumatz Cukulcan), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Festival of the Mexican Cycle, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Flood myths of the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, n. 1, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Pueblos, <a href="#Page_335">335–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Floors of burnt clay, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Florida, ancient home of Mayas, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Floridian jaw-bone, Agassiz and Pourtales on, <a href="#Page_112">112–13</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fontaine, Mr., on Tennessee valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Forchhammer on Indian languages, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Forest growth on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Forshey, Prof. C. G., on southern mounds, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fort Ancient, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Judges Dunlevy and Force on, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fortifications (ancient) in New York, on the Lakes, and in Butler Co., Ohio, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Miami valley, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Foster’s <i>Pre-historic Races</i>, importance of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Foster, Dr. J. W., on Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">classification of mound-works by, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Indian traditions, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on age of “New Orleans skeleton,” <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fossil from drift, Jersey Co., Ill., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fremont, Montezuma legend by, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Frio, Cape, distance from Africa, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fuentes, description of Copan by, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Funeral ceremony, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Fusang, <a href="#Page_148">148–51</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of Neuman on, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Bretschneider, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Klaproth, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">D’Eichthal, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">G.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gama, Leon y, on Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450–55</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Garcia on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gardner, J. Starke, on Dolphin and Challenger ridges, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gass, Rev. J., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gemelli Carreri, migration map of, <a href="#Page_261">261–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Geometrical knowledge of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Geographical names, analogies in, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gest, Mr. E., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Giants, race of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">destruction of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gila river, Casa Grande of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">accounts of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">view of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gillman, Henry, explorations of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on crania from River Rogue, <a href="#Page_167">167–8</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on crania from Chamber’s Island, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Goazacoalco (various spellings) river and province, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gobernador, Casa del, <a href="#Page_347">347–50</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Grammar of Maya language, <a href="#Page_477">477–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx" id="Aztec_language">Aztec language, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Grave Creek mound, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gravier on Northmen, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gray, Asa, on American and European flora, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Asiatic flora, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Graphic systems, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Great Serpent, mound-work, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Grecques at Mitla, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Greek analogies of religion, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Greek colonization of America, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">advocates of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Greek gods in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Green County, Missouri, mound, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Greenland, subsidence of coast, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Grimm’s Law,” <a href="#Page_471">471–488</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Grote, Prof. A. R., observations on Eskimo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Guatemalians, origin and flood myths of, <a href="#Page_228">228–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gucumatz, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">search for maize by, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">H.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hacavitz, mountain and deity, <a href="#Page_215">215–16</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hæckel, on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hair of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hair-cloth from mounds, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hanno’s naval expeditions, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hands, prints of ancient cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Haywood, mummies described by, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Head-flattening, history of, <a href="#Page_178">178–80</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">practiced in America, <a href="#Page_180">180–84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Prof. Wilson on, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">among the Chinooks, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">among Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Headlee, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hearths (ancient) in Ohio valley, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Helena, Missouri, sun-dried bricks at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hellwald, F. von, and copper in Mexico, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Herrera on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Heroic period of American history, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx" id="Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics, from the mounds, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Mayas, <a href="#Page_420">420–28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Landa’s key to, <a href="#Page_223">223–25</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Mexican, <a href="#Page_429">429–34</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hill, S. W., on ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hindoo and Mexican analogies, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hiram and Solomon’s fleet, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hitchcock, Prof. Ed., on age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hivites, ancestors of Votanites, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hoei-Shin, report on Fusang, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Holmes, W. H., explorations of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Rio de la Plata, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">mound-works reported, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">discoveries on San Juan, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_320">320–24</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hooker, Sir Joseph, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hopetown works, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hosea, S. M., on sacrificial mounds, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Houses of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hovenweep, ruined city of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">niche stairway of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">cliff-house of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Howland, H. R., discoveries by, in “American bottom,” <a href="#Page_43">43–4</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Huastecs, Maya nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hueman (Huematzin), Toltec astrologer and leader, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hue hue Tlapalan, ancient Nahua home, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">date of migration from, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, n., <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">location of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">not in North-west, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Huehuetan, in Chiapas. 206.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Huemac, Toltec king, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hueyxalan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Humboldt, William von, on Aztec language, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Humphries and Abbott’s estimate of age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hunahpu, Quiché, hero, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">exploits of, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hunab Ku (only god), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hunbatz, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hun Came, <a href="#Page_222">222–24</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hunchouen, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hunhunahpu, Quiché, chief, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Hurakan, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">I.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Iaia, tradition of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Igh, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Imox, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Inca-bone, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">India and Mexico, religious analogies of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Indiana mounds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Indigenous Americans, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">views of writers on, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Infant burial in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ingersoll, Mr., tradition of cliff-dwellers recorded by, <a href="#Page_302">302–4</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Intercalary days, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Interglacial race, <a href="#Page_512">512–516</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">relics from Waynesville, Ohio, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">President Orton on, <a href="#Page_126">126–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Interglacial man in New Jersey, <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Iqi-Balam, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_214">214–15</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Irish colonists of America, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Israel, lost tribes of in America, <a href="#Page_135">135–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of Duran on, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Thorowgood, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">L’Estrange, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Garcia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Pineda, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Echevarria y Veitia and Kingsborough, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Isle Royal, copper mines on, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Henry Gillman <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, n. 1;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Foster on, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Aboriginal use of copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Issaquena County, Mississippi, mounds, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Anderson’s Calendar Stone from, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ixtlilxochetl’s <i>Relaciones</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">J.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jackson, W. H., discoveries by in the McElmo and Mancos cañons, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in the Hovenweep, <a href="#Page_305">305–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Janos river, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Japanese and American affinities, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">colonization of America, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jaredites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jaw-bone from Florida, Agassiz and Count Pourtales on, <a href="#Page_112">112–13</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jewish theory of colonization, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jewish and Mexican historical analogies, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jones, George, on Phœnician colonization of America, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">estimate of his work, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Jones, Prof. Joseph, Mound explorations in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_171">171–3</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">cranial measurements by, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">K.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kabah, peculiarity of architecture at, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kamucu, Quiché national song, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kennebec valley mound, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kennon, Col., on Aleutian islands, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kentucky mound crania, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kinich-Kakmó, queen of Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kingsborough’s fancied analogies, <a href="#Page_460">460–65</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kitchens of the Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kitchen-middens, see <a href="#Shell_heaps"><i>Shell-heaps</i></a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Knapp, S. O., discovery of ancient copper mines by, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Koch, Dr., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_116">116–121</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">J. D. Dana on, <a href="#Page_120">120–21</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Koch, valuable services of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Kuro-suvo, or Japan current, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">L.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Labná, architecture of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lake Superior copper mines, <a href="#Page_90">90–92</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lamnites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Landa’s Alphabet, <a href="#Page_423">423–25</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Maya days and months, <a href="#Page_436">436–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Languages (American), multiplicity of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">instability of, <a href="#Page_493">493–4</a>, n. 1.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">survival of the fittest, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the Maya-Quiché, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">classification of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stability of the Maya, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the oldest American, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Orozco y Berra on, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Maya-Quiché characteristics, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Le Plongeon on, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the Aztec, <a href="#Page_479">479–90</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">epitome of grammar, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">affinities to Asiatic, <a href="#Page_495">495–96</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">bearing on migrations, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lapham, Dr., survey of mound-works in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_34">34–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lascarbot on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Las Casas, on origin of Guatemalians, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on flood myth, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on creation myth, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, n.;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Christ myth, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Latham on Morton’s theories, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lautverschiebung, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Leather relic from mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Le Conte, Prof., on changes of coast level, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Legendary period of American history, level, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Leidy, Prof. Joseph, on stone implements, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">L’Estrange on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Leroux, M., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Le Plongeon, Dr., explorations in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_396">396–403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Maya language, <a href="#Page_474">474–77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on analogies between Yucatan and Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Liberty, Ohio, works at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lief, Norse discoverer of America, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lord’s prayer in Maya, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Aztec, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Louisiana mounds, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Prof. C. G. Forshey on, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">pyramidal mounds, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Low type crania from mounds, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lund, Dr., explorations by, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Lyell, Sir Charles, on remains at Santos River, Brazil, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">observations on Natchez bone, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on New Orleans skeleton, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">M.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">McElmo Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">square tower in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">triple-walled tower of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">McGuire on antiquity of Red man, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">McKinley, William, mounds described by, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Madisonville explorations, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mahucutah, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maize, discovery of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Man, antiquity of in South America, <a href="#Page_109">109–10</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">four creations of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Man’s influence on nature, <a href="#Page_110">110–11</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">measure of antiquity, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Martius on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, n.;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Brinton on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Meigs on Santos River remains, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Man of recent origin in America, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lubbock’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Foster on, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Manchester stone fort, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mancos Cañon, cliff-houses of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">watch-tower of, <a href="#Page_296">296–97</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">cave-fortresses of, <a href="#Page_320">320–24</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Manuscripts of Mayas, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Troano MS, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Mexicans, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Mendoza Codex, <a href="#Page_431">431–33</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maps, Aztec migration, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Marietta mounds, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Marsh, Prof. O. C., exploration by, <a href="#Page_87">87–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mastodon discovered by Dr. Koch, <a href="#Page_116">116–18</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mayas, traditional origin of, <a href="#CHAPTER_V">chap. v.</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">earliest home, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">venerable civilization, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">architecture of, <a href="#Page_340">340–55</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">sculpture, <a href="#Page_384">384–403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">compared to Egyptian, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">calendar of, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Katun or Cycle, <a href="#Page_439">439–40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Ahau Katun, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">intercalary days, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">system adjusted to our chronology, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">observations of Landa, Perez, Bancroft and Delaport on, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maya-Quiché languages classified, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stability of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">antiquity of, <a href="#Page_474">474–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maya Grammar, <a href="#Page_477">477–79</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Maya, Lord’s prayer in, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maya and Hebrew compared, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">compared to Scandinavian languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">compared to the Basque, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">to West African languages, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Maya writing, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mazatepec, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mecitl (or Mixi), Aztec leader, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Meigs on mean of Indian cranium, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Melgar on two idols near Mexico, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Maya language, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Menominees, “White Indiana,” <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mexican baptism, <a href="#Page_462">462–3</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Calendar, divisions of time, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">the Cycle, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">festival of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">New Year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">its interpreters, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">dates furnished by, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lunar reckoning, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mexican language, see <a href="#Aztec_language">Aztec language</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mexico, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">sculpture from, <a href="#Page_408">408–11</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">vases from, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">vases in the United States National Museum, <a href="#Page_413">413–415</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Miami Valley, aboriginal cemetery in, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Miamisburgh mound, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mica, use of by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Michigan mounds, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Migration, the first to America, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">conditions favorable in North-west, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Becker on, <a href="#Page_513">513–14</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of the Quichés, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of the Tolteca, <a href="#Page_244">244–251</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_259">259–63</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Tarascos, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Migration map of Boturini, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Gemelli Carreri, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Gemelli interpreted by Ramirez, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Minas Geraes, caves of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mississippi delta, age of, <a href="#Page_122">122–24</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">estimate by Lyell, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">by Dr. Dowler, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">by Dr. Hitchcock, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">by Humphries and Abbott, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mississippi mounds, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mitchell, Dr. A., explorations cited, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mitla, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_361">361–62</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mizteco-Zapotec languages, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Miztecs, Mexican tribe. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mongol colonization of America, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Monjas, Casa de, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Montezuma Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Montezuma, culture-hero, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">legend of his birth, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">legend concerning by Papagoes chief, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Montezuma II., Mexican emperor, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">languages of his empire, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Months, Maya, <a href="#Page_437">437–39</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Monosyllabism, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Moqui towns, Becker on origin, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">name, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Lieutenant Ives’ description of, <a href="#Page_326">326–30</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">pottery, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">interior of dwellings, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Moqui language, Aztec traces in, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mooshahueh, Moqui town, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Morgan, L. H., Pueblo theory of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Robert Clarke on, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mormon colonisation of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Bancroft on, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Morton, Dr., classification of American races by, <a href="#Page_157">157–59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">table of cranial measurements by, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, n. 1;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views untenable, <a href="#Page_159">159–165</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">measurements of <i>Crania Americana</i> classified, <a href="#Page_161">161–63</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Moody, J., on Rockford Tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Moss, Captain, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mosaics at Mitla, <a href="#Page_362">362–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mosaic knife, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mosaic deluge, Mexican analogies with, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mound-builders, geographical distribution of works, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Mica mines of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">copper mines of, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">no tradition of, <a href="#Page_102">102–3</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Mound-builders and Indians distinct, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">language of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub1">diseases of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mound-works at St. Clair river, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in British Columbia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Oregon, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Bonhomme’s island, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Missouri valley, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Butte prairies, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 1;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Dakota, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 2;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Davenport, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">heart of country, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">St. Louis and American bottom, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Ohio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Newark, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Wabash valley, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_58">58–68</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in North and South Carolina, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Mississippi, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Alabama, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Georgia, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Missouri, <a href="#Page_74">74–77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Louisiana, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Texas, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">antiquity of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">abandonment, <a href="#Page_101">101–5</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">age of vegetation on, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Vera Paz, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mound crania, condition of a measure of antiquity, <a href="#Page_105">105–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub1">typical mound skull, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mound sculptures, <a href="#Page_187">187–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mugeres Isla, statue from, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Müller, Max, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mummies from Peru, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">from Tennessee, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Mural paintings at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">N.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nachan, “city of serpents,” <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nahua architecture, <a href="#Page_359">359–83</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_406">406–15</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nahua Calendar, <a href="#Page_445">445–459</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">writers on, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, n. 3.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">analogies with calendars of Asia and Egypt, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nahua language, see <a href="#Aztec_language">Aztec language</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">ancient and modern, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493–4</a>, n. 1.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">elements of in language of North-west, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">the probable language of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">spoken in Florida, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">analogies to, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nahua nations, origin of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">predecessors of in Mexico, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">chronology of according to <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i> and <i>Popol Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">their arrival at Panuco, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">extent of territory in Mexico, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">migrations of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">southern origin considered, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nahuatlacas, seven Nahua tribes, <a href="#Page_256">256–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Najera on the Otomi and the Chinese, <a href="#Page_494">494–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nashville, Tenn., mounds near, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Natchez pelvic bone, discovered by Dr. Dickson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Lyell’s observations on, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, n. 4.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Negroid type, ancient, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nemontemi, Aztec intercalary days, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Neolithic age in America, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nephites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Newark, Ohio, works at, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">New Jersey, traces of inter-glacial man in, <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">New Madrid, Missouri, great mound near, <a href="#Page_75">75–76</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">New Orleans, ancient skeleton discovered at, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">New York, ancient forts of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nezahualcoyoth, King of Tezcuco, poems of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Niche stairway, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nootkas, Aztec traces among, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Norse discovery of America, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">North-west, antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_128">128–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Nott and Gliddon on the origin of nations, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">O.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oajaca, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">languages of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Observations on places of sanctuary, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Obsidian in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Occupancy of Mississippi valley by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ocean currents, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ococingo, ancient city in Chiapas, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">site of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ohio Archæological Society report, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ohio mound crania, <a href="#Page_170">170–1</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ohio mound-works, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">estimated number of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ojo del Pescado, ruins at, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oldtown art, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oldtown, Tennessee, mounds, <a href="#Page_61">61–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Olmecs, First Nahuas, <a href="#Page_232">232–4</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">destroy the giants, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">build Chohila, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Opata-Tarahumar-Pima family of languages, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ophir, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oraybe, Moqui town, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ordoñez, history of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oregon, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Origin of the Americans, Autochthonic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Origin of Americans reviewed, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Origin of Ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">views of Duran, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">L’Estrange, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Thorowgood, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Garcia, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Herrera, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Torquemada, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Pineda, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Echevarria y Veitia, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Ulloa, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Domenech, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Clavigero, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Bancroft’s summary of views cited, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">views of modern authors, <a href="#Page_201">201–2</a>, notes;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of old world origin, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Origin of the Nahuas, according to Sahagun, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Origin tradition of Mayas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Quichés, <a href="#Page_211">211–12</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Orton, President Edward, on inter-glacial relics in Ohio, <a href="#Page_126">126–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Otomi language compared to Chinese, <a href="#Page_494">494–5</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Oztotlan, home of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">P.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pacific Continent, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Page, J. R., explorations by, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Painted desert, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Painting practised by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Palæolithic age in America, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Palenque art compared with Egyptian, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Palenque, centre of the earliest American civilization, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Palenque, situation, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">antiquities, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">palace, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">architectural features of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Tau at, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">roofs, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">arch, <a href="#Page_345">345–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">tower, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">sculpture at, <a href="#Page_384">384–92</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">statue, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Panuco (Panco, Panutla or Panoaia, Pantlan) Mexican port, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Papantla, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Patton, Dr., on Indiana mounds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pecos, New Mexico Pueblo, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pentateuch, true chronology of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx"><i>Peresianus Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Peruvian crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Petit Anse Island, remains from, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Hilgard and Fontaine’s report on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Physiognomy of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Phœnician colonization of America, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">George Jones on, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Picture-writing of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_428">428–33</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">specimen from <i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431–2</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pimentel on Chichimec language, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pimentel’s classification of Maya languages, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">epitome of Aztec Grammar from, <a href="#Page_482">482–83</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pineda on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Plastered room in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Platycnemism, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Gillman’s discoveries of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Plato’s Atlantis, tradition of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Polynesia, ancient empire of, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Baldwin on, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Polysynthesis, a law of American language, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pomme-de-Terre River, Dr. Koch’s discoveries at, <a href="#Page_118">118–19</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pontonchan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx"><i>Popol Vuh</i> (national book of the Quichés), <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, n. 2.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">second division of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pottery from the cliff-houses, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Powell, Major J. W., explorations, <a href="#Page_285">285–287</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pratt, W. H., explorations by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pre-Columbian colonization, views on, <a href="#Page_141">141–154</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Progress, architectural, in mound-works, <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Prophecy, analogies of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ptolemy cited, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pueblo civilization, extent of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">architecture, <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">chap. vii.</a></li>
-    <li class="isub1">transition in style, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pueblos of New Mexico, <a href="#Page_330">330–1</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in ruins, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pueblo Pintado, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pueblos, the, and Aztecs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,</li>
-    <li class="isub2">and mound-builders, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">architecture and remains compared, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">creation and flood and Babel myths of, <a href="#Page_335">335–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Puente Nacional, pyramid at, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Putnam, F. W., explorations by, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">explorations in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Pyramid, the American, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">structure according to Bancroft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Puento Nacional, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Centla, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of El Castillo, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Tusipan, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Papantla, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Cholula, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_370">370–73</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Mexico, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_375">375–9</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">Q.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quemada, Los edificios of, <a href="#Page_379">379–81</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quiché architecture, <a href="#Page_355">355–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quiché-Cakchiquel languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quinames (Quinametin), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">first inhabitants of Mexico, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">their destruction, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quiché poetry, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quichés reputed to be Carthaginians, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quichés, Maya nation, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">origin tradition, <a href="#Page_211">211–12</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">creation myth, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">creations of men, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">migrations, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">deities of, turned to stone, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">heroic age of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quetzalcoatl, culture hero, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">traditions of, <a href="#Page_267">267–71</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">from Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">priest and God of Toltecs, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">habits, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">author of letters and Mexican calendar, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">his enemy, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">departure from Tulla, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">reign at Cholula, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">departure to the East, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">expectation of his return, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">origin of legends concerning him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">nationality, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">positive morality, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">discovery of maize, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Quiyahuitztlan, Anahuac, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">R.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Raised Beeches,” discovered by Alexander Agassiz, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ramirez, on Aztec migration map, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Rau, Charles, on Mexican copper mining, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, n. 2.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on aboriginal trade, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Red Man, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">traditions, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Read, M. C., on Grave Creek Tablet cited, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Religious analogies, <a href="#Page_459">459–68</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Religion of the Quichés, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">a war of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Remains at Santos River, Brazil, Lyell and Meigs on antiquity of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Reviellagigedo, viceroy to Mexico, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Report of Ohio Archæological Society, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Retzius, on Morton’s measurements, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Mexican crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">River Rouge mound, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">crania from, <a href="#Page_167">167–8</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">River Terraces, mound-works on, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Mr. Baldwin’s views, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Foster’s view, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Rock shelters in San Juan Cañon, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">in Montezuma Cañon, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Rockford Tablet,” <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Room plastered in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Rosny, M. Leon de, essay by, <a href="#Page_425">425–26</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">key to hieratic writings of Mayas, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ross County (Ohio) works, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Roque, Father, observations on Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Russell, G. P., explorations by, <a href="#Page_87">87–89</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">S.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sabine worship, <a href="#Page_40">40–85</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sacrifices, human, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452–53</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sacrificial mounds, <a href="#Page_83">83–6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stratified according to Squier and Davis, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">stratification denied by Prof. Andrews, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sacrifices, probably human, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sahagun’s account of the first Nahuas, <a href="#Page_240">240–6</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Salado Rio, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Salinas River, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sadelmair, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Salisbury, Stephen, cited, <a href="#Page_396">396–401</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Salish family of languages, Aztec element in, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sanctuary, places of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sandals of Chaac-Mol, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">San Juan Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Echo Cave in, <a href="#Page_310">310–11</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">San Miguel Valley, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_275">275–7</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Savage Art, unity in style of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Scandinavian and Mexican analogies, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">discovery of America, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Prof. Rafn on, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Schools of Tezcuco, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sculpture, from mounds, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–92</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Uxmal, <a href="#Page_393">393–95</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_398">398–403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Copan, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Monte Alban, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Tusapan, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Mexico, <a href="#Page_409">409–10</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sculptures from the mounds, <a href="#Page_187">187–9</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Seltzertown pyramidal mound, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Separate creation theory, Morton and Agassiz’s views of, <a href="#Page_157">157–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">groundless, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Sepulture, mounds of, <a href="#Page_86">86–88</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Serpents,” kingdom of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Serpent Temple, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">symbol, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Serpent-work, Adams county, Ohio, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Seven Caves,” <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Shaler, Prof., on Dr. Abbott’s discoveries, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx" id="Shell_heaps">Shell-heaps on Atlantic sea-board, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–7</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">fresh-water of, <a href="#Page_107">107–9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Florida, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Prof. Wyman on, <a href="#Page_106">106–8</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Brinton on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">examination by Paul Schumacher, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Shoshone-Comanche languages, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Aztec elements in, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Signal Systems of the Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on Great Miami River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Squier and Davis on, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Skrellings, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sorcery practised upon Xibalban kings, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Spain’s state of learning in 17th century, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Squier and Davis, estimate of number of mound-works in Ohio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">classification of mound-works by, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Squier on Newark works, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stations, of Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_244">244–46</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Aztec migration, according to Veytia, Tezozomoc and Clavigero, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">names interpreted by Humboldt, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, n. 3.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Statuettes in National Museum, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">St. Clair River mounds, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stephens and Catherwood, explorations, <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">chap. viii.</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Steinthal, Prof., classification of languages by, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, n. 4.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stevenson, M. F., description of mounds by, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">St. Francis Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">St. Louis, mound-works at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stone Age in New Jersey, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Dr. Abbott on, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stone coffins, burial in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stone graves in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Indiana, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stone implements from Bridger basin, Wyoming, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stone tubes used by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">St. Patrick in America, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Stucco reliefs at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–88</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sun-dried brick, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">wall of at Seltzertown, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">in Phillips County, Missouri, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sun, tablet of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">symbol of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Sun worship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Swallow, Prof., explorations by, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Syphilis among Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">T.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tabasco, ancient civilization of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tablet of cross, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of sun, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tablet, Rockford, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tablets at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–90</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Table Mountain, cranium from, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tamoanchan, city of Tobasco, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tarahumara, language of North Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tarascos, migrations of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“Taylor mound,” the, <a href="#Page_87">87–89</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tehuantepec, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_350">350–60</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">language of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tegua, Moqui pueblo, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Temple base near Nashville, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Temple of Mexico, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tennessee mound-works, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">explorations of Prof. Jones in, <a href="#Page_58">58–65</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">of Prof. Putnam, <a href="#Page_65">65–67</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tennessee mound crania, <a href="#Page_171">171–4</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tennessee Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Mr. Fountain on, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Teo-Culhuacan, <a href="#Page_250">250–60</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Teotihuacan, pyramids of, <a href="#Page_375">375–79</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">compared with Egypt, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Teotihuacan, sacred city of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tepanecs, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tepetla, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tepehuana, language of North Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Terra-Cotta, figure from Isla Mugeres, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Terminos, Laguna de, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Texas mounds, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tezcatlipoca, bloody god of the Nahuas, <a href="#Page_269">269–70</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">sorcery of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tezcuco, schools of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tezpi, flood myth, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tezquil nation, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Theban calendar compared to the Aztec, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Thomas, Dr., on Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31–2</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Gen. H. W. on same, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">low type skull cited, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, n. 5, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, on Atlantic land ridge, <a href="#Page_502">502–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Thompson, Dr. J. P., on Usher’s chronology, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Thorowgood on origin of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Thorwald, Ericson, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tibiæ, flattened, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Time, Absolute and Relative, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlacamitzin, Toltec chief, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlachicatzin, city in Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlahuicas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlaloc, Aztec rain-god, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlapalans, four, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Bancroft and Brasseur’s views upon, <a href="#Page_251">251–2</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlapallan de Cortes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">location of examined, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlapallanconco, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tlascatecs, Nahua tribe, republic of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tohil (Quiché deity), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tollan, Toltec capital, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">migration according to Becker, <a href="#Page_248">248–50</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">according to Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_244">244–46</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">account examined, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Toltec flood myth, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Toltecs, origin according to Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">southern origin considered, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">outlines of history, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">annals, Bancroft’s resumé of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tomlinson’s report on Grave Creek mound, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tongues, confusion of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Totonacs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Totzapan, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tower of Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_297">297–300</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">McElmo, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">at Chichen, Mayapan and Tuloom, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Toxpan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Trade-winds, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">agents in the discovery of America, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tradition (Indian) valueless, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Dr. Foster on, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">of Nahua Mound-builders, Becker on, <a href="#Page_102">102–3</a>, n.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tradition and History and their scope, <a href="#Page_109">109–10</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tradition of uncertain value, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Trinity myth in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Troano MS, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tula (Tulha or Tulan), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">sculptured column from, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tulan, <a href="#Page_215">215–16</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">four in number, <a href="#Page_217">217–18</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tulancingo (Tollancingo), Mexican city, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tulan-Zuiva, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tumuli of Vera Paz, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tusapan, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Typical mound skull, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tzendal, language of Chiapas, dialect of the Maya, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Tzendel, a Maya dialect, the oldest American language, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">U.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx"><i>Uraeus</i>, Egyptian symbol, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ural-Altaic languages compared to Indian tongues, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Usher, Bishop, chronology of faulty, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Usumacinta Valley, the seat of most ancient American civilization, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Utah languages, <a href="#Page_489">489–90</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Utatlan, Quiché city, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">antiquities of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Utes, the enemies of the cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Uxmal, architectural remains, <a href="#Page_347">347–52</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">arches and roofs, <a href="#Page_349">349–50</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Façades at, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">Le Plongeon’s observations on, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">V.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Valentini, Dr. Ph., interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_453">453–59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on analogies in geographical names, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vancouver’s Island, Aztec termination used, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">elements in, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vases from Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">burial from Mexico, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">after Waldeck, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">from National Museum, <a href="#i_411">414–15</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vater, on the Aztec language, <a href="#Page_480">480–90</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vega, Bishop Nuñez de la, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vegetation, age of on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">relation between American and Asiatic, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vera Paz, mounds of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Verda Rio, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Verrezano, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vespucius, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Voc, mythical personage, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Votan (culture hero), tradition of cited, <a href="#Page_133">133–9</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">document written by, <a href="#Page_206">206–10</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vucub-Cakix, Xilbalban monarch, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vucab-Came, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Vukub-Hunapu, Quiché chief, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">W.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Wabash Valley, mounds in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Watch-tower of the Mancos, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Waterbury Mine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Waynesville, Ohio, inter-glacial relics from, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Welsh discovery of America, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Whipple, Lieut., explorations by, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">“White-man’s land,” <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Whittlesey, Col., on Shelter Caves, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-    <li class="isub1">on ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Wilson, Dr. Daniel, cranial measurements tabulated, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">observations by, on Morton’s theory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, n. 2;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">examinations of Peruvian crania by, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on head-flattening, <a href="#Page_180">180–2</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">on Cincinnati Tablet, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Wisconsin mound-works, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">effigy and animal mounds of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Worship of sun, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Writing, systems of, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Wyman, Jeffries, on shell-heaps of Florida, <a href="#Page_155">155–8</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">X.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xalisco, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xan, Quiché messenger, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xbalanque, Quiché hero, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xelhua, builder of Cholula, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xibalba, kingdom of Votanites, tradition of fall, <a href="#Page_220">220–26</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">fall of, a theme for poetry, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">hatred of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xicalancas, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">origin of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xicalanco, Mexican city, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xmucane, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xochicalco, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_370">370–3</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xochimilcos, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xpiyacoc, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Xquiq, Xibalban princess, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">Y.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yamkally language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yaqui, Mexican tribe, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yazoo Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yellowstone, mounds of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yond Mountain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yucatan, origin of population, <a href="#Page_229">229–30</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Greek gods in, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Yztachnexucha, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-
-    <li class="ifrst">Z.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zacotlan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zamna, Maya culture hero, <a href="#Page_229">229–30</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zapotecs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">antiquities of, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zárate, on the Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zayi, Casa Grande of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zipacua, Xibalban warrior, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Ziuhcohuatl, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zumárraga, destruction of Aztec MS. by, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zuñi, description of, <a href="#Page_288">288–89</a>;</li>
-    <li class="isub2">Valley, Pueblos of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-    <li class="indx">Zutugil, language, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <div class="center mt10">THE END.</div>
-
-  <div class="footnotes">
-    <div class="footheader">FOOTNOTES:</div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Las Casas: <i>Historia de Indias</i>, lib. I, cap. 40,
-      tom. I, MS. Irving: <i>Columbus</i>, vol. I, p. 158 (N. Y., 1851 ed.).
-      Navarrete: <i>Coleccion de los viajes</i>, tom. I, p. 176. Grynaeus:
-      <i>Novus Orbis</i>, p. 66, Basil, 1555, fol. Herrera: <i>Historia
-      General</i>, Dec. I, lib. I, cap’s ii et vi, Madrid, 1730.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Rafn: <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, p. 45, note. Rafn:
-      <i>Op. cit.</i>, pp. xxx–xxxiii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Rafn: <cite>Historia Thorfinni Karlsefnii</cite> (in Ant.
-        Am.), pp. 149, 181; also, De Costa: <cite>Pre-Columbian Discovery of
-        America</cite>, pp. xxxii, xxxiii, 21, 41, 57, 58, 69, 70, 73, 74,
-        110; Gravier: <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands au X<sup>e</sup>
-        Siècle</cite>, p. 83. Paris, 1874, 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Prof. Jos. Leidy, in <cite>Hayden’s 6th Ann. Report of
-        the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories</cite> (1872), pp.
-        652–3, describes the stone implements found in the Bridger basin in
-        southern Wyoming. He remarks, “The question arises, who made the stone
-        implements and when, and why should they occur in such great numbers in
-        the particular localities indicated. My friend, Dr. J. Van A. Carter,
-        residing at Fort Bridger, and well acquainted with the language,
-        history, manners, and customs of the neighboring tribes of Indians,
-        informs me that they know nothing about them. He reports that the
-        Shoshones look upon them as the gift of God to their ancestors. They
-        were no doubt made long ago, some probably at a comparatively late
-        date, that is to say, just prior to communication of the Indians with
-        the whites, but others probably date centuries back.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> It would be foreign to the object of this work to enter
-        upon a discussion of the antiquity of man in Europe. Were we to follow
-        the example of several writers on the antiquities of America, we might
-        present a resumé of the splendid achievements of science in determining
-        the approximate age of man, as an inhabitant of different portions of
-        the old world, but such condensed accounts at best are unsatisfactory
-        and often detrimental to science because of their very slenderness. The
-        evidences of man’s antiquity being far more remote than the generally
-        accepted historic period, antedating its beginning by several thousand
-        years, no doubt exist. The discoveries in the Liége caverns, in the
-        caves of Languedoc and in the cave of Engihoul in Belgium; in the
-        Neanderthal and Engis caves; at Abbeville and Amians; the valley of the
-        Somme; the basin of the Seine; of the Thames; and of the lake dwellers
-        of Switzerland, as well as the shell-heaps of Denmark, point to an
-        antiquity which half a century ago it would have been heresy to have
-        dreamed of. We have but to refer to the admirable work of Sir Charles
-        Lyell: <cite>The Antiquity of Man</cite> (Phil., 1863), and to the well-known
-        works of Lubbock, Tylor, Vogt, and others. A good treatment of the
-        subject in brief will be found in Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the
-        U. S.</cite> (1873), and a pointed and popular reference to it in Bryant’s
-        <cite>History of the U. S.</cite>, vol. I. N. Y., 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <cite>Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in the U. S.</cite>,
-        by Col. Charles Whittlesey. A memoir of 20 pp. Perhaps the chief
-        importance of the above-cited cave discoveries is derived from the
-        eminence of the antiquarian who cites them, rather than in their real
-        value to science. In the case of the Elyria cave—examined by Dr. E.
-        W. Hubbard, Prof. J. Brainerd, and the author of the memoir—“the
-        grindstone grit,” resting on shale, formed a grotto of considerable
-        size. Four feet of the floor of the cave, consisting of charcoal, ashes
-        and bones of the wolf, bear, deer, rabbit, squirrels, fishes, snakes
-        and birds (“all of which existed in this region when it became known
-        to the whites”), was removed and three human skeletons discovered. The
-        author states that the three had been crushed by a large slab of the
-        overhanging sandstone falling on them, but fails to state how much of
-        the overlying material consisted of this sandstone slab. He remarks:
-        “Judging from the appearance of the bones, and the depth of the
-        accumulations over them, two thousand years may have elapsed since the
-        human skeletons were laid on the floor of this cave.” The Louisville
-        cave discovery is no more satisfactory than the above. It is scarcely
-        necessary to remark that all the evidences are of a comparatively
-        recent interment, and much less than two thousand years would have been
-        sufficient to produce the conditions described. See also discoveries
-        at High Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., cited by Col. Whittlesey, p. 10,
-        and more fully treated by Dr. McGuire in the “<cite>Proceedings of the
-        Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</cite>,” vol. xii, p. 398, May, 1839, in which
-        the latter claims to find traces of the Red man 5470 years ago. It is
-        not probable that Dr. McGuire’s <em>traces</em> are those of the Indians,
-        nor is it certain that they were left by human beings at all, since the
-        pine tree (found at a considerable depth and worn as he supposes by the
-        feet of Indians) was as liable to have been worn by the feet of animals
-        as of men. See also Dr. Abbott, <cite>The Stone Age in New Jersey</cite>,
-        Smithsonian Report, 1874, p. 246 <i>et seq.</i> See this work, pp. 127–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi
-        Valley</cite>, Washington, 1848, 4to, 1st vol. of Smithsonian
-        Contributions; <cite>Dr. J. A. Lapham: Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>,
-        Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1855. More recently—<cite>The
-        Upper Mississippi</cite>, by <cite>George Gale</cite>, Chicago, 1868; <cite>The
-        Mississippi Valley</cite>, by <cite>Dr. J. W. Foster</cite>, Chicago, 1869, 8vo,
-        and his <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, Chicago, 1873, 8vo. We
-        might add a list of names scarcely less eminent, of authors who have
-        written upon special fields and examined particular works. A reliable
-        bibliography of literature on the Mound-builders is a desideratum which
-        we trust some enterprising Americanist may soon supply.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Described by Dr. Wm. Blanding in a letter to Dr. Morton,
-        of Philadelphia. Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, p.
