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- color: black; - font-size: smaller; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; - font-family: sans-serif, serif; - } - - </style> -</head> - -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The North Americans of Antiquity, by John Thomas Short</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The North Americans of Antiquity</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Their origin, migrations, and type of civilization considered</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John Thomas Short</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 5, 2022 [eBook #67101]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Robert Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICANS OF ANTIQUITY ***</div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp80" id="frontispiece"> - <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Court and Tower of the Palace, Palenque.</span> (After - Waldeck.)</div> - </div> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="titlepage"> - <h1><span class="small">THE</span><br /> - NORTH AMERICANS<br /> - <span class="small">OF</span><br /> - ANTIQUITY</h1> - - <div class="mt6"><b><i>THEIR ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND TYPE OF<br /> - CIVILIZATION CONSIDERED</i></b></div> - - <div class="large mt10"><b><span class="smcap">By</span> JOHN T. SHORT</b></div> - - <div class="xsmall mt5"><b>THIRD EDITION</b></div> - - <div class="mt6"><div class="figcenter illowp18"> - <img src="images/title.jpg" alt="" /> - </div></div> - - <div class="mt6 bold">NEW YORK<br /> - <span class="small">HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS</span><br /> - <span class="xsmall">FRANKLIN SQUARE</span><br /> - 1882</div> - </div> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="titlepage mt10 mb10"> - Copyright, 1879, by <span class="smcap">John T. Short</span>. - </div> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span> - <h2 id="PREFACE"><span class="gespertt1">PREFACE</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <p class="drop-cap mt5">THE growing interest in the origin, migrations and life of the races of - American Antiquity has led me to believe that the subjects considered - in these pages would meet with the favorable attention of the public - and of the specialist in this field. With such a conviction I present - this volume, realizing the difficulties which attend any efforts to - elucidate such dark problems. Yet I cannot conceal my satisfaction - that the age of North American Antiquity is not all darkness, but on - the contrary is rapidly growing radiant with light, while a host of - patient searchers for its truths roll up the obscuring curtain. The - recent discoveries by Geo. Smith, Cesnola, and Schliemann naturally - cause us to turn with national pride to the rich antiquarian fields - in our own land. Very satisfactory results have been obtained within - a few years in the exploration of Mound-works and the Cliff-dwellings - of the West. A just view of the civilization of the builders of these - remains, however, requires that it be considered in connection with the - traditional history and civilization of the ancient races of Mexico and - Central America, so marked was the influence of the ancient peoples of - this continent upon each other.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p> - - <p>Regarding this to be important, I have endeavored to present a - comprehensive view of the civilization of the Mound-builders, - Cliff-dwellers, and Pueblos, and to bring to the attention of the - reader the traditional history and architectural remains of the Mayas - of Yucatan and the Nahuas of Mexico. Only the probable origin and - the most remote period of the growth of these latter peoples could - receive attention within the limits prescribed for this work, since it - is my design that this volume shall serve as a manual of information - relating to the earliest period of North-American Antiquity, and as - an introduction to Ancient American History. My material relating to - the Mound-builders has been drawn almost entirely from the Smithsonian - Reports, the Proceedings of scientific societies, and private memoirs. - Still it is but justice to one honored co-laborer in the same field, - Col. J. W. Foster, to say that his excellent work, <cite>The Pre-Historic - Races of the U. S.</cite>, has been of great service in our investigation - of this subject. Although his sources of information have been, with - few exceptions, before me, my appreciation of his work is attested - by my constant reference to it. Nevertheless, the wonderful advances - which have been made in Mound-exploration since the issue of the - <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, called for a fresh treatment of the subject.