-        148, and <cite>Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, p. 105. Foster: p. 151.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Squier: <cite>Antiquities of Western New York</cite>, vol. ii,
-        Smithsonian Contributions, 1851. See an interesting account of the
-        <cite>Antiquities of Orleans County, New York</cite>, by F. H. Cushing, in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874, p. 375.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man in U. S.</cite>, p. 12; also, <cite>Ancient
-        Earth Forts of the Cuyahoga Valley, Ohio</cite>, by <cite>Col. Charles
-        Whittlesey</cite>, Cleveland, O., 1871, pp. 40 and plates.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, p. 145.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1873, p. 364 <i>et
-        seq.</i>, from which we draw the above. <cite>The Proceedings of the
-        American Ass. for the Adv. of Science</cite> for 1875.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See Mr. Gillman’s in <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the
-        Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology</cite>, p.
-        12 <i>et seq.</i>, Cambridge, 1873, and <cite>Am. Jour. of Arts and
-        Sciences</cite>, 3d ser., vol. vii, pp. 1–9, Jan., 1874.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 151. “There
-        is a large mound, three hundred feet high and three hundred yards
-        in diameter at the base, at the southern end of the prairie, about
-        twenty-five miles from Olympia; and scattered over the prairie for a
-        distance of fifteen miles are many smaller mounds, not more than four
-        feet high and twenty or thirty in diameter. * * * A few days ago one
-        of the engineers of the Northern Pacific Railroad opened one of them
-        and found the remains of pottery; and a more thorough examination of
-        others revealed other curious relics, evidently the work of human
-        hands; in fact, in every mound that has yet been opened there is some
-        relic of a long-forgotten race discovered.” In quoting the above, Dr.
-        Foster remarks that the great mound was no doubt a natural eminence
-        artificially rounded off.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> <cite>Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition during the
-        Years 1838–42.</cite> Phila., 1844. Tom. IV, p. 334. “We soon reached the
-        Butte prairies (on Columbia River) which were extensive, and covered
-        with <i>tumuli</i> or small mounds, at regular distances asunder. As
-        far as I could learn there is no tradition among the natives relative
-        to them. They are conical mounds thirty feet in diameter, about six to
-        seven feet high above the level, and many thousands in number. Being
-        anxious to ascertain if they contained any relics, I subsequently
-        visited these prairies, and opened three of the mounds, <em>but found
-        nothing</em> in them but a pavement of round stones.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> <cite>Baldwin</cite> (<cite>Ancient America</cite>, pp. 31–2)
-        remarks: “Lewis and Clark reported seeing them on the Missouri River a
-        thousand miles above its junction with the Mississippi River; but this
-        report has not been satisfactorily verified.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> See Mr. A. Barrandt in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1870,
-        for an account of discoveries on Clark’s Creek in Dakota; on the
-        Bighorn River; on the Yellowstone; on the Morean and the banks of the
-        Great Cheyenne. See Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 153–4.
-        The proof is conclusive that the head-waters of the Missouri was one
-        of their ancient seats. The same gentleman (Mr. Barrandt) describes
-        a remarkable mound in Lincoln County, Dakota, situated eighty-five
-        miles north-west of Sioux City, on the west fork of the Little Sioux
-        of Dakota or Turkey Creek. The mound is known as the “Hay Stack.”
-        Its dimensions are 327 feet in length at the base on the north-west
-        side, and 290 on the south-east side, and 120 feet wide. It slopes
-        at an angle of about 50°, is from thirty-four to forty feet in
-        height, the north-east end being the higher. To the summit, which is
-        from twenty-eight to thirty-three feet wide, there is a well-beaten
-        path. The remarkable feature of the mound is the fact that part of
-        the north-east side is walled up with soft sandstone and limestone,
-        brought a distance of at least three miles from an ancient quarry. The
-        remainder of the surface is pronounced to be of calcined clay. The
-        mound contained a large interior circular chamber, in which the bones
-        of animals, thirty-six pieces of pottery, and a mass of charcoal and
-        ashes were found.—<cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, pp. 413 <i>et
-        seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Since this is a contested point, both as to the presence
-        of the works of the Mound-builders in the North-west and as to their
-        great antiquity, I subjoin a portion of a report on these mounds
-        made by Gen. H. W. Thomas, U. S. A., to Dr. Thomas of the Surveying
-        Expedition, in the <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological
-        Survey</cite> under Dr. Hayden in 1872, pp. 656–7:
-
-      <blockquote>
-        <p>“‘Lewis and Clarke reported seeing Indian mounds 1000 miles above
-          the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri, but this report
-          is not verified.’ So says Mr. John D. Baldwin, A. M., in his work
-          entitled ‘Ancient America.’</p>
-
-        <p>“I now and here propose to contribute my mite toward the
-          verification of the statement of Lewis and Clarke.</p>
-
-        <p>“The few men whom duty or wild inclination have from time to
-          time brought into this, for the most part, uninhabited region of
-          treeless prairie, have all known of the existence of thousands of
-          artificial mounds. What was in them they knew not, and but two or
-          three, to my knowledge, have ever been opened. On August 16, 1872,
-          I opened one on the high table-lands that spread out on both sides
-          of a little stream called the James. The point is about 47° north
-          latitude, and 98° 38´ longitude west from Greenwich. It is within
-          three miles of the line of the North Pacific Railroad. The mound is
-          circular in form, 30⁸⁄₁₀ feet in its shorter, and 35³⁄₁₀ feet in
-          its longer diameter, and five feet high. I opened four trenches,
-          three feet wide, from the outer edge, meeting in the centre,
-          forming a cross when finished. I then excavated the entire mound
-          from the centre outward, until there was nothing more to find.
-          For results I had several two-bushel bags full of bones, eight
-          skulls, many pieces of skulls too small to be of value (there must
-          have been at least twenty-five bodies buried there), a rough-hewn
-          stone ten inches high and five and a half inches in diameter, in
-          shape resembling closely a conical shell, a cutting half an inch
-          deep around the centre. (This was evidently tied with thongs to a
-          stout handle, and used in pulverizing their maize.) A portion of a
-          shell necklace, two flints, two heads of beaver, and some bones of
-          animals unknown, and a large quantity of bivalves, much like the
-          clam (<i>Mya oblongata</i>) of our Atlantic coast, but thicker, and
-          the interior surface much more pearly.</p>
-
-        <p>“The mounds and their contents are apparently of great antiquity.
-          They are, in every case, on the very highest point in their
-          immediate neighborhood, and perfectly drained. The climate is
-          excessively dry; so dry that the James River is entirely dry at
-          a point about 500 feet above the contemplated railroad-bridge
-          across the river. Notwithstanding this, many of the bones crumbled
-          into white dust on being brought to the air, like those found in
-          Herculaneum and Pompeii, and it was absolutely impossible to get
-          out a single one in anything like perfection. Around and over
-          these bodies stones and sticks were placed, doubtless to preserve
-          the remains from the coyote and the fox. The wood could be rubbed
-          into fine yellow-brown dust between the thumb and forefinger. Any
-          trace of excavation around the mound for dirt to heap it with had
-          been entirely obliterated. The upright position of the skulls also
-          indicated that the bodies were buried in a sitting posture. The
-          leg-bones, however, lay lower and horizontal.</p>
-
-        <p>“The number of mounds indicates a denser population than ever has
-          been known here, or than the natural resources of this region can
-          now support by the chase. At the same time the number of dry lakes
-          scattered all over would indicate that at some remote period the
-          country may have been a better one than now, and supported a larger
-          population.”</p>
-      </blockquote>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> “<cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>,” <cite>Smithsonian
-        Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, vol. vii, 1855.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments</cite>, pp. 97–99.
-        Recent and possibly more exact surveys of the Alligator give the
-        figures as somewhat less than the above. Isaac Smucker, a very
-        reliable antiquarian of Licking Co., Ohio, in an address before the
-        Ohio State Archæological Convention, held at Mansfield in September,
-        1875, corrects the figures in the following statement: “The Alligator
-        mound is upon the summit of a hill or spur, which is nearly 200 feet
-        high, six miles west of Newark, and near the village of Granville.
-        The outlines of the Alligator (or Crocodile) are clearly defined. His
-        entire length is 205 feet. The breadth of the body at the widest part,
-        twenty feet, and the length of the body between the fore-legs and
-        hind-legs is fifty feet. The legs are each about twenty feet long. The
-        head, fore-shoulders and rump have an elevation varying from three to
-        six feet, while the remainder of the body averages a foot or two less.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> <cite>Lapham’s Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, pp. 18, 20, 36,
-        37, 39, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 69.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> <cite>W. H. Canfield’s Sketches of Sauk County,
-        Wisconsin</cite>; <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 101. On
-        the copper remains of the Mound-builders, see <cite>Pre-Historic
-        Wisconsin</cite>, by <cite>Prof. James D. Butler, LL.D.</cite>, annual address
-        before the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Feb. 18, 1876.
-        Wisconsin Hist. Col., vol. vii. Privately printed.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, figured and described
-        on p. 416 by Jared Warner of Patch Grove, Wis. (Oct. 1872). A further
-        description of mounds in the same locality, by Moses Strong, M. E.,
-        will be found in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1876, p. 424.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, pp. 42–5: “The main
-        features of these remains is the enclosure or ridge of <em>earth</em>
-        (not brick, as has been erroneously stated), extending around three
-        sides of an irregular parallelogram; the west branch of Rock River
-        forming the fourth side on the east. The space thus enclosed is
-        seventeen acres and two-thirds. The corners are not rectangular, and
-        the embankment or ridge is not straight. The earth of which the ridge
-        is made was evidently taken from the nearest ground, where there are
-        numerous excavations of very irregular form and depth; precisely such
-        as may be seen along our modern railroad and canal embankments. These
-        excavations are not to be confounded with the hiding-places (caches) of
-        the Indians, being larger and more irregular in outline. Much of the
-        material of the embankment was doubtless taken from the surface without
-        penetrating a sufficient depth to leave a trace at the present time. If
-        we allow for difference of exposure of earth thrown up into a ridge and
-        that lying on the original flat surface, we can perceive no difference
-        between the soil composing the ridge and that found along its sides.
-        Both consist of a light yellowish sandy loam. The ridge forming the
-        enclosure is 631 feet long at the north end, 1419 feet long on the west
-        side, and 700 feet on the south side; making a total length of wall
-        2750 feet. The ridge or wall is about twenty-two feet wide, and from
-        one foot to five in height.” * * * After describing one of the mounds
-        of this enclosure, he remarks: “The analogy between these elevations
-        and the ‘temple mounds’ of Ohio and the Southern States, will at once
-        strike the reader who has seen the plans and descriptions. They have
-        the same square or regular form, sloping or graded ascent, the terraced
-        or step-like structure, and the same position in the interior of the
-        enclosure. This kind of formation is known to increase in numbers and
-        importance as we proceed to the south and south-west, until they are
-        represented by the great structures of the same general character on
-        the plains of Mexico.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> D. Gunn in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1867.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Dr. Farquharson in <cite>Proceedings of Am. Ass. for the
-        Adv. of Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, p. 305.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Through the courtesy of Dr. R. J. Farquharson I am
-        enabled to append the original report made by Mr. Gass to the Davenport
-        Academy, Jan. 26, 1877. It is as follows:
-
-      <blockquote>
-        <p>“We broke the surface on the north-east slope of the mound about
-          ten or twelve feet from the opening on the west side made in
-          1874. The earth was frozen to a depth of about three and a half
-          feet. Five or six inches below the surface we came upon a layer
-          of shells one or two inches in thickness, which sloped downward
-          toward the south-east, reaching a depth of two feet or rather more
-          below the surface, and extending for a distance of ten or twelve
-          feet. Between the surface and this first layer of shells a number
-          of small fragments of human bones were found scattered through
-          the soil. Under this shell layer was a stratum of earth of from
-          twelve to fifteen inches in thickness, resting on a second layer of
-          shells, from three to four inches in thickness. Both shell layers
-          sloped downward nearly parallel with each other.</p>
-
-        <p>“Below the second shell layer the earth was of the nature of a
-          light mould, darker in color than the earth above and thickly
-          interspersed with fragments of human bones. These circumstances
-          arrested my attention and caused me to proceed from this time on
-          with the greatest caution. At a depth of about fifteen inches under
-          the lowest part of the shell layer exposed in this excavation—the
-          shell stratum at this point being five or six inches thick—the
-          inscribed slates were found. The slate is the same as that usually
-          found overlying coal beds in this vicinity, and is such as is
-          frequently seen cropping out from the hill-sides or in isolated
-          slabs in the beds of streams. Both plates lay close together on the
-          hard undisturbed clay bottom of the mound.</p>
-
-        <p>“The engraved side of the smaller tablet was upward, and also
-          that side of the larger one presenting the heavenly bodies,
-          hieroglyphics, etc. The larger plate being partially divided by
-          natural cleavage, its upper layer was unfortunately broken in
-          two by a slight stroke of the spade. The two plates were closely
-          encircled by a single row of weathered limestones. These stones are
-          irregular in shape, but almost of the same size, their dimensions
-          being about three by three by seven or eight inches, and the
-          diameter of the circle about two feet.</p>
-
-        <p>“In the immediate vicinity were found a number of fragments
-          of human bones, one being a portion of a skull saturated with
-          carbonate of copper. A small piece of copper was found; also many
-          fragments of slate and a piece of bone artificially wrought.”</p>
-      </blockquote>
-
-      <p>Also see <cite>Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural
-        Sciences</cite> for <cite>Account of the Discovery of Inscribed Tablets</cite>,
-        by Rev. J. Gass, with <cite>A Description</cite> by Dr. R. J. Farquharson.
-        Davenport, Iowa, July, 1877. Cuts and views.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Paces of the U. S.</cite>, p. 107. See
-        especially <cite>12th Annual Report Peabody Museum</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> In a paper, <cite>A Deposit of Agricultural Flint Implements
-        Found in Southern Illinois</cite>, <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1868, Dr.
-        Chas. Rau treats the subject of Aboriginal Agriculture at considerable
-        length. In the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1873, p. 413 <i>et
-        seq.</i>, Dr. A. Patton describes the exploration of several remarkable
-        mounds in Lawrence Co., Illinois. In the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for
-        1874, p. 351, Taylor McWhorter describes a number of mounds in Mercer
-        Co., Illinois. He estimates the number in the county at one thousand,
-        mostly on the Mississippi River bank. <cite>The Antiquities of Whiteside
-        County, Ill.</cite>, by W. H. Pratt, of Davenport, Iowa, printed in the
-        same Report, p. 354 <i>et seq.</i>, is a most valuable contribution to
-        our knowledge of the mounds. The first mound examined yielded eight
-        skulls, two of which were preserved. The third mound opened yielded
-        the skeletons of four adults and several articles of interest, such
-        as pieces of mica, a lump of galena and a dove-colored arrow-head.
-        From the fifth mound opened, a remarkably well-preserved skeleton was
-        recovered. Dr. Farquharson, of the Davenport Academy of Sciences,
-        has contributed one of the most valuable tables of mound-cranial
-        measurements ever published.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The best and most exhaustive treatment of the above is
-        by <cite>Mr. Robert Clarke: The Pre-Historic Remains which were Found on
-        the Site of Cincinnati, Ohio, with a Vindication of the Cincinnati
-        Tablet</cite>. Cincinnati, 1876. 8vo, 34 pp. It is to be regretted
-        that this valuable discussion of the genuineness of one of the most
-        important Mound-builder relics is only “privately circulated.” Mr.
-        Clarke has fully accomplished the design for which he wrote.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <cite>Dr. Daniel Drake’s Picture of Cincinnati</cite>,
-        Cincinnati, 1815. <cite>Squier and Davis in Ancient Monuments</cite>. <cite>Gen.
-        Harrison: Ohio Hist. and Phil. Society Trans.</cite>, vol. i, and others.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <cite>Dr. Daniel Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, 3d ed.,
-        1876, vol. i, pp. 274–5. The following description is given in
-        <cite>Squier and Davis’s Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>:
-        “The material is fine-grained, compact sandstone of a light-brown
-        color. It measures five inches in length, three in breadth at the
-        ends, and two and six-tenths at the middle, and is about half an inch
-        in thickness. The sculptured face varies very slightly from a perfect
-        plane. The figures are cut in low relief (the lines being not more than
-        one-twentieth of an inch in depth), and occupy a rectangular space
-        four inches and two-tenths long by two and one-tenth wide. The sides
-        of the stone, it will be observed, are slightly concave. Right lines
-        are drawn across the face near the ends, at right angles, and exterior
-        to these are notches, twenty-five at one end and twenty-four at the
-        other. The back of the stone has three deep longitudinal grooves, and
-        several depressions, evidently caused by rubbing—probably produced by
-        sharpening the instrument used in the sculpture.” [Mr. Gest, however,
-        does not regard these as tool marks, but thinks they are of peculiar
-        significance.] “Without discussing the singular resemblance which the
-        relic bears to the Egyptian <em>Cartouch</em>, it will be sufficient
-        to direct attention to the reduplication of the figures, those upon
-        one side corresponding with those upon the other, and the two central
-        ones being also alike. It will be observed that there are but three
-        scrolls or figures—four of one and two of each of the others. Probably
-        no serious discussion of the question whether or not these figures are
-        hieroglyphical is needed. They more resemble the stalk and flowers of
-        a plant than anything else in nature. What significance, if any, may
-        attach to the peculiar markings or graduations at the end, it is not
-        undertaken to say. The sum of the products of the longer and shorter
-        lines (24 × 7 + 25 × 8) is 368, three more than the number of days in
-        the year; from which circumstance the suggestion has been advanced
-        that the tablet had an astronomical origin, and constituted some sort
-        of a calendar.” We may here add that Col. Chas. Whittlesey published
-        at Cleveland, Ohio, in <cite>Historical and Archæological Tract No. 9</cite>
-        (Feb. 1872) of the Western Reserve Historical Society, a statement that
-        the “Cincinnati Tablet” was a fraud. But we are informed that he is
-        since convinced of its genuineness.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Judge M. F. Force: <cite>Mound-Builders</cite>. Cincinnati,
-        1872. Rev. S. D. Peet in the <cite>American Antiquarian</cite> for April,
-        1878, refers to the visit of the Ohio Archæological and the National
-        Anthropological Conventions to Fort Ancient in September, 1877, and
-        states that during the visit the significance of the walls of the lower
-        enclosure was discovered. “They bear a resemblance,” he remarks, “to
-        the form of two massive serpents, which are apparently contending with
-        one another. Their heads are the mounds, which are separated from the
-        bodies by the opening which resembles a ring around the neck. They
-        bend in and out and rise and fall, and appear like two massive green
-        serpents rolling along the summit of this high hill. Their appearance
-        under the overhanging forest trees is very impressive”—p. 50. See also
-        Mr. Peet’s memoir on a Double-walled Earthwork in Ashtabula County,
-        Ohio, in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1876, pp. 443–4.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Dr. Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 145, cites
-        a letter from Prof. E. B. Andrews, of the Ohio Geological Survey,
-        describing an earthwork discovered by him in Vinton County with the
-        ditch <em>outside</em> the parapet. In his <cite>Report of Explorations
-        of Mounds in Southern Ohio</cite>, published in <cite>Tenth Ann. Report of
-        the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch. and Eth.</cite>, p. 53 (Camb., 1877),
-        the Professor remarks: “On a spur of a ridge about two miles east of
-        Lancaster is an earth wall, evidently for defence. The ditch is on the
-        outside of the wall, where it should be according to modern ideas of
-        defence. In this particular the earthwork differs from all the circles
-        and so-called ‘forts,’ either circular or square, which I have seen,
-        these having the ditch on the inside.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 128: “No one, I
-        think, can view the complicated system of works here displayed and
-        stretching away for miles without arriving at the conclusion that
-        they are the result of an infinite amount of toil expended under the
-        direction of a governing mind, and having in view a definite aim. At
-        this day, with our iron instruments, with our labor-saving machines,
-        and the aid of horse-power, to accomplish such a task would require the
-        labor of many thousand men continued for many months. These are the
-        work of a people who had fixed habitations, and who, deriving their
-        support in part at least from the soil, could devote their surplus
-        labor to the rearing of such structures. A migratory people dependent
-        upon the uncertainties of the chase for a living, would not have the
-        time, nor would there be the motive, to engage in such a stupendous
-        undertaking.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 129.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> <cite>North American Review</cite>, July, 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Robert Clarke’s <cite>Pre-Historic Remains at
-        Cincinnati</cite>, p. 18: “I believe I am correct in saying that there
-        is no clay in Ohio which could be applied in this way and resist for
-        any length of time the washing rains and sudden winter changes of
-        temperature of our climate,” <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> See A. B. Tomlinson’s <cite>Grave Greek Mound</cite> (1838).
-        <cite>Schoolcraft in American Ethnological Soc. Transactions</cite>, vol. i.
-        Especially Squier and Davis.
-
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Dr. Patton has described some interesting mounds near
-        Vincennes, Indiana. A giant mound, which towers above many others of
-        considerable proportions, is called the Sugar-loaf Mound, and stands on
-        a promontory which overlooks the rich valley of the Wabash. The height
-        of the Sugar-loaf is seventy feet, with a circumference at the base
-        of one thousand feet. Dr. Patton in June, 1873, sank a shaft in this
-        mound to the depth of forty-six feet. The composition of the mound was
-        of siliceous sand, nowhere found in the region except in other mounds.
-        At ten feet below the summit bones were found, but much decayed.
-        Immediately below them was a layer of charcoal and ashes. Thirty feet
-        deeper the same conditions were repeated, and the bones again were so
-        brittle as to render it impossible to save them. A bed of calcined clay
-        was next entered which could not be penetrated with the instruments
-        at command. One mile south of the Sugar-loaf is a pyramidal mound
-        forty-three feet high, with a circumference of 714 feet at the base and
-        a platform on top fifteen feet wide and fifty feet in length. Others of
-        as great proportions are described. <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1873,
-        pp. 411 <i>et seq.</i> See also <cite>Antiquities of La Porte County,
-        Indiana</cite>, by R. S. Robertson in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874,
-        pp. 377 <i>et seq.</i> A very low type of cranium was exhumed from
-        one of the mounds in this county. Also see <cite>Mounds at Merom and
-        Hutsonville on the Wabash</cite>, by F. W. Putnam—<cite>Proceedings of the
-        Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</cite>, vol. xv, 1872. Fifty-nine mounds were
-        examined, and three stone graves discovered.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> For an excellent treatment of this part of the subject,
-        see <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 130–144 inclusive.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> In <cite>Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley.</cite>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> <cite>Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of
-        Tennessee.</cite> <cite>Smithsonian Contribution No. 259.</cite> Oct. 1876, p. 100.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 39, and other places.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 138.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp.
-        348–360. Cambridge, 1878. See also <cite>Antiquities of Jackson County,
-        Tenn.</cite>, by Rev. Joshua Hale, in <cite>Smithsonian Reports</cite> for 1874,
-        p. 384. Very interesting and valuable explorations have been conducted
-        in Tennessee by Mr. E. O. Dunning for the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch.
-        and Eth. See <cite>Reports</cite>, 3d, p. 7; 4th, p. 7; 5th, p. 11.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> <cite>Mr. Jas. R. Page’s Results of Investigations of Indian
-        Mounds</cite>, in <cite>Transactions of St. Louis Acad. of Science</cite>, vol.
-        iii, p. 226, and copied in <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science</cite>,
-        Oct. 1875, vol. ii, No. 4, pp. 371 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> In <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science</cite>, Oct. 1875,
-        p. 378. Also see <cite>Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 318.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> See <cite>Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 317.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> <cite>Fontaine’s How the World was Peopled</cite>, p. 278, and
-        <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 111 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, p. 278.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis’s Ancient Monuments</cite>, pp. 117
-        <i>et seq.</i> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 112.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> <cite>E. Cornelius</cite> in <cite>Silliman’s Journal</cite>, vol. i,
-        p. 223, and <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 122.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1870, and <cite>Foster’s
-        Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 123. A further description of works
-        on Etowah River in Bartow Co., Ga., by <cite>Mr. Stephenson</cite> in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, p. 421. A full and elaborate
-        treatment is also that by Charles C. Jones, Jr., entitled <cite>Monumental
-        Remains of Georgia</cite>. Savannah, 1861. 12mo, p. 118.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1874, pp. 390 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> These measurements were carefully made by Dr. S. H.
-        Headlee, of St. James, Missouri, and communicated to the editors of the
-        <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Jour. of Science</cite>, published in January number,
-        1875, pp. 94–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> A sensational description of this mound which appeared
-        in the <cite>St. Louis Times</cite> is used by Mr. S. M. Hosea as the
-        basis of an article on Sacrificial Mounds in the above number of the
-        <cite>Cincinnati Quarterly Jour. of Science</cite>, p. 62. The account
-        contains some wonderful statements, which are evidently made by some
-        unscientific person, and hence are utterly worthless. Although, judging
-        from internal evidence, we have little faith in the reliableness of the
-        correspondent, we give a paragraph for what it is worth: “The approach
-        or causeway which leads across the trench from the north is ten feet
-        in width. Ascending from this causeway to the summit of the mound
-        are the remains of a rude flight of stairs, constructed originally
-        of roughly-hewn stones. Most of these steps are now displaced, and
-        quite a number have rolled down into the trench below, but there is
-        unmistakable evidence that they were at one time arranged in regular
-        order of ascent, and could doubtless be again replaced in position by
-        an intelligent architect.” “By a series of investigations, I found that
-        about a foot beneath the surface there was a regular solid platform
-        of stone covering the entire top of the mound. This platform, though
-        constructed by rude and unmechanical hands, is placed in position
-        with a precision and firmness that might well defy the ravages of the
-        elements in all coming ages. About twelve feet from the northern edge
-        of the mound, and directly on a line with the approach and stairway,
-        I noticed a very perceptible elevation of the earth, covering an
-        area of about twenty by fifteen feet; and driving a pick into the
-        elevated ground, the point struck upon solid rock a few inches below
-        the surface. * * * Pushing our work, we soon unearthed a piece of
-        workmanship that an antiquarian would have worked a week to bring to
-        light. The newly-discovered curiosity consisted of a flat rock twelve
-        feet long, ten feet wide, and eleven inches thick. The centre of the
-        stone was hollowed to a depth of six inches, with a margin of about one
-        foot around the edge.” “At the south end of the stone, a round hole
-        five inches deep and four in diameter was drilled. Amongst the dirt
-        taken out of this place hewn in the stone, was a large fossil tooth
-        and a piece of small broken stone column, and several bits of pottery
-        ware.” This description is very suggestive of the Mexican Temple or
-        Teocalli, but unfortunately for the facts, Dr. Headlee, who made the
-        measurements given in the text a short time subsequently, failed to
-        find any certain evidences that either a stairway or temple had existed
-        on the mound.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <cite>Report on the Geology of Arkansas</cite>, vol. ii, p.
-        414—cited by Foster.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> See on chambered mounds similar to English barrows,
-        Curtiss in <cite>Peabody Museum Reports</cite>, vol. ii, p. 717; Broadhead in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1879, pp. 350 <i>et seq.</i> (with cuts).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> “Within the State, from Pulaski County to Arkansas, in
-        all the little valleys which wind in and out among the flint-crowned
-        hills of the Ozarks, are seen what may be termed garden mounds. These
-        are elevated about two or three feet above the natural surface of
-        the land, and are from fifteen to fifty feet in diameter, varying
-        thus in size according to the amount of richer soil which could be
-        scraped together. Their presence may always be detected in fields of
-        growing grain by its more luxuriant growth and deeper green.”—<cite>A. J.
-        Conant</cite> in the <cite>Transactions</cite> cited above, p. 354. The same
-        writer has treated the subject more fully in a recent work published at
-        St. Louis, entitled, “<cite>The Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 115, and <cite>Pre-Historic
-        Races</cite>, p. 120.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> <cite>Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 72.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Prof. Forshey, in <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp.
-        121, 122, remarks: “There is a class of mounds west of the Mississippi
-        Delta and extending from the Gulf to the Arkansas and above, and
-        westward to the Colorado in Texas, that are to me, after thirty
-        years’ familiarity with them, entirely inexplicable. In my Geological
-        Reconnoissance of Louisiana in 1841–2, I made a pretty thorough report
-        upon them. I afterwards gave a verbal description of their extent
-        and character before the <cite>New Orleans Academy of Sciences</cite>.
-        These mounds lack every evidence of artificial construction based on
-        implements or other human vestigia. They are nearly all round, none
-        angular, and have an elevation hemispheroidal of one foot to five feet,
-        and a diameter from thirty feet to one hundred and forty feet. They
-        are numbered by millions. In many places, in pine forests and upon the
-        prairies, they are to be seen nearly tangent to each other as far as
-        the eye can reach, thousands being visible from an elevation of a few
-        feet. On the gulf-marsh margin, from the Vermillion to the Colorado,
-        they appear barely visible, often flowing into one another, and only
-        elevated a few inches above the common land. A few miles interior they
-        rise to two and even four feet in height. The largest I ever saw were
-        perhaps one hundred and forty feet in diameter and five feet high.
-        These were in Western Louisiana. Some of them had abrupt sides, though
-        they are nearly all of gentle slopes. There is ample testimony that the
-        pine trees of the present forests antedate these mounds. The material
-        for their construction is like that of the vicinity everywhere, and
-        often there is a depression in close proximity to the elevation.” We
-        can make no conjecture concerning the use of those mounds described by
-        Prof. Forshey, except to suggest that they in all probability served as
-        foundations for dwellings in a low country, which at that time may have
-        been moister and more marshy than at present. If such was the case,
-        the whole region must have presented the appearance of a continuous
-        community instead of the proper proportion of country and village. This
-        crowded state of affairs could have been produced by the pressure from
-        enemies in the north, and the lack of agricultural lands evidently was
-        sufficient alone to cause a migration to the south.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> A number of the cuts in this chapter illustrative of
-        the Arts of the Mound-builders, are copies of those used by Dr.
-        Charles Rau in his <cite>Catalogue of the Archæological Collection of
-        the National Museum</cite>, Washington, Smithsonian Contribution No. 287
-        (1876), granted me through the courtesy of Professor Henry. A few also
-        are from the memoir by Prof. Jos. Jones on the <cite>Aboriginal Remains
-        of Tennessee</cite>. Smithsonian Contribution No. 259 (1876). For an
-        able classification of these Mound Relics (a work which I could not
-        undertake in a volume not devoted exclusively to the Mound-builders),
-        I refer the reader to Rau’s Memoir above cited, as being altogether
-        the most satisfactory attempt of the kind of which I have any
-        knowledge. For a classification of works in Ohio, see <cite>Antiquities of
-        Ohio</cite>: Report of the Committee of the State Archæological Society
-        to the Centennial Commission of Ohio (Columbus, Ohio, 1877, 8vo).
-        The incompleteness of the work is to be regretted. Ohio, out of its
-        vast fund of material, certainly ought to furnish a more satisfactory
-        contribution to the subject of archæology. The work comprises seven
-        chapters, of which the last is the least satisfactory of all, for
-        while bearing the title “Location of Ancient Earthworks in Ohio,”
-        it enumerates only one hundred and sixteen out of the ten thousand
-        mound-works in the State. Still the memoir is not without value. Its
-        chapters on Stone Relics, Copper Relics, and Insignia and Ornaments are
-        comparatively thorough.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 143. Prof. E. B. Andrews has
-        shown that the supposed uniformity of stratification in altar mounds
-        is a fallacy. In many instances the earth has been dumped together
-        indiscriminately.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 143, the following general
-        description is given: “The altars or basins found in these mounds are
-        almost invariably of burned clay, although a few of stone have been
-        discovered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size or shape.
-        Some are round, others elliptical, and others square or parallelograms.
-        Some are small, measuring barely two feet across, while others are
-        fifty feet long by twelve or fifteen feet wide. The usual dimensions
-        are from five to eight feet. All appear to have been modelled of fine
-        clay brought to the spot from a distance, and they rest on the original
-        surface of the earth. In a few instances a layer or small elevation of
-        sand had been laid down, upon which the altar was formed. The height of
-        the altars, nevertheless, seldom exceeds a foot or twenty inches above
-        the adjacent level. The clay of which they are composed is usually
-        burned hard, sometimes to the depth of ten, fifteen, and even twenty
-        inches. This is hardly to be explained by any degree or continuance of
-        heat, though it is manifest that in some cases the heat was intense. On
-        the other hand, a number of these altars have been noticed which are
-        very slightly burned; and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute
-        of remains.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Charles Rau in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872, p. 357.
-        <cite>Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 41.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis</cite>: <i>Op. Cit.</i>, pp. 169–70.
-        <cite>Foster</cite>: <i>Op. Cit.</i>, pp. 188–196. Schoolcraft in vol.
-        i, <cite>Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc.</cite> M. C. Read in <cite>American
-        Antiquarian</cite>, vol. i, p. 139, Jan. 1879. Dr. Clemens in Morton’s
-        <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 221. Mr. E. O. Dunning in <cite>Foster</cite>, p. 194.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> <cite>Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound near
-        Newark, Ohio</cite>, by O. C. Marsh, F. G. S., in <cite>American Journal of
-        Science and Arts</cite> for July, 1866. Second Series, vol. xlii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> See <cite>Dr. Charles T. Jackson’s Geological Report to the
-        United States Government</cite>, 1849. <cite>Foster and Whitney’s Report
-        on the Geology of the Lake Superior Region</cite>, Part I. Published
-        by authority of Congress in 1850, and substantially reproduced in
-        <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, chap. vii, in 1873.
-        The most elaborate treatment is by <cite>Col. Charles Whittlesey</cite>,
-        <cite>Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior</cite>. Published in
-        the <cite>Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge</cite> in 1863, vol. xiii.
-        <cite>Swineford’s History and Review of the Mineral Resources of Lake
-        Superior</cite>, Marquette, 1876. Containing <cite>Ancient Copper Mines of
-        Lake Superior by Jacob Houghton</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 268. For a further
-        account, see Mr. Henry Gillman in an article printed in <cite>Appleton’s
-        Journal</cite>, August 9, 1873, and entitled <cite>Ancient Works at Isle
-        Royal</cite>; also to a paper printed in the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>
-        for 1873, and in the <cite>Proceedings of the Amer. Ass. for the
-        Advancement of Science</cite>, 1875 meeting, p. 330. Also A. C. Davis in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874, p. 369.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> <cite>Ancient Mining on the Shore of Lake Superior</cite>, p. 2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="fr">
-      <a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> “L’on trouve souvent au fond de l’eau, des pieces de
-        cuivre tout formé, de la pesanteur de dix et vingt livres; i’en ay
-        veu plusieurs fois entre les mains des Sauvages, et comme ils sont
-        superstitieux, ils les gardent comme autant de divinités, ou comme des
-        presents que les dieux qui sont au fond de l’eau leur ont faits pour
-        estre la cause de leur bonheur; c’est pour cela, qu’ils conservent ces
-        morceaux de cuivre envelopés parmi leurs meubles les plus pretieux, il
-        y en a qui les gardent depuis plus de cinquante ans; d’autres les ont
-        dans leurs familles de temps immemorial, et les cherissent comme des
-        dieux domestiques.”—<cite>Relations des Jésuites, en l’Année 1667</cite>, p.
-        8. Quebec reprint, 1858. Tome iii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="fr">
-      <a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> “En y entrant par son embouchure, que se décharge au
-        Sault, le premier endroit que se présente où se retrouve du cuivre
-        en abondance, est une Isle que est éloignée de quarante on cinquante
-        lieuës, scituée vers le côté du Nord, vis a vis d’un endroit qu’on
-        appelle Missipicoüatong. Les sauvages racontent que c’est une Isle
-        flottante, que est quelquefois loing, quelquefois proche, selon les
-        vents qui la poussent, et la promenent de côté et d’autre. Ils ajoûtent
-        qu’il y a bien longtemps que quatre sauvages y furent par rencontre,
-        s’etans égarez dans la brume, dont cette Isle est presque toujours
-        environnée. C’étoit du temps qu’ils n’avoient point encore eu de
-        commerce avec les François, et n’avoient aucun usage ny des chaudieres
-        ny des haches. Ceux-cy donc voulans se preparer à manger, firent à leur
-        ordinaire: prenant des pierres qu’ils trouvoient au bord de l’eau, les
-        faisaient rougir dans le feu et les jettaient dans un plat d’ecorce
-        plein d’eau pour la faire boüillir et faire cuire par cette industrie
-        leur viande. Comme ils choisissoient ces pierres, ils trouvoient, que
-        c’étoient presque tous morceaux de cuivre; ils se servirent donc des
-        unes et des autres, et aprés avoir pris leur repas, ils songerent à
-        s’embarquer au plustost, craignant les Loups Cerviers et les Lievres,
-        qui sont en cét endroit grands comme des Chiens, et qui venoient
-        manger leurs provisions et même leur Canot. Avant que de partir, ils
-        se chargerent de quantité de ces pierres grosses et menuës, et même de
-        quelques plaques de cuivre; mais ils ne furent pas bien éloignez du
-        rivage, qu’une puissante voix se fit entendre à leurs oreilles, disant
-        tout en colere: Qui sont ces voleurs qui m’emportent les berceaux
-        et les divertissemens de mes enfans? Les plaques de cuivre sont les
-        berceaux, parce que parmy les sauvages ils ne sont faits que d’un ou
-        deux aix joints ensemble, sur lesquels ils couchent leurs enfans; et
-        ces petits morçeaux de cuivre qu’ils enlevoient, sont les jouets et
-        les divertissemens des enfans sauvages, qui joüent ensemble avec des
-        petites pierres.” The voice which the savages heard was believed to be
-        that of a spirit called Missibizi, a certain water-god. “Quoy qu’il en
-        soit, cette voix étonnante jetta tellement la frayeur dans l’esprit de
-        nos Voyageurs, qu’un des quatre mourut avant que d’arriver à terre;
-        peu de temps aprés un second fut enlevé, puis le troisièma; de sorte
-        qu’il n’en resta qu’un, lequel s’étant rendu en son Pays, raconta
-        tout ce qui s’étoit passé, pues mourut fort peu apriés.” The Father
-        adds that the savages never afterward could be induced to approach
-        the island for fear of being seized by the Genii presiding over its
-        treasures.—<cite>Relations des Jesuités l’année 1670</cite>, p. 84, tome iii.
-        Quebec reprint, 1858.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> <cite>Ancient Mining</cite>, p. 22 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes.</cite>
-        Luxembourg. 1877, tom. i, pp. 51–2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> <cite>Essai Politique</cite> (Paris, 1825–27), vol. iii,
-        p. 114. Dr. Charles Rau has courteously furnished me the following
-        references on ancient mining in Mexico: <cite>Clavigaro’s History of
-        Mexico</cite>, Phil., 1817, vol. i., p. 20. <cite>Prescott’s Mexico</cite>,
-        vol. i, p. 138; <cite>Despatches of Hernando Cortés</cite> addressed to
-        the Emperor Charles V (trans. by Folsom, New York, 1842), p. 412.
-        <cite>Memoirs of Bernal Diaz</cite> (trans. of Lockhart, London, 1844), vol.
-        i, p. 36. Dr. Rau remarks: “We are forcibly led to the conclusion that
-        the Mexicans obtained copper by the mining process.”—<cite>Letter to the
-        Author</cite>, Aug. 24, 1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Colonel Whittlesey in the <cite>Report of the State
-        Archæological Society</cite> to the Centennial Commission of Ohio, Chap.
-        IV, pl. 10, has figured several symmetrical tubes of stone from Ohio
-        Mounds. The most perfect of these he thinks may have served “as
-        telescopic helps for distant views.” The most general use to which most
-        of them were applied, it is believed, was the making of signals, or
-        possibly rude music. One of the tubes taken from the Tippet Mound near
-        Newark, Ohio, and figured in the report, has its upper end flattened
-        like a whistle or flute, and has a hole penetrating it just below the
-        mouthpiece, which indicates that it may have been a musical instrument.
-        The Huron slates were most frequently employed in the manufacture of
-        tubes, as they were in the production of the class of objects known as
-        ceremonial relics.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient America</cite>, p. 42, and Dupaix,
-        quoted on pp. 122–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Dr. Rau has shown that division of labor and its
-        advantages was recognized among the aborigines; that certain
-        individuals who were qualified to manufacture particular implements
-        devoted themselves exclusively to that work. He bases his conjecture
-        “on the occurrence of manufactured articles of a homogeneous character
-        in mounds or in deposits below the surface of the soil. There is little
-        doubt, for instance, that there were persons who devoted their time
-        chiefly to the manufacture of stone arrow-heads and of other articles
-        produced by chipping, among which may be mentioned those remarkable
-        large digging tools described by me several years ago, and the oval or
-        leaf-shaped implements made of the peculiar hornstone of ‘Flint Ridge’
-        in Ohio.” See Stock-in-trade of an Aboriginal Lapidary, by Charles Rau,
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Dr. S. S. Schoville, in the <cite>Cincinnati Quarterly
-        Journal of Science</cite>, April, 1875, p. 164, describes the discovery of
-        numerous mica plates in a mound on the east bank of the Little Miami
-        River, about twenty-five miles east of Cincinnati. He states, that
-        at the base of the mound, on a level with the surrounding country,
-        the remains of several skeletons were found, placed with their heads
-        together and lying in a horizontal position. “Lying upon or immediately
-        over the cranial debris, were found plates of mica, some a foot in
-        diameter. These plates were disposed in such a way as to cover an area
-        somewhat larger than that occupied by the crania beneath. However,
-        it could not definitely be determined whether the design had been to
-        make a continuous or common roof over the faces as a group, or whether
-        each face had a covering of its own.” The writer ventures the rather
-        fanciful conjecture that the mica in this and many other cases served
-        the purpose of exhibiting temporarily the features of the dead in the
-        manner that glass is now used on caskets.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> See a most interesting and extensive memoir on
-        <cite>Aboriginal Trade in</cite> <cite>North America</cite>, by Charles Rau,
-        first published in vol. iv of the <cite>Archiv für Anthropologie</cite>
-        (Braunschweig, 1872), and translated in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for
-        1872, pp. 249–394.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Mr. A. J. Conant in the <cite>Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>,
-        pp. 77–8 (St. Louis, 1877), refers to ancient canals fifty feet wide
-        and twelve feet deep observed by Dr. G. C. Swallow. He quotes a pretty
-        full account from Geo. W. Carleton, Esq. Mr. Conant considers some of
-        the southern bayous of artificial origin.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> For further material on the Mound-builders, see the
-        documents cited throughout the chapter. No less important is Dr.
-        Foster’s admirable work so often quoted, and which we must add has been
-        of great service in the preparation of this chapter. A very good paper
-        on the Mound-builders is that by Robert S. Robertson of Fort Wayne,
-        Indiana, in the <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes Compte-Rendu
-        de la Sec. Ses. Luxembourg</cite>, 1877, tom. i, pp. 39–50, though we
-        do not fully agree with the author’s views as to the colonization
-        of the Mississippi valley from the south. The classification of
-        Mound-works by Rev. Stephen D. Peet in the same document, p. 103, is
-        very satisfactory, and corresponds to that adopted in this chapter. The
-        learned article by Judge Force of Cincinnati in the same document, vol.
-        i, pp. 121–156, is full of interest. For recent mound explorations, see Appendix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Times</cite>, p. 425. Also cited by
-        Foster. In this connection I refer the reader to the argument of
-        Mr. John H. Becker of Berlin, in the <cite>Congrès International des
-        Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. i, pp. 345–6: “These northern
-        nations * * * have not quite forgotten the former existence and the
-        exodus of these Nahua Mound-builders in and from the western prairie
-        country. Cusick’s remarkable history of the Iroquois (Schoolcraft,
-        vol. v) states again and again that ‘their hunters were opposed by big
-        snakes,’ that the ‘great horned snake appeared on Lake Ontario,’ that
-        the ‘lake serpent traversed the country, and they were compelled to
-        build fortifications in order to save themselves from the devouring
-        monsters,’ that ‘a snake with a human head prevented the intercourse
-        of their several villages, as it had settled near the principal path
-        of communication,’ also ‘that it retreats,’ etc., etc. Now, in order
-        to understand the force of these passages, it is necessary to remind
-        the reader that the Nahua race were perhaps even more properly and
-        generally designated as the ‘Culhua’ the ‘Snake’ race, and one branch,
-        remotely connected with them in blood and language, though wofully
-        degenerated, the Snakes or Shoshones of Oregon, etc., carry the name to
-        this very day. * * * ‘An expedition was sent towards the Mississippi
-        River; they crossed it, reached an extensive meadow; they discovered a
-        <em>curious animal</em>, a <em>winged fish</em>; it flew about the tree,
-        it moved like a <em>humming bird</em>’ * * * the <em>humming bird</em> was
-        the totem of the last tribe of Nahuas, arriving in Anahuac from Aztlan.
-        The Cherokee tradition, told by Timberlake, is equally significant:
-        ‘The prince of rattlesnakes lives in the glens of the mountains. His
-        palace is guarded by obedient subjects. * * * And in the myth of the
-        Algonquins, the god-hero Michabo is in conflict with the shining prince
-        of serpents who lives in the lake; he destroys the reptile with a dart;
-        clothes himself with the skin of his foe, and <em>drives the rest of the
-        serpents to the south</em>.’”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> <cite>J. D. Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 47.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Foster, pp. 172–3, remarks: “Squier and Davis hastily
-        stated that none of these works occupied the alluvial bottoms (an error
-        which Mr. Squier subsequently corrected), and from this statement the
-        most erroneous conclusions as to their antiquity have been drawn.
-        There is nothing to indicate but that those works were constructed
-        after the surface had assumed its present configuration, and that the
-        climate had become essentially as it is now. That they should not
-        occur as abundantly on the bottoms as on the river terraces is not
-        to be wondered at, when we consider the great fluctuations of the
-        Mississippi and its tributaries. The extreme range between low and
-        high water of the Upper Mississippi at its mouth is thirty-five feet;
-        that of the Missouri at its mouth about the same; and that of the Ohio
-        at Louisville, forty-two feet. Hence, during the flood time a greater
-        portion of the bottom lands are subject to overflow, and it would be
-        natural for the Mound-builders to shun such situations. Where the
-        immediate valleys lie above high water, we find their works. Of this
-        the ‘American Bottom’ is a notable instance.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> See Dr. Lapham’s communication in Foster’s
-        <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 373–5, in which he shows the possibility
-        of finding the average increase of wood each year by measuring annual
-        rings of growth.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> Sir Charles Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 41, says:
-        “When I visited Marietta in 1842, Dr. Hildreth took me to one of the
-        mounds, and showed me where he had seen a tree growing on it, the trunk
-        of which when cut down displayed eight hundred rings of annual growth.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> See Prof. Asa Gray in Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>,
-        p. 392; also Lyell’s <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 41, where the opinion
-        of President Harrison is quoted as follows: “We may be sure that no
-        trees were allowed to grow so long as the earthworks were in use; and
-        when they were forsaken, the ground, like all newly-cleared land in
-        Ohio, would for a time be monopolized by one or two species of tree,
-        such as the yellow locust and the black or white walnut. When the
-        individuals which were the first to get possession of the ground had
-        died out one after the other, they would, in many cases, instead of
-        being replaced by other species, be succeeded, by virtue of the law
-        which makes a rotation of crops profitable in agriculture, by other
-        kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries (several hundred
-        years perhaps), that remarkable diversity of species characteristic
-        of North America, and far exceeding what is seen in European forests,
-        would be established.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 118, 119,
-        122, and M. Stronck, <cite>Repères chronologiques de l’histoire des
-        Mound-builders</cite> in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg,
-        tom. i, pp. 316–18, catalogues the record of the age of trees found on mounds.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 370.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, Jan. 1868.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> <cite>Second Visit to the United States</cite>, vol. i, p. 252.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Dr. Brinton’s <cite>Notes on the Floridian Peninsula</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> From the immense heaps distributed over an area of 150
-        miles between Pilatka and Salt Creek Dr. Wyman made some collections
-        of interest. The banks were composed mostly of the <i>Ampullaria
-        Depressa</i>, the <i>Paludina Multilineata</i> and <i>Unio
-        Buckleyi</i>. The bank at King Phillip’s Town, 450 feet long by 120
-        feet wide, and in some places eight feet thick, yielded fragments
-        of pottery and decayed animal bones. At Black Hammock, on the St.
-        Johns, a mound 900 feet long and from 100 to 150 in width, yielded
-        the following: such marine shells as the strombus-gigos, pyrula
-        carica and P. perversa. These had been shaped into hatchets, gouges
-        and chisels. Scarcely any stone implements were found in any of the
-        mounds examined. A chisel and twenty-five arrow-heads were collected
-        in the vicinity of the above shell-bank. The following animal remains
-        were found: bear, deer, raccoon, opossum, terrapin, turtle, alligator,
-        cat-fish and garpike. But few bones of birds were found. Prof. Wyman
-        can only explain the presence of so many of the now scarce species,
-        the Ampullarius and Paludinas, on the supposition that they were much
-        more plentiful and are now becoming extinct, or that the heaps where so
-        abundantly found were made by slow accumulation, through the lapse of
-        an indefinitely long period.—<cite>American Naturalist</cite>, vol. ii, Nos.
-        8 and 9, and <cite>Fifth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 22–25.
-        Also <cite>First Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 11, 18.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> A small sand-mound near Cedar Keys yielded peculiarly
-        massive skulls; the capacity being 1375 cubic centimetres, or nearly
-        84 cubic inches. They show no distortion, and the average thickness of
-        eight of them through the parietal bones measured 10.5 millimetres, or
-        0.42 of an inch. The heaviest weighed 995 grams, and notwithstanding
-        the loss of its organic matter, is heavier than any of the three
-        hundred skulls in the collection (Peabody Museum).—<cite>Fourth Annual
-        Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 13. Also see Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic
-        Races</cite>, p. 170.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 159.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 272.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> C. C. Jones, Jr., <cite>Antiquities of the Southern
-        Indians</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Further consult, <cite>Second Indiana Report</cite>, p. iii;
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1870; Humphreys and Abbot’s <cite>Physics
-        and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, p. 89, and Foster’s
-        <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, Chap. IV.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="de">
-      <a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Martius: <cite>Von dem Rechtszustande unter den
-        Ureinwohner Brasiliens</cite>, p. 80, and reprinted in his <cite>Beiträge
-        zur Ethnographie</cite>, etc., Leipzig, 1867, quarto. “Der dermalige
-        Zustand dieser Naturwesen beurkundet, dass die amerikanische Natur
-        schon seit Jahrtausenden den Einfluss einer verändernden und
-        umgestaltenden Menschenhand erfahren hat. Auf den Antillen und dem
-        Festlande fanden die ersten Conquistadores den stummen Hund als
-        Hausthier und auf der Jagd dienend, ebenso das Meerschweinchen in
-        St. Domingo in einem heimischen Zustande.... Das Llama war in Peru
-        schon seit undenklicher Zeit als Lastthier benützt worden, und kam
-        nicht mehr im Zustand der Freiheit vor; ja sogar das Guanaco und die
-        Vicunna scheinen damals nicht ganz wild, sondern in einer beschränkten
-        Freiheit den Urbewohnern befreundet, gelebt zu haben, da sie, um
-        geschoren zu werden, eingefangen, so dann aber wieder freigelassen
-        würden.... Die Cultur dieser Pflanze (Maize) aus welcher die Peruaner
-        auch Zucker bereiteten, ist uralt; man findet sie, und die Banane, den
-        Baumwollenstrauch, die Quinoa- und die Mandioca-Pflanze ebenso wenig
-        wild in America als unsere Getreidearten in Asien, Europa und Africa.
-        Die einzige Palme, welche von den Indianern angebaut wird, hat durch
-        diese Cultur den grossen, steinharten Saamenkern verloren, der oft in
-        Fasern zerschmolzen, oft gänzlich aufgelöst ist. Ebenso findet man die
-        Banane, deren Einfuhr nach America geschichtlich nicht nachgewiesen
-        werden kann, immer ohne Saamen. Man weiss aber aus anderen Erfahrungen,
-        welch’ lange Zeit nothwendig ist, um den Pflanzen einen solchen Stempel
-        von der umbildenden Macht menschlichen Einflusses aufzudrücken. Gewiss,
-        auch in America sind die dort heimischen Nutz-Pflanzen der Menschheit
-        seit undenklichen Zeiten zinsbar unterworfen.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, p. 37.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 352.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 44.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, p. 12.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, vol. ii, p. 434, 1868. Also
-        quoted by Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 77.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Daniel Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, p. 12.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Vol. i, p. 200.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> Meigs: <cite>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</cite>, 1828, p. 285.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 42.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Vol. ii, p. 197.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 203.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <cite>Extinct Mammalia of North America</cite>, p. 365:
-        “The specimen may have been contemporary with the remains of extinct
-        animals, with which it is said to have been found, though it appears
-        to me equally if not more probable that it may have fallen into
-        the formation from an Indian grave above at a comparatively recent
-        date, and become stained like the true fossils from ferruginous infiltration.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 61. “A dozen
-        plantation burial places and Indian mounds and camps had been exposed
-        above for centuries; and in recent years since uninhabited by the
-        whites (for a hundred years), the drains had cut through the surface
-        to the depth of twenty and even forty feet of the bluff loam-beds. The
-        probabilities are a hundred to one that this bone was not of the bluff
-        (mastodon) formation but of the recent era.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Foster in <cite>Transactions of the Chicago Academy of
-        Sciences</cite>, vol. i, part ii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Fontaine’s <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, pp. 67–69.
-        A book with many good points, but obscure as to this particular case.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> <cite>On the Geology of Lower Louisiana and the Salt
-        Deposit on the Petit Anse Island</cite>, p. 14, in <cite>Smithsonian
-        Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, No. 248.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 58.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, p. 35.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> Vol. xxxvi, p. 198.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Vol. xxxvii, p. 191.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> J. D. Dana: <cite>Koch’s Evidence on the Contemporaneity
-        of Man and the Mastodon in Missouri</cite>, in the <cite>Am. Jour. of Sci.
-        and Arts</cite>, Art. xxxv, May, 1875, gives the title of two of these
-        pamphlets as follows: 1. <cite>Description of the Missourium or Missouri
-        Leviathan, together with its Supposed Habits; Indian Traditions
-        Concerning the Location from which it was Exhumed; Also, Comparisons
-        of the Whale, Crocodile, and Missourium with the Leviathan, as
-        described in the Forty-first Chapter of the Book of Job</cite>: by Albert
-        Koch, 16 pp. octavo, St. Louis, 1841 (1840 on the cover, indicating
-        that the copy is from a second edition). 2. <cite>Description of the
-        Missourium Theristocaulodon (Koch) or Missouri Leviathan (Leviathan
-        Missouriensis), together with its Supposed Habits and Indian
-        Traditions; Also, Comparisons of the Whale, Crocodile, and Missourium
-        with the Leviathan, as described in the Forty-first Chapter of the Book
-        of Job</cite>: by Albert Koch. Fifth edition enlarged, 28 pp. octavo.
-        Dublin, 1843. (A third edition of twenty-four pages appeared in London
-        in 1841.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> <cite>American Journal of Science and Arts</cite>, 1830, Art.
-        xxxvi, p. 198, and copied by Mr. J. D. Dana, in his article before
-        cited, May, 1875.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Dr. Koch’s <cite>Pamphlet</cite> of 1843, pp. 13, 14, 27,
-        copied by J. D. Dana.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> <cite>Transactions of St. Louis Academy of Sciences</cite>,
-        vol. i, 1857.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 62.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872, p. 396, in a note to
-        his article on <cite>North American Stone Implements</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> J. D. Dana in <cite>American Journal of Science and
-        Arts</cite>, May, 1875, p. 340.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Article cited, p. 344.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Though the above argument by so eminent a specialist
-        must satisfy any one that Dr. Koch’s claim, as it now stands, is
-        valueless to science; still, it is due to the memory of the latter,
-        to admit that he was the most indefatigable and successful collector
-        in his department in this country. Though unscientific himself, his
-        service to science must ever be recognized. The great Mastodon in the
-        British Museum is a monument to his persevering research. Perhaps the
-        disposition to acknowledge his services, has unduly biased the judgment
-        of many in favor of his groundless claim.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 67.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> “But it is one of those isolated cases which require
-        further investigation before full credence can be attached to
-        it.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 71.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man in the United States, Transactions
-        of American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>. Chicago, 1869.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> <cite>Second Visit to the United States.</cite>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 336, and
-        Lyell’s <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 43.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> <cite>Tableau of New Orleans</cite>, 1852, cited by Foster,
-        <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 73.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 43.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> <cite>Surface Geology</cite>, p. 92, <cite>Smithsonian
-        Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, vol. ix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> <cite>Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi</cite>, pp.
-        150 <i>et seq.</i>, and 435.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 76.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> <cite>Philadelphia Acad. of Natural Sciences.
-        Proceedings</cite>, Part I, 1872. Also Foster, pp. 69–71.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> This letter bears date December 24, 1876, written from
-        Waynesville, Ohio, and signed by Robert F. Furnas, M. D.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Prof. Orton in <cite>Geology of Highland County</cite> in
-        “<cite>Progress of the Ohio</cite> <cite>Geological Survey in 1870</cite>,”
-        published 1871, and in vol. i. of <cite>State Geological Report</cite>, p. 442.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Prof. Winchell remarks: “The very general interest
-        that is being excited in this country in the problems that invest the
-        history of the drift is my only excuse for calling your attention to
-        the prevalence of vegetable remains in the Drift of the North-west, and
-        to the wide divergence of high authorities on the relative position of
-        those remains in respect to the boulder clay.”—See <cite>Proceedings</cite>,
-        p. 56, <cite>Am. Ass. for Adv. Sci.</cite>, 1875, <cite>24th Meeting</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite>, p.
-        226, Cambridge, 1878. Dr. Abbott concludes his interesting report by
-        citing a letter from Mr. Thomas Belt, dated Grant, Colorado, June 29,
-        1878, in which the writer reports the discovery of “a small human skull
-        in undisturbed loess, in a railway cutting about two miles from Denver,
-        near the watershed between the South Platte and Clear Creek. All the
-        plains are covered with a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose
-        pebbles, overlaid by a sandy and calcareous loam closely resembling the
-        diluvial clay and the loess of Europe.” The skull was found at a point
-        three and a half feet from the surface.—<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 257.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> <cite>Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum, Cambridge</cite>,
-        1877, vol. ii, pp. 30–43; <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, June, 1876, p. 329.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> <cite>Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 47.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Grote, <cite>The Peopling of America</cite>, <cite>American
-        Naturalist</cite>, April, 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> <cite>Primitive Industry</cite>, by C. C. Abbott, M.D., 1881,
-        p. 551. A truly scientific work.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological
-        Survey, under Dr. Hayden in 1872</cite>, p. 657.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> General Thomas gives the following account of this
-        form of skull discovered by him, p. 657: “It is unlike that of any
-        human being to-day alive on this continent; the frontal bone being
-        low, receding, growing narrow and pinched from the brows up; the top
-        of the head depressed in the centre. The cavity of the cranium is
-        full seven inches long, and a scant four and a half inches wide. The
-        orbital ridges or eyebrows are excessively developed, like those of
-        the great Gibbon monkey. In fact the whole skull resembles that of the
-        great Gibbon monkey. The malar or cheek bones run down very low and
-        deep toward the lower jaw, are set very far to the front, and are not
-        wide at top, but widen very much toward the bottom. The nose, and here
-        is the anomaly, is much more aquiline than that of the Indian. The
-        superior maxillary is one-third deeper and much more prominent than
-        the Indian’s. The inferior maxillary is of uncommon prominence, depth,
-        and power, far exceeding that of the Indian. The mouth is narrow and
-        long, more dog-shaped than the Indian’s. The <i>foramen magnum</i> or
-        aperture at base of skull, where the spinal cord enters the head, is
-        peculiarly small. The <i>condyloid processes</i> are full, oblong, flat
-        on the working surfaces, and at such an angle as to set the head upward
-        and back more than any race we know to-day on this continent. Set one
-        of these skulls, without the lower jaw, on the table, and a line drawn
-        from the upper jaw perpendicularly upward would be a good inch and a
-        half in front of the forehead. Set on the lower jaw and it would be
-        two inches.” Mr. R. D. Guttgisal, formerly an engineer on the Mexican
-        Central Railroad, in connection with some friends, opened a mound at
-        Chihuahua, on the line of that railroad. The skulls resembled those I
-        have described (so he informs me) in every particular. He especially
-        remembers the somewhat bird-shaped head, and the excessively small
-        <i>foramen magnum</i>. The bodies were not interred horizontally there,
-        but leaning backward as if in a rocking-chair. Professor H. H. Smith,
-        University of Pennsylvania, has one of the skulls.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Professor James Orton, <cite>The Andes and the Amazons</cite>,
-        third ed., p. 109, New York, 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Sir John Lubbock, alluding to the changes that have
-        transpired in the condition of man from his first appearance in
-        America, says: “But even if we attribute to these changes all the
-        importance which ever has been claimed for them, they will not require
-        an antiquity of more than three thousand years. I do not, of course,
-        deny that the period may have been very much greater, but in my
-        opinion, at least, it <em>need</em> not be greater.”—<cite>Pre-Historic
-        Times</cite>, p. 234, London, 1865.
-
-      <p>Dr. Foster, after giving many of the reputed proofs of man’s antiquity
-        here, sums up the argument in the following language: “The evidence, it
-        must be confessed, rests, in most cases, upon the testimony of a single
-        observer, and besides, there has not been a recurrence of ‘finds’ in
-        the same deposit (except in the gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming,
-        which require further investigation to command an unqualified belief),
-        as in the valley of the Somme and in the European caves, which is so
-        conclusive as to the existence of man as contemporary with the great
-        Pachyderms.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 71.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> <cite>De Civitate Dei</cite>, lib. xvi, cap. 9. Above I have
-        availed myself of the admirable translation by Rev. Marcus Dods, vol.
-        ii, p. 118. Edinburgh, 1871. On the subject of Antipodes we may refer
-        the reader to the view of <cite>Cosmas Indicopleustes</cite>, an Egyptian
-        of the middle of the 6th century. See Draper’s <cite>Conflict between
-        Religion and Science</cite>, p. 65, and the opinion of the Venerable Bede,
-        cited by the same author. See further Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races of the
-        Pacific States</cite>, vol. v, pp. 1–8, and Ogilby’s <cite>America</cite>, pp. 6–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> R. H. Major’s <cite>Prince Henry of Portugal</cite>, chap.
-        xxi. London, 1868, 8vo. Draper’s <cite>Conflict</cite>, pp. 163–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> The narrowness of the attainments of the “educated” in
-        Spain in the 17th century is portrayed by Buckle: “Books, unless they
-        were books of devotion, were deemed utterly useless; no one consulted
-        them, no one collected them; and until the 18th century, Madrid did
-        not possess a single public library. * * * De Torres, who was himself
-        a Spaniard, and was educated at Salamanca early in the 18th century,
-        declares that he had studied in the university for five years before
-        he had heard that such things as the mathematical sciences existed. So
-        late as the year 1771, the same university publicly refused to allow
-        the discoveries of Newton to be taught; and assigned as a reason, that
-        the system of Newton was not so consonant with revealed religion as the
-        system of Aristotle.”—<cite>History of Civilization in England</cite>, vol.
-        ii, pp. 72–3. New York, 1861. Of course these remarks apply to Spain’s
-        period of misfortune and decline, but it must also be remembered that
-        the spirit of intolerance which alone brought about that condition was
-        at its height about the time of the discovery of America.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Mr. Bancroft has illustrated the spirit of this latter
-        class by quoting a passage from Garcia’s <cite>Origen de Los Indios</cite>,
-        Madrid, 1729, p. 248. It is certainly one of the most venomous and
-        narrow-minded utterances on record. See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 4.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="es">
-      <a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España con Noticias
-        de los Ritos y Costumbres de los Indios y Explicacion del Calendario
-        Mexicano, por F. Diego Duran</cite>, Escrita en el año de 1585; MS. in
-        three vols. folio of upwards of 1000 pp. each. On p. 507, tom. iii, we
-        find notice of December, 1579, as the date at which that stage of the
-        work was reached. Copy in the library of Congress at Washington. From
-        Beristain’s <cite>Biblioteca Hispano-Americana, Septentrional</cite>, tom. i,
-        p. 442, Mexico, 1816, we quote the following: “Duran (F. Diego) á quien
-        el Illmõ. Eguara, p. 324, de su Biblioteca dá equivocadamente el nombre
-        de Pedro, y á quien el Jesuita Clavigero llama Fernando con igual
-        equivocacion. Fué natural de Tezcuco, antigua corte de los Emperadores
-        Megicanos: y Profeso el Orden de Santo Domingo, en el Convento Imperial
-        de Megico, á 8 de Margo de 1556. Era varon Docto en Theología, y de
-        vasta erudicion en la historia antigua de los Indios; pero molestado de
-        enfermedades en sus años ultimos, no pudo dar á luz publica los bellos
-        libros, que tenia compuestos, los mas amenos y gustosos, que hasta
-        entonces se habian escrito sobre las cosas de Indias, como se explica
-        el Illmõ. Dáila Padilla, y repetieron despues los criticos franceses
-        Querif y Echard. El referido Arzo-Bispo añade, que el P. Juan de Torar,
-        Jesuita Megicano, en cuyo poder paraban los manuscritos de su paisano
-        Duran, se los dió al P. José de Acosta á quien servieron mucho para su
-        Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, en lo qual convienen Pinelo y
-        D. Nicolás Antonio. Los dichos MSS. eran:” <cite>Historia de los Indios de
-        la N. E. Antigüallas de los Indios de la N. E.</cite>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="es">
-      <a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> “Cuanto á lo primero tendremos por principal fundamento
-        el ser esta Nacion y Gente Indiana advenediza de estrañas y remotas
-        regeiones, y que en su venida á poseer esta Tierra hizo un largo y
-        prolijo camino, en el cual gastó muchos meses y años para llegar á
-        ella, como de su relacion y pinturas se colige, y como de algunos
-        viejos ancianos de muchos dias he procurado saber para sacar esta
-        opinion en limpio; y dado caso que algunos cuenten algunas falsas
-        fabulas conviene á saber, que nacieron de unas fuentes y manantiales
-        de agua; otros, que nacieron de unas cuebas; otros, que su generacion
-        es de los Dioses; lo cual clara y abiertamente se ve ser fabula, y
-        que ellos mismos ignoran su origen y principio, dado caso que siempre
-        confiessan havre venido de tierras; y asi lo he hallado pintado en sus
-        antiguas pinturas, donde señalan grandes trabajos de hambre, sed, y
-        desnudez, con otras innumerables afliciones que en él pasáron hasta
-        llegar a esta tierra y poblada; con lo cual confirmo mi opinion y
-        sospecha de que estos Naturales sean de aquellas diez Tribus de Isrrael
-        que Salmanasar, Rey de los Asirios cautivó y transmigró de Asiria
-        en tiempo de Ozeas, Rey de Isrrael, y en tiempo de Ozequias, Rey de
-        Jerusalem, como se prodra ver en el cuarto Libro de los Reyes, capitulo
-        diez y siete, donde dice que fue transladado Isrrael de su tierra á
-        los Asirios hasta el dia de hoy, etc.; de las cuales dice Esdras en
-        el Libro cuarto, capitulo trece, que se pasaron á vivir á una tierra
-        remota y apartada que nunca habia sido habitada; á la cual habia largo
-        y prolijo camino de año y medio, donde agora se hallan estas Gentes
-        de todas las Islas y Tierra firma del mar oceano hacia la parte de
-        occidente.”—<cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, tom. i., pp.
-        1–2, MS.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> London, small quarto, 1650; we have both this and the
-        edition of 1660 before us.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Harmon L’Estrange, Kt., <cite>Americans No Jewes; or
-        Improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race</cite>, p. 4. 1652;
-        quarto, London.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Id., p. 13.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="es">
-      <a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> “De suerte que aviendose conservado este nombre Piru,
-        que es lo mismo que Ophir, en aquellas tierras, y hallandose que
-        los moradores dellas parecen a los Hebreos en muchas cosas, bien se
-        signe que a quellos Indios, y los demas proceden de Ophir nieto de
-        Heber de quien los Hebreos, y su lengua tomaron el nombre. Tambien se
-        halla el nombre de Iectan padre de Ophir en la provincia que oy se
-        llama Yucatan, en la Nueva España, que no es pequeño fundemento para
-        provar que ya que no pusiesse aquel nombre Iectan, por no haver ido a
-        aquella tierra, pudo ser que lo diesse su hijo Ophir.”—<cite>Origen de los
-        Indios</cite>, p. 323. Ed., <cite>Valencia</cite>, 1607.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> <cite>Origen de los Indios</cite>, (<cite>Valencia</cite>, 1607), p. 485.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> <cite>Hist. de la Nouvelle France</cite>, lib. i, cap. iii, p.
-        25. Paris, 1611.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> <cite>Historia General de los Hechos de los
-        Castellanos</cite>, Madrid, 1728–30, fol. decada 1, lib. i, cap. vi.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> <cite>Historia de la Conquista Itza</cite>, p. 27, Madrid,
-        1701, fol.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="es">
-      <a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Aunque la verdad es que ellos, por hablar mas
-        propriamente y los otros de quien descendieron, por Generacion
-        Natural, son de los Hijos de Noé * * * y segun lo que tenemos dicho,
-        en otra parte, acerca de el color de estas gentes, no tendria por cosa
-        descaminada, creer que son descendientes de los Hijos, u Nietos de
-        Cham, tercero Hijo de Noé.—<cite>Monarquia Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 30.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Pineda in <cite>Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin</cite>, 1852, p. 343;
-        see tradition of Votan, this work, chap. v.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. iv, p. 17; cited by
-        Bancroft.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> <cite>Historia del origen de pentes que poblaron la America
-        Septentrional que llaman la Nueva España con noticia de los primeros
-        que establecieron la Monarquia, que en ella florecio de la Nacion
-        Tolteca, y noticias que alcanzaron de la creacion del Mundo</cite> (date
-        at end of first vol. 1755, and end of third 1780), <cite>por M. Fer. de
-        Echevarria y Veitia</cite>, pp. 24–30, chap, i, tom. i, MS. Three vols.
-        folio, in Library of Congress at Washington. About one-fourth of the
-        work is published in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, tom. viii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> <cite>Historia</cite>, cap. xii, tom. i, p. 92, MS.; of
-        Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, tom. viii, p. 189.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> <cite>Noticias Americanas</cite>, pp. 391–5, 405–7. Cited by
-        Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 10.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 11.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol. i, p. 26. But what else could be
-        expected of the editor of that curiosity of Americo-Germanic literature
-        executed by some German school-boy and unearthed in the Arsenal Library
-        at Paris, entitled <cite>Manuscript Pictographique Américain précédé d’une
-        notice sur l’Ideographie des Peaux-Rouges</cite>, par l’Abbé Em. Domenech,
-        Paris, 1860. Published under the auspices of the Minister of State and
-        of the Emperor Napoleon III. See also <cite>Le Livre des Sauvages au Point
-        de Vue de la Civilization Française</cite>, Brussels, 1861. The internal
-        evidences of this remarkable MS. being the work of a German boy are
-        plain to any one having the slightest knowledge of the German language.