</p> - - <p>On the Mayas and Nahuas the following manuscript works in the - possession of the Congressional Library at Washington were consulted, - and yielded valuable material:</p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Las Casas</cite></b>: Historia Apologética de las Indias occidentals, 4 - vols. folio.</p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Las Casas</cite></b>: Historia de Indias, 4 vols. folio.</p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Panes</cite> (<cite>D. Diego</cite>)</b>: Fragmentos de Historia de Nueva España, - folio.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Echevarria y Veitia</cite></b>: Historia del origen de gentes que poblaron - la America Septentrional, 1755, 3 vols. folio (about one-fourth of - the work is published in Kingsborough’s Mex. Antiq., vol. viii).</p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Escalante in Teniente</cite> (<cite>Jose Cortes</cite>)</b>: Memoria sobre las - Provincias del Norte de Nueva España 1799, folio.</p> - - <p class="hang"><b><cite>Duran</cite> (<cite>Diego</cite>)</b>: Historia Antigua de la Nueva España 1585, - 3 vols. folio (part of the work has been published in Mexico).</p> - - <p>These, together with the large number of printed books relating to - America in the Congressional Library added to works in my possession, - afforded an ample field for research.</p> - - <p>I must express my appreciation of the courteous attentions of the - accomplished Librarian of Congress, the Hon. A. R. Spofford, who - together with his assistants did everything possible to facilitate - my investigations. To the uniform and friendly interest which Mr. - Spofford has manifested in my work, its successful completion is - largely due. The substantial assistance which I received from the - lamented Professor Joseph Henry—the record of whose kindly offices - to his fellowmen can never be written—was invaluable to me. Besides - placing the latest material at my disposal, he generously furnished - most of the engravings in this work relating to the Mound-builders. - Dr. Charles Rau, also of the <cite>Smithsonian Institution</cite>, has - placed me under obligations for valued services. To Professor F. V. - Hayden and to the painstaking offices of Mr. James Stevenson of the - <cite>U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories</cite>, I - am indebted for the engravings as well as the sources of information - relating to the Cliff-dwellers. The Hon. J. R. Bartlett, of Providence, - R. I., with equal generosity has conferred like favors. Prof. F. W. - Putnam, of the Peabody Museum of American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> Archæology and Ethnology - at Cambridge, Mass., and his courteous assistants, Mr. Carr and Miss - Smith, have provided me with valuable engravings and reports. Robert - Clarke, Esq., and Mr. E. Gest, of Cincinnati, have also sent me - engravings, and the former in particular has conferred frequent favors. - Professor Ph. Valentini, of Albion, N. Y., with rare liberality, - contributed interesting material relating to the Nahua Calendar. To Mr. - Stephen Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Mass., Dr. R. J. Farquharson, - of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of the - <cite>American Antiquarian</cite>, Cleveland, O., and to A. J. Conant, Esq., - of St. Louis, Mo., I am indebted for the interest they have manifested, - and for the material which they have brought to my attention.</p> - - <p>Señor Orozco y Berra, of the City of Mexico, the distinguished author - of the <cite>Geografía de las lenguas Mexicanas</cite>, has from time to time - freely made important suggestions concerning some of the problems under - consideration. To my friend the Rev. John W. Butler, of the City of - Mexico, whose intelligent efforts in my behalf have been unremitting, - I have special reason to be thankful. To all these generous friends I - must be permitted here to express my deep sense of gratitude for their - favors.</p> - - <p>However, this pleasant task would be but half performed were I to omit - the recognition of the unselfish friendship of the justly eminent - author of the <cite>Native Races of the Pacific States</cite>. Mr. Hubert - Howe Bancroft, whose rare erudition and breadth of thought are only - surpassed by his magnanimity of nature and manliness of spirit, with - a liberality which has scarce a parallel in authorship, sent me - the majority of the engravings illustrative of the Maya and Nahua - architecture and sculpture, used in the fourth volume of the <cite>Native - Races</cite>. To this I may add the no less valuable encouragement which - he so heartily gave during<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span> the progress of my work. Although some - of my investigations were prosecuted before the publication of the - <cite>Native Races</cite>, and though all of Mr. Bancroft’s sources relating - to subjects which have received our mutual attention were before me and - underwent a critical examination at my hands, it is but fair to state - that the assistance which I derived from the <cite>Native Races</cite> has - been of incalculable service in the preparation of this volume. If in - any place I have omitted to render full credit to Mr. Bancroft, and to - that imperishable monument of learning and industry, his great work, - the omission has been due to inadvertence rather than intention. My - obligations to Mr. Bancroft can never be discharged, nor can the kind - attentions of Mr. Henry L. Oak, of the Bancroft Library, San Francisco, - be forgotten.