-        How the Abbé and the Emperor could have been so blinded to its real
-        character we cannot imagine; however, it would be unfair to leave the
-        impression that, because of the theory of Ophir’s colonization and
-        because of this literary blunder, the Abbé’s work entitled <cite>Seven
-        Years’ Residence in the Great Deserts of North America</cite> is without
-        value. On the contrary, it contains much useful information. The
-        following passage occurs on p. 66 of the above work: “The most careful
-        study concerning the origin of the red-skins, made on the spot,
-        has confirmed us in the belief that there is nothing in science to
-        contradict the Bible, which represents Adam as the sole stock whence
-        sprung the three great races which form the principal types of the
-        human family.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. iv, p. 15. We quote
-        the following from the translation by Cullan, London, 1807: “We do
-        not doubt that the population of America has been very ancient, and
-        more so than it may seem to have been to European authors: 1. Because
-        the Americans wanted those arts and inventions, such, for example,
-        as those of wax and oil for light, which on the one hand being very
-        ancient in Europe and Asia, are on the other most useful, not to say
-        necessary, and when once discovered are never forgotten. 2. Because the
-        polished nations of the new world, and particularly those of Mexico,
-        preserve in their traditions and in their paintings the memory of the
-        creation of the world and of the building of the Tower of Babel, the
-        confusion of languages and the dispersion of the people, though blended
-        with some fables, and had no knowledge of the events which happened
-        afterwards in Asia, in Africa, or in Europe, although many of them
-        were so great and remarkable that they could not easily have gone from
-        their memories. 3. Because neither was there among the Americans any
-        knowledge of the people of the old continent, nor among the latter any
-        account of the passage of the former to the new world.” He then cites
-        Votan. See further on early views, Gottfried Wagner’s <cite>De Originibus
-        Amer. Disertatio Lipsiæ</cite>, 1669; Hugo Grotius’s <cite>Dissertatio de
-        Origine Gentium Americanorum Amstelodami</cite>, 1642; Jean De Laet’s
-        <cite>Notæ ad Diss. H. Grotii de Originine Gent. Americ.</cite>, 1643; Jean
-        De Laet’s <cite>Responsio ad H. Grotii Diss. de Origine Gent. Americ.</cite>,
-        1644; Poisson’s <cite>Animadrersiones in Originem Peruvianorum et
-        Mexicanorum</cite>, Parisiis, 1644; Georgius Hornius’s <cite>De Originibus
-        Americanis Hagæ</cite>, 1652; Rocha’s <cite>Tratado Unico y Singulare del
-        Origin de los Indios Occidentales, del Peru, Mexico, Santa Fe, y
-        Chile</cite>; Lima, 1681; Engel’s <cite>Essai sur Cette Question: Comment
-        l’Amérique est-elle été Peuplée d’Hommes et d’Ammaux</cite>, Amsterdam,
-        1767; Corn. De Pauw’s <cite>Recherche sur l’Amérique et les Americans</cite>,
-        Berlin, 1774; Vater’s <cite>Untersuchungen über America’s Bevölkerung aus
-        dem alten Continent</cite>, Leipzig, 1810.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> D. B. Warden’s <cite>Recherches sur les Antiquités de
-        l’Amérique du Nord</cite>, in <cite>Antiquités Mexicaines</cite>, tom. ii, div.
-        ii. Paris, 1834, quarto.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, chap. i. The literary
-        apparatus contained in the notes accompanying the chapter is remarkably
-        full and valuable.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> “I know of no man better qualified than was Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg, to penetrate the obscurity of American primitive history.
-        His familiarity with the Nahua and Central American languages, his
-        indefatigable industry and general erudition, rendered him eminently
-        fit for the task, and every word written by such a man on such a
-        subject is entitled to respectful consideration. Nevertheless there
-        is reason to believe that the Abbé was often rapt away from the truth
-        by the excess of enthusiasm, and the reader of his wild and fanciful
-        speculations cannot but regret that he has not the opportunity or the
-        ability to criticise by comparison the French savant’s interpretation
-        of the original documents.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>, p. 127.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> The work in which he repudiates his first interpretation
-        of the Codex Chimalpopoca, and in which he advocates the allegorical
-        meaning together with the theory of Atlantis, is entitled <cite>Quatre
-        Lettres sur le Mexique</cite>, Paris, 1868.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> This work, p. 135.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Among these we may cite Adair’s <cite>History of the
-        American Indians</cite>; Jones’ <cite>History of Ancient America</cite>;
-        Giordan’s <cite>Tehuantepec</cite>; Rossi’s <cite>Souvenirs d’un Voyage en
-        Orégon</cite>, pp. 276–7; Ethan Smith’s <cite>Views of the Hebrews</cite>;
-        Thorowgood’s <cite>Jewes in America</cite>; Domenech’s <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol.
-        i, and Simon’s <cite>Ten Tribes</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, London, 1831–48, 9 vols.
-        imperial folio.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> The tablets remained in their place of concealment until
-        discovered by Joseph Smith, September 22, 1827. Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, p. 97 <i>et seq.</i> (from which we draw the above), has
-        translated a full account of this wonderful claim from Bertrand’s
-        <cite>Memoirs</cite>, pp. 32 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Pineda’s <cite>De Rebus Solomonis</cite>, but especially
-        Horn’s <cite>De Origine Gentium Americanarum</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Some of these features will receive attention in a
-        following chapter.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Hudson’s <cite>Geographiæ Veteris Scriptores Græci
-        Minores</cite>, 1698–1712, 8vo, and Rev. Thos. Falconer’s <cite>Voyage of
-        Hanno</cite>, translated, etc., Oxford, 1797, 8vo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, p. 66.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Chap. V.; see Tradition and Literature.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> By George Jones, R. S. I.; M. F. S. V., etc.; dedicated
-        by permission to the Archbishop of Canterbury and to Frederick William
-        the Fourth, King of Prussia. London, 1843.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> Mr. Jones states in his preface that to furnish a
-        list of the works from which he drew his material would be pedantic,
-        and adds: “Yet being professedly an original work, the volume of the
-        brain has been more largely extracted from than any writer whose works
-        are already before that public—to whose final judgment (upon its
-        merits or demerits) the present author submits the first history of
-        ancient America with all humility; but he will yield to none in the
-        conscientious belief in the truth of the startling propositions and the
-        consequent conclusions.” With such convictions there is no opportunity
-        for unbiased investigation.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> <cite>Traditions of Decoodah and Antiquarian
-        Researches</cite>, p. 16. New York, 1858, 8vo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains Comparées aux Mœurs
-        des Premiers Temps.</cite> Paris, 1724.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, p. 122; the Abbé
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg’s discovery of the Greek Gods in America
-        (<cite>Landa, Relacion</cite>, pp. lxx–lxxx) will be considered further on.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, pp. 55 <i>et seq.</i>;
-        M’Culloch’s <cite>Researches</cite>, pp. 171–2; Mayer’s <cite>Mexico as it
-        Was</cite>, p. 186; Humboldt’s <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 120–4, and
-        Stephen’s <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, p. 441; Jones’ <cite>Hist. Anc.
-        Am.</cite>, pp. 122 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Delafield’s <cite>Inquiry into the Origin of the
-        Antiquities of America</cite>, Cincinnati, 1839, quarto.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 54. In a note an
-        excellent collection of authorities is quoted.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Colonel Kennon in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 65 <i>et
-        seq.</i> Also C. W. Brooks on Japanese Race in Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 51.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> In <cite>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles
-        Lettres</cite>, vol. xxviii, 1761.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> English by Chas. G. Leland: <cite>Fusang, or the Chinese
-        Discovery of America</cite>, 1875. New York.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 34, note,
-        says: “A Chinese <i>li</i> is about one-third of a mile”—English,
-        we suppose, but upon what authority we are unable to say. Klaproth
-        adopted 850 <i>li</i> to a degree, while D’Eichthal fixes it at 400 to
-        a degree in the sixth century, though at present it is 250 <i>li</i>
-        to a degree. Deguignes’ <cite>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptiones et
-        Belles Lettres</cite>, vol. xxviii, 1761, and Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 128 and 140.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 25 <i>et seq.</i> This
-        translation was revised by Professor Neumann himself, and is more
-        literal than that by Klaproth.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Klaproth’s <cite>Recherches</cite>, in <cite>Nouvelles Annales
-        des Voyages</cite>, 1831, tom. li, pp. 57 <i>et seq.</i> Humboldt’s
-        <cite>Examen Critique</cite>, tom. xi, pp. 65–6.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Sr. Jose Perez in <cite>Revue Orientale et Américaine</cite>,
-        No. 4, pp. 189–195.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Dr. E. Bretschneider in the fifth number of the
-        <cite>Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal</cite>, vol. iii, published
-        at Foochow, October 1870. The article entitled <cite>Fusang, or Who
-        Discovered America</cite>, is copied in full in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>,
-        pp. 165 <i>et seq.</i> See also Dr. Neumann’s <cite>Ost-Asien und West
-        Amerika</cite>; in <cite>Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Erdkunde</cite> for April,
-        1864. See <cite>D’Eichthal</cite> in <cite>Revue Archéologique</cite>, 1862, vol.
-        ii, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 33 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> The strongest proof upon which the Chinese theory rests
-        is that of physical resemblance, which on the extreme north-western
-        coast of America is very marked. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 37.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> John Ranking’s <cite>Historical Researches on the Conquest
-        of Peru, Mexico, etc., by the Mongols</cite>, London, 1827.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 44–50,
-        contains a good review, but Ranking himself must be examined to be appreciated.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 40 <i>et seq.</i>,
-        gives a brief review. The subject will be fully treated in its proper place.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> In the Landnama-book, No. 107, is found a narrative of
-        <span class="smcap">Are Marson</span>, in Hvitramanna Land. Prof. Rafn (<cite>Antiquitates
-        Americanæ</cite>, pp. 210 <i>et seq.</i>), translates it as follows:
-        <span lang="la">“Ulvus Strabo, filius Högnii Albi, totum occupavit Reykjanesum inter
-        Thorskafjördum et Hafrafellum; uxorem habuit Bjargam, filiam Eyvindi
-        Œstmanni, sororem Helgii Marci. Eorum filius Atlius Rufus, qui uxorem
-        habuit Thorbjargam, sororem Steinolvi Humilis; horum filius erat Mar de
-        Reykholis, qui uxorem habuit Thorkatlam, filiam Hergilsis Hnapprassi
-        (natibus globosis). Eorum filius fuit Arius, qui tempestate delatus est
-        ad Hvitramannalandiam (Terram alborum hominum), quam nonnulli Irlandiam
-        Magnum appellant, qui in oceano occidentali jacet prope Vinlandiam
-        Bonam, sex dierum navigatione versus occidentem ab Irlanda.”</span> On
-        Hvitramannaland, see <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, pp. 162, 163, 183,
-        210, 212, 214, 447, 448, and De Costa’s <cite>Pre-Columbian Discovery of
-        America</cite>, pp. lii, 86, 63, 70, 87, 88.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> <cite>Monastikon Britannicum</cite>, pp. 131–2, 187–8. Cited
-        by De Costa, <cite>Pre-Col. Dis. of Am.</cite>, p. xviii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> On this subject see Brasseur de Bourbourg in the 16th
-        vol. of the sixth series of <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</cite>, pp.
-        263, 281–9; also 3d vol. of same work, sixth series, 1855, pp. 156–7,
-        and in <cite>New York Tribune</cite> for November 21, 1855.
-    </div>
-
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands an X<sup>e</sup>
-        siècle, par Gabriel Gravier</cite>, Paris, 1864, 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <cite>America Not Discovered by Columbus</cite>, by R. B.
-        Anderson, Chicago, 1874, 16mo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Gravier, <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique</cite>, p. 235, quotes
-        Dr. Schuck as authority, <cite>Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</cite>,
-        1840–43, pp. 26–7; also 1844, p. 181.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> Hakluyt’s <cite>Principal Navigations, Voyages, etc.</cite>,
-        vol. iii, pp. 1 <i>et seq.</i>; see a good discussion of the Welsh
-        claim in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 116 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> “I think, therefore (as mentioned before), we do not at
-        all derogate from God’s greatness, nor in any ways dishonor the sacred
-        evidence given us by His servants, when we think that there were as
-        many Adams and Eves (every one knows these names to have an allegorical
-        sense), as we find different species of the human genus * * * * God
-        has created an original pair here as well as elsewhere.”—<cite>Roman’s
-        Concise Nat. Hist. of E. and W. Florida</cite>, p. 55, New York, 1775. “We
-        will candidly confess that we could never understand why philosophers
-        have been so pre-disposed to advocate the theory which peoples America
-        from the Eastern hemisphere. We think the supposition that the Red
-        man is a primitive type of a family of the human race, originally
-        planted in the Western Continent, presents the most natural solution
-        of the problem; and that the researches of physiologists, antiquaries,
-        philologists and philosophers in general, tend irresistibly to this
-        conclusion.”—<cite>Norman’s Rambles in Yucatan</cite>, p. 251, New York,
-        1843, 8vo. “My own belief is that, whatever was the origin of the
-        different tribes or families, the whole race of American Indians
-        are native and indigenous to the soil. There is no proof that they
-        are either the lost tribes of Israel or emigrants from any part of
-        the old world. They are a separate and as distinct a race as either
-        the Ethiopian, Caucasian, or Mongolian. In the absence of all proof
-        to the contrary, it seems to me to be both rational and consistent
-        to assume that the Creator placed the Red race on the American
-        Continent as early as He created the beasts and reptiles that inhabit
-        it.”—<cite>Swan’s North-west Coast</cite>, p. 206, New York, 1857. <span lang="fr">“Dieu a
-        créé plusieurs couples d’êtres humains différant les uns des autres
-        intérieurement et extérieurement; chacun de des couples a été placé
-        dans le climat approprié à son organisation.”</span>—<cite>Lord Kames in Warden’s
-        Recherches</cite>, p. 203.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> The reader who has not given special attention to this
-        phase of the subject, will be surprised to learn how generally received
-        has been the autochthonic theory among writers in this field. Mr.
-        Bancroft has given several quotations to illustrate this fact. See
-        Morelet’s <cite>Voyage</cite>, vol. i, p. 177, Paris, 1857; Evens’ <cite>Our
-        Sister Republic</cite>, p. 332; Catlin’s <cite>North American Indians</cite>,
-        vol. ii, p. 232. We prepared extracts for insertion at this point, but
-        the limit of our space will not permit a full consideration of the
-        question.
-
-      <p>Mr. Bancroft says of the theory, “If we may judge by the recent
-        results of scientific investigation, [it] may eventually prove to
-        be scientifically correct. To express belief, however, in a theory
-        incapable of proof, appears to me idle. Indeed such belief is not
-        belief, it is merely acquiescing in or accepting a hypothesis or
-        tradition until the contrary is proved.”—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v,
-        pp. 130–1.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 260. Philadelphia, 1839.
-        Folio.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Dr. Morton gives the following comparative table showing
-        the internal capacity and dimensions of the crania of different races:
-
-      <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Crania of different races">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th rowspan="5" class="bt bb bl br">RACES.</th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Skulls.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Mean Internal Capacity in cubic in.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Largest in the Series.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Smallest in<br />the Series.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Caucasian</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>52</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>87</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>109</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl br"><div>75</div></td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Mongolian</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>83</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>93</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl br"><div>69</div></td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Malay</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>81</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>89</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl br"><div>64</div></td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">American</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>147</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>82</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>100</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl br"><div>60</div></td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl bb">Ethiopian</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>29</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>78</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>94</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>65</div></td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> After presenting several arguments together with
-        accompanying proofs, Agassiz says: “This coincidence between the
-        circumscription of the races of man and the natural limits of different
-        zoological provinces characterized by peculiar distinct species of
-        animals, is one of the most important and unexpected features in
-        the Natural History of Mankind, which the study of the geographical
-        distribution of all the organized beings now existing upon earth has
-        disclosed to us. It is a fact which cannot fail to throw light at some
-        future time upon the very origin of the differences existing among
-        men, since it shows that man’s physical nature is modified by the same
-        laws as that of animals, and that any general results obtained from
-        the animal kingdom regarding the organic differences of its various
-        types must also apply to man. Now there are only two alternatives
-        before us at present: 1st. Either mankind originated from a common
-        stock, and all the different races with their peculiarities, in their
-        present distribution, are to be ascribed to subsequent changes—an
-        assumption for which there is no evidence whatever, and leads at once
-        to the admission that the diversity among animals is not an original
-        one, nor their distribution determined by a general plan established
-        in the beginning of the creation; or 2d, we must acknowledge that
-        the diversity among animals is a fact determined by the will of the
-        Creator, and their geographical distribution part of the general plan
-        which unites all organized beings into one great organic conception;
-        whence it follows that what are called human races down to their
-        specializations as nations are distinct primordial forms of the type of
-        man.” * * * He concludes in these words: “The laws which regulate the
-        diversity of animals and their distribution upon earth apply equally
-        to man <em>within the same limits and in the same degree</em>; and all
-        our liberty and moral responsibility, however spontaneous, are yet
-        instinctively directed by the All-wise and Omnipotent to fulfill the
-        great harmonies established in Nature.”—<cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, pp.
-        lxxv and lxxvi.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Agassiz in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>,
-        p. 78.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> <cite>Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals</cite>,
-        p. 420. N. Y., 1872.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> Note to Retzius’ article in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>,
-        1859, p. 264.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> As an illustration of complex classification, we have
-        the following: “From an old and well-filled European graveyard may be
-        selected specimens of <i>klimocephalic</i> (slope or saddle skull),
-        <i>conocephalic</i> (cone-skull), <i>brachycephalic</i> (short-skull),
-        <i>dolichocephalic</i> (long-skull), <i>platycephalic</i> (flat-skull),
-        <i>leptocephalic</i> (slim-skull), and other forms of crania equally
-        worthy of penta or hexa-syllabic Greek epithets.”—<i>Owen (R.)</i>,
-        <i>Anatomy of Vertebrates</i>, vol. ii, p. 570. London, 1866, 8vo.
-        Foster, in <i>Pre-Historic Rates of the United States</i>, in addition
-        to the long and short skulls, adopts also the <i>orthocephalic</i>
-        (erect-head), with the longitudinal diameter 100; he assumes the
-        transverse diameter for dolichocephalæ to be less than 73; for
-        orthocephalæ, to range between 74 and 79, and for brachycephalæ, 80 and upwards.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, chap. xx. 3d ed. London, 1876.
-        2 vols. 8vo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Dr. Wilson’s <cite>American Cranial Type</cite> in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, pp. 250 <i>et seq.</i> Dr. Wilson
-        clearly shows that in one set there is the characteristic Mongol
-        auxiliary of prominent cheek bones, while in the other the bones of
-        the face are small and delicate. In twenty-six measurements he finds
-        proof that the Peruvians were distinct from the Mexicans. Thirty-one
-        dolichocephalic crania as compared with twenty-two brachycephalic
-        crania convince him of the error of Morton and establish a diversity
-        among the tribes of the North-east. He thinks analogies are traceable
-        between the Esquimaux and the type of elongated skull; at all events he
-        is satisfied that the form of the skull is as little constant among the
-        tribes of the new world as among those of the old.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> This author (Dr. Morton), who has given us such numerous
-        and valuable facts, as well as the linguists who have studied these
-        American languages with indefatigable zeal, have arrived at the
-        conclusion that both race and language in the new world are unique. I
-        am obliged to avow that the facts advanced by Morton himself, and that
-        the study of numerous skulls with which he has enriched the museum of
-        Stockholm, have conducted me to a wholly different result. I can only
-        explain the fact by surmising that this remarkable man has allowed the
-        views of the naturalist to be warped by his linguistic researches. For,
-        if the form of the skull has anything to do with the question of races,
-        we cannot fail to see that it is scarcely possible to find anywhere
-        a more distinct distribution into dolichocephalæ and brachycephalæ
-        than in America. It would be only necessary, in order to show this, to
-        direct attention to certain of the delineations in his own work, where
-        the skull of the Peruvian infant (Pl. 2), the Lenni-Lenape (Pl. 32),
-        the Pawnee (Pl. 38), the Blackfoot (Pl. 40), etc., as clearly present
-        the dolichocephalic form as on the other hand his Natchez (Pl. 30 and
-        31) and the greater part of his representations of the skulls of Chile,
-        Peru, Mexico, Oregon, etc., are distinct types of the brachycephalic.
-        Conclusive, however, as the plates are, I should scarcely have ventured
-        to advance these remarks, if the rich series of our own collection, and
-        the numerous and excellent figures of Blumenbach, Sandifort, Van der
-        Hoeven, etc., did not declare in favor of my opinion. (<cite>Retzius</cite>
-        in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 264.)
-
-      <p>Latham, in <cite>Natural History of the Varieties of Man</cite>, p. 452,
-        says: “As to the conformation of the skull, a point where (with
-        great deference) I differ with the author of the excellent <cite>Crania
-        Americana</cite>, the Americans are said to be <i>brakhy</i>-kephalic,
-        the Eskimo <i>dolikho</i>-kephalic.” He quotes Morton’s tables to
-        contradict his (Morton’s) conclusions.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> “Tried by Dr. Morton’s own definitions and
-        illustrations, the Scioto Mound skull differs from the typical
-        cranium in some of its most characteristic features. Instead of the
-        low, receding, unarched forehead, it has a finely-arched frontal
-        bone with corresponding breadth of forehead. The wedge-shaped vertex
-        is replaced by a well-rounded arch curving equally throughout; and
-        with the exception of the flattened occiput, due to artificial
-        though probably undesigned compression in infancy, the cranium
-        is a uniformly proportioned example of an extreme brachycephalic
-        skull.”—<cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 127.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> Chapter II, p. 127.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Henry Gillman, <cite>The Ancient Men of the Great
-        Lakes</cite>, in <cite>Proceedings of the American Association for the
-        Advancement of Science</cite>, 24th meeting, at Detroit, 1875, p. 317;
-        also <cite>American Journal of Arts and Science</cite>, 1874, vol. cvii, p. 1
-        <i>et seq.</i>, and <cite>Sixth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 12–20.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Opportunity did not permit to obtain the exact
-        (absolute) capacity.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Artificially perforated.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Very retreating frontal.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Very protuberant occipital.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Artificially perforated.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> With epactal bone 1.5 in length. It may be interesting
-        to mention that I find occasionally in our mounds a tendency to the
-        formation of the epactal bone by a sudden approach of the sutures
-        immediately below the apex of the occipital—a sort of transitional state.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> <cite>Recent Explorations of Mounds near Davenport,
-        Iowa</cite>, in <cite>Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement
-        of Science</cite>, 24th meeting, 1875, pp. 297 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Dr. Farquharson considers that some of his measurements
-        in inches are scarcely accurate enough, and gives the following table
-        in the decimals of a metre:
-
-      <div class="center xsmall mt1">MEASUREMENTS OF MOUND SKULLS; ALSO OF SIOUX SKULLS IN DECIMALS OF A METRE.</div>
-
-      <div class="center xxsmall mt1">FORAMINAL DISTANCE TAKEN WITH WYMAN’S INSTRUMENT.</div>
-
-      <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Measurements of mound skulls">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th rowspan="10" class="bt bb bl br"><i>No.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Circumference.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Long Diameter.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Transverse Diameter.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity in Cubic Centimetres.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Foraminal Distance.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Foraminal Ratio.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Ratio of Diameter.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bb bl">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Mounds.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.546</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.120</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1190</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.600</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.483</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.162</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1190</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.062</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.382</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.790</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.495</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.174</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1020</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.077</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.442</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.752</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.125</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.823</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.495</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.175</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1249</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.065</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.370</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.771</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Davenport, Mound No. 9.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.171</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1334</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.062</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.362</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.818</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.167</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.148</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.070</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.419</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.886</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.145</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1362</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.833</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.457</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.167</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1021</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.766</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.522</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1362</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.089</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.427</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.702</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>14</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.483</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.171</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.138</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1192</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.079</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.460</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.807</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.138</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.145</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1306</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.081</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.443</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.745</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.457</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.078</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.448</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.764</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>17</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.146</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>1249</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.072</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.389</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.703</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>19</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.196</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.704</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>20</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.640</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>21</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.137</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.761</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>23</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.178</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.073</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.410</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.730</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>24</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.184</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.139</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.088</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.478</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.755</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>26</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Shell Bed, Rock Island.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>27</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.482</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.125</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>936</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.076</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.388</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.735</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>28</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.177</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl"><div>.762</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>29</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.507</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.177</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.130</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.145</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1137</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.088</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.440</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.734</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br bb">Albany, Ill.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.503</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.179</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.134</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.140</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1188</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.075</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.432</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.755</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br bb">Mean.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>18</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>24</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>22</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>21</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>14</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>14</div></td>
-            <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>22</div></td>
-            <td class="tdlh bl br bb">No. of skulls measured.</td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Dr. Jones found skeletons six feet, and in one instance
-        seven feet in length. (<cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, pp. 44 and 53.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 72; also note other
-        similarities on p. 119.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> <cite>Ancient Men of the Great Lakes.</cite> <cite>Proceedings
-        of the American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>, meeting of
-        1875, pp. 322–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xx, pp. 145,
-        158, 165.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> The Aztecs are represented in our museum by three
-        skulls found in an ancient cemetery near Mexico, which was uncovered
-        in digging intrenchments to protect the Mexican capital against the
-        armies of the United States. They are remarkable for the shortness
-        of their axis, large flattened occiput, obliquely truncated behind,
-        the height of the semicircular line of the temples, the shortness and
-        trapezoid form of the parietal plane. They present an elevation or
-        ridge along the sagittal suture; the base of the skull is very short,
-        the face slightly prognathic, as among the Mongol Kalmucs. (Retzius in
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 268.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 98.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> See Dr. Morton in <cite>Nott &amp; Gliddon</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xx.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> See especially <cite>Eleventh Annual Report Peabody
-        Museum</cite>, pp. 294–304.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> <cite>Geography</cite>, book i, chap. ii, § 35, and book xi,
-        chap, xi, § 7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> <cite>Natural History</cite>, book vii, chap. iv.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> <cite>De Situ Orbis</cite>, lib. i, chap. xix, l. 78 (ed.
-        1782).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> <cite>Description of a Deformed Fragmentary Skull found
-        in an Ancient Quarry-cave at Jerusalem</cite>, by Dr. J. A. Meigs,
-        <cite>Transactions of Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences</cite>, 1859.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> We can no longer doubt, then, that this practice of
-        giving an artificial form to the skull has subsisted from a remote
-        epoch among the Oriental nations. As Thierry, moreover, pronounces
-        it to be a Mongol usage, I have submitted the question in the memoir
-        before spoken of, whether this fact does not speak in favor of an
-        ancient communication between the old and the new world? Such a
-        communication seems, indeed, to be now placed beyond doubt by the
-        proofs which have been accumulated from time to time, through the
-        efforts of numerous and zealous inquirers. It would seem likely that
-        the usage in question has been introduced by the Mongols into America,
-        where it has become diffused even among tribes not of the Mongol
-        stock. (Retzius in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 270; also the
-        same author in <cite>Arch. des Sciences Naturelles</cite>, Geneva, 1860;
-        <cite>Proceedings of American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>,
-        1867, and <cite>Edinburgh Phil. Journal</cite>, new series, vol. vii.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, p. 286.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> <cite>Essai sur les Deformations Artificielles du
-        Crâne</cite>, p. 74.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> <cite>Crania Britannica</cite>, chap. iv, p. 38.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> Retzius, <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, pp. 269–70.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Prof. Wilson, <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 221,
-        and Retzius in the Reviews referred to in note 1, p. 180.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> J. B. Davis in <cite>Crania Britannica</cite>, decade iii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> <cite>Races of Man</cite> (Bohn), p. 45; Dr. Nott in <cite>Types
-        of Mankind</cite>, p. 436; Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol ii, p. 221.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, p. 291.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Du Pratz’s <cite>History of Louisiana</cite>, vol. ii, p. 162.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Adair’s <cite>History of American Indians</cite>, p. 284.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> On skull flattening, see Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic
-        Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xxi. Prof. Jones’ <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee,
-        Smithsonian Contributions</cite>, 1876, pp. 118 <i>et seq.</i> Landa’s
-        <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 181. Catlin’s <cite>North American Indians</cite>,
-        vol. ii, p. 40 and other places. Townsend’s <cite>Tour to the Columbia
-        River</cite>, pp. 178 <i>et seq.</i> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite> as
-        follows: I, 151, 158, 180, 210, 226–8, 256–7; Among the Mexicans, I,
-        651; II, 281; Central Americans, I, 717, 754; II, 681–2, 731–2, 802;
-        IV, 304, and the accompanying literary apparatus.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> “This is certainly not a common disease now, and
-        although rare, the instances of cure by bony anchylosis (the only way
-        in which a true cure can take place), are even yet more rare. Nelaton,
-        in his <cite>Pathologie Chirurgicale</cite>, has only been able to note
-        twenty-five recorded cases of such an event. Now, as the space of one
-        year is the shortest possible time allowed by authorities for such
-        a cure to take place, and as during all this time the parts must be
-        kept absolutely at rest, and the person so afflicted being entirely
-        helpless, the inference is a strong one that these people were not in
-        a savage state. They must necessarily have been in such a state, in
-        the progress of advancement in civilization, as to be possessed of an
-        accumulation of food, the requisite leisure of persons nursing the
-        sick, and of dwellings sufficiently comfortable to protect them from
-        inclemency of the weather in this latitude; without those elements of
-        civilization those persons would inevitably have perished.”—<cite>Dr.
-        Farquharson in Proceedings of Am. Association for Advancement of
-        Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, p. 314.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> Prof. Jones, <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, gives a
-        good summary of the discussion from the first writers to the present
-        time, p. 65 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> “This flattening of the leg-bone was of a degree unheard
-        of—I might almost say undreamt of—in any other part of this country
-        or of the world. In many of the more extreme cases of those flattened
-        tibiæ with sabre-like curvature which I had exhumed at the Rouge, the
-        transverse diameter was only 0.48 of the antero-posterior, less than
-        half, while in that most marked and isolated case recorded by Broca,
-        from the cave at Cro-Magnon, France, it was 0.60. In the chimpanzee
-        and gorilla the compression is 0.67. Shortly afterward, even this
-        extreme degree of compression was cast in the shade by my bringing
-        to light from a mound on the Detroit River, rich in relics, among a
-        number of the flattened tibiæ, two specimens of this bone in which
-        the latitudinal indices were respectively 0.42 and 0.40.”—<cite>Henry
-        Gillman</cite> in <cite>Proceedings American Association for Advancement of
-        Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, pp. 316–17. <cite>The Sixth Annual Report of the
-        Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology, Dr. Jeffries Wyman.</cite>
-        <cite>The American Journal of Arts and Sciences</cite>, 3d series, vol. vii,
-        January 1874. <cite>Gillman</cite> in <cite>Smithsonian Report for 1873</cite>, and
-        <cite>Dr. Farquharson</cite> in <cite>Proceedings of A. A. A. S.</cite>, vol. xxiv,
-        p. 313. 1875.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Gillman in <cite>American Naturalist</cite> for August, 1875,
-        and <cite>Proceedings of A. A. A. Science</cite>, 1875, p. 327.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Prof. Wilson has pathetically described the disinterment
-        of a Peruvian family, consisting of the father, mother and child,
-        and has especially dwelt upon the color and qualities of the hair as
-        distinguishing them from the Red Indians. (<cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, pp.
-        440 <i>et seq.</i>)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> <cite>Commentarios Reales</cite>, book v, chap. xxix; book
-        iii, chap. xx.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Haywood’s <cite>Natural and Aboriginal History of
-        Tennessee</cite>, p. 191.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Haywood, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 163–6, 169, 100,
-        148–9, 338–9. On the mummies of Lexington, Kentucky, see Atwater’s
-        <cite>Archæologia Americana</cite>, p. 318. Mammoth Cave, p. 359, <i>et
-        passim</i>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> Squier and Davis’ <cite>Ancient Monuments of Mississippi
-        Valley</cite>, pp. 243 <i>et seq.</i> Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic
-        Man</cite>, vol. i, pp. 365 <i>et seq.</i> Charles Rau, <cite>Smithsonian
-        Contributions No. 287</cite>, 1876, pp. 84, 55. Prof. Joseph Jones’
-        <cite>Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee</cite>, <i>passim</i>, <cite>Smithsonian
-        Contributions</cite>, No. 259.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Bryant’s <cite>History of United States</cite>, vol. i, chap.
-        ii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Prichard, <cite>Researches into the Physical Hist. of
-        Mankind</cite>, 4th ed., 1841, vol. i, p. 269, after reviewing the
-        question of the unity of the American race, remarks: “It will be easy
-        to prove that the American races, instead of displaying a uniformity of
-        color in all climates, show nearly as great a variety in this respect
-        as the nations of the old continent; that there are among them white
-        races with a florid complexion inhabiting temperate regions, and tribes
-        black or of very dark hue in low and inter-tropical countries; that
-        their stature, figure and countenances are almost equally diversified.
-        Of these facts I shall collect sufficient evidence when I proceed to
-        the ethnography of the American nations.” He fulfils this promise ably
-        enough in vol. v, pp. 289, 374, 542, and other places. We respectfully
-        refer the reader to the facts there accumulated.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 189.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> See Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 262, note, where reference is
-        made to Charnay, <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 32, 45, 97, 103.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> <cite>The American Migration</cite>, by Frederick von
-        Hellwald. <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1866, pp. 329, 330.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> Jean Lamarck, <cite>Philosophic Zoologique</cite>, etc.,
-        Paris, 1809, 2 vols., and <cite>Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertebres</cite>, 1815.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> See Hæckel, <cite>History of Creation</cite>, vol. ii, pp.
-        255–6, and Professor Huxley’s reference to the genus <i>Equus</i>
-        (embracing the horse, ass and zebra from specimens collected by Prof.
-        Marsh). New York Lectures, September, 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Dr. McCosh in <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, November,
-        1876, p. 88; Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 192 (New York ed.).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1866.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 188. Also, “The
-        Simiadæ then branched off into two great stems, the new world and old
-        world monkeys, and from the latter, at a remote period, man, the wonder
-        and glory of the universe, proceeded.”—<cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol.
-        i, p. 204. Again, “We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy
-        quadruped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in
-        its habits and an inhabitant of the old world.”—<cite>Descent of Man</cite>,
-        vol. ii, p. 372.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> <cite>History of Creation</cite>, (N. Y. ed.), 1876, vol. ii,
-        p. 318.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> “Nowhere can lines of demarcation be so clearly
-        drawn, so imperceptibly do the families of mankind blend at their
-        circumferences. The various classifications which have been attempted
-        are so many proofs of unity of origin; and their confliction shows
-        the fallacy of the theory of diversity. * * * * We cannot admit that
-        mankind can have diversity of origin while so united by one great
-        plan. If a species or variety of the <i>genus homo</i> sprang up in
-        Europe and another in America by agency of conditions existing in
-        those localities, it would be beyond probability that they should both
-        be formed on the same plan.”—<cite>H. Tuttle’s Origin and Antiquity of
-        Physical Man Scientifically Considered</cite>, pp. 34–5. Boston, 1866, 12mo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 224, and
-        Nilsson’s <cite>The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia</cite>, Lubbock’s
-        trans., 1868, p. 104.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> See <cite>Early History of Fire</cite>, by Prof. N. Joly of
-        the Faculty of Toulouse in <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, November,
-        1876, p. 17; also Darwin, as above cited.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Waitz’s <cite>Anthropology</cite>, Eng. trans., pp. 226–28.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Pallas was the first to show the fallacy of the theory
-        in <cite>Act. Académie St. Petersburg</cite>, 1780, Part II, p. 69; followed
-        by Rudolphi in his <cite>Beyträge zur Anthropologia</cite>, 1812, and
-        especially by Godron, <cite>De l’Espèce</cite>, 1859, vol. ii, p. 246 <i>et
-        seq.</i>; see Darwin’s <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 232.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indigenous Races</cite>; Duke of
-        Argyll’s <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 99.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 100.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> “We ourselves, when visiting the famous cavern of
-        Abou Simbel, were far from finding all that the writings of certain
-        anthropologists and partisans of Egyptian art, such as Gliddon, Nott,
-        etc., had promised us. Doubtless one can perfectly distinguish certain
-        types, that is indisputable; but to desire to find <em>a people</em> in
-        each portrait—Scythians, Arabs, Philistines, Lydians, Kurds, Hindoos,
-        Jews, Chinese, Tyrians, Pelasgians, Ionians, etc.—is it not to give too
-        great an influence to the Egyptian artists, who were copyists without
-        skill, and but clumsy inventors?”—<cite>Pouchet’s Plurality of the Human
-        Race</cite>, Eng. trans., p. 50. London, 1864.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> Duke of Argyll’s <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 101.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Darwin’s <cite>Variation of Animals under
-        Domestication</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 227–335, and many places.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Harlan’s <cite>Medical Researches</cite>, p. 532, and
-        <cite>Quatrefanges</cite> (<cite>Unité de l’Espèce Humaine</cite>, 1861, p. 128),
-        cited by Darwin, <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 237.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 233, Bradford (A. W.)
-        discusses the origin of color and other racial peculiarities, and
-        attributes to the tendency of a species to vary, and cites the
-        production of Albinoes, Xanthous, and Sedigidi or six-fingered
-        individuals. “It must be admitted,” he says, “that this theory is
-        sufficiently supported by an irrefragable mass of testimony to
-        establish the <em>original unity</em> of the human race, and to indicate
-        that varieties of mankind are descended from the same primitive
-        stock.”—<cite>American Antiquities</cite>, pp. 238–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> See instances in Darwin’s <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p.
-        234; Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 68, and especially
-        Pouchet’s <cite>Plurality of the Human Race</cite> (trans.), p. 60.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> “I doubt not that there will be found continuous and
-        uninterrupted causes which shall explain all the diversities of
-        the different branches of the human family without the necessity
-        of resorting to independent creations.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic
-        Races</cite>, p. 355.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> See an excellent treatment of this subject by the Duke
-        of Argyll, <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, pp. 94 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> “When speaking in a former work of the distinct races
-        of mankind, I remarked that if all the leading varieties of the human
-        family sprang originally from a single pair (a doctrine to which then,
-        as now, I could see no valid objection), a much greater lapse of time
-        was required for the slow and gradual formation of such races as the
-        Caucasian, Mongolian, and Negro, than was embraced in any of the
-        popular systems of chronology.”—<cite>Sir Charles Lyell’s Antiquity of
-        Man</cite>, p. 385. Dr. J. P. Thompson says: “For such works [alluding to
-        Babel] and especially for founding such an empire as was ancient Egypt,
-        there was need of centuries for the growth of a population in numbers
-        and resources, equal to the gigantic structures that crown the banks of
-        the Nile. The less than two centuries between Archbishop Usher’s date
-        of the cessation of the flood, and Piazzi Smith’s calculation of the
-        date of the great pyramid, was far too short an interval for results
-        upon a scale so magnificent. * * * Either then we must place the flood
-        much farther back upon the chronological scale, or must admit not only
-        that it was not universal in territorial extent, which is altogether
-        probable, but that it was not universal in the destruction of mankind,
-        which would seem to contradict both the letter and the spirit of the
-        sacred record.”—<cite>Man in Genesis and Geology</cite>, p. 100. New York,
-        1870. 12mo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> See Humboldt’s <cite>Essai Polit.</cite>, vol. i, p. 79,
-        Paris, 1811. He considers not only the Red Indians, but the Toltecs
-        and Aztecs, to be of Asiatic Origin. See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s
-        <cite>Nat. Civil. Ant.</cite>, tom. i, p. 27. McCullough’s <cite>Researches</cite>,
-        <cite>Phil. and Ant.</cite>, pp. 175 <i>et seq.</i> Crowe, <cite>The Gospel in
-         Central America</cite>, p. 61. Bradford, <cite>American Antiquities</cite>, in
-        chapter xii, gives his reasons for declaring the Americans to have been
-        a “primitive and cultivated branch of the human family.” Mayer (Brantz)
-        in <cite>Mexico as it Was</cite>, p. 260, expresses his agreement with the
-        opinion entertained by Bradford. Carver, in <cite>Travels through the
-        Interior Parts of North America</cite>, repeats the opinion of Charlevoix,
-        that the Americans are of old world origin. Tylor, <cite>Anahuac</cite>,
-        London, 1861, p. 104, says: “On the whole, the most probable view of
-        the origin of the Mexican tribes seems to be the one ordinarily held,
-        that they really came from the old world, bringing with them several
-        legends, evidently the same as the histories recorded in the book of Genesis.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> “La teoria de la diversidad especifica de razas es
-        tan intenible, que sin mas decir podemos, dejar esta cuestion, la
-        cual ultimamente, en especial en Norte-América, ha escitado alguna
-        controversia. Quédanos, pues, un origen primordial para toda la raza
-        humana y entonces la cuestion es, saber de qué tronco ó familia del
-        antiguo continente se pobló el nuevo, ó bien vice-versa, que tambien es
-        possible, aunque improbable, que del que llamamos nuevo se haya poblado
-        el viego continente.”—<cite>Ezequiel Uricoechea</cite> in <cite>Soc. Mex.
-        Bol.</cite> 2d. ep. iv, 1854, p. 128. “For my own part I have long been
-        convinced of the consanguinity between the brachycephalæ of America and
-        those of Asia and the Pacific islands, and that this characteristic
-        type may be traced uninterruptedly through the long chain of tribes
-        inhabiting the west coast of the American Continent from Behring
-        Straits to Cape Horn.”—<cite>Retzius, Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 267.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> “The era of their existence as a distinct and isolated
-        race must probably be dated as far back as that time which separated
-        into nations the inhabitants of the old world, and gave to each branch
-        of the human family its primitive language and individuality.”—<cite>J. C.
-        Prichard’s Natural History of Man</cite>, p. 356. London, 1845.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> <cite>Hist. Ant. del Messico</cite> (Eng. trans., 1807), vol. i.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> <span lang="fr">“Quoique Votan soit le veritable fondateur de la
-        civilisation et de l’empire des Quichés, le Codex Chimalpopoca,
-        attribue néanmoins la fondation de l’empire à son Igh ou Ik, appelé
-        par les Mexicains <i>Ehecatl</i> ou <i>Cipactonac</i>, parceque ce
-        prince vint le premir amener une colonie sur le continent américain.
-        Cipactonac est composé de <i>Cipactli</i>, et de <i>Tonacayo</i>.
-        Le premier vient de <i>ce</i> un, <i>Ipan</i>, sur ou au-dessus, et
-        <i>tlactli</i>, qui est le corps humain, c’est-à-dire, <i>Un homme
-        supérieur aux autres hommes</i>, ou encore de <i>notre race</i>, toutes
-        choses qui conviennent parfaitement au père de la race des chànes.
-        Tonacayo, veut dire <i>notre chair</i> ou le <i>corps humain</i>, le
-        mot tout entier Cipactonac ayant la signification suivante: ‘Celui qui
-        est sorti du premier de notre race.’ <i>Ehecatl</i> est en mexicain
-        l’air, ou le souffle, Igh ou Ik, en langua maya et tzendale. Dans
-        les calendriers d’Oxaca, Soconusco, Chiappas et d’Yucatan, il suit
-        immediatement le nom de Nin, Imos ou Imox, comme celui d’Ehecatl
-        suit dans le mexicain celui de Cipactli.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg,
-        Cartas</cite>, note, p. 71. He then proceeds to sustain his conclusions
-        by citing analogies between the name and its significance among the Egyptians.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> <cite>Chimalpopoca</cite>, MS., Brasseur de Bourbourg,
-        <cite>Popol Vuh.</cite>, p. lxxxviii; see also <cite>Memorias para la Historia
-        del Antiguo, Reyno de Guatemala</cite>, por Franc. de Paula Garcia Pelaez
-        (Guatemala, 1851). Pelaez states that Votan founded the ancient
-        Culhuacan, now known as Palenque, in the year 3000 of the world and in
-        the tenth century <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. lxxxx, on
-        the authority of Ordoñez.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 159.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> <cite>Ordoñez</cite>, Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>,
-        p. lxxxvii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> <cite>Constituciones Diocesanes del Obispado de
-        Chiappas.</cite> Rome, 1702.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 160: “It is
-        not altogether improbable that a genuine Maya document similar to the
-        Manuscript <cite>Troano</cite> or <cite>Dresden Codex</cite>, preserved from early
-        times, may have found a native interpreter at the time of the Conquest,
-        and have escaped in its disguise of Spanish letters the destruction
-        which overtook its companions.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> “The memoir in his possession consists of five or six
-        folios of common quarto paper, written in ordinary characters in the
-        Tzendal language, an evident proof of its having been copied from the
-        original in hieroglyphics, shortly after the Conquest. At the top of
-        the first leaf, the two continents are painted in different colors,
-        in two small squares, placed parallel to each other in the angles;
-        the one representing Europe, Asia and Africa is marked with two large
-        S’S upon the upper arms of two bars drawn from the opposite angles
-        of each square, forming the point of union in the centre; that which
-        indicates America has two S’S placed horizontally on the bars, but I
-        am not certain whether upon the upper or lower bars, but I believe
-        upon the latter. When speaking of the places he had visited on the old
-        continent, he marks them on the margin of each chapter with an upright
-        S and those of America with a horizontal S. Between these squares
-        stands the title of his history: ‘Proof that I am Culebra (a Snake),’
-        which title he proves in the body of the work by saying that he is
-        Culebra because he is Chivim.”—<cite>Cabrera, Teatro Critico Amer.</cite>, pp. 33–4.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> Title of Ordoñez in brief: <cite>Historia de la Creation
-        del Cielo y de la Tierra Conforme al Sistema de la Gentilidad
-        Americana</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> See his <cite>Teatro Critico Americano</cite>, p. 32 <i>et
-        seq.</i>, in Rio’s <cite>Description of the Ruins of an American City</cite>.
-        London, 1822, quarto.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> <span lang="fr">“Mais il y défigura complètement l’ouvrage d’Ordoñez
-        qu’il no connaissait pas assez et auquel il ajouta des opinions
-        extrêmement hasardées. D. Ramon se plaignit amèrement de ce plagiat et
-        des fausses idées que Cabrera donnait de son travail, obtint contre lui
-        un jugement, où le plagiaire fut condamné par le tribunal de l’audience
-        royale de Guatémalà, le 30 Juin, 1794. Mais Cabrera, tout en pillant
-        les idées du savant antiquaire, n’en rendait pas moins justice à son
-        talent et à son merite.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg on Ordoñez MS.
-        Cartas</cite>, p. 8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> The explanation given by Cabrera is as follows: “Let
-        us suppose then, with Calmet and other authors whom he quotes, that
-        some of the Hivites who were descendants from Heth, son of Canaan,
-        were settled on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and known from the
-        most remote parts under the name of Hivim or Givim, from which region
-        they were expelled, some years before the departure of the Hebrews
-        from Egypt, by the Caphtorims or Philistines, who, according to some
-        writers, were colonists from Cappadocia, others considering them to
-        be from Cyprus, and more probably, according to a third opinion, from
-        Crete, now Candia; that to strengthen their native country Egypt, and
-        to protect themselves from all assault, they built five large cities,
-        viz.: Accaron, Azotus, Ascalon, and Gaza [fifth wanting in account],
-        from whence they made frequent sallies upon the Canaanite towns and all
-        their surrounding neighbors (except the Egyptians, whom they always
-        respected), and carried on many wars in the posterior ages against
-        the Hebrews. The Scriptures (Deuteronomy, chap. ii, verse 23, and
-        Joshua, chap. xiii, verse 4) inform us of the expulsion of the Hivites
-        (Givim) by the Caphtorims, from which it appears that the latter
-        drove out the former, who inhabited the countries from Azzah to Gaza.
-        Many others were settled in the vicinity of the mountains of Eval and
-        Azzah, among whom were reckoned the Sichemites and the Gabaonites; the
-        latter by stratagem made alliance with Joshua, or submitted to him.
-        Lastly, others had their dwellings about the skirts of Mount Hermon,
-        beyond Jordan to the eastward of Canaan (Joshua, chap. ii, verse 3).
-        Of these last were Cadmus and his wife Hermione or Hermonia, both
-        memorable in sacred as well as profane history, as their exploits
-        occasioned their being exalted to the rank of deities, while in regard
-        to their metamorphosis into snakes (Culebras) mentioned by Ovid,
-        <cite>Metam.</cite>, lib. 3, their being Hivites may have given rise to this
-        fabulous transmutation, the name in the Phœnician language implying
-        a snake, which the ancient Hebrew writers suppose to have been given
-        from this people being accustomed to live in caves under ground like
-        snakes.”—<cite>Cabrera, Teatro Critico</cite>, pp. 47–8. On p. 95 he reaches
-        the conclusion that the Votanites were Carthaginians.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 163.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> <cite>Cartas</cite>, p. 12.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> The description of its contents drawn by Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg from the part in his possession is briefly as follows:
-        The second volume of Ordoñez comprised the history of the ancestors
-        of Votan, a descendant of Shem by the Hivo-Phœnician line; of their
-        emigration from the Eastern Continent to the Occident; of their voyage
-        with their first legislator by the Usumasinta River and its affluents
-        to the Plain Palenque; the foundation of the great monarchy of the
-        Quichés as well as that of Nachan, which was the capital; of the
-        founding of the three royal cities of Mayapan, Tulha, and Chiquimula.
-        The Abbé finds allusion to this work in Torquemada, Juarros, Cogolludo,
-        Lizana, and particularly in Sahugun, book iii of his <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>,
-        where it is claimed to treat of the original inhabitants of Palenque.
-        He then states that the work was written in Guatemala at the close of
-        the eighteenth century, and was sent to Spain or taken thither by its
-        author for publication. In 1803 it was found in the hands of Sr. Gil
-        Lemos of Madrid, where it had been left for publication. Its contents
-        becoming known to the Council of the Indias, it was suppressed like
-        many others on the early history of America. Ordoñez, who for ten years
-        afterwards was canon of the Cathedral at Ciudad Real, died without
-        seeing his work published. See Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Cartas</cite>, p.
-        12 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> These are as follows: Chontal, Quiché, Zutugil,
-        Kachiquel, Mam, Pokoman, Pokonchi, Caichi Coxoh, Ixil, Tzendal,
-        Tozotzil, Chol, Huaxteco, and Totonaco; besides those of the islands of
-        Cuba and Hayti, Borquia and Jamaica.—<cite>Geografia de los Linguas</cite>,
-        p. 98. Mexico, 1864, 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 128.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="fr">
-      <a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> <span lang="fr">“Il y a plus d’un trait de ressemblance entre le
-        personnage mysterieux qui parut à Carthage et le Votan des Tzendales.
-        Les chemins souterraines où celui-ci fut admis, lesquels traversent le
-        terre pour arriver à la racine du ciel, indiquent une suite d’épreuves
-        qui rappellent les initiations Égyptiennes et dont on trouve des traces
-        jusqu’à l’époque même de la conquête dans les épreuves de la chevalerie
-        Mexicaine.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh</cite>, p. cviii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. ii, p. 124.
-        Mexico, 1865, 8vo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> MS. Quiché de Chichicastenango in Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 105–6. See also
-        Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 21.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> The <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> was first published by Dr.
-        Scherzer in Vienna, in 1857, under the title of <span lang="es"><cite>Las Historias del
-        Origen de los Indios de esta Provincia de Guatemala, traducidas de la
-        Lengua Quiché al Castellano para mas Comodidad de los Ministros del
-        S. Evangelio</cite>, por el R. P. F. Francisco Ximenez, cura doctrinero
-        por el real patronato del Pueblo de S. Thomas, Chuila,—Exactamente
-        segun el texto español del manuscrito original que se halla en la
-        biblioteca de la Universidad de Guatemala, publicado por la primera
-        vez, y aumentado con una introduccion y anotaciones por el Dr. C.
-        Scherzer.</span> Father Ximenez, a Dominican and curate of Chichicastenango
-        of Guatemala, wrote about 1720, and subsequently. His work, because of
-        its condemnation of the oppression of the Indians, was suppressed, but
-        was finally discovered in June, 1854, in the library of the University
-        of San Carlos, in Guatemala, by Dr. Scherzer. Father Ximinez describes
-        the work as a literal copy of an original Quiché book, made in Roman
-        letters by Quiché copyists, after the introduction of Christianity into
-        Guatemala. The copy is stated ambiguously to have been made to replace
-        the original <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>—national book—which was lost. How a book
-        which had been lost could be copied literally, the Father fails to
-        tell us. Internal evidence, however, sustains the claim that it was
-        written by native Quichés. In 1860, Brasseur de Bourbourg undertook
-        a new translation of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, from the Ximinez document
-        (containing the Quiché and Spanish). This he did among the Quichés and
-        with the aid of the natives, and as a result it is believed that a much
-        more literal translation than that made by Ximenez was obtained. In our
-        examination of Quiché history we have compared both translations and
-        shall draw from them directly, but shall also take advantage of the
-        excellent condensations and renderings which Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft has
-        made. See <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 42, note, for the leading
-        facts as we have stated them.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> We must refer the reader either to the originals or
-        to that treasure-house of American traditional lore, Mr. Bancroft’s
-        third volume, which is a repository of poetic renderings as well. Nor
-        have we endeavored in every instance to avoid the use of that author’s
-        incomparable terminology, so expressive of the spirit of the original.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. 7; Ximinez,
-        <cite>Hist. Ind. Guat.</cite>, pp. 5–6; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 44.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s rendering, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii,
-        p. 45.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s graceful and truly poetic rendering,
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 47, 48.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 54.
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages 1858</cite>, tome
-        iv, p. 268, and <cite>Hist. de Tlaxcallan</cite> in the same, tome xcix,
-        1843, p. 179, where reference is made to these bundles.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. lxxxv, note, et <i>Ibid.</i>, p.
-        ccliv. The Abbé places that Tulan among the ruins of the valley of
-        Palenque near the modern town of Comitan in the state of Chiapas. He
-        adds: <span lang="fr">“Siége principal des princes de la race Nahuatl, cette ville
-        aurait été fondée à une époque contemporaine de la capitale des
-        Xibalbides, plusieurs siècles avant l’ère chrétienne, et au rapport
-        de toutes les traditions, elle aurait rivalisé constamment avec sa
-        métropole dont elle cherchait à se rendre indépendante.”</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, notes, pp. xci–ii. We have used Mr.
-        Bancroft’s rendering of the passage.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> <cite>Geografia de las Linguas Mexicanas</cite>, pp. 96–8 and
-        pp. 127–29. A linguistic argument.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg is the authority cited by Mr.
-        Bancroft, vol. v, p. 188.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 188.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. 195. Bancroft, vol. v, 172–80.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. cclvi. Bancroft, vol. v, p. 545.
-        The Abbé has largely drawn upon his imagination in this instance as
-        in some others, and the opinion is only interesting because of its authorship.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Las Casas, <cite>Hist. Apologética</cite>, MS., tom. iii, cap.
-        cxxiv et cxxv.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Torquemada, tom. ii, pp. 53–4. Ximinez renders the word
-        Xibalby “Inferno.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> It will be remembered that Votan deposited his treasure
-        in the “house of gloom” or “darkness.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s rendering of the paragraph. Vol. v, p.
-        179.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> See Bancroft, vol. v, p. 184.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. v, p. 187.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> <cite>Memorias para la Historia del Antiguo Reyno de
-        Guatemala.</cite> Guatemala, 1857.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> <cite>Nations Civilisées</cite>, tom. i, p. 126. Also see the
-        following from the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. clx: <span lang="fr">“Quant aux évènements dont
-        Tulan fût le théâtre à cette époque, on ne saurait se dissimuler, en
-        comparant l’ensemble des détails qu’on trouve dans ce chaos, qu’il ne
-        se fût opéré alors un vaste mouvement parmi les populations de l’empire
-        de Xibalba, mouvement causé sans doute par les efforts d’une caste
-        souveraine pour garder le pouvoir et par l’invasion de races nouvelles,
-        sorties des mêmes contrées, septentrionales, d’où étaient venus les
-        Nahuas, ou des regions plus sauvages du nord-ouest; barbares ou
-        civilisées, il y eut naturellement de leurs essaims qui s’amalgamèrent
-        aux nations soumises à l’empire, tandis que d’autres, continuant leur
-        route vers l’Amérique méridionale, y portèrent, sinon les institutions
-        entières des Quinamés et des Nahuas, au moins les symboles qui les
-        avaient le plus frappés au passage ou qui convenaient davantage à leur génie.”</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> <span lang="fr">“De la creation, pues, tenien esta opinion. Decian que
-        antes de ella ni habia cielo ni tierra ni sol, ni luna ni estrellas.
-        Ponian que hubo un marido y una muger divinos que lamaron Aehel
-        Atcamma. Estos habian tenido padre y madre los cuales engendaron trece
-        hijos, y que él mayor con algunos con él se ensoberbecieron y guiso
-        hacer criaturas contra la voluntad del padre y madre; pero no pudieron
-        por que lo que hicieron fueron unos vasos viles de servicio como jarros
-        y ollas y semejantes. Los hijos menores que se llamaban Huncheven
-        hunahan, pidieron licencia à su padre y madre para hacer creaturas,
-        y concedieransela, diciendoles que saldrian con ellos por que se
-        habian humillado. Y asi lo primero hicieron los Cielos y Planetas,
-        luego Ayre, Agua y Tierra. Despues dicen que de la tierra formaron
-        al hombre y á la muger. Los otros que fueron soberbios presumiendo
-        hacer criaturas contra la voluntad de los padres fueron en el infierno
-        lanzados.”</span>—<cite>Las Casas, Historia Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. 235,
-        p. 324; see also <cite>Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 53–4;
-        <cite>Help’s Spanish</cite> <cite>Conquest</cite>, vol. ii, p. 140; <cite>Garcia,
-        Origen de los Indios</cite>, p. 519, Valencia ed., 1607, and <cite>Brasseur
-        de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civil.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 74–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> <cite>Historia Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. 235, p. 327.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 28, and Herrera, Dec. iv,
-        lib. x, cap. ii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> <span lang="es">“Y antiguamente dezian al oriente cen-ial,
-        pequena-baxada, y al puniente nohen-ial, la grande-baxada.”</span>—<cite>Lizana’s
-        Devocionario</cite>, p. 354 in <cite>Landa’s Relacion</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Cogolludo’s <cite>Historia de Yucatan</cite>, lib. iv. cap.
-        iii, p. 178.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> <cite>Geografia de las Linguas</cite>, p. 128.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 618.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Bancroft, vol. iii, p. 463; Lizana in Landa’s
-        <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 356; Cogolludo’s <cite>Hist. de Yuc.</cite>, p. 197;
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 76, tom. ii, pp. 10–13.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> Landa, pp. 35–9, and 300–1.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom.
-        ii, p. 18; Torquemada’s <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 52; Herrera’s
-        <cite>Hist. Gen. Dec.</cite>, iv, lib. x, cap. ii; Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>,
-        pp. 35–9, 300 <i>et seq.</i>; <cite>Echevarria y Veitia, MS.</cite>, cap. 19,
-        p. 116 <i>et seq.</i>, and Las Casas’ <cite>Hist. Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. cxxiii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> See for those annals the Perez document in Stephen’s
-        <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 465–9; Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa,
-        pp. 120–9, and Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 762–5, and vol. v, p. 624 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Las Casas, <cite>Hist. Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. cxxiii,
-        p. 10, Cogolludo’s <cite>Hist. Yuc.</cite>, p. 190; Torquemada’s <cite>Monarq.
-        Ind.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 133.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. ix, p. 322.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap. ii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 199.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Ixtlilxochitl fixes the date of the destruction in the
-        year 229 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, Veytia in 107. See further on the Quinames,
-        Echevarria y Veitia, <cite>Historia del Origen de Gentes</cite>, MS., tom.
-        i, p. 33, and Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. viii, cap. iii,
-        p. 179. Mendieta’s <cite>Hist. Eccl.</cite>, p. 96, Mexico, 1870. Pineda
-        in <cite>Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin</cite>, tom. iii, p. 346. Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, pp. lxviii, and <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>,
-        tom. i, p. 66. Oviedo’s <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 539.
-        Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, p. 125. Boturini,
-        <cite>Idea de Una Nueva Historia</cite>, pp. 130–5. Humboldt, <cite>Vues des
-        Cordilleres</cite>, p. 205, and Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia de las
-        Lenguas</cite>, pp. 119–24.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, lib. iii, cap. vii.
-        Bancroft, vol. v., p. 206. Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 120,
-        125, 133. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 154.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, p. 127. Pimentel,
-        <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. i, p. 223. Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 204.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 278.
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 151–61.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> <cite>Historia Chichimeca</cite>, cap. i, in Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 205.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 196, and vol.
-        ii, p. 112. Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 32. Mendieta’s
-        <cite>Hist. Eccl.</cite>, p. 146.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> <span lang="es">“Celebraron assimismo los Indios su dicho origen en
-        antiguos cantares, y tuvieron tan viva la memoria de la torre de
-        Babel, que la quisieron imitar en America con varios monstruosos
-        edificias.”</span> He then cites the Pyramid of Cholula as having been built
-        in commemoration of the Tower of Babel. See Boturini, <cite>Idea de Una
-        Nueva Historia</cite>, p. 113.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Boturini’s <cite>Idea</cite>, p. 111 <i>et seq.</i> Clavigero,
-        <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp. 129–31, et tom. ii, p.
-        6. Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, especially vol. vi, p. 401,
-        and <cite>Spiegazione delle Tavole del Codice Mexicano</cite>, tav. vii,
-        in <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. v, pp. 164–5, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 67; vol. v, p. 200 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> A portion of the work has been printed at Mexico.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, MS., tom. i,
-        cap. i, pp. 6–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> Alcedo (<cite>Diccionario Geografico Historico</cite>, tom.
-        iii, p. 374) says that the Olmecs subsequently migrated southward and
-        settled Guatemala. While this statement may be true in part, still it
-        is not probable that any general migration took place, and Guatemala
-        was certainly populated long before the Olmec power existed.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 321–2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 25.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> See Prescott’s <cite>Conq. Mexico</cite>, vol. i, p. 171, on
-        the Censorial Council; also Ixtlilxochitl, Clavigero and Veytia as
-        cited by him.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> Echevarria y Veitia, <cite>Hist. Gentes</cite>, MS., tom. i,
-        p. 29, and Kingsborough, vol. viii, p. 176. Panes, <cite>Fragmentos de
-        Historia</cite>, MS., p. 3 (copy in Congressional Library, Washington), as
-        well as several other authorities.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 193–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> in Brasseur’s <cite>Hist. Nat.
-        Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 53, 71.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> <cite>Codex Chimal.</cite> in Brasseur’s <cite>Hist. Nat.
-        Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 117, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 194.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
-        España</cite>, p. xviii, tom. i, Mexico, 1829.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. iii, lib. x, p. 139 <i>et
-        seq.</i> A translation and summary of facts is also given by Bancroft,
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 189 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 211, in a note
-        has summarized the dates of departure from Hue hue Tlapalan, as given
-        by different authors, with the following result: Date of departure
-        according to Veytia (tom. i, p. 208), 596 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; Clavigero
-        (tom. iv, p. 46), 544 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; but in the 1st tom., p. 126, he
-        gives 596, agreeing with Veytia; Müller (<cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. iii, p.
-        94 <i>et seq.</i>, 439 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; Brasseur de Bourbourg (<cite>Popol
-        Vuh</cite>, p. clv), last of the fourth century; Cabrera (<cite>Teatro</cite>,
-        pp. 90–1), 181 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> The commonly accepted date is that of
-        Clavigero—544 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> But after comparing these authors and
-        considering the grounds upon which they base their calculations, we are
-        convinced that it is useless to attempt to arrive at the true date,
-        just as it is impossible to determine any date with certainty in all
-        the ancient American chronology. We will not go so far as Mr. Bancroft,
-        who says that “the departure from Hue hue Tlapalan seems to have
-        taken place in the fifth or sixth century.” The claims for the fourth
-        century, we think, are just as good as for the others, if not better.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> On the migration see Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relacions</cite>,
-        in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 321–4; Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 100, 136, and <cite>Popol
-        Vuh</cite>, p. clv, clix–xi: Veytia’s <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej. Tom.</cite> <i>1st
-        passim</i>; Clavigero’s <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, p. 426;
-        tom. iv, pp. 46, 51; Müller’s <cite>Reisen in den Vereinigten-Staaten,
-        Canada and Mexico</cite>, Bd. iii, ss. 91–7, Leipzig, 1864; Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 192–223.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> See <cite>Geografia de las Lenguas de Mexico</cite>, the
-        <cite>Carta ethnografica</cite> affixed, and the text, pp. 1–76.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Hist. Chichimeca</cite>, cap. ii.
-        Kingsborough, <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 206. On page 450 see also
-        another and different account.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 214.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 214–15;
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, pp. lxiv, cxii, cxxvi–viii,
-        clix; Ixtlilxocbitl in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p 446;
-        Alvarado in <cite>Ternaux-Compans Voy.</cite>, série i, tom. x, p. 147.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient Am.</cite>, p. 202.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> See E. Q. Squier, <cite>Nicaragua, its People, Scenery</cite>,
-        etc. <cite>Archæology and</cite> <cite>Ethnology of Nicaragua</cite>, part i, vol.
-        iii, <cite>Trans. of Am. Ethnol. Soc.</cite>, and <cite>Notes on Cent. Am.</cite>, chap. xvi.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Buschmann (Johann Carl Ed.), especially his <cite>Die
-        Spuren der Aztekischen Sprachen im Nördlichen Mexico und Höhern
-        Amerikanischen Norden</cite>. Berlin, 1859. Quarto.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 688 <i>et seq.</i>;
-        vol. v, p. 215, and numerous places.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> “All around the lakes of Mexico there are traces
-        of ancient potteries, and I noticed that the bits of broken red
-        earthenware scattered about them are identical in composition and color
-        with those I have picked up in the valley of the Mississippi, and
-        supposed to be relics of the ancient Mound-builders.”—<cite>Evens (A. S.),
-        Our Sister Republic</cite>, p. 330. Hartford, 1870. Octavo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relaciones</cite>, Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. ix, p. 322.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, lib. i, cap. 19.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in many places, and in <cite>Hist.
-        Chichimecs</cite>, cap. 13.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, MS. written 1582 in Sr. Icazbalceta’s
-        collection.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. i, p. 154.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> <cite>Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España</cite>, MS., p.
-        45, Library at Washington.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> Duran’s <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, tom. i, cap. i, p. 9,
-        MS.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> Duran’s <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap.
-        27; also cited in the Spanish by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306. Aztlan,
-        translated “whiteness” above, may be rendered “colorless” with equal
-        propriety. Hue hue Tlapalan, on the contrary, is translated ancient
-        red-land, or land of color, just the opposite of Aztlan, a fact which
-        may serve to prove that they were two quite different localities.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp.
-        156–9 (north of Colorado River); Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, ii, p. 179, and
-        <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, tom. i, p. 53 (north of 42° north latitude); Orozco
-        y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 81–2, and 136–7; Prichard’s <cite>Nat. Hist
-        of Man</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 514–16 (Arazonia); Pimentel, <cite>Lenguas Indig.
-        Mex.</cite>, tom. i, p. 158. Most writers indefinitely assign the name to
-        a region in the North, without attempting to designate the locality.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Acosta, <cite>Hist. de las Ind.</cite>, p. 454; Schoolcraft’s
-        <cite>Archives of Ab. Knowledge</cite>, vol. i, p. 68; M. Aubin places it in
-        Lower California; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom.
-        ii, p. 292; Pickering’s <cite>Races in U. S. Ex. Ex.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 41.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecles.</cite>, p. 144 (Xalisco);
-        Veytia, <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej.</cite> (Sonora); Möllhausen, <cite>Reisen in d.
-        Felsengebirge N. Am.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 143 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> Chief among these we may cite: Squier’s <cite>Notes on
-        Central Amer.</cite>, p. 349; Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, p. 45, and
-        Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 221, 305–6, 322–5; Müller,
-        <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</cite>, pp. 530–4, the
-        latter, though inclined to assign Aztlan to a southern locality, still
-        recognizes the fact that the Nahua family was originally a northern people.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap. i, p. 9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 292.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Chief among whom are Gallatin, Gama and Veytia, who
-        suppose that the adjustment of the calendar took place in 1090
-        <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and that the year Ce Tochtli corresponds with that date.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 324, and
-        seems to be the opinion of Brasseur, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. ii,
-        pp. 292–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Garcia Cubas’ <cite>Republic of Mexico in 1876</cite> (Eng.
-        trans.), p. 58.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> Veytia, tom. ii, pp. 91–8, and as summarized by
-        Bancroft, vol. v, p. 323.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 5–8, and
-        Bancroft, vol. v, p. 323.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp. 156–63.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> See Acosta, <cite>Hist. Nat. Ind.</cite>, pp. 454–62. Herrera,
-        <cite>Histor. Gen.</cite>, dec. iii, lib. ii, cap. x–xi. Duran, MS., <cite>Hist.
-        Antig.</cite>, cap. i, ii, iii of tom. i.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> <span lang="es">“Pero porque la noticia que tengo de su origen y
-        principio no es mas, ni ellos saben dar mas relacion sino desde aqullas
-        siete cuebas donde habitaron tan largo tiempo, las cuales desampararon
-        para venir a vuscar esta Tierra unos primero que otros, otros despues,
-        otros muy despues hasta dejarlas desiertas. Estas cuebas son en
-        Teo-culhuican, que por otro nombre le llaman Aztlan, tierra de que
-        todos tenemos noticia caer hacia la parte del Norte y Tierra-firma con
-        la Florida; por tanto desde este lugar de estas cuebas dare verdadera
-        relacion de estas Naciones y de sus sucessos. * * * Salieron pues
-        siete Tribus de Gentes de aquellas cuebas donde habitaban para venir á
-        vuscar esta Tierra, á las cuales llamaban Chicomostoc, de donde vienen
-        a fingir que sus Padres nacieron de unas cuebas, no teniendo noticia de
-        lo de atras de la salida.”</span>—<cite>Duran</cite>, <cite>Hist. Antig.</cite>, MS., tom.
-        i, cap. i, p. 9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> The <cite>Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España</cite>, MS.