</p> - - <p>Still my examination of the sources has not always led me to the same - conclusions as were reached by the author of the <cite>Native Races</cite>. - This may be owing to our different standpoints of observation, or - possibly to an inappreciable bias in my own mind. It is, however, but - justice to myself to say that this work has been prosecuted to its - completion with the spirit of inquiry rather than of advocacy, and is - the embodiment of an honest search for the truth.</p> - - <div class="right">THE AUTHOR.</div> - - <p class="small"><span class="smcap">Columbus, O.</span>, <i>November, 1879</i>.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span> - <h2 id="PREFACE_TO_THIRD_EDITION">PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.</h2> - </div> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <p class="drop-cap mt5">THIS, the third edition of “The North Americans of Antiquity,” has been - carefully revised and new facts incorporated. In this connection I - take the opportunity of thankfully acknowledging the kindly reception - and marked consideration which this work has enjoyed at the hands of - specialists, of learned Societies in both America and Europe, and from - the University of Leipzig.</p> - - <div class="right">J. T. S.</div> - - <p class="small"><span class="smcap">Columbus, Ohio</span>, <i>September, 1881</i>.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span> - <h2 id="CONTENTS"><span class="gespertt1">CONTENTS</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <hr class="shortb" /> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Ancient Inhabitants of the United States.</div> - - <div class="subhead">The Aborigines—Antiquity of the Red Indian—The - Mound-builders—Geographical Distribution of - Mound-works—Frontier Defences of the Mound-builders—Michigan - Mounds—Mounds in the North-west—On the Upper Missouri—In - Dakota—Animal Mounds of Wisconsin—Elephant Mound—Discoveries - at Davenport, Iowa—Davenport Tablet—Heart of the Mound-builder - Country—Cahokia—Resemblances to Mexico—St. Louis and - Cincinnati Works—Cincinnati Tablet—Works in Ohio—Fortified - Places—Fort Ancient—Signal Systems—Works at Newark—The Ohio - Valley—Explorations in Tennessee—Burial in Stone Coffins—Mound - Colonies in the South-east—Mr. Anderson’s Calendar Stone—Mounds - of the Lower Mississippi Valley—Seltzertown Mound—Alabama - and Georgia Mounds—Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee—Explorations in - Missouri—Sun-dried Bricks—Remains in the South-west—Direction - of the Migration—Architectural Progress—Altar Mounds—Mounds of - Sepulture—Ancient Copper Mines—Astronomical Knowledge.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Antiquity of Man on the Western Continent.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Antiquity of the Mounds—No Tradition of the - Mound-builders—Vegetation Covering the Mounds—Age of Mound - Crania—Probable Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds—Ancient - Shell-heaps—Man’s Influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span> on Nature—Supposed Testimony of - Geology—Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone—Remains on Santos - River—The Natchez Bone—Remains on Petit Anse Island—Brazilian - Bone caves—Dr. Koch’s Pretended Discoveries—Ancient Hearths—Age - of the Mississippi Delta—Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New - Orleans—Dr. Abbott’s Discoveries in New Jersey—Discoveries in - California—Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio—Crania from Mounds in - the North-west—No Evidences as yet Discovered Proving Man’s - Great Antiquity in America.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Diversity of Opinion as to the Origin of the Ancient Americans.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism—Arabic Learning in the VIIIth - Century—Spirit of the Early Writers on America—Common Opinion - as to the Origin of the Americans—Father Duran—Lost Tribes - of Israel—Garcia—Lascarbot—Villagutierre—Torquemada—Pineda, - etc.—Abbé Domenech—Modern Views—Pre-Columbian - Colonization—Plato’s Atlantis—Kingsborough—The “Book of - Mormon”—Phœnicians—George Jones—Greek and Egyptian Theories—The - Tartars—Japanese and Chinese Theories—Fusang—The Mongol - Theory—Traces of Buddhism—White-Man’s Land—The Northmen—The - Welsh Claim.