-        (Congressional Library) of Diego Panes alludes to this event. <span lang="es">“Como
-        los Tarascos se adelantaron luego que pasaron el estrecho de mar, en
-        los troncos de Arboles, y balsas, y otros instrumentos del pasaje y se
-        metieron á vida y avitar en las siete cuebas espelnucas, y Tabernas de
-        la Tierra, hasta que hicieron abitaciones, y moradas y como desde alli
-        fueron cresciendo, y tomnado, el tiento de la Tierra y disposiciones de
-        ella para poblarla.”</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> We quote Bancroft’s rendering from the <cite>Vues</cite>,
-        tom. ii, p. 176 <i>et seq.</i>: “From Colhuacan, the Mexican Ararat,
-        fifteen chiefs or tribes reach Aztlan, ‘land of flamingoes,’ north of
-        42°, which they leave in 1038, passing through Tocolco, ‘humiliation,’
-        Oztotlan, ‘place of grottoes,’ Mizquiahuala, Teotzapotlan, ‘place of
-        divine fruit,’ Iluicatepec, Papantla, ‘large-leaved grass,’ Tzompanco,
-        ‘place of human bones,’ Apazco, ‘clay vessel,’ Atlicalaguian, ‘crevice
-        in which rivulet escapes,’ Quauhtitlan, ‘eagle grove,’ Atzcapotzalco,
-        ‘ant hill,’ Chalco, ‘place of precious stones,’ Pantitlan,
-        ‘spinning-place,’ Tolpetlac, ‘rush mat,’ Quauhtepec, ‘eagle mountain,’
-        Tetepanco, ‘wall of many small stories,’ Chicomoztoc, ‘seven caves,’
-        Huitzquilocan, ‘place of thistles,’ Xaltepozauhcan, ‘place where the
-        sand issues,’ Cozcaquauhco, ‘a vulture,’ Techcatitlan, ‘place of
-        obsidian mirrors,’ Azcaxochitl, ‘ant flower,’ Tepetlapan, ‘place of
-        tepetate,’ Apan, ‘place of water,’ Teozomaco, ‘place of divine apes,’
-        Chapultepec, ‘grasshopper hill.’”—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 324,
-        note.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> The following account is from Franc. Gemelli Carreri’s
-        <cite>Voyage Round the World</cite>, Churchill’s <cite>Voyages</cite>, London,
-        1732, 6 vol. fol. (book iv, cap. iii), p. 485: “The ancient histories
-        of Mexico make mention of a flood, in which all men and beasts
-        perished, and only one man and woman were saved in a boat, which in
-        their language they call <i>Acalle</i>. The man, according to the
-        character by which his name is expressed, was called Cox-cox, and the
-        woman Chichequetzal. This couple coming to the foot of the mountain,
-        which, according to the picture, was named Culhuacan, went ashore, and
-        there they had many children, all born dumb. When they multiplied to a
-        great number, one day a pigeon came, and from the top of a tree gave
-        them their speech, but not one of them understood the others’ language,
-        and therefore they divided and dispersed, every one going to take
-        possession of some country. Among these they reckoned fifteen heads
-        of families who happened to speak the same language, joined together
-        and went about to find some land to inhabit. When they had wandered
-        one hundred and four years they came to the place they call Antlan,
-        and continuing their journey thence, came first to the place called
-        <i>Capultepec</i>, then to Culhuacan, and lastly to the place where
-        Mexico now stands.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> See communication in Garcia y Cubas’ <cite>Atlas
-        Geografico, Estadistico e Histórico de la República Mejicana</cite>, April
-        1858, entrega 29, and Bancroft, iii, p. 68, note.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> We should be guilty of a fault if we were to convey
-        the idea that no deluge legend other than this was current among the
-        Aztecs. The Codex Chimalpopoca records a flood in which mankind were
-        drowned and turned into fishes. In Mr. Bancroft’s graceful rendering we
-        learn that “the waters and sky drew near each other; in a single day
-        all was lost, the day Four Flower consumed all that there was of our
-        flesh. And this was the year Ce-Calli; on the first day, Nahui-Atl,
-        all was lost. The very mountains were swallowed up in the flood, and
-        the waters remained, lying tranquil during fifty and two spring-times.
-        But before the flood began, Titlacahuan had warned the man Nata and
-        his wife Nena, saying: Make now no more pulque, but hollow out to
-        yourselves a great cypress, into which you shall enter when, in the
-        month Tozoztli, the waters shall near the sky. Then they entered into
-        it, and when Titlacahuan had shut them in, he said to the man: Thou
-        shalt eat but a single ear of maize, and thy wife but one also. And
-        when they had finished eating, each an ear of maize, they prepared to
-        set forth, for the waters remained tranquil and their log moved no
-        longer; and opening it they began to see the fishes. Then they lit a
-        fire by rubbing pieces of wood together and they roasted fish.” The
-        account states that the deities then descended and transformed the
-        fishes into dogs. (Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom.
-        i, pp. 425–7. Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 69, 70.) We cannot with gravity
-        give the Tezpi legend preserved in Michoacan. If the reader will refer
-        to the Mosaic account of the flood, he will only need to substitute the
-        name of Tezpi for Noah, a vulture for the raven, and a humming-bird
-        for the dove, and the Tezpi legend substantially will be before him.
-        Of course the detail of the Mosaic account is wanting; nevertheless
-        it is certain that the Tezpi legend is the product of the fancy of
-        some over-zealous priest, who thought he could see a stricter analogy
-        between the Nahua deluge tradition and the Scriptural account than
-        really exists.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 325.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> See note 1, page 261, this chapter.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Bancroft, vol. v, p. 325.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> E. G. Squier in <cite>Notes on Cent. Am.</cite>, p. 349, makes
-        the following remark: “It is a significant fact, that in the map of
-        their migrations, presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of the
-        Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (Atl standing for Atzlan), a
-        pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a <em>palm-tree</em>. This
-        circumstance did not escape the attention of the observant Humboldt,
-        who says, ‘I am astonished at finding a palm-tree near this teocalli.
-        This tree certainly does not indicate a northern origin.’” We might add
-        that we are equally surprised that so generally able a writer as Mr.
-        Squier should resort to so absolutely weak an argument. Sr. Ramirez
-        has clearly explained that all the figures and their adjuncts are but
-        hieroglyphic parts of proper names. The palm-tree no doubt plays its
-        part. M. Waldeck (<cite>Voyage Pitt.</cite>, p. 45) makes the same remark
-        as Mr. Squier—that it indicates a southern origin. Gondra (Prescott’s
-        <cite>Historia Conq. Mex.</cite>, cited by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306, note)
-        replies that this may be a thoughtless insertion of the painter.
-        The possibility that an unskillful artist should unintentionally
-        represent a tree of which he had no knowledge is so great, that any
-        argument dependent upon it hangs upon a slender thread. Over against
-        Mr. Squier’s claim we desire to place the simple inquiry, Does the
-        Elephant Mound of Wisconsin indicate that its constructors were natives
-        of Asia, where the elephant is common, or that they lived in the epoch
-        of the American Mastodon? It is well-known that the latter phase of
-        the question could not be true, since the condition of the mound
-        contradicts such great antiquity.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 245 <i>et
-        seq.</i>, states that a band of people came from the north by way of
-        Panuco, dressed in long black robes; that they thence went to Tulla,
-        where they were well received, but that region being already thickly
-        populated, they went to Cholula. They were great artists, were skilled
-        in working metals; with them was Quetzalcoatl, with a fair and ruddy
-        complexion and a long beard. ‘He was their leader.’
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecl.</cite>, pp. 82, 86, 92, 397–8; also
-        cited by Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 250–2, and Clavigero, <cite>Hist. Ant.
-        Del. Messico</cite>, pp. 11–13.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. i, lib. iii, p. 245,
-        and Torquemada, tom. ii, p. 47 <i>et seq.</i>, do not agree fully as to
-        the details.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 47 <i>et
-        seq.</i>, and Sahagun, tom. i, chap. iii, p. 245 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecl.</cite>, p. 82 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> Goatzacoalco, described as a province near the sea, one
-        hundred and fifty leagues from Cholula (Torquemada, tom ii, pp. 48–52).
-        The same author traces him to Yucatan and identifies him with Cukulcan.
-        See preceding chapter.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> On a raft, according to Sahagun.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> See Müller, <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen
-        Urreligionen</cite>, p. 599.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 50. In
-        presenting these legends we have employed nearly the same language
-        which we used in treating the same subject in an article entitled
-        “Culture-Heroes of the Ancient Americans,” published in <cite>Appleton’s
-        Journal</cite> for March 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> See Bancroft, vol. v. p. 256, and the authorities cited.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> The sources of the Quetzalcoatl legends have been cited
-        in connection with our version of the fables applying to the name. On
-        the relation of Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec king, to the subject,
-        see Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. ii, lib. viii, p. 266, but
-        especially see Bancroft, vol. v, p. 256 <i>et seq.</i>, for a fuller
-        account. The same author has treated the subject with an unprecedented
-        fullness in his third volume, chap. vii. The able examination of
-        Quetzalcoatl’s character by Müller, in his <cite>Geschichte d. Am.
-        Urreligionen</cite> (pp. 577 <i>et seq.</i>), has been of great value to
-        us in the preparation of this sketch.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 404 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> <cite>Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in
-        Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua.</cite> New York,
-        1854, vol. ii, pp. 348 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> <cite>Ensayo sobre Chihuahua</cite>, p. 74.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 621 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> Published in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iv, tom.
-        i, pp. 282 <i>et seq.</i>, translated in Schoolcraft’s <cite>Hist. and
-        Condition of Indian Tribes</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 300 <i>et seq.</i>,
-        and Bartlett’s <cite>Pers. Narrative</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 281–2. Quoted in
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 622–23.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Bernal in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iii, tom. iv, p.
-        804.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Sedelmair, <cite>Relacion</cite>, in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>,
-        série iii, tom. iv, p. 847, copied by Orosco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>,
-        pp. 108–10. Also cited by Bancroft.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> <cite>Pers. Narrative</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 278–80.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 81–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> Johnston’s <cite>Journal</cite> in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 567–600.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> <cite>Pers. Nar.</cite>, pp. 271–284.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> Browne’s <cite>Apache Country</cite>, pp. 114–24.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Coronado, on his trip from Culiacan to the “seven cities
-        of Cibola” in 1540, saw a roofless building called Chichilticale, or
-        “red house.” Castañeda says it was built of red earth and had formerly
-        been occupied by people from Cíbola. This is of interest, especially
-        since it is quite certain that the seven cities visited were identical
-        with the Pueblo towns around old Zuñi on the Zuñi River in New Mexico
-        (see Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 673–4, and Morgan in <cite>North American
-        Review</cite>, April, 1869. The best treatment of Coronado’s march is by
-        Simpson in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, pp. 309 <i>et seq.</i> See
-        further <cite>Castañeda</cite>, in Ternaux-campans, <cite>Voy.</cite>, série i,
-        tom. ix, pp. 40–1, 161–2. Gallatin in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>,
-        vol. ii, and Whipple in <cite>Pac. R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite> in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iii,
-        tom. iv, p. 847. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 634.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> Velarde in <i>ibid.</i>, série iv, tom. i, p. 363, and
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 634.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> Bartlett’s <cite>Pers. Nar.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 242–8.
-        Johnston in Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 596–600. Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 636.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in <cite>Pacific R. R.
-        Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 14, 15.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 636.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> Whipple in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp.
-        91–4.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 63–9, 80, 133–4.
-        <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 581–96. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp.
-        638–9, has copied three plans.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 640.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in <cite>Pacific R. R.
-        Report</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> First published in <cite>Scribner’s Monthly</cite>, vol. ix,
-        Nos. 3, 4 and 5, for January, February and March, 1875.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> <cite>Cañons of the Colorado</cite>, in <cite>Scribner’s
-        Monthly</cite>, vol. ix, p. 528. Powell’s <cite>Explorations of the Colorado
-        River of the West</cite>. Washington. 1875. 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> “It was ever a source of wonder to us why these ancient
-        people sought such inaccessible places for their homes. They were
-        doubtless an agricultural race, but there were no lands here of any
-        considerable extent which they could have cultivated. To the west
-        of Oraiby, and of the towns of the Province of Tusayan, in northern
-        Arizona, the inhabitants have actually built little terraces along the
-        face of the cliff, where a spring gushes out, and there made their site
-        for gardens. It is possible that the ancient inhabitants of this place
-        made their lands in the same way. But why should they seek such spots?
-        Surely the country was not so crowded with population as to demand the
-        utilization of a region like this. The only solution which suggests
-        itself is this: We know that for a century or two after the settlement
-        of Mexico, many expeditions were sent into the country now comprising
-        Arizona and New Mexico for the purpose of bringing the town-building
-        people under the dominion of the Spanish government. Many of their
-        villages were destroyed, and the inhabitants fled to regions at that
-        time unknown, and there are traditions among the people who now inhabit
-        the pueblos which remain, that the cañons were these unknown lands.
-        It may be that these buildings were erected at that time. Sure it is
-        that they had a much more modern appearance than the ruins scattered
-        over Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico.”—<cite>Major Powell
-        in Scribner</cite>, vol. ix, p. 525. <i>Id.</i>, <cite>Explorations of the
-        Colorado River of the West</cite>, pp. 87, 88.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> <cite>Cañons of the Colorado</cite>, in <cite>Scribner’s
-        Monthly</cite>, vol. ix, p. 402; Powell’s <cite>Exploration of the Colorado
-        River of the West</cite>, pp. 68–9. Major Powell on the 125th page of his
-        report on the Colorado, gives a brief description of remains in a side
-        cañon, a few miles from the great river.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Sitgreaves’ <cite>Report, Zuñi and Colorado Rivers</cite>,
-        pp. 8–9; Whipple, <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 46–50;
-        Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 642–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> Whipple, <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp.
-        76–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> Sitgreaves, <cite>Zuñi Ex.</cite>, p. 6; Whipple, in
-        <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 39, 71; Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 645, 673.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> See authorities cited on page 281, note 1, of this
-        chapter.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> See Whipple, in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii,
-        p. 67, with beautiful full-page view. Simpson’s <cite>Jour. of Mil.
-        Recon.</cite>, pp. 90–3; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 645, 667, 673.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> Whipple in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp.
-        68, 70, 66, 40–8, views of old Zuñi, and sacred spring; Möllhausen,
-        <cite>Reisen in die Felsengebirge N. Am.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 196, 402;
-        <i>Id.</i>, <cite>Tagebuch</cite>, pp. 283–4, 278, with cut; Bancroft, vol.
-        iv, pp. 645–7, with cut.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Möllhausen’s <cite>Journey</cite>, vol. ii, p. 82; Whipple
-        <i>et al.</i>, in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, p. 39;
-        Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 95–7; Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 647–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 89–109, 60–1,
-        65–74, 100, with cuts, views and plans; Whipple, Ewbank and Turner,
-        in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 22, 52, 63–4; see also
-        Möllhausen’s <cite>Tagebuch</cite> and <cite>Journey</cite>; Bancroft, vol. iv.,
-        pp. 645–50.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> In Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 131–3, and
-        copied in a note by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 657.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> See on Chaco ruins, Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>,
-        pp. 34–43, 131–3. Domenech’s <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol. i, pp. 199–200,
-        379–81, 385. Baldwin’s <cite>Anc. Am.</cite>, pp. 86–9, cut; Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 652–62, which we have found of
-        valuable assistance; especially see <cite>Ruins of the Chaco Cañon,
-        examined in 1877</cite>, by W. H. Jackson, in <cite>Tenth Annual Report of U.
-        S. Geol. Survey</cite>. Washington, 1879. Best account.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 74–5, plates
-        53–4, copied by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 652; also see Domenech’s
-        <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol i, p. 201, and <cite>Annual Scienc. Discov.</cite>, 1850, p. 362.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> W. H. Jackson in <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog.
-        Survey of the Territories</cite>, 2d series, No. 1, Washington, 1875, and
-        in the <cite>Annual Report</cite> of the same, Washington, 1876, pp. 369
-        <i>et seq.</i> A condensed though excellent account is furnished by
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 718 <i>et seq.</i> Also a condensed account by
-        Prof. Edwin A. Barber in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg,
-        1877. <cite>Seconde Session</cite>, tom. i, pp. 22–38. Also <i>Ibid.</i>,
-        <cite>The Ancient Pueblos, or Ruins of the Valley of the Rio San Juan</cite>.
-        Parts I, II.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> <cite>Bulletin No. 1</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 11, 12.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> Published in <cite>Bulletin of the Geological and
-        Geographical Survey of the Territories</cite>, vol. ii, No. 1. Washington,
-        1876. Mr. Bancroft’s account in the <cite>Native Races</cite>, necessarily
-        terminates with the close of Mr. Jackson’s labors in 1874.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> See <cite>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western
-        Colorado, examined during the summer of 1875, by W. H. Holmes</cite>,
-        in <cite>Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the
-        Territories</cite>, vol. ii, No. 1. Washington, 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> Ives’ <cite>Colorado River of the West</cite>, pp. 119–26,
-        with plates. The same extract condensed into nearly the same form as
-        above is given by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 667–80.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 662 <i>et seq.</i>,
-        and the authors cited therein.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 663, and Simpson’s
-        <cite>Journal Mil. Recon.</cite>, p. 114.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> I have carefully examined Father Escalante’s
-        <cite>Diario</cite> in the MS. copy deposited in the Congressional Library
-        at Washington, but find nothing to contradict the opinion of recent
-        explorers. The reader will also see Dominguez and Escalante’s <cite>Diario
-        y Derrotero Sante Fé à Monterey</cite>, 1776, in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>
-        Serie ii, tom. i.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> <cite>Ninth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 12.
-        Cambridge, 1876.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>,
-        Cambridge, 1878, pp. 198–200, 267–80.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, pp. 413 <i>et
-        seq.</i>; and this work, chapter I.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> The facts claimed in the following account are drawn
-        from Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii., pp. 171–74 and 175–7.
-        Ward, in <cite>Ind. Aff. Report</cite>, 1864, pp. 192–3. Brinton’s <cite>Myths
-        of the New World</cite>, p. 190. Ten Broeck in Schoolcraft’s <cite>History
-        and Condition of the Indian Tribes</cite>, vol. iv, p. 73, and Tyler’s
-        <cite>Primitive Culture</cite>, vol. ii, p. 384.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Davidson, in <cite>Ind. Aff. Report</cite>, 1865, pp. 131–3,
-        and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 75–77.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> This feature of the legend is beautifully developed by
-        Mr. Bancroft.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> In this account of Montezuma I have used, with few
-        variations, the same language employed by me in treating the subject
-        in an article entitled, “Culture-Heroes of the Ancient Americans,”
-        published in <cite>Appleton’s Journal</cite> for March, 1877, pp. 275–6.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Hindoo Mounds, see Squier’s observations on Dr.
-        Westerman in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, April, 1851; and Atwater,
-        in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 196–267.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Chief among whom are Dupaix, in Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>; Waldeck (exploration performed in 1832–3),
-        Pub. 1866 fol.; Stevens and Catherwood in 1840; M. Morelet in 1846, and
-        Charney in 1858; for best bibliographical treatment, see Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 289–294, note.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Stephens, vol. ii, p. 310: Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p.
-        2, and Brasseur in <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 17; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 300.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 300–1.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. vii. See also Stephens,
-        vol. ii, p. 310; Dupaix, pl. xi.; Kingsborough, vol. iv, pl. xiii;
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 307.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 312.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 303.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 339–43, and Bancroft, vol. iv,
-        pp. 323–27.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> On the tower, see Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. iii, pl.
-        xviii, xix. Morelet’s <cite>Voyage</cite>, tom. i, p. 266. Bancroft, vol. iv,
-        p. 315, and Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 86–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Incidents of Travel in Yucatan</cite>. New
-        York (1st ed. 1843, and others subsequently).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> Waldeck, <cite>Voyage Pittoresque et Archéologique dans
-        la Province d’Yucatan</cite>, Paris, 1838, large fol., 22 illustrations.
-        Norman, <cite>Rambles in Yucatan</cite>, New York, 1843, 8vo, illustrated.
-        Baron von Friederichstal, <cite>Les Monuments de l’Yucatan</cite>, in
-        <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</cite>, 1841, tom. xcii, pp. 297, 314.
-        Charnay, <cite>Cités et Ruines Américaines</cite>, Paris, 1863, large
-        folio. Of many general notices made up from these sources we consider
-        Bancroft’s as the most critical and satisfactory. His note on the
-        bibliography of the subject is also of interest.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> We have followed the measurements of Stephens; seeming
-        to us most accurate. (See <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 165 <i>et
-        seq.</i>) Norman, Charnay and Waldeck all differ in their measurements.
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 154–5 has given a good condensation of the
-        description.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 175. Reproduced in Bancroft,
-        vol. iv, p. 156, and Baldwin, <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 132.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 174. Reproduced by Bancroft,
-        vol. iv, p. 160, and Baldwin, <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 132.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 301. Bancroft, vol.
-        iv, pp. 176–7. Baldwin’s <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 136.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Waldeck reports that a turtle was sculptured upon each
-        of the blocks of the pavement. See <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xii, where
-        four are figured. Stephens, however, found no traces of them. See
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 175.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 313. Waldeck’s
-        <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pp. 95–6, pl. ix, x, xi. Stephens’ <cite>Cent.
-        Amer.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 425 <i>et seq.</i> Charnay’s <cite>Ruines
-        Americ.</cite>, pp. 70 <i>et seq.</i> Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 192 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 397, view of Kabah
-        edifice. See a sectional view in Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 207.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote" lang="fr">
-      <a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> D’abord j’ai été frappé de la ressemblance qu’offrent
-        ces étranges figures des édifices mayas avec la tête de l’éléphant.
-        Cet appendice, placé entre deux yeux et depassant la bouche de presque
-        toute la longueur, m’a semblé ne pouvoir être autre chose que l’image
-        de la trompe d’un proboscidian, car le museau charnu et saillant du
-        tapir n’est pas de cette longueur.—<cite>Waldeck, Voy. Pitt.</cite>, p. 74,
-        pl. xiv, xv. Also <cite>Humboldt, Vues</cite>, ed. 1810, p. 92.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 311–17; Bancroft,
-        vol. iv, pp. 230–36, with plans and cuts from Stephens’ and Baldwin’s
-        <cite>Anc. Amer.</cite>, p. 140.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 130–9; Baldwin, <cite>Anc.
-        Amer.</cite>, p. 129.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 387 <i>et
-        seq.</i>; Bancroft, vol iv, pp. 254–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> The original accounts furnished by actual explorers of
-        Copan are as follows: 1st, by the Licenciado Diego García de Palacio,
-        who prepared an account of his duties and their performance, for the
-        king, Felipe II of Spain, dated March 8, 1576, and preserved in the
-        Muñoz collection of MSS. The account has been published several times,
-        at least once in the United States, in Palacio, <cite>Carta Dirijida al
-        Rey</cite>, Albany, 1860, and translated into English by E. G. Squier;
-        2d, an account by Fuentes y Guzman, in a MS. dated 1689. However, so
-        much as related to Copan was published in 1808 in Juarros, <cite>Compendio
-        de la Hist. de la Ciudad de Guatemala</cite>, trans. in English in 1823;
-        3d, by Col. Juan Galindo, an officer in Central American service
-        (explorations made in 1835), published communication in <cite>Am. Antiq.
-        Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 545–50, and in <cite>Antiq. Mex.</cite>, tom.
-        i, div. ii, pp. 73, 76; 4th, Stephens and Catherwood in 1839, published
-        in <cite>Incidents and Travels in Central America</cite>, vol. i, pp, 95–160.
-        New York, 1841.
-
-      <p>The ruins have been visited by two or three persons since described
-        by Stephens, but the public has not enjoyed the benefit of their
-        researches, as we believe nothing has since been published on Copan.
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg, who visited the ruins in 1863 and 1866,
-        testifies to the perfect accuracy of the descriptions and plates in
-        Stephens’ and Catherwood’s work. A considerable number of notices of
-        Copan have been made up by different writers from these sources. The
-        latest and best of such notices is that by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 77–105, from whose bibliographical note we have
-        drawn somewhat for the above facts.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Juarros, <cite>Hist. Guat.</cite>, pp. 56–7; Stephens’
-        <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. i, p. 144, and Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 82–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 171,
-        182–8, and Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 124–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i,
-        p. 15, and cited by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 131.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> The only comprehensive and satisfactory treatment of the
-        entire field in detail is that by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>,
-        chaps. vii, viii, ix, x.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Third Expedition</cite>, pp. 6–7, pl. iii–v,
-        fig. 6–9; Kingsborough, <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 469, and Mayer’s
-        <cite>Observations on Mexican History and Archæology</cite>, pp. 25–6, and
-        cuts (Smithsonian contribution, No. 86), 1856; Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 368–71, with cuts.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> <cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. ii, p. 282, and Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 375.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Seconde Expédition</cite>, published in
-        Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 255–68, vol. vi, pp. 447–56, vol. iv, pl.
-        xxvii–xli, fig. 81–95, and in <cite>Antiq. Mex.; Seconde Expédition</cite>,
-        pp. 30–44, pl. xxix–xlvi, figs. 78–93.; Charnay, <cite>Cités et Ruines
-        Américaines</cite>, pp. 261–9, photographs ii–xviii, and Viollet-le-Duc
-        in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 74–104; Humboldt obtained his information and
-        plates from the survey and drawings of Don Luis Martin and Col. de la
-        Laguna, who visited the ruins in 1802; see <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. ii, pp.
-        278–85, pl. xvii–xviii, and in his other works on the same subject.
-        The remaining original works are Mühlenpfordt in the <cite>Ilustracion
-        Mejicana</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 493–8; Tempsky’s <cite>Mitla</cite>, pp. 250–3,
-        with plates; Garcia, in <cite>Soc. Mex. Georg. Boletin</cite>, tom. ii,
-        pp. 271–2; Sawkins in Mayer’s <cite>Observations</cite>; Fossey in his
-        <cite>Mexique</cite>, pp. 365–70, and Müller, <cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. ii, pp.
-        279–81. We might append a large number of notices made second-hand from
-        the above, but as they contain nothing original we omit them, and refer
-        the reader who is desirous of examining them, to Bancroft’s note in
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv. p. 391. Our examination of the subject
-        has been confined to the accounts of Dupaix, Humboldt, and Charnay,
-        together with Mr. Bancroft’s critical review of the field. From the
-        latter we draw some of our bibliographical material.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> Charnay, <cite>Mexique</cite>, Phot. iv; also <cite>Cités et
-        Ruines Amér.</cite>, Phot. v, vi. Other views in Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 396–405.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> Fossey, <cite>Mexique</cite>, p. 367, finds twenty-two
-        different styles of grecques in this front, while Mühlenpfordt gives
-        cuts of sixteen different styles in <cite>Ilustracion Mej.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 501.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> See full discussion by Viollet le Duc in Charnay’s
-        <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 78–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> Charnay, phot. x. Mr. Bancroft was not ignorant of this
-        error. Tempsky’s plate served as the guide for Baldwin’s cut.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Seconde Exped.</cite>, pp. 40–1, pl. xliv–v,
-        fig. 93–4. Kingsborough, vol. v, p. 265; vol. vi, p. 455; vol. iv, pl.
-        xl–i, fig. 95, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 413.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> See especially a communication from Mr. Hugo Finck,
-        for twenty-eight years a resident of the region, published in the
-        <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1870, an extract from which is published
-        in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 431–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> Sr. Gondra received considerable information concerning
-        these ruins from some unnamed person, which he published in <cite>Mosaico
-        Mexicano</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 368–72.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 442. This
-        author has given quite a full description of the fortification, and two plates.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 8–9, pl. ix–xi,
-        fig. 9–12; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 215–16; vol. vi, pp. 425–6, pl.
-        v–vi, fig. 11–15; an account in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol.
-        iv, pp. 368–72 and cut.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco y Arqueolójico sobre la
-        República Mejicana</cite>, 1829–34, Paris, 1839, fol.; Mayer’s <cite>Mex.
-        Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 199–200; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>,
-        pp. 247–8, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 47, 55–8,
-        with two illustrations. We have cited Nebel from the latter.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> The original describers of Papantla are Diego Ruiz, in
-        <cite>Gaceta de Mexico</cite>, July 12, 1785, tom. i, pp. 349–51, copied in
-        <cite>Diccionario Univ. Geog.</cite>, tom x, pp. 120–1; also Nebel, <cite>Viaje
-        Pintoresco</cite>. Humboldt states that Dupaix and Castañeda visited the
-        locality, but they published no description, his own description may
-        have been from information received from them; <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i,
-        pp. 102–3; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, p. 274; <i>Ibid.</i>, in
-        <cite>Ant. Mex.</cite>, tom. i, div. ii, p. 12. Of the many descriptions
-        drawn from these sources, those of Mayer, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, vol.
-        ii, pp. 196–7; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, pp. 248–9, and
-        Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 452–4, with cut from
-        Nebel, are probably the best.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Of a large number of notices of Cholula, the most
-        important of the original class are those of Humboldt, <cite>Essai
-        Pol.</cite>, pp. 239–40; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 96–124,
-        fol. 2d, pl. vii–viii; Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, p. 2, pl. xvi,
-        fig. 17, and Kingsborough, vol. v, p. 218, vol. iv, pl. viii, fig. 20;
-        Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. ii, pl. 33–4; Mayer,
-        <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, p. 26, and <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, etc., vol. ii,
-        p. 328, cuts. For most recent reference, though not very scientific,
-        see Evens’ <cite>Our Sister Republic</cite>, pp. 428–32 (1869), and Haven’s
-        <cite>Mexico, Our Next Door Neighbor</cite>, pp. 109–202, 1875. Mr. Bancroft
-        has given a short, though satisfactory notice, especially valuable
-        for its citation of authorities. In a note (11) vol. iv, p. 471–2, a
-        full list of the authors who have written on Cholula will be found,
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 469–77.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> <cite>Reisen</cite>, pp. 131–2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> Heller, <cite>Reisen</cite>, pp. 131–2, cited by Bancroft,
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 473.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> Exploration performed in 1777, and account published in
-        <cite>Gaceta de Literatura</cite>, November, 1791, also tom. ii, p. 127 of
-        the same.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> Copied the proceedings to a considerable extent in
-        <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 129–37, pl. ix, and in <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, pp. 189–90.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 14–18, pl.
-        xxxi–ii, figs. 33–6; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 222–4, vol. iv, pl. xv–vi.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco</cite>, pl. ix–x, xix–xx.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> The Government exploration report in <cite>Revista
-        Mexicana</cite>, tom. i, pp. 539–50, and in <cite>Deccionario Univ.
-        Geog.</cite>, tom. x, pp. 938–42; Mayer’s <cite>Mexico As It Was</cite>, pp.
-        185–7; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, etc., vol. ii, pp. 283–5, with
-        cuts; Tylor’s <cite>Anáhuac</cite>, pp. 183–95. To these original accounts
-        many compiled notices might be added. Mr. Bancroft’s critical review
-        of the sources, supplemented with full bibliographical notes, is
-        valuable and should receive the attention of the reader. See <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 483–98, with several cuts after Nebel. We have
-        found this writer’s summary of facts of great service in making up the
-        following description.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> The vandalic destruction of this Acropolis of Mexican
-        architecture is due to the vulgar cupidity of a neighboring sugar
-        manufacturer, who despoiled it in order to build the furnaces of his
-        refinery.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> See Tylor, <cite>Anahuac</cite>, p. 149, and on the subject in
-        hand.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> See Prescott, book iv, caps. i, ii, vol. ii, Kirk’s ed.
-        of 1875, pp. 100–51.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> See chapter vi, p. 248, this work.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> Almaraz, <cite>Apuntes sobre las Pirámides de San Juan
-        Teotihuacan</cite>. <cite>Mexico</cite>, 1864.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 529–44, and
-        a good bibliographical note on p. 530.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 533. On page
-        548, the same author in a note translates the following interesting
-        passage from Sr. Garcia y Cubas: “The pyramids of Teotihuacan, as they
-        exist to day, are not in their primitive state. There is now a mass of
-        loose stones whose interstices covered with vegetable earth have caused
-        to spring up the multitude of plants and flowers with which the faces
-        of the pyramids are now covered. This mass of stones differs from the
-        plan of construction followed in the body of the monuments and besides
-        the falling of these stones, which has taken place chiefly on the
-        eastern face of the Moon, has laid bare an inclined plane perfectly
-        smooth, which seems to be the true face of the pyramid. This isolated
-        observation would not give so much force to my argument if it were not
-        accompanied by the same circumstances in all the monuments.” This inner
-        smooth surface has an inclination of 47°, differing from the angle of
-        the outer faces. Sr. Garcia y Cubas, conjectures that the Toltecs, the
-        descendants of the civilized architects of these monuments, fearing
-        that they would be despoiled by the savages who followed them, covered
-        up their sacred places with the outer coatings described. See Appendix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> Quemada was at first mentioned by early writers as one
-        of the stations in the Aztec migration. Captain Lyon published in
-        his <cite>Journal</cite>, vol. i. pp. 225–44, the result of explorations
-        performed by him at Los Edificios in 1826. Another report was made by
-        Sr. Esparza from data furnished him by Pedro Rivera in 1830, which
-        appeared in Esparza’s <cite>Informe presentado al Gobierno</cite>, pp. 56–8,
-        and <cite>Museo Mex.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 185 <i>et seq.</i> Herr Berghes
-        made a pretty good survey of the ruins in 1831: his observations were
-        published by Nebel. Herr Burkart, a companion of Berghes, published a
-        description in his <cite>Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico</cite>, tom. ii, pp.
-        97–105. Nebel published his observations in his <cite>Viaje</cite>. Several
-        authors have made up notices from these sources without adding any
-        original information. A list of these, as well as those given above,
-        may be found in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 578–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 438 <i>et
-        seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s <cite>Cités et Ruines,
-        Introduct.</cite>, pp. 28 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> Garcia y Cubas, <cite>Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo
-        entre las Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas</cite>; Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 543–4, and vol. v, pp. 55–6. See Appendix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> Delafield, <cite>Inquiry into the Origin of American
-        Antiquities</cite>, pp. 57–61. 1839. 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> <cite>Mexique</cite>, pp. 274–5. Leipzig, 1843.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> <cite>Historical Researches</cite>, p. 355.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> See further, Clavigero, <cite>Storia del Messico</cite>, tom.
-        iv, pp. 19–20; Jones, <cite>Hist. Anc. Amer.</cite>, p. 122; Bancroft, vol.
-        iv, p. 474; Prescott, <cite>Mex.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 407; Humboldt, <cite>Essai
-        Pol.</cite>, tom. i, p. 265; Tylor’s <cite>Early History</cite>, p. 206.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 92 (fol. ed., 1810),
-        considers that this people was originally from Asia and preserved some
-        remembrance of the elephant, or that in their traditions they had
-        accounts of the mammoth of the American continent.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Waldeck, p. v, pl. xii, xiii. Stephens, <cite>Cent.
-        Am.</cite>, vol ii, pp. 311, 116–17. Dupaix, pp. 20, 37, 75–6, pl.
-        xiv–xxii. Kingsborough, vol. iv, pl. xxvi. Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol iv, pp. 304–6.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. xiv, xv, shows both
-        groups. Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 313. Dupaix, pl. xxiii–iv.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> Waldeck, pl. xiv.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> Waldeck, pl. xvii. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 317–18.
-        Stephens, vol. ii, p. 318. Morelet, p. 97.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. iii, pl. 42. Dupaix, pl.
-        xxxiii, Fig. 37. Kingsborough, pl. xxxv, fig. 37. Stephens, vol. ii, p.
-        355. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 328–30.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> Waldeck, p. vii, pl. xxi–ii. Stephens, vol. ii, pp.
-        345–7. Charnay, p. 419, pl. xxi. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–6.
-        Especially see Rau’s <cite>Palenque Tablet</cite> (Smithsonian Contrib., No.
-        331), for the best account of Tablet of the Cross.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a> Waldeck, pl. 23–24; Stephens, vol. ii, p. 352; Dupaix,
-        p. 24, pl. xxxvii–viii; mention in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> Waldeck, pl. 25; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 344, 349;
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 336–7, with cut.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> Waldeck, pl. xxvi–xxxii; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 351–4;
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 338–41.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> Plates, Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xv–xvii;
-        Charnay’s photographs have attested the accuracy of Waldeck’s drawings;
-        Waldeck’s views reproduced in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yuc.</cite>, vol. i, p. 306; Waldeck’s pl.
-        xvi; also see Charnay’s phot. 39; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–4;
-        Viollet-le-Duc’s drawing in Charnay, p. 65.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> Cut from Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xiii–xviii and
-        p. 100; reproduced by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 185, of which ours is an
-        electrotype copy. See also Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 302–3;
-        Charnay, <cite>Ruines Amer.</cite>, phot. 40, 41, 44; Norman’s <cite>Rambles in
-        Yucatan</cite>, p. 162.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 303–11; Charnay’s
-        <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 140–1, phot. 33, 34; Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 220–36.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> Mr. Salisbury, with the most liberal courtesy, has
-        furnished the heliotypes and photos from which the accompanying
-        engravings were made. We take this opportunity of expressing publicly
-        our thanks for this rare favor.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> <cite>Archæological Communication on Yucatan</cite>, by
-        Dr. Le Plongeon in Salisbury’s <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, p. 65, and
-        <cite>Proceedings of Am. Antiq. Soc.</cite>, October 21, 1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, p. 61.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 62.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> See Torquemada, <cite>Monarchia Indiana</cite>, lib. iv, cap.
-        8, and Herrera, <cite>Hist. Gen. Ind.</cite>, decade ii, lib. iv, cap. 17,
-        quoted by Salisbury, <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, pp. 33–35.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> See <cite>Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres</cite>, by
-        Stephen Salisbury, Jr., in <cite>Maya Archæology</cite> (heliotypes).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Stephens, <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 103–4, 134–43
-        with plates; Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 302–322, 338–9;
-        Galindo in <cite>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 548–9;
-        Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 89–105, with cuts.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 371, 381, 385, 387, 414, 415,
-        421, 427, 428, 435, 436, 455, 457, 462, has figured some of these, but
-        all indicate an order of art inferior to the Maya.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco</cite>; Mayer’s <cite>Mex.
-        Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 199, 200; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 457–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Vetch, in <cite>London Geog. Soc. Jour.</cite>, vol. vii, pp.
-        1–11, plate; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 462.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Third Expedition</cite>, p. 5, pl. i–ii;
-        <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 3–4, pl. i–ii, fig. 1,
-        2; p. 10, pl. xii; pp. 12–13, pl. xvii–xxii, fig. 19, 24; <cite>Second
-        Expedition</cite>, p. 51, pl. lxi, fig. 117; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp.
-        285–6; vol. iv, pl. i–ii, fig. 1–3; vol. vi, p. 467; vol. v, pp.
-        209–10; vol. vi, pp. 421–2; vol. iv, pl. i, fig. 1–4; vol. v, p. 217;
-        vol. iv, p. vi, fig. 16, and Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 467–69.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Dupaix, <cite>First Expedition</cite>, p. 14; Bancroft, vol.
-        iv, p. 481.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> This work, p. 372.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 499, has reproduced some of them.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 332 <i>et seq.</i>;
-        tom. ii, pp. 1 <i>et seq.</i> and 84–5, pl. viii, (fol. ed. pl. xxiii);
-        <cite>Mayer, Mexico As it Was</cite>, pp. 126–8; Prescott, <cite>Conq. Mex.</cite>,
-        vol. i, pp. 126, 145–6; vol. ii, pp. 112, ed. 1875; Bancroft, vol. iv.
-        pp. 505–9, and cut.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 148–61 (fol. ed.,
-        pl. xxix); <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Antiq. Mex.</cite>, tom. i, div. ii, pp. 25–7,
-        suppl. pl. vi; Nebel, <cite>Viaje</cite>, with large plate; Mayer, <cite>Mex.
-        Aztec</cite>, vol. i, pp. 108–11; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>,
-        pp. 109–14; Bullock’s <cite>Mexico</cite>, pp. 337–42; Leon y Gama, <cite>Dos
-        Piedras</cite>, pt. i, pp. 1–3, 9, 10, 34, and five plates latterly cited
-        by Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 512–15, four plates.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 517; Mayer, <cite>Mexico As it
-        Was</cite>, pl. 100–1; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, p. 274.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. 55.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. viii, pl. xliv. Tylor’s
-        <cite>Anahuac</cite>, pp. 110, 337, for information concerning the masks.
-        Also Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 557–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Contribution</cite>, No. 287, pp. 82–7
-        (1876).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> <cite>Hist. Kingdom Guatemala</cite>, p. 19. Lond., 1823.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> F. Giordan, <cite>Description et colonization de l’Isthme
-        de Tehuantepec</cite>, p. 57. Paris, 1838.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> Melgar in <cite>Mex. Geog. Soc. Bolletin</cite>, 2d época,
-        tom. iii, p. 112 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> Dr. Max Uhlmann, <cite>Handbuch der gesamten Ægyptischen
-        Alterthumskunde</cite>, I <cite>Theil. Geschichte der Egyptologie</cite>, p.
-        108. Leipzig, 1857.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> Botta, <cite>Mon. de Ninive</cite>, vol. ii, pl. 58, and
-        <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite> for Jan. 1870, p. 231.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> John Newton in Appendix to Inman’s <cite>Ancient Pagan and
-        Modern Christian Symbolism</cite>, p. 116. London, 1874.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> <cite>Saturn</cite>, lib. i, cap. 20.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> Zoeckler, <cite>Das Kreutz Christi</cite>, p. 9, Güterslo,
-        1875, and <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite>, Jan. 1870, p. 232.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> Mr. Bancroft remarks, “He happens, however, here to have
-        selected two Egyptian subjects which almost find their counterparts in
-        America. In the preceding volume of this work, page 333, is given a cut
-        of what is called the ‘Tablet of the Cross’ at Palenque. In this we
-        see a cross and perched upon it a bird, to which (or to the cross) two
-        human figures in profile, apparently priests, are making an offering.
-        In Mr. Stephens’ representation from the Vocal Memnon we find almost
-        the same thing, the differences being, that instead of an ornamented
-        Latin cross, we have here a <i lang="la">crux commissa</i>, or <i lang="la">patibulata</i>;
-        that instead of one bird there are two, not on the cross but
-        immediately above it, and that the figures, though in profile and
-        holding the same general positions, are dressed in a different manner,
-        and are apparently binding the cross with the lotus instead of making
-        an offering to it; in Mr. Stephens’ representation from the obelisk of
-        Carnac, however, a priest is evidently making an offering to a large
-        bird perched upon an altar; and here again the human figures occupy the
-        same position. The hieroglyphics, though the characters are of course
-        different, are, it will be noticed, disposed upon the stone in much the
-        same manner. The frontispiece of Stephens’ <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. ii,
-        described on p. 352, represents the tablet, on the back wall of the
-        altar, Casa No. 3 at Palenque. Once more here are two priests clad in
-        all the elaborate insignia of their office, standing one on either side
-        of a table or altar, upon which are erected two batons, crossed in such
-        a manner as to form a <i lang="la">crux decussata</i>, and supporting a hideous
-        mask. To this emblem they are making an offering.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 60–1, note.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> W. H. Holmes in <cite>Bulletin of the Geog. and Geol.
-        Survey of the Territories</cite>, Vol. II, No. I, p. 20, Pl. 11 and 12.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 44. Villagutierre,
-        <cite>Conq.Itza</cite>, pp. 393–4. Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 768.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 316.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> Peter Martyr, Dec. iv, lib. viii. Bancroft, vol. ii, pp.
-        769–70.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 342, 453–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p.
-        780. Brasseur’s admission will be found in the <cite>Bibliothéque
-        Mexico-Guatemalienne</cite>, Paris, 1871, p. xxvii. The translation,
-        prefaced with 136 quarto pages devoted to a consideration of the Maya
-        characters, is published under the title, <cite>MS. Troano: Etudes sur le
-        systéme graphique et la langue des Mayas</cite>. Paris, 1869–70. 4to, 2
-        vols., 70 colored plates.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 773, plate, p. 774.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> The original of Landa’s explanation is as follows: <span lang="es">“De
-        sus letras porne aqui un <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, que no permite
-        su pesadumbre mas porque usan para todas las aspiraciones de las letras
-        de un caracter, y despues, al puntar de las partes otro, y assi viene a
-        hazer <i lang="la">in infinitum</i>, como se podra ver en el siguiente exemplo:
-        <i>Lé</i>, quiere dezir laço y caçar con el; para escrivirle con sus
-        carateres, haviendoles nosotros hecho entender que son dos letras, lo
-        escrivian ellos con tres, puniendo a la aspiracion de la <i>l</i> la
-        vocale <i>é</i> que antes de si trae, y en esto no hierran. aunque
-        usense, si quisieren ellos de su curiosidad, exemplo: <i>e L e Lé.</i>
-        Despues al cabo le pegan la parte junta. <i>Ha</i> que quiere dezir
-        agua, porque la <i>haché</i> tiene <i>a</i>, <i>h</i>, antes de si
-        la ponen ellos al prinicipio con <i>a</i>, y al cabo deste manera,
-        <i>ha</i>. Tambien lo escriven a partes pero de la una y otra manera,
-        yo no pusiera aqui ni tratara dello sino por dar cuenta enters de las
-        cosas desta gente. <i>Ma in kati</i> quiere dezir no quiero, ellos
-        lo escriven a partes desta manera: <i>ma i n ka ti.</i>”</span>—<cite>Landa,
-        Relacion</cite>, p. 318, translated by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol.
-        ii, p. 778.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 322.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> Bollaert, <cite>Examination of Central American
-        Hieroglyphs</cite>, in <cite>Memoirs of Anthropological Soc. of London</cite>,
-        vol. iii, pp. 288–314. London, 1870.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> Charencey, <cite>Essai de Déchiffrement d’un fragment
-        d’inscription palenquéenne</cite>, in <cite>Actes de la Société
-        Philologique</cite>, tom. i. March, 1870.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> Rosny, <cite>Essai sur le Déchiffrement de L’Écriture
-        Hiératique de L’Amérique Centrale</cite>, Paris, 1876, folio, with large
-        colored plates and fac-similes. In three parts, two of which only have
-        as yet appeared (Oct. 1878). The author informs me (Feb. 1879) that a
-        fourth part will be required to complete the work.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> Bollaert in <cite>Memoirs of Anthropol. Soc. of London</cite>,
-        vol. iii, p. 298.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 301.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 307.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> See a review of these attempts in Rosny’s <cite>Essai</cite>,
-        pp. 12–13, and remarks on Charencey in Appendix D of Baldwin’s
-        <cite>Ancient America</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> <cite>Examination of Cent. Am. Hier.</cite>, p. 306.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> <cite>The Ancient Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan</cite>, p. 6,
-        N. Y., 1870, cited by Rosny, <cite>Essai</cite>, p. 25.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> <cite>Essai</cite>, p. 26; Rosny cites Bancroft’s opinion to
-        the same effect, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 782.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 529–33.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 537.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt, Kingsborough, Ramirez in
-        Garcia y Cubas, and Bancroft; see this work, chapter vi, p. 262.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> Vol. ii, pp. 544–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. i, pl. lxi; explanation, vol.
-        v, pp. 96–7; Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 538–40.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> Delafield, <cite>Antiq. of Am.</cite>, pp. 42–7. M. Ed.
-        Madier de Montjau has recently added much to our understanding of
-        Aztec picture-writing in his Chronologie hieroglyphico-phonétic des
-        rois Aztèques de 1352–1522 retrouvée dans diverses mappes américaines
-        antiques, expliquée et précédée d’une introduction sur l’Écriture
-        mexicaine. A valuable article on the same subject is found in the
-        <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. ii, pp.
-        346–362, by M. l’Abbé Jules Pipart, entitled Eléments phonétiques dans
-        les Ecritures figuratives des anciens Mexicains.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> An excellent account of the various collections of
-        Aztec picture-writing will be found in the introduction to Domenech’s
-        <cite>Manuscrit Pictographique</cite>, Paris, 1860, 8vo; a book which would
-        be valueless but for that feature. See also account of M. Aubun’s
-        collection in Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i,
-        pp. lxxvi–lxxviii. For general description of hieroglyphic principles
-        see Tylor, <cite>Researches</cite>, pp. 89–101, and Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>,
-        tom. i, pp. 177–9, 162–202. See also Boturini, <cite>Idea de una
-        Hist.</cite>, pp. 5, 77, 87, 96, 112, 116. Prescott, <cite>Conq. Mex.</cite>
-        (Kirk’s ed., 1875), vol. i, pp. 94, 99, 107–9. Clavigero, <cite>Storia
-        Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 187–94. Mendoza, in <cite>Soc. Mex.
-        Geog. Boletin</cite>, 2d época, tom. i, pp. 896–904. Gallatin in <cite>Amer.
-        Ethno. Soc. Transact.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 126, 165–69. Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 87, and Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Hist.
-        Chich.</cite> in Kingsborough, vol. ix, p. 201. Torquemada, <cite>Monarq.
-        Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 149. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 521–52.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Landa, <cite>Relation</cite>, pp. 204–316, and the work by
-        Perez, entitled <cite>Cronologia Antigua de Yucatan</cite>, with Brasseur’s
-        translation into French in the above work, pp. 366–429. Also see
-        English translation in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 434–59.
-        See also Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 104–8, and an able
-        discussion in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 755–67.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 204. Bancroft’s <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 756.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 757.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> See Perez’s Appendix to Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol.
-        i, pp. 458–59, and in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, Appendix, pp. 370–382,
-        and Brasseur in the same. Especially Rosny, <cite>Essai sur le Dech. de
-        L’Écrit. Hiérat. de L’Amér. Cent.</cite>, pp. 15–24.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 234. Perez in Landa, pp. 394
-        <i>et seq.</i>, and in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 439; also
-        see Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 759 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> Perez in Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 366–8; also cited
-        by Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 759.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 318–19. Stephens
-        was unable to assign any use to the pillars referred to. He counted
-        upwards of 380. Dr. Le Plongeon accords with our view.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 441 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> See Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 313, 400–412; Stephens,
-        <cite>Yucatan</cite>, Perez, vol. i, pp. 441–447, MS. cited in vol. ii,
-        pp. 465–469; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 762–765; M.
-        Delaporte, <cite>Le Calendrier Yucatèque</cite>, MS. cited by Rosny, <cite>Essai
-        sur le déchiffrement de L’Écriture Hiératique</cite>, p. 25.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> Perez in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 447.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. i, lib. ii, pp. 49–76;
-        lib. iv, pp. 282–310, gives a partial though very satisfactory account.
-        Leon y Gama, <cite>Dos Piedras</cite>, is critical and learned, but often
-        incorrect. Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, furnishes an elaborate account, which
-        is very valuable though complicated. Veytia’s explanation is the result
-        of thorough research, <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej.</cite>, tom. i. Gallatin is
-        extremely clear and reliable in <cite>Amer. Ethno. Soc. Transactions</cite>,
-        vol. i. McCulloch’s <cite>Researches in Amer.</cite>, pp. 201–25. Bancroft’s
-        <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 502–22, furnishes us an account,
-        clear and full, as are all of his discussions. Several cuts enhance
-        the value of the chapter. We especially refer the reader to his rich
-        bibliography of the subject, appended in notes. A number of additional
-        authors are before us: Ixtlilxochitl, Müller, Herrera, Clavigero,
-        Brasseur de Bourbourg, Boturini, Prichard, but last and best is the
-        ingenious and masterly <cite>Vortrag über den Mexicanischen Calender stein
-        gehalten von Prof.</cite> <cite>Ph. Valentini, am 30 April, 1878</cite> (in
-        Republican Hall, New York), <cite>vor dem Deutsch ges. wissenschaftlichen
-        Verein</cite>, 32 pp. 8vo, recently translated and published by Stephen Salisbury, Jr.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 508.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> Mr. Bancroft also follows the opinion that the above
-        date is the correct one.—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 515.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 512.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> Prof. Valentini, <cite>Vortrag</cite>, p. 16.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 513.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> Mr. Bancroft incorrectly states that thirteen days were
-        intercalated at the end of each tlalpilli (13 years). It is plain
-        that if 365 days constitute a year, the lost time would not amount to
-        thirteen days before fifty-two years.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> Prof. Valentini quotes the terms given above, and Mr.
-        Bancroft states that the same process of computation was pursued in
-        both divisions.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> See <cite>The Nation</cite> for Aug. 8, 1878, p. 84, and
-        for Sept. 19, 1878. Also Mr. Salisbury’s translation of Valentini’s
-        <cite>Vortrag</cite>, Worcester, 1879.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> Prof. Valentini cites <cite>Codex Vaticanus</cite>, pl.
-        91, <cite>Codex Boturini</cite>, pl. 10, <cite>Codex Tellerianus</cite>, pl. 6
-        and 8. The Professor in making the comparison, remarks: <span lang="de">“Auf beiden
-        senkt sich ein Schaft in ein rundes Loch, von welchem aus sich etwas
-        volutenähnliches hervorwindet. Wir gewahren auf den gemalten Bildern,
-        dass jede der Voluten in 2 Hälften getheilt ist, die eine grau die
-        andere roth gemalt. Dieselbe Abtheilung finden wir auch auf der
-        Sculptur. Was dieses Symbol bedeute, wird uns aus der Beobachtung klar,
-        dass wir es in den gemalten Jahrestafeln immer nur dann wiederkehrend
-        finden, sobald 52 Jahre verflossen sind. Wir sehen es immer gerade an
-        das Symbol dieses 52ten Jahres angehängt, an einer Stelle, in Cod.
-        Tell. IV, Pl. 8. 1. Kingsb. Coll., vol. i, es erscheint auch mit einem
-        erklärenden Texte. Er lautet: ‘<cite>Dieses ist das Zeichen für die
-        Zusammenbindung der 52 Jahre.</cite>’”</span>—<cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 23, 24.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> Prof. Valentini, <cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 24, 25, cites
-        <cite>Codex Selden</cite>, pl. 10, <cite>Codex Laud</cite>, pl. 8, and <cite>Codex
-        Veletri</cite>, fol. 34.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> Prof. Valentini cites a Codex from the Squier
-        collection, where the symbol occurs accompanied with the word
-        <i>Molpiynxihuitl</i>, which translated means “the binding of the
-        years.” He also cites <cite>Codex Boturini</cite>, pl. 10, Kingsborough
-        Collection.—<cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 25, 26.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon in <cite>Yucatan</cite>, by Stephen Salisbury,
-        Jr., p. 88. Worcester, 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 254 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, pp. 148 <i>et seq.</i> (Ed.
-        1810.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 152. On page 150 he furnishes tables
-        of comparison which show unmistakably the analogy between the Mexican
-        Calendar and that of the people of Eastern Asia.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> Cabrera, <cite>Teatro</cite> in <cite>Rio’s Description</cite>, pp.
-        103–5.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> Delafield’s <cite>American Antiquities</cite>, pp. 52–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 174, 182.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. vi, p. 163.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. viii, p. 19.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> “It is impossible on reading what Mexican mythology
-        records of the war in heaven, and of the fall of Zoutemoque and
-        the other rebellious spirits; of the creation of light by the word
-        Touacatecutli, and of the division of the waters; of the sin of
-        Yztlacohuhqui, and his blindness and nakedness; of the temptation of
-        Suchiquecal and her disobedience in gathering roses from a tree, and
-        the consequent misery and disgrace of herself and all her posterity—not
-        to recognize scriptural analogies. But the Mexican tradition of the
-        deluge is that which bears the most unequivocal marks of having been
-        derived from a Hebrew source. This tradition records that a few
-        persons escaped in the Ahuehuete, or ark of fir, when the earth was
-        swallowed up by the deluge, the chief of whom was named Patecatle or
-        Cipaquetona; that he invented the art of making wine; that Xelua, one
-        of his descendants, at least one of those who escaped with him in the
-        ark, was present at the building of a high tower, which the succeeding
-        generation constructed with a view of escaping from the deluge should
-        it again occur; that Tonacatecutli, incensed at their presumption,
-        destroyed the tower with lightning, confounded their language and
-        dispersed them; and that Xelua led a colony to the New World.”—<cite>Mex.
-        Antiq.</cite>, tom. vi, p. 401.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relaciones</cite> in <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>,
-        vol. ix, and this work, chap. vi.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 66,
-        68.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 27.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 246.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 253.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 361.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 67.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 137.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 382.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 238; washing of hands after
-        meals, see p. 53, Appendix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 414; vol. viii, p. 18.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> The following is Kingsborough’s account of the Mexican
-        baptism: “The midwife took the infant in her arms naked, and carried it
-        into the court of the mother’s house, in which court were strewed reeds
-        or rushes, which they call Tule, upon which was placed a small vessel
-        of water, in which the said midwife bathed the said infant; and after
-        she had bathed it, three boys being seated near the said rushes, eating
-        roasted maize mixed with boiled beans, which kind of food they named
-        Yxcue, which provision or paste they set before the said boys, in order
-        that they might eat it. After the said bathing or washing, the said
-        midwife desired the said boys to pronounce the name aloud, bestowing a
-        new name on the infant which had been thus bathed; and the name which
-        they gave it was that which the midwife wished.”—<cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>,
-        vol. vi, p. 45.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 248.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 69.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 163 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 167.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 248.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 125; <cite>Codex
-        Telleriano-Remensis</cite>, pl. xix; <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vii,
-        pp. 240–1, and Duran, MS., part ii, cap. 20; see further, <cite>Mex.
-        Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 135–218.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 121–2. He cites several
-        authors to prove this sweeping statement, and is not content with
-        finding it among the Indians, but is provoked by his zeal to discover
-        the practice of the same rite among the Hottentots. See <i>Ibid.</i>,
-        vol. vi, pp. 272, 333–5; vol. viii, pp. 143, 391, 20. On page 393, vol
-        vi, he makes this remarkable statement: “From an examination of some
-        of the Mexican paintings, it would appear that circumcision among the
-        Indians was not confined to the human species.” Also vol. viii, p. 155:
-        “The head of the Totonac high-priest, was anointed by the blood of
-        circumcised children.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 273; vol. viii, pp. 157,
-        236, 160.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 504.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 361.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 257.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 222.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 142.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 258.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 301, 312; vol. viii, pp.
-        23–58.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 27.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 32.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, pp. 26–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 190.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 207–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 261.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 207–8. He thinks the
-        gospel must have been preached at an early day in Yucatan, and in proof
-        cites from the sixth chapter of the Fourth Book of Cogolludo’s History
-        the following: “A certain ecclesiastic wrote to a priest commissioned
-        by Las Casas, that he met a principle-lord, who, on being questioned
-        respecting the ancient religion which they professed, told him that
-        they knew and believed in the God who was in Heaven, and that this
-        God was the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, and that the Father was named
-        Yzona, who had created man; and that the Son was called Bacab, who was
-        born of a virgin of the name of Chiribirias, and that the mother of
-        Chiribirias was named Yxchel; and that the Holy Ghost was named Echvah.
-        Of Bacab, the Son, they said he was put to death and scourged and
-        crowned with thorns and placed with his arms extended upon a beam of
-        wood, to which they did not suppose that he had been nailed, but that
-        he was tied, where he died and remained dead during three days, and on
-        the third day came to life and ascended into heaven, where he is with
-        his Father; and that immediately afterwards Echvah, who is the Holy
-        Ghost, came and filled the earth with whatsoever it stood in need of.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> Mr. Bancroft in his fifth vol., pp. 84–89, has collated
-        a great number of Lord Kingsborough’s analogies. Our limited space
-        forbids further treatment.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt’s
-        <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, p. 236.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt,
-        <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 256; Tschudi, <cite>Peruvian Antiq.</cite>, p. 211.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 230 (ed. 1810).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s <cite>Ruins</cite>, pp. 41–2.
-        Paris, 1863.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 148 (ed. 1810).
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages</cite>, pp. 108–455.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> Brasseur in <cite>Introduction</cite> to Landa’s
-        <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. lxx–i.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, <cite>Introduc.</cite>, pp. lxxi
-        <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa, pp. lxvi–ix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> We have not thought it necessary to treat the mythology
-        or religious systems of the Mayas and Nahuas in any formal manner,
-        but only incidentally to call attention to some salient features,
-        cropping out in connection with the subject in hand. The religions of
-        the ancient Americans have been so often and so admirably treated, that
-        anything relating to them in this connection would be superfluous.
-        See especially Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii; Müller’s
-        <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</cite>; Squier’s <cite>Serpent
-        Symbol in America</cite>; Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, and
-        <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Religious Sentiments in the New World</cite>.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> <cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 134–6. London, 1873.
-        12mo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> Spanish, in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol.
-        viii, pp. 110–15.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> English translation in Prescott’s <cite>Mexico</cite>, vol.
-        iii, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 494–97.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_704" href="#FNanchor_704" class="label">[704]</a> <cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 125–26.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_705" href="#FNanchor_705" class="label">[705]</a> The same author refers to the classification of
-        languages adopted by Prof. Steinthal in his <cite>Charakteristik der
-        hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues</cite>. Languages are divided
-        into <em>cultivated</em> and <em>uncultivated</em>, and each again
-        are subdivided into <em>isolating</em> and <em>inflectional</em>. The
-        American languages are classed as uncultivated and inflectional by
-        incorporation.—(<cite>Families of Speech</cite>, p. 127.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_706" href="#FNanchor_706" class="label">[706]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 559,
-        670–2. See on the latter page especially a vocabulary of resemblances.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_707" href="#FNanchor_707" class="label">[707]</a> We refer the reader who is interested in the aboriginal
-        languages of the North-west to the <cite>Contributions to North American
-        Ethnology</cite>, published by the Department of the Interior, under the
-        direction of Major J. W. Powell, Washington, 1877. 3 vols. 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_708" href="#FNanchor_708" class="label">[708]</a> Garcia y Cubas, <cite>The Republic of Mexico in 1876</cite>.
-        A political and ethnographical division of the population, etc.,
-        translated by Geo. F. Henderson, p. 66. Mexico, 1876. Most of the above
-        names are cited by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p.
-        760; by Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 18–25 <i>et passim</i>,
-        and by Pimentel, <cite>Lenguas Indígenas de Mex.</cite>, vol. ii, p. 5 <i>et
-        seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_709" href="#FNanchor_709" class="label">[709]</a> <cite>Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, vol. ii, p. 3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_710" href="#FNanchor_710" class="label">[710]</a> <cite>Geografía de las Lenguas de Mex.</cite>, pp. 129.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_711" href="#FNanchor_711" class="label">[711]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 760,
-        and the literary apparatus appended.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_712" href="#FNanchor_712" class="label">[712]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 22, 128.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_713" href="#FNanchor_713" class="label">[713]</a> Communication of Dr. Le Plongeon to the Hon. John W.
-        Foster, minister of the United States at Mexico, dated Island of
-        Cozumel, May 1, 1877, in Salisbury’s <cite>Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>,
-        p. 83.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_714" href="#FNanchor_714" class="label">[714]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon, communication to Stephen Salisbury,
-        Jr., Esq., dated Island of Cozumel, June 15, 1877. He remarks:
-        “Notwithstanding a few guttural sounds, the Maya is soft, pliant,
-        rich in diction and expression, even every shade of thought may be
-        expressed.” “Strange to say the language remained unaltered. Even
-        to-day, in many places in Yucatan the descendants of the Spanish
-        conquerors have forgotten the native tongue of their sires, and only
-        speak Maya, the idiom of the vanquished.”—<cite>Communication above cited
-        in Salisbury’s Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, pp. 95 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_715" href="#FNanchor_715" class="label">[715]</a> The following is Señor Melgar’s comparative list with
-        the Spanish translated into English.
-
-      <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya language">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th><i>Hebrew.</i></th>
-            <th><i>English.</i></th>
-            <th><i>Chiapenec.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Ben,</td>
-            <td>Son,</td>
-            <td>Been.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Bath,</td>
-            <td>Daughter,</td>
-            <td>Batz.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Abbá,</td>
-            <td>Father,</td>
-            <td>Abagh.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Chimah,</td>
-            <td>Star in Zodiac? the creator of rain,</td>
-            <td>Chimax.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Maloc,</td>
-            <td>King,</td>
-            <td>Molo.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Abah,</td>
-            <td>Name applied to Adam,</td>
-            <td>Abagh.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Chanan,</td>
-            <td>Afflicted,</td>
-            <td>Chanam.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Elab,</td>
-            <td>God,</td>
-            <td>Elab.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Tischiri,</td>
-            <td>September,</td>
-            <td>Tsiquin.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Chi,</td>
-            <td>More,</td>
-            <td>Chic.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Chabic,</td>
-            <td>Rich,</td>
-            <td>Chabin.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Enos,</td>
-            <td>Son of Seth,</td>
-            <td>Enot.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Votan,</td>
-            <td>To give,</td>
-            <td>Votan.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Lambotus,</td>
-            <td>River of Arica,</td>
-            <td>Lambat.</td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-
-      <p>He adds: <span lang="es">“Todas estas coincidencias hacer suponer que en épocas muy
-        remotas existeron communicaciones entre el viejo y el nuevo mundo.”</span> He
-        then refers to Plato’s <cite>Atlantis</cite>.—<cite>Melgar in Sociedad Mex. de
-        Geog. Boletin</cite>, iii, <cite>Época</cite>, p. 108.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_716" href="#FNanchor_716" class="label">[716]</a> Brasseur’s letter to M. Rafn in <cite>Nouvelles Annales des
-        Voy.</cite>, 6th series, vol. xvi, p. 263. He thinks the Scandinavians
-        may have reached those remote parts at an early day. On pp. 281–9 he
-        gives a list of words chosen from the Quiché, Cakchiquel and Zutohil,
-        showing analogies with languages of Northern Europe, especially with
-        the Scandinavian. Also see the same author in the <cite>Nouv. Ann. des
-        Voy.</cite>, 6th series, vol. iii, 1855, pp. 156–7. The Abbé in a letter
-        to the <cite>New York Tribune</cite>, November 21st, 1855, in referring
-        to the early inhabitants of Vera Paz, says: “<em>They came from the
-        east</em>—not from the south-east, <em>but from the north-east</em>. I
-        speak only of the tribes of Quiché-Cakchiquel and Zutohil. They came
-        from the north-east, certainly passed through the United States, and as
-        they say themselves, <em>they crossed the sea in darkness, mist, cold
-        and snow</em>. I suppose they must have come from Denmark and Norway.
-        They came in small numbers, and lost their white blood by their mixture
-        with the Indians whom they found—whether in the United States or in
-        these regions, certainly there must have been a Tula in our northern
-        European countries. But what is more convincing of this migration or
-        passage, I find the same result by a comparison of the languages. I
-        cannot speak of the structure of them, but by what I have observed is
-        that the fundamental forms and words of the languages of these regions
-        (except the Mexican) are intimately connected with the Maya or Tzendal,
-        and that all the words that are neither Mexican nor Maya belong to our
-        languages of Northern Europe, viz.: English, Saxon, Danish, Norwegian,
-        Swedish, Flemish and German, some even appear to belong to the French
-        or Persian.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_717" href="#FNanchor_717" class="label">[717]</a> Dr. Farrar, referring to the Basque, says: “What is
-        certain about it is, that its structure is polysynthetic, like the
-        language of America. Like them, and them only, it habitually forms its
-        compounds by the elimination of certain radicals in the simple words;
-        so that, <i>e. g.</i>, <i>ilhun</i>, twilight, is contracted from
-        <i>hill</i>, dead, and <i>egun</i>, day; and <i>belhaun</i>, the knee,
-        from <i>belhar</i>, front, and <i>oin</i>, leg. It was this fact that
-        made Larramendi give to his treatise on Basque grammar the title of
-        ‘The Impossible Overcome.’ The most daring of all the hypotheses which
-        have been suggested points to the conceivable existence of some great
-        Atlantis; to the possibility of the ‘Basque area being the remains of
-        a vast system, of which Madeira and the Azores are fragments belonging
-        to the Miocene period.’ Be this as it may, the fact is indisputable
-        and is eminently noteworthy that, while the affinities of the Basque
-        roots have never been conclusively elucidated, there has never been
-        any doubt that this isolated language, preserving its identity in a
-        western corner of Europe between two mighty kingdoms, resembles in its
-        grammatical structure the aboriginal languages of the vast opposite
-        continent, and those alone.”—<cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 132–3.
-        Also see Alfred Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indigenous Races of the
-        Earth</cite>, p. 48.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_718" href="#FNanchor_718" class="label">[718]</a> See Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indig. Races</cite>, pp.
-        81–84.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_719" href="#FNanchor_719" class="label">[719]</a> Salisbury’s <cite>Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, p. 96.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_720" href="#FNanchor_720" class="label">[720]</a> See on the Maya, Ruz, <cite>Gram. Yucateca</cite>; Pimentel,
-        <cite>Quadro Leng. Indig.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 5 <i>et seq.</i>, whose
-        grammar we have followed above. Also vol. ii, pp. 119, 221; vol. i,
-        p. 229, for idioms; Gallatin in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Transact.</cite>,
-        vol. i, pp. 252 et seq.; Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>. tom. iii, pt.
-        iii, pp. 4–24; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Grammaire</cite> in Landa’s
-        <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 459 <i>et seq.</i>, also <cite>Maya and French
-        Vocabulary</cite>; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 759–82,
-        quotes prayer as above. Further see literature cited in Ludewig’s
-        <cite>Literature of American Aboriginal Languages</cite>, ed. of Trübner.
-        London, 1858, pp. 102–3.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_721" href="#FNanchor_721" class="label">[721]</a> Full accounts of the grammatical structure of the
-        languages of this family may be found in Pimentel’s <cite>Quadro</cite>, tom.
-        i, pp. 35–78, 321–60; Orozco y Berra’s <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 25 <i>et
-        seq.</i>; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 748–58.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_722" href="#FNanchor_722" class="label">[722]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Hist. Chic.</cite> in Kingsborough’s
-        <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 217, and cited by Bancroft, <cite>Native
-        Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 724.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_723" href="#FNanchor_723" class="label">[723]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 724–5; Pimentel,
-        <cite>Quadro Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 154–8, and our
-        discussion in this work, chapter vi. p. 255.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_724" href="#FNanchor_724" class="label">[724]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 726–7. The same
-        author refers to the <cite>Natural History</cite> of Dr. Hernandez, written
-        in the Aztec, as proof of its copiousness. “Twelve hundred different
-        species of Mexican plants, two hundred or more species of birds, and a
-        large number of quadrupeds, reptiles, insects and metals, each of which
-        is given its proper name in the Mexican language.” (Quoted by Pimentel,
-        <cite>Quadro.</cite>, vol. i, p. 168.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_725" href="#FNanchor_725" class="label">[725]</a> See Prescott’s <cite>Conq. of Mex.</cite>, vol. i, p. 174 (ed.
-        of 1875). “Tezcuco,” says Boturini, “where the noblemen sent their sons
-        to acquire the most polished dialect of the Nahuatlac language, and
-        to study poetry, moral philosophy, the heathen theology, astronomy,
-        medicine and history.” (<cite>Idea</cite>, p. 142, cited by Prescott.)
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_726" href="#FNanchor_726" class="label">[726]</a> <cite>Geografía de las Lenguas</cite>, p. 9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_727" href="#FNanchor_727" class="label">[727]</a> Pimentel, <cite>Quadro, Lenguas Indig.</cite>, p. 165, also
-        copied by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 731. From
-        Pimentel we draw our extract of Aztec Grammar.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_728" href="#FNanchor_728" class="label">[728]</a> <cite>Quadro, Leng. Indig.</cite>, tom. i, p. 183.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_729" href="#FNanchor_729" class="label">[729]</a> It will be observed in some portions of this abstract,
-        I have used almost the same words as are employed by Mr. Bancroft.
-        This is owing to the fact that both he and I have translated certain
-        passages literally from Señor Pimentel, from whose work I have drawn
-        this account throughout. See <cite>Quadro, Lenguas Indig. de Mex.</cite>,
-        tom. i, pp. 164–216; Gallatin in <cite>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>,
-        vol. i, pp. 214–246; Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>, vol. iii, pt. iii, pp.
-        85–106, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 721–37.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_730" href="#FNanchor_730" class="label">[730]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 726.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_731" href="#FNanchor_731" class="label">[731]</a> <cite>Mithridates</cite>, tom. iii, pt. iii, pp. 75 <i>et
-        seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_732" href="#FNanchor_732" class="label">[732]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 663–70, our
-        authority for the facts stated on p. 486. See his sketch of the theory
-        and the reaction under Buschmann.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_733" href="#FNanchor_733" class="label">[733]</a> <cite>Die Lautveränderung Aztekischer Wörter in der
-        Sonorischen Sprachen.</cite> Berlin, 1855, 4to, and <cite>Die Spuren der
-        Aztekischen Sprachen</cite>. Berlin, 1850, 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_734" href="#FNanchor_734" class="label">[734]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 669.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_735" href="#FNanchor_735" class="label">[735]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 667–8;
-        William von Humboldt in Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite> pp.