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Origin of the Americans as Viewed from the Standpoint of - Science.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Origin Theories—Indigenous Origin—Separate Creation - Theory—Dr. Morton’s Theory—Agassiz’s Views—Dr. Morton’s - Cranial Measurements—Dr. Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity - Groundless—Ethnic Relationships—Typical Mound-skull—Crania - from the River Rouge—Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements—Crania - from Kentucky—Researches in Tennessee by Prof. - Jones—Measurements—Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania from - Tennessee Mounds—Low Type Crania from the Mounds—Development - Observable in Mound Crania—Head-Flattening Derived from - Asia—Diseases of the Mound-builders—Physiognomy of the Ancient - Americans—Languages—Evolution and its Bearing on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span> Origin of - the Americans—Darwin and Hæckel on the Indigenous American—The - Autochthonic Hypothesis Groundless—Unity of the Human - Family—Accepted Chronology Faulty.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Traditional History of the Origin of the Maya Nations.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas—The Tradition of - Votan—The First Immigrants to America—The City of Nachan—The - Votanic Document—Ordoñez—Brasseur and Cabrera on the Tzendal - Document—The Empire of the Chanes—The Oldest Civilization—The - Earliest Home of the Mayas—The Quichés—Their Origin - Tradition—The Quiché Cosmogony—The Creation of Man—The Quiché - Migration—Tulan—Mt. Hacavitz—Human Sacrifices Instituted—Four - Tulans—Association of the Mayas and Nahuas—Heroic Period of - the Quichés—Xibalba and its Downfall—Exploits of the Quiché - Chieftains—War of the Sects—Xibalba and Palenque the Same—Mayas - of Yucatan and their Traditions—Culture-heroes—Zamna and - Cukulcan—Christ Myth.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Traditional History of the Origin of the Nahua Nations.</div> - - <div class="subhead">The Early Inhabitants of Mexico—Quinames—Miztecs and - Zapotecs—Totonacs and Huastecs—Olmecs and Xicalancas—The - Nahuas—The Cholula Pyramid—Its Origin Explained by Duran—No - Relation to a Flood—Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition—The - first Toltecs—The Codex Chimalpopoca Account—The Discovery - of Maize—Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas—They came from - Florida—Their Settlement in Tamoanchan—Their Migrations—Hue Hue - Tlapalan—Its location, according to the Sources—Not Identical - with Tlapallan de Cortés—Not in Central America—Probably in - the Mississippi Valley—Beginning of the Toltec Annals—The - Chichimecs not Nahuas—The Nahuatlacas—The Aztecs—Aztlan—As - Described by Early Writers—Aztec Migration—Aztec Maps—Señor - Ramirez on Migration Maps—The seven Caves—Three Claims for the - Location of Aztlan—The culture Hero, Quetzalcoatl.</div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></p> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">The Ancient Pueblos and Cliff-Dwellers.</div> - - <div class="subhead">The Casas Grandes of Chihuahua—Ruins in the Casas Grandes and - Janos Valleys—Casa Grande of the Rio Gila—Ruins in the Gila - Valley—Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado—Ruins in the Cañon - of the Colorado—In the Valley of the Colorado Chiquito—Pueblos - of the Zuñi River—Zuñi and the “Seven Cities of Cibola”—“El - Moro”—Pueblos of the Chaco Valley—Cliff-dwellers—Mr. Jackson’s - Discoveries in the Valley of the Rio San Juan—Cliff-houses - of the Rio Mancos—Cliff-dwellings on the McElmo—Traditional - Origin and Fate of the Cliff-dwellers—Ancestors of the - Moquis—Remarkable Discoveries by Mr. Holmes—The Seven Moqui - Towns—The Montezuma Legend.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Ancient American Civilization and Supposed Old World - Analogies.—Architecture, Sculpture, and Hieroglyphics.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Analogies, Real and Fancied—<span class="smcap">Maya Architecture</span>—The - American Pyramid—The Palace of Palenque—The French Roof at - Palenque—The Trefoil Arch—Yucatanic Architecture—Uxmal—The - Casa de Monjas—Kabah—Casa Grande of Zayi—<span class="smcap">Quiché - Architecture</span>—Copan—Circus of Copan—Description by - Fuentes—Utatlan—<span class="smcap">Nahua Architecture</span>—Remains in - Oajaca—Mitla—Grecques at Mitla—Remains in the State of - Vera Cruz—Cholula—Pyramid of Xochicalco—The Temple of - Mexico—Teotihuacan—Los Edificios of Quemada—Maya and Nahua - Architecture Compared—Old World Analogies—<span class="smcap">Sculpture</span>—Of - the Mounds—At Palenque—At Uxmal—Of the Nahuas—Ancient - American Art and its Old World Analogies—Egyptian Tau - at Palenque—Serpent Sculpture—Nahua Symbolism probably - Asiatic—<span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>—Maya MSS. and Books—Landa’s - Alphabet—Attempts at the Interpretation of Maya MSS. by - Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny—Rosny’s Classification of the - Hieroglyphics—Hopes that a Key has been Discovered—The Mexican - Picture-writing—Aztec Migration Maps.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Chronology, Calendar Systems, and Religious Analogies.</div> - - <div class="subhead">No Mound-builder Chronology Known—Maya Calendar—Landa on the - Calendar—Maya Days—Maya Months—The Katun—The Ahau Katun or - Great Cycle—The Maya System Adjusted to our Chronology—The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">xvii</span> - Adjustment by Perez—Intercalary Days—The Nahua Calendar—The - Sources—Divisions of the Mexican Calendar—The Aztec Year—The - Nemontemi—Aztec Months—Aztec Days—Nahua Ritual Calendar—Mexican - Calendar Stone—Sources of Interpretation—History of - the Stone—Its Interpretation—Date of the Origin of the - Calendar Stone—Date of the Nahua Migration—Analogies with - the Nahua Calendar—<span class="smcap">Religious Analogies</span>—Jewish - Analogies—Deluge Traditions—Supposed Parallels in Jewish - and Mexican History—Analogies of Doctrine—Analogies - of Ceremonial Law—Yucatanic Trinity Myth—Mexican and - Asiatic Analogies—Buddhism in the New World—Scandinavian - Analogies—Mexican and Greek Analogies—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s - Comparisons.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Language and its Relation to North American Migrations.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Diversity of Languages in America—Causes of Diversity—Richness of - American Languages—Polysynthesis—Grimm’s Law—The Maya-Quiché - Languages—Stability of the Maya—Oldest American Language—The - Maya compared to the Greek, the Hebrew, the North European, - the Basque, West African, and the Quichua Languages—Epitome - of Maya Grammar—The Mizteco-Zapotec Languages—The Nahua or - Aztec—The Classic Tongue—Ancient and Modern Nahua—Epitome - of Aztec Grammar—Geographical Extension of the Aztec—In - the South—In the North-west—Buschmann’s Researches—The - Sonora Family—Opata-Tarahumar-Pima Family—Moqui and Aztec - Elements—Aztec in the Shoshone and in the Languages of Oregon - and the Columbian Region—Line of Aztec Elements—The Nahua - probably the Language of the Mound-builders—The Otomi—Supposed - Chinese Analogies—Japanese Analogies—Geographical Names.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></div> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">Probabilities that America was Peopled from the Old World - Considered Geographically and Physically.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Legends of Atlantis—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory—The Subject - Examined in the Light of Science—Retzius’ View—Le Plongeon’s - Observations—Identity of European and American Plant - Types—Revelations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">xviii</span> of the <i>Dolphin</i> and <i>Challenger</i> - Expeditions—The Atlantic Floor—Challenger and Dolphin - Ridges—“Challenger Plateau” probably once Dry Land—Identity - of European and South American Fauna—Elevation and - Depression of Coast Level—Of Greenland, the United States, - and South America—The Gulf Stream—Equatorial Current—The - Trade-Winds—Accidental Discovery of Brazil—America Probably - Reached by Ancient Navigators—The Caras—Atolls of the Pacific - Ocean—A Pacific Continent—Contiguity of the Continents - at the North—Aleutian Islands—The Kuro-Suvo—Behring’s - Straits—Inviting Appearance of the American Shore—Remoteness - of the Migration—Prof. Grote’s View—Prof. Asa Gray’s - Observations—Conditions Favorable to a Migration—Mr. John H. - Becker’s Observations.</div> - - <div class="center mt5"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></div> - - <div class="smcap">Conclusion.</div> - - <hr class="short mt3" /> - - <div class="mt3">APPENDIX.</div> - - <ol class="alpha ml3 small mt1"> - <li><a href="#MADISONVILLE_EXPLORATIONS">MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS</a>.</li> - <li><a href="#ELEPHANT_PIPE">ELEPHANT PIPE</a>.</li> - <li><a href="#CHARNAY_EXPLORATION">CHARNAY EXPLORATION</a>.</li> - <li><a href="#HOUSE_ARCHITECTURE">HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS</a>.</li> - </ol> - - <div class="mt2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></div> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter center lh2 bold"><span class="gespertt1">THE</span><br /> - <span class="xxlarge gespertt1">NORTH-AMERICANS</span><br /> - <span class="small gespertt1">OF</span><br /> - <span class="xlarge"><span class="gespertt1">ANTIQUITY</span>.</span></div> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_I"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE UNITED STATES.</div> - - <div class="subhead">The Aborigines—Antiquity of the Red Indian—The - Mound-builders—Geographical Distribution of - Mound-works—Frontier Defences of the Mound-builders—Michigan - Mounds—Mounds in the North-west—On the Upper Missouri—In - Dakota—Animal Mounds of Wisconsin—Elephant Mound—Discoveries - at Davenport, Iowa—Davenport Tablet—Heart of the Mound-builder - Country—Cahokia—Resemblances to Mexico—St. Louis and - Cincinnati Works—Cincinnati Tablet—Works in Ohio—Fortified - Places—Fort Ancient—Signal Systems—Works at Newark—The Ohio - Valley—Explorations in Tennessee—Burial in Stone Coffins—Mound - Colonies in the South-east—Mr. Anderson’s Calendar Stone—Mounds - of the Lower Mississippi Valley—Seltzertown Mound—Alabama - and Georgia Mounds—Pyramid of Kolee-Mokee—Explorations in - Missouri—Sun-dried Bricks—Remains in the South-west—Direction - of the Migration—Architectural Progress—Altar Mounds—Mounds of - Sepulture—Ancient Copper Mines—Astronomical Knowledge.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">ON that eventful morning nearly four centuries ago, when the spell - of uncertainty and mystery which enshrouded the Atlantic was broken, - and the darkness of the deep vanished with the darkness of the night, - the illustrious admiral discovered a world populated with beings - like himself. They were male and female, with all the physical - characteristics common to the rest of mankind, and differed from the - Spaniards only in that their skin was of a copper hue, and their cheek - bones more prominent. They were tattooed and wore their straight black - hair, cut short above the ears, with a few unshorn locks falling upon - their shoulders.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> These naked uncivilized men and women were the - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>same in their physical type with those discovered subsequently on - the islands and the main land by the Cabots, Vespucius, Verrezano, - and Cartier. To rehearse their descriptions of the natives whom they - first met would be but to repeat the experience and observations of - Columbus. Nearly five centuries earlier the Norse adventurer Thorwald - Ericson (1002 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) encountered natives on the New England - coast, corresponding in appearance, habits, and condition to those who - occupied the country when colonized by the first settlers. To these - natives they gave the name of <em>Skrellings</em>, from <em>skraekja</em>, - a name which they had previously applied to the Eskimo, meaning <em>to - cry out</em>.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Thorfin Karlsefne, who also reached the New England - coast four years later than Thorwald, describes the natives as - sallow-colored and ill-looking, having ugly heads of hair, large eyes - and broad cheeks. They came in canoes to his ships for the purposes - of trade, and though peaceable at first, soon exhibited hostility and - treachery.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It is probable that these Skrellings were North American - Indians, who had interbred with the Atlantic Coast Eskimo. How long - the red man’s occupation of the country antedated its discovery by - the Scandinavians is uncertain. His traditions are worthless on that - subject. His chronology of moons and cycles is an incoherent and - contradictory jumble. Nor does he know any more certainly from whence - he came. It would seem that his race came by installments, if it came - at all, and that he was just as far advanced in the arts of hunting - and war and domestic life on the day in which he first possessed - himself of the soil, as on that in which he was driven from it by the - European. Only under the fostering care of the white man has he shown - any improvement, and that has been of such an uncertain character as to - amount to proof of his incapacity for self-civilization. The Indian, - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>measured by his low condition in the scale of progress from the - extremest barbarism towards semi-civilization, belongs to what is known - as the flint age (old-stone or Palæolithic) in Europe, in which the - rudest flint implements seem to have been the chief auxiliaries which - he possessed with which to supplement and assist his hands in securing - a livelihood or to protect his person and family from ferocious beasts. - Perhaps we may more properly place him in a position midway between the - flint and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> the stone ages (new-stone or Neolithic), for he no doubt - was possessed of polished stone implements of a limited number and - variety. Whether made by his own hands or by those of his predecessors - is uncertain.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In thus assigning the Indian his place in the scale - by which man’s state of barbarism or degree of civilization has been - measured by scholars in Europe, we do not pretend to claim for him the - antiquity of the man of the flint age in any other part of the globe.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp93"> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Arrow Heads in the National Museum (Washington).</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Methods Employed by Indians of Hafting Stone Weapons.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp69"> - <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Indian and Mound-builder Spear-heads.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - - <p>Dr. Abbott, of New Jersey, in an extended treatment of the <cite>Stone - Age</cite> in his own State, has shown many evidences of the protracted - occupancy of the Atlantic States by a people whose weapons resemble - those of ancient man in Europe. Col. Charles Whittlesey has called - attention to the discovery of Indian remains in the “Shelter Cave,” - near Elyria, Ohio, and also in a cave near Louisville, Kentucky, where - the conditions seemed to point to an interment as long ago as two - thousand years, but the evidences both as to the remains having been - those of the red man and the period of burial are too uncertain to be - of any service in the construction of a theory.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - - <p>The eras or ages which have been observed to mark the different stages - of the development of pre-historic man in Europe (in the manufacture - of implements and the construction of places of abode), are apparently - reversed in America.</p> - - <p>The Neolithic and Bronze ages preceded the Palæolithic at least in - the Mississippi Basin—not that the last inhabitants deteriorated and - lost the higher arts which are well known to have been cultivated upon - the same soil occupied by them, but that they were preceded by a race - possessed of no inferior civilization, who were not their ancestors, - but a distinct people with a capacity for progress, for the exercise of - government, for the erection of magnificent architectural monuments, - and possessed of a respectable knowledge of geometrical principles. - The remains of this mysterious people known as the mound-builders - are spread over thousands of square miles of the United States, and - it is a question whether the antiquarian is more surprised at the - greatness of their number than in many instances at the immensity - of their proportions. The entire valley region of the Missouri, - Mississippi and Ohio rivers with that of their affluents was occupied - by this remarkable people—presenting us with a parallel to the ancient - civilization which flourished in the earliest times on the watercourses - of the old world. The geographical distribution of these mounds may be - described in general terms with a view to the territory occupied by - them in the United States, as central, western, and southern.</p> - - <p>The publication of the valuable works of Squier and Davis, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>of Dr. - Lapham and those of Mr. Squier alone, in which the remains of these - regions are described, was like a revelation which brought to light - the wonders of an entombed civilization.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In treating of the mounds - geographically, we find no evidences of this people having reached - the Atlantic seaboard, unless we except the great shell-heaps found - in various localities on the coast, and of which we will speak - further on. It is true that in South Carolina a few vestiges of their - residence are found on the Wateree River near Camden, and in the - mountainous regions of North Carolina,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> where they wrought mica mines - for the mineral which they prized as precious, and which so often - accompanies the remains of their dead. No <em>authentic</em> remains of - the Mound-Builders are found in the New England States, nor even in - the State of New York. In the former, we have an isolated mound in - the valley of the Kennebec in Maine, and dim outlines of enclosures - near Sanborn and Concord in New Hampshire, but there is no certainty - of their being the work of this people.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the latter, it was at - first supposed that the remains found in the western portion of the - State were uniform in their plan of construction with the works of - the Ohio valley; but Mr. Squier pronounces them to be purely the - work of Red Indians. This conclusion should not be viewed as final, - even though Cusick’s vague statement (in <cite>Schoolcraft</cite>, vol. v) - that the Iroquois “were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>compelled to build fortifications in order - to save themselves from the devouring monsters” lends it an air - of plausibility. Either people may have been their builders. Col. - Whittlesey would assign these fort-like structures, differing from - the more southern enclosures in that they were surrounded by trenches - on their outside, while the latter uniformly have the trench on the - inside of the enclosure, to a people anterior to the Red Indian and - perhaps contemporaneous with the Mound-builders, but distinct from - either.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> A quite reasonable view is that of Dr. Foster, that they - are the <em>frontier</em> works of the Mound-builders, adapted to the - purposes of defence against the sudden irruptions of hostile tribes. - He remarks, “If our country were to become a desolation, the future - antiquary would find the sea-coast studded with fortifications of a - complex form, and as he penetrated to the interior they would disappear - altogether.”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It is probable that these defences belong to the last - period of the Mound-builders’ residence on the lakes, and were erected - when the more warlike peoples of the North who drove them from their - cities first made their appearance. Passing along the boundary of the - Mound-builders’ territory towards the west, we find the great lakes in - all cases to have served as its limit on the north. Mr. Henry Gillman - has described in several publications<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> his exploration of mounds in - Michigan and the lakes. One of the richest mounds in relics and human - remains is known as “the Great Mound of the River Rouge,” situated on - the stream from which it takes its name, near the Detroit River and - about four and a half miles from the centre of the city of Detroit. - The mound now measures twenty feet in height, and must originally have - measured 300 feet in length by 200 in width, though the removal of - large quantities of sand from it has greatly reduced its proportions - and destroyed many valuable relics. Many other <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>mounds surrounding it - have also been removed. The most remarkable result of the exploration - was the discovery of tibiæ flattened to an extreme degree, such as - is peculiar to platycnemic man. A circular mound in the vicinity - yielded even more remarkable specimens of this singular flattening or - compression. Two specimens presented unprecedented proportions; the - transverse diameter of one shaft being 0.42 and the other 0.40 of the - antero-posterior diameter. The circular mound yielded eleven skeletons - besides a large number of burial vases and stone implements of all - descriptions peculiar to the mounds. Of the crania from this mound we - shall speak in Chapter IV. In 1872, Mr. Gillman examined a remarkable - group of tumuli situated at the head of St. Clair River. These mostly - stand on the shores of Lake Huron. The relics, besides human remains, - consisted of pieces of mica, and necklaces of beads of the teeth of - the moose alternating with well-wrought beads of copper. The same - peculiarity of flattened <i>tibiæ</i> was markedly prominent in the - remains.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The same investigator has examined mounds at Ottawa Point, - Michigan, near the mouth of the Oqueoc River, at Point La Barbe in the - Straits of Mackinac, and at Beaver Harbor on Beaver Island in Lake - Michigan. Excepting ancient copper mines, no known works extend as far - north as Lake Superior anywhere in the central region. Farther to the - North-west, however, the works of the same people are comparatively - numerous. Dr. Foster quotes a British Columbia newspaper, without - giving either name or date, as authority for the discovery of a large - number of mounds, seemingly the works of the same people who built - farther east and south.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> On the Butte Prairies <span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>of Oregon Wilkes and - his exploring expedition discovered thousands of similar mounds.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp50"> - <img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Great Serpent, Adams Co., O.</div> - </div> - - <p>Lewis and Clarke, in the Journal of their expedition up the Missouri - River, describe the remains of fortifications on Bonhomme Islands at - as early a date as 1804–5–6, but until recently their statements have - been received with a degree of doubt.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> This doubt has, however, - been fully set at rest by the members of the United States Geological - Surveying Expedition of 1872. Not only has it been shown that works - exist at Bonhomme’s Island, but all the way up through the Yellowstone