-        48–50; Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, p. 39.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_736" href="#FNanchor_736" class="label">[736]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 172; Orozco
-        y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 321–5; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>,
-        vol. iii, p. 714.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_737" href="#FNanchor_737" class="label">[737]</a> <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 58, 147–8.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_738" href="#FNanchor_738" class="label">[738]</a> “As regards this Aztec element, I do not mean to say
-        that these languages are related to the Aztec language in the same
-        sense that other languages are spoken of as being related to each
-        other, for this might lead those who are searching for the former
-        habitation or fatherland of the Aztecs, to suppose that it has been
-        found. This element consists simply in a number of words identical or
-        reasonably approximate to the like Aztec words, and in the similarity,
-        perhaps, of a few grammatical rules. How this Aztec word-material crept
-        into the languages of the Shoshones, whether by inter-communication, or
-        Aztec colonization, we do not know. Nor do I wish to be understood as
-        attempting to sustain the popular theory of an Aztec migration from the
-        North; on the contrary, the evidences of language are all on the other
-        side.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 660–1.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_739" href="#FNanchor_739" class="label">[739]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 290;
-        Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 673–4.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_740" href="#FNanchor_740" class="label">[740]</a> <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, pp. 349–51, 391, 648–52
-        <i>et seq.</i>; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 661–79,
-        comparative table compiled from Buschmann, Turner, Molina, Ortega, and
-        others, on p. 678.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_741" href="#FNanchor_741" class="label">[741]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 629, and
-        Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 630–1.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_742" href="#FNanchor_742" class="label">[742]</a> “The Chinook language is spoken by all the nations from
-        the mouth of the Columbia to the Falls. It is hard and difficult to
-        pronounce for strangers, being full of gutturals like the Gaelic. The
-        combinations <i>thl</i> or <i>tl</i> are as frequent in the Chinook as
-        in the Mexican.”—Franchère, <cite>Narrative of a Voy. to N. W. Coast of
-        N. Am.</cite>, p. 262. Swan, speaking of the Chinook, says: “The peculiar
-        clucking sound is produced by pressing the tongue against the roof of
-        the mouth, and pronouncing the word ending with <i>tl</i> as if it were
-        the letter <i>k</i> at the end of the <i>tl</i>; but it is impossible
-        in any form or method of spelling that I know of, to convey the proper
-        guttural clucking sound. Sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end
-        all their words in <i>tl</i>; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three
-        or four talking at the same time with this singular sound, like so many
-        sitting-hens.”—<cite>North West Coast</cite>, p. 315.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_743" href="#FNanchor_743" class="label">[743]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, pp. 628–9;
-        Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 619.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_744" href="#FNanchor_744" class="label">[744]</a> Gibbs’ <cite>Alphabetical Vocab. of Clallam and Lummi
-        Lang.</cite>, p. 6; Gallatin, in <cite>Trans. Am. Eth. Soc.</cite>, vol. i, p. 54.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_745" href="#FNanchor_745" class="label">[745]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Die Völker und Sprachen Neu-Mexico’s</cite>,
-        p. 370, calls attention to the great resemblance of
-
-      <table class="small" summary="Language">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th><i>Aztec.</i></th>
-            <th colspan="3">&nbsp;</th>
-            <th><i>Nutka.</i></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td>tepuztli</td>
-            <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td>
-            <td>copper</td>
-            <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td>
-            <td>chipuz</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>tetl</td>
-            <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td>
-            <td>stone</td>
-            <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td>
-            <td>tenetschök</td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-
-      <p class="noindent">and adds that <cite>Esquiates</cite> the name of a society is
-        entirely Mexican. We append the result of his investigations:</p>
-
-      <p lang="de">“Von ähnlicher Art, gleich den Spanisch gemodelten Gestalten
-        Mexicanischer Wörter, sind viele Nutka-Wörter der Spanischen Sammlung:
-        nur mit dem Unterschiede, dass sie auf keinen vorhandenen mexicanischen
-        Wörtern beruhen (da zufällig diese Buchstaben-combinationem in
-        der Azt. Sprache nicht vorkommen, aber ihren Wesen nach recht gut
-        vorkommen könnten). Solche Wörter sind: <i>iztocoti</i> = Muschel
-        (dazu Eigenname <i>iztocoti</i> No. 923); <i>majati</i> = jagd (caza),
-        <i>mamati</i> = Hof, <i>muztati</i> = Regenbogen: <i>cucustlati</i> =
-        Nasenloch, <i>natlaycazte</i> = Rippen; <i>otniquit</i> = Jungfrau;
-        <i>mamatle</i> = Schiff; <i>oumatle</i> = Leib; <i>aguequetle</i>
-        = Hunger; <i>capitzitle</i> = Dieb; <i>tahechitle</i> = larga:
-        <i>temextixitle</i> = Kuss; <i>cuachitle</i> = reisen; <i>cuchitle</i>
-        = pincher; <i>meyali</i> = Schmerz. Es giebt noch eine höhere Gattung
-        von Nutka-Wörtern (der Span. Reise), welche (besonders durch die
-        Aechtheit ihrer Endung von der vorigen verschieden) ganz und gar
-        wie mexicanische Wörter aussehen, und (so weit sie substantiva
-        sind) mexicanische sein würden, wenn es der Sprache beliebt hätte
-        diese bestimmten Lautgestalten zu bilden: <i>inapatl</i> = Rücken;
-        <i>tlexatl</i> = Matte; <i>tzahuacatl</i> = 9; <i>chamiehtl</i> = Iris;
-        <i>naguatzitl</i> = Zwerg; <i>naschitl</i> = Tag; <i>jacamitl</i> =
-        viereckig; <i>huatzacchitl</i> = Husten; <i>nectzitl</i> = trinken;
-        <i>pugxitl</i> = heben; <i>cocotl</i> = Seeotter; <i>amanutl</i>
-        = espinilla; <i>apactzutl</i> = Bart; <i>ictlatzutl</i> = Mund;
-        <i>iniyutl</i> = Kehle; <i>jayutl</i> = Fluth; <i>tlatlacastzeme</i>
-        = Blätter (wie ein Mex. Plural in <i>me</i>); <i>coyactzac</i> =
-        Fuchsbalg. Noch mehr Wörter finden sich, wenn man für die Mex.
-        Sprache unnatürliche und zu harte Consonanten—Verbindungen übersieht.
-        Diese letzte höhere Gattung vorzüglich, doch auch die erstere meint
-        Alexander von Humboldt in der obigen Stelle (S. 363). So gawinnt die
-        Nutka-Sprache durch eine reiche Zahl von Wörtern und durch grosse
-        Züge ihres Lautwesens, einzig von allen anderen fremden, die ich
-        habe aufdecken können, in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende
-        Aehnlichkeit mit der Aztekischen oder Mexicanischen; und so wird die
-        ihr schon früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt.
-        Ihrer Mexicanischen Erscheinrung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite
-        hier ausspreche jede Wirklichkeit.”—<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 371.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_746" href="#FNanchor_746" class="label">[746]</a> <cite>Compte-Rendu Seconde Ses. Cong. Internat, des
-      Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, vol. i, pp. 51–2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_747" href="#FNanchor_747" class="label">[747]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 727.
-        Acosta, <cite>Hist. Nat. Ind.</cite>, p. 600. Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>,
-        tom. iii, lib. ix, cap. 9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_748" href="#FNanchor_748" class="label">[748]</a> “To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver,
-        when visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the
-        shores of Oregon, Washington and Vancouver’s Island, nations that
-        now and then understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other
-        tongues, some of which had been adopted into their own language. When
-        Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon [Chinook]
-        seems to have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the
-        sentences quoted by the explorers.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>,
-        vol. iii, p. 632.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_749" href="#FNanchor_749" class="label">[749]</a> I append a partial list from Señor Najera’s
-        <cite>Disertacion sobre la lengua</cite> <cite>Othomi</cite>, Mexico, 1845, fol.,
-        pp. 87–8. I have rendered the Spanish list into English.
-
-      <table class="small mt1" summary="Language">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Othomi.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>English.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl2 bt bb"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Othomi.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl bt bb br"><div><i>English.</i></div></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Cho.</td>
-            <td class="bl">To.</td>
-            <td class="bl">The, that.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Pa.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Da.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">To give.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Y.</td>
-            <td class="bl">N-y.</td>
-            <td class="bl">A wound.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Tsun.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nsu.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Honor.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Ten.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Gu, Mu.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Head.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Hu.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Hmu.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Sir, Lord.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Siao.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Sui.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Night.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Na.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Na.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">That.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Tien.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Tsi.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Tooth.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Hu.</td>
-            <td class="bl">He.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Cold.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Ye.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Yo.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Shining.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Ye.</td>
-            <td class="bl">He.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">And.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Ky.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Hy (ji).</td>
-            <td class="bl">Happiness.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Hos.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Hia.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Word.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Ku.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Du.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Death.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Nugo.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nga.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">I.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Po.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Yo.</td>
-            <td class="bl">No.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Ni.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nuy.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Thou.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Na.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Ta.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Man.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Hao.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nho.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">The good.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Nin.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nsu.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Female.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Ta.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Da.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">The great.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Tseu.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Tsi, Ti.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Son.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Li.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Ti.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Gain.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">Tso.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Tsa.</td>
-            <td class="bl">To perfect.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Ho.</td>
-            <td class="bl">To.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">Who.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl">uan.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Khuani.</td>
-            <td class="bl">True.</td>
-            <td class="bl2">Pa.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Pa.</td>
-            <td class="bl br">To leave.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td class="bl bb">Siao.</td>
-            <td class="bl bb">Sa.</td>
-            <td class="bl bb">To mock.</td>
-            <td class="bl2 bb">Mu, Mo.</td>
-            <td class="bl bb">Me.</td>
-            <td class="bl bb br">Mother.</td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_750" href="#FNanchor_750" class="label">[750]</a> Warden, in <cite>Antiquités Mexicaines</cite>, tom. ii,
-        div. ii, pp. 125 <i>et seq.</i> The same author has furnished many
-        linguistic analogies, though without following any scientific
-        classification. Ampère, <cite>Promenade en Amérique</cite>, vol. ii, p. 301,
-        furnishes a list of Chinese and Otomi resemblances.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_751" href="#FNanchor_751" class="label">[751]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, p. 17. Pimentel,
-        <cite>Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, tom. i, p. 118. Bancroft, vol. iii, p.
-        737. Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>, tom. iii, pt. iii, p. 113. Malte-Brun
-        (V. S.), in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes, Luxembourg, Seconds Ses.</cite>,
-        tom. ii, pp. 16–18.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_752" href="#FNanchor_752" class="label">[752]</a> “In 1857, a gentleman named Henley, a good Chinese
-        scholar, who acted as an interpreter of this state for some time,
-        published a list of words in the Chinese and Indian languages to
-        show that they were of the same origin. From this we make an extract
-        supporting our remarks:
-
-      <table class="small mt1" summary="Language 2">
-        <thead>
-          <tr>
-            <th class="tdc"><div><i>Indian.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc"><div><i>English.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc bl"><div><i>Indian.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th>
-            <th class="tdc"><div><i>English.</i></div></th>
-          </tr>
-        </thead>
-        <tbody>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Nang-a,</td>
-            <td>Nang,</td>
-            <td>Man.</td>
-            <td class="bl">A-pa,</td>
-            <td>A-pa,</td>
-            <td>Father.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Yi-soo,</td>
-            <td>Soa,</td>
-            <td>Hand.</td>
-            <td class="bl">A-ma,</td>
-            <td>A-ma,</td>
-            <td>Mother.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Keoka,</td>
-            <td>Keok,</td>
-            <td>Foot.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Ko-le,</td>
-            <td>A-ko,</td>
-            <td>Brother.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Aek-a-soo,</td>
-            <td>Soo,</td>
-            <td>Beard.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Ko-chae,</td>
-            <td>To-chae,</td>
-            <td>Thanks.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Yuet-a,</td>
-            <td>Yuet,</td>
-            <td>Moon.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Nagam,</td>
-            <td>Yam,</td>
-            <td>Drunk.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Yeeta,</td>
-            <td>Yat,</td>
-            <td>Sun.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Koolae,</td>
-            <td>Ku-kay,</td>
-            <td>Her.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Utyta,</td>
-            <td>Hoto,</td>
-            <td>Much.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Koo-chue,</td>
-            <td>Chue-koo,</td>
-            <td>Hog.</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Lee-lum,</td>
-            <td>Ee-lung,</td>
-            <td>Deafness.</td>
-            <td class="bl">Chookoo,</td>
-            <td>Kow-chi,</td>
-            <td>Dog.”</td>
-          </tr>
-          <tr>
-            <td>Ho-ya-pa,</td>
-            <td>Ho-ah,</td>
-            <td>Good.</td>
-            <td colspan="3" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
-          </tr>
-        </tbody>
-      </table>
-
-      <p>We have no means at hand of testing the following statement from
-        the same author: “The Chinese, who have become so numerous in
-        California since the discovery of gold, bear a striking resemblance
-        to the Indians, and are known to be able to converse with them in
-        their respective languages to an extent that cannot be the result of
-        mere coincidence of expression.”—<cite>Cronaise, The Natural Wealth of
-        California</cite>, p. 31. Probably a mistake.</p>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_753" href="#FNanchor_753" class="label">[753]</a> “Unhesitatingly as I make this assertion—an assertion
-        for which I have numerous tabulated vocabularies as proof—I am by
-        no means prepared to say that one-tenth part of the necessary work
-        has been done for the parts in question; indeed, it is my impression
-        that it is easier to connect America with the Kuirle Isles and
-        Japan, etc., than it is to make Japan and the Kuirle Isles, etc.,
-        Asiatic.”—<cite>Latham, Man and His Migrations</cite>, pp. 195–6. Barton,
-        <cite>New Views</cite>, is certain that the languages of America originated
-        in Asia; see pp. lxxxviii–xcii. On p. 28 of Appendix he furnishes a
-        comparative list of Japanese and Indian words.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-
-      <a id="Footnote_754" href="#FNanchor_754" class="label">[754]</a> Vergleichung der Amerikanischen Sprachen mit den
-        Ural-Altaïschen hinsichtlich ihrer Grammatik. (<cite>Congrès des
-        Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. ii, p. 56 <i>et seq.</i>)
-        Also see E. L. O. Roehrig “On the Language of the Dakota or Sioux
-        Indians,” <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_755" href="#FNanchor_755" class="label">[755]</a> Prof. Valentini’s communication to the author.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_756" href="#FNanchor_756" class="label">[756]</a> Brasseur, in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. xxi, and
-        <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, chap. iii. Brasseur, in <cite>Quatre Lettres</cite>, p. 24,
-        speaking of the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, says: <span lang="fr">“Oui, Monsieur, si ce
-        livre est en apparence l’histoire des Toltèques et ensuite des rois des
-        Colhuacan et de Mexico, il présente, en réalité, le récit du cataclysme
-        qui bouleversa le monde, il y a quelques six on sept mille ans, et
-        constitua le continents dans leur état actuel,” pp. 40–41. He expresses
-        his belief that the <cite>Cod. Chim.</cite> has a double meaning, and that
-        many names and symbols possessed by the natives refer to the cataclysm
-        which occurred six or seven thousand years ago. “C’est le récit de ces
-        bouleversements, c’est l’histoire du cataclysme, dont tous les peuples
-        ont gardé la mémoire, que racontent tous mes documents.”</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_757" href="#FNanchor_757" class="label">[757]</a> The following are the legends, according to Brasseur de
-        Bourbourg: “According to the tradition of the Sacred Book (<cite>Popol
-        Vuh</cite>), water and fire contributed to the universal ruin, at the
-        time of the last cataclysm which preceded the fourth creation. ‘Then,’
-        says the author, ‘the waters were agitated by the will of the Heart of
-        Heaven, and a great inundation came upon the heads of these creatures.
-        * * * They were engulfed, and a resinous thickness descended from
-        heaven. * * * The face of the earth was obscured and a heavy darkening
-        rain commenced, rain by day and rain by night. * * * There was heard
-        a great noise above their heads as if produced by fire. Then were men
-        seen running, pushing each other, filled with despair; they wished
-        to climb upon their houses, and the houses tumbling down fell to the
-        ground; they wished to climb upon the trees, and the trees shook them
-        off; they wished to enter into the grottoes, and the grottoes closed
-        themselves before them.’ In the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, the author,
-        speaking of the destruction which took place by fire, says: ‘The third
-        sun is called <cite>Quia-Tonatiuh</cite>, sun of rain, because there fell
-        a rain of fire; all which existed burned, and there fell a rain of
-        gravel.’ They also narrate that whilst the sandstone which we now see
-        scattered about, and the <i>tetzontli</i> (amygdaloide poreuse) boiled
-        with great tumult, there also rose the rocks of vermillion color. Now
-        this was in the year <i>Ce Tecpactl</i>, One Flint, it was the day
-        <i>Nahui-Quiahuitl</i>, Fourth Rain. Now, in this day, in which men
-        were lost and destroyed in a rain of fire, they were transformed into
-        goslings; the sun itself was on fire, and everything, together with the
-        houses, was consumed.” Brasseur recounts a Haytian legend concerning
-        the origin of the sea and isles: “There was, they say, a powerful man
-        called Iaia, who, having murdered his only son, wished to bury him;
-        but not knowing where to put him, enclosed him in a calabash, which he
-        placed afterwards at the foot of a high mountain, situated a little
-        distance from the place where he lived; on account of his affection
-        for his son he often went to the spot. One day, having opened it (the
-        calabash), there came out whales and other very large fishes, of which
-        Iaia, full of fear, having returned home, told his neighbors what
-        had happened, saying that this calabash was filled with water and
-        innumerable fishes. This news being spread abroad, four twin brothers,
-        desiring to obtain fish, went to the place where the calabash was.
-        Just as they had taken it in their hand to open it, Iaia came, and
-        they seeing him, threw the calabash on the ground, in their fear of
-        him. This (the calabash) having burst, on account of the great weight
-        which was enclosed in it, the waters gushed forth, and the interminable
-        plain, which stretched farther than the eye could reach, was flooded
-        and covered with water. The mountains alone, because of their great
-        height, were not submerged in this great inundation. So they believed
-        that these mountains were the islands and the other divisions of the
-        earth which we see in the world.”—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg</cite>, in
-        <cite>Landa’s Relacion</cite>, pp. xxi–iv.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_758" href="#FNanchor_758" class="label">[758]</a> “With regard to the primitive dolichocephalæ of America,
-        I entertain an hypothesis still more bold, perhaps, namely, that they
-        are nearly related to the Guanches in the Canary Islands and to the
-        Atlantic populations of Africa, the Moors, Tauricks, Copts, etc.,
-        which Latham comprises under the name of Egyptian-Atlantidæ. * * * We
-        find, then, one and the same form of skull in the Canary Islands, in
-        front of the African coast, and in the Carib-Islands, on the opposite
-        coast which faces Africa. * * * The color of the skin on both sides
-        of the Atlantic is represented in these populations as being of a
-        reddish-brown. * * * These facts involuntarily recall the tradition
-        which Plato tells us in his <cite>Timæus</cite> was communicated to Solan
-        by an Egyptian priest respecting the ancient Atlantis. * * * This
-        tradition deserves attention in connection with facts which seem to
-        point in the same direction.”—<cite>Retzius, in Smithsonian Report</cite> for
-        1859, p. 266.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_759" href="#FNanchor_759" class="label">[759]</a> Salisbury, <cite>Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, pp. 57–61.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_760" href="#FNanchor_760" class="label">[760]</a> Unger, <cite>Die Versunkene Insel Atlantis</cite>, cited by
-        Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 440.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_761" href="#FNanchor_761" class="label">[761]</a> Published in Winterthal, 1854–58, 3 bde. Also by
-        the name author, see <cite>Urwelt der Schweiz</cite>, Zurich, 1865, and
-        <cite>Ergänzungsblätter</cite>, bd. ii (Hildburgh), 1867. See Meyer’s
-        <cite>Konversations-Lexicon</cite>, 3. <cite>Aufl.</cite>, bd. viii, p. 693; bd.
-        ii, p. 125, where the above are cited. Dr. Otto Ule, <cite>Die Erde</cite>,
-        bd. i, p. 27, concurs with the above; work published in Leipzig, 1874,
-        2 vols. large 8vo.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_762" href="#FNanchor_762" class="label">[762]</a> See Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 440, and Oliver,
-        <cite>Lecture at the Royal Institution</cite>, March 7, 1862, cited by Lyell.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_763" href="#FNanchor_763" class="label">[763]</a> Sir C. Wyville Thomson, <cite>The Atlantic</cite> (voyage of
-        the <cite>Challenger</cite>), vol. i, pp. 190, 208, 213; vol. ii, 23, 232.
-        New York, 1878. Also see <cite>Scientific American</cite> for July 28th, 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_764" href="#FNanchor_764" class="label">[764]</a> <cite>Depths of the Sea</cite>, by Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., J.
-        G. Jeffreys, F.R.S., and Dr. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., London, 1873.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_765" href="#FNanchor_765" class="label">[765]</a> <cite>The Atlantic, Exploring Voyage of H. M. S.
-        Challenger</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 248–9.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_766" href="#FNanchor_766" class="label">[766]</a> <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, vol. ii, p. 23.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_767" href="#FNanchor_767" class="label">[767]</a> <cite>Scientific American</cite>, July 28, 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_768" href="#FNanchor_768" class="label">[768]</a> <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, vol. ii, p. 254.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_769" href="#FNanchor_769" class="label">[769]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii, p. 288.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_770" href="#FNanchor_770" class="label">[770]</a> <cite>Popular Science Review</cite>, July 1878, cited by
-        <cite>Scientific American</cite> of August 24, 1878, vol. xxxix, p. 114.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_771" href="#FNanchor_771" class="label">[771]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Elements of Geology</cite>, New York, 1878, p.
-        131.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_772" href="#FNanchor_772" class="label">[772]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Geology</cite>, p. 129.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_773" href="#FNanchor_773" class="label">[773]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 127–32. Dr. Otto Ule, <cite>Die Erde</cite>,
-        bd. i, ss. 496–502.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_774" href="#FNanchor_774" class="label">[774]</a> See Plato’s <cite>Critias and Timæas</cite>. Also Aristotle,
-        <cite>De Mundo</cite>, cap. iii, and <cite>Prince Henry the Navigator</cite>, chap,
-        vii, by Major, Lond., 1868.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_775" href="#FNanchor_775" class="label">[775]</a> See Reclus, <cite>The Ocean</cite>, pp. 70–82. New York, ed.
-        1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_776" href="#FNanchor_776" class="label">[776]</a> Irving’s <cite>Columbus</cite>, vol. i, chap, iii; vol. ii, p.
-        308. Reclus, <cite>Ocean</cite>, pp. 223, 229.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_777" href="#FNanchor_777" class="label">[777]</a> Irving’s <cite>Columbus</cite>, vol. ii, p. 279. Lafiteau,
-        <cite>Conquestes des Portugais</cite>, lib. ii, cited by Irving.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_778" href="#FNanchor_778" class="label">[778]</a> See Martius, <cite>Beitrage</cite>, etc., p. 180, for the
-        origin-tradition of the Tupis or Brazilians, where it is narrated that
-        two brothers with their families landed at a remote period on Cape
-        Frio. The brothers Tupi and Guarani gave their names to the two great
-        South American families.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_779" href="#FNanchor_779" class="label">[779]</a> Brasseur in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. lii–lxv;
-        Eckstein, <cite>Les Cares or Cariens de l’Antiquité</cite>, 2d part, vi,
-        dans la <cite>Revue Archéologique, XV<sup>e</sup> année</cite>; Brugsch, <cite>Die Geogr.
-        der Nachbarlaender Egyptens</cite>, pp. 84–88, cited by Brasseur. <span lang="fr">“En ces
-        vieux jours du monde, dit encore M. d’Eckstein, où Ibères et Libyens,
-        Lahabim et Phoutim s’enlacaient plus ou moins à travers l’Europe
-        occidentale, et poussaient jusqu’au sein de l’Irlande et de la Grande
-        Bretagne, les monuments de Mizraïm semblent révéler des rapports
-        maritimes de ces Libyens et probablement de ces Ibères avec les Cares
-        et avec les autres races anté-pélasgiques des côtes de la Grèce et de
-        l’Italie, ainsi que des iles de l’Archipel.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg
-        in Landa’s Relacion</cite>, pp. lvii–lviii.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_780" href="#FNanchor_780" class="label">[780]</a> <cite>Manual of Geology</cite>, second ed., p. 583.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_781" href="#FNanchor_781" class="label">[781]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Elements of Geology</cite>, pp. 145–149.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_782" href="#FNanchor_782" class="label">[782]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient America</cite>, Appendix C, pp.
-        288–293.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_783" href="#FNanchor_783" class="label">[783]</a> <cite>Man and His Migrations</cite>, pp. 129–30.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_784" href="#FNanchor_784" class="label">[784]</a> Kennon in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, p. 68.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_785" href="#FNanchor_785" class="label">[785]</a> “From the result of the most accurate scientific
-        observation, it is evident that the voyage from China to America can
-        be made without being out of sight of land more than a few hours at a
-        time. To a landsman, unfamiliar with long voyages, the mere idea of
-        being ‘alone on the wide, wide sea’ with nothing but water visible,
-        even for an hour, conveys a strange sense of desolation, of daring
-        and adventure. But in truth it is regarded as a mere trifle, not only
-        by regular seafaring men, but even by the rudest races in all parts
-        of the world; and I have no doubt that from the remotest ages, and on
-        all shores, fishermen in open boats, canoes, or even coracles, guided
-        simply by the stars and currents, have not hesitated to go far out
-        of sight of land. At the present day, natives of the South Pacific
-        islands undertake, without a compass, and successfully, long voyages
-        which astonish even a regular Jack-tar, who is not often astonished at
-        anything.”—<cite>Kennon in Leland’s Fusang</cite>, pp. 71–2.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_786" href="#FNanchor_786" class="label">[786]</a> See Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 51–54,
-        where the paper of the Japanese Consul, Mr. Brooks, read before the
-        Californian Academy of Sciences in March, 1875, is cited, detailing
-        forty-one instances in which Japanese junks were cast upon our coast
-        since 1782. Mr. Brooks states that he has a record of over one hundred
-        similar disasters. Whymper, in his <cite>Alaska</cite> (N. Y. 1869), p. 250,
-        refers to other Japanese wrecks, and especially to one which, after
-        drifting ten months, reached the Sandwich Islands. The Hawaiians, on
-        seeing the crew, said, “It is plain now, we came from Asia.” See also
-        M. de Roquefeuil, <cite>Journal d’un Voyage autour du Monde, pendant les
-        annes, 1816–1819</cite>; <cite>Smith’s Human Species</cite>, p. 238.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_787" href="#FNanchor_787" class="label">[787]</a> <cite>Physical Geography</cite>, p. 41, cited by Lyell,
-        <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 367.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_788" href="#FNanchor_788" class="label">[788]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 367.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_789" href="#FNanchor_789" class="label">[789]</a> “There is as much reason to believe that America was
-        peopled from Asia, as that the primitive races of Europe and Africa
-        should derive their origin from an Eastern source.”—<cite>Macfie,
-        Vancouver Island and British Columbia.</cite> London, 1865.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_790" href="#FNanchor_790" class="label">[790]</a> “The weather is, it is true, cold at Behring’s Straits,
-        even in summer, but not one-fourth as cold as at Matsumai, Japan, in
-        winter.”—<cite>Col. Kennon in Leland’s Fusang</cite>, p. 74.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_791" href="#FNanchor_791" class="label">[791]</a> Frederick von Hellwald in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>,
-        1866, p. 345. “Open skin canoes, capable of containing twenty or more
-        persons with their effects, and hoisting several masts and sails,
-        are now frequently observed among the seacoast Tehuktchis, and the
-        inhabitants of northern Alaska.”—<cite>Whymper, Alaska</cite>, p. 246–7.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_792" href="#FNanchor_792" class="label">[792]</a> He continues his statement that the Gulf Stream of the
-        Pacific is the warming agent, and adds the argument that “the present
-        inhabitants of the countries contiguous to Behring’s Straits on the
-        two sides, in manners, customs, and physical appearance are almost
-        identical.”—<cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1866, p. 345.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_793" href="#FNanchor_793" class="label">[793]</a> Gallatin, p. 156. Bancroft, in assuming the certainty
-        of a migration by Behring’s Straits, says “it seems absurd to argue
-        the question from any point,” vol. v, p. 54. Venegas, <cite>Noticia de la
-        California</cite>, Madrid, 1757, vol. i, p. 71, and London ed., 1759, p.
-        61, says the Californians at that date had clear traditions of having
-        come from the north. Fontaine, <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, (N.
-        Y. 1872), pp. 147–9, thinks that the march of Genghis with 1,400,000
-        Tartars caused the flight of his enemies in large numbers across the
-        Aleutian archipelago and Behring’s Straits. Warden, <cite>Recherches</cite>,
-        pp. 118–36, makes an argument for a migration through Behring’s Straits
-        from Tartary and China.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_794" href="#FNanchor_794" class="label">[794]</a> Gallatin, in <cite>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. i,
-        p. 158, says: “That America was first peopled by Asiatic tribes is
-        highly probable; but after the lapse of several thousand years, the
-        memory of that ancient migration was lost.” He inquires as to what we
-        knew of Gaul or Britain before the Roman invasion. Mr. W. H. Dall, in
-        his thoughtful Memoir on the <cite>Origin of the Innuit</cite>, says: “I see
-        no reason for disputing the hypothesis that America was peopled from
-        Asia originally, and that there were successive waves of emigration.
-        The northern route was clearly by way of Behring Strait; at least, it
-        was not to the south of that, and especially it was not by way of the
-        Aleutian Islands.”—<cite>In Contributions to North American Ethnology</cite>,
-        vol. i, p. 95. Washington, 1877. 4to.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_795" href="#FNanchor_795" class="label">[795]</a> Aug. R. Grote, <cite>The Peopling of America</cite>, in
-        <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, April 1877.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_796" href="#FNanchor_796" class="label">[796]</a> Croll, <cite>Climate and Time</cite>, New York, 1875, 12mo.
-        Prof. McFarland in <cite>Am. Jour. of Sci. and Arts</cite>, June 1876, p.
-        456. Newcomb on Croll’s <cite>Theory</cite> in same journal for April 1876,
-        p. 263.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_797" href="#FNanchor_797" class="label">[797]</a> Whymper, <cite>Alaska</cite>, pp. 246, 247, discusses the
-        volcanic nature of the Aleutian Islands, mentioning the fact that
-        “There are records of very severe shocks of earthquake felt by the
-        Russian traders and nations dwelling on them.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_798" href="#FNanchor_798" class="label">[798]</a> Sir Charles Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, pp. 273
-        <i>et seq.</i>, has shown that Great Britain was separated from the
-        continent by subsidence and glacial action, thus producing the English
-        Channel which, we have already seen, corresponds singularly with
-        Behring’s Straits in width and depth, and formerly, no doubt, both
-        corresponded more nearly in climatic conditions. It is not unreasonable
-        to suppose that both passages were produced by the same agencies.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_799" href="#FNanchor_799" class="label">[799]</a> Presidential Address to the Am. Association for Adv.
-        of Sci., 1872, and published in his <cite>Darwiniana</cite>, pp. 203 <i>et seq.</i>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_800" href="#FNanchor_800" class="label">[800]</a> John H. Becker, <cite>The Migration of the Nahuas, Congrès
-        des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, ses., tom. i. p. 349. Altogether the
-        most enlightened treatment of the subject yet published.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_801" href="#FNanchor_801" class="label">[801]</a> Becker in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 348–9. The same author
-        cites from the <cite>Trans. of Am. Geog. Soc.</cite>, 1874, the following
-        interesting statement made by Gen. Milnor: “Nowhere else on the
-        continent can similar great valleys such as the Missouri and Columbia
-        be found, meeting advantageously at a common point on the main dividing
-        backbone which separates the continental waters flowing east and west
-        to the two oceans. The heads of these main valleys are here only from
-        three to four thousand feet above the sea, while the great treeless
-        plains—further south—are elevated more than six thousand feet.”
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_802" href="#FNanchor_802" class="label">[802]</a> The expedition which the German government and the
-        Berlin Geographical Society is about to send to the North Pacific under
-        the intelligent direction of my friend Dr. Van der Horck, will no doubt
-        contribute largely to our information concerning the ethnographical
-        relationship of America to Asia.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_803" href="#FNanchor_803" class="label">[803]</a> Second Report on the Implements found in the Glacial
-        Drift of New Jersey, by C. C. Abbott in <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of
-        Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 225–57. Cambridge, 1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_804" href="#FNanchor_804" class="label">[804]</a> Mr. Becker remarks: “Why should the Aztec priesthood
-        and nobility, a class bred and educated in the understanding of
-        traditional lore and an elaborate system of picture-writing, be
-        considered as a set of metaphysical lunatics who did not know or did
-        not mean what they said.”—<cite>Migration of the Nahuas</cite> in <cite>Cong.
-        des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. i, p. 342.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_805" href="#FNanchor_805" class="label">[805]</a> <i>Vide</i> <cite>Journal of the Cincinnati Society of
-        Natural History</cite>, Vol. I, No. 3, October, 1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_806" href="#FNanchor_806" class="label">[806]</a> <i>Vide</i> <cite>Archæological Explorations in
-        Tennessee</cite>, by F. W. Putnam. <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the
-        Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology</cite>, Cambridge,
-        Mass., 1878.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_807" href="#FNanchor_807" class="label">[807]</a> Letter to the author, dated Davenport, Iowa, May 24,
-        1879.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_808" href="#FNanchor_808" class="label">[808]</a> <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey
-        of the Territories</cite>, vol. ii., No. i., p. 6.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_809" href="#FNanchor_809" class="label">[809]</a> <cite>Contributions to North American Ethnology</cite>, vol.
-        iv.—U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain
-        Region, J. W. Powell in charge. Washington, 1881: especially chap. ix.
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="footnote">
-      <a id="Footnote_810" href="#FNanchor_810" class="label">[810]</a> In addition to the work by Mr. Morgan above cited, the
-        student of Mound-builder and Pueblo archæology should not fail to
-        consult vol. vii. of the <cite>Report upon U. S. Geographical Surveys west
-        of the one hundredth meridian, in charge of Lieutenant Wheeler</cite>,
-        Washington, 1879. The volume bears the above date, but did not appear
-        until near the close of 1881. The editing of this valuable work was
-        committed to the discriminating care of Professor F. W. Putnam, who was
-        assisted by an able corps of specialists, among others Dr. C. C. Abbott
-        and Albert S. Gatschet. The Second Part is devoted to papers on the
-        Pueblos. The magnificent fund of materials here presented, accompanied
-        by full-page heliotypes of ruins and implements, vastly enlarges our
-        knowledge of that interesting people. Still another work, of more than
-        ordinary importance to ethnological and archæological students, is
-        Dr. Charles Rau’s <cite>Observations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian
-        Sculptures in the Old World and in America</cite>, Contributions to
-        Ethnology, vol. v. Washington, 1881. Last, but not least, is Professor
-        Otis T. Mason’s <cite>Account of recent Progress in Anthropology</cite>, in
-        Smithsonian Report for 1880.
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="transnote mt5">
-    <div class="large center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div>
-    <ul class="spaced">
-      <li>Blank pages have been removed.</li>
-      <li>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li>
-      <li>Wide tables have been split.</li>
-    </ul>
-  </div>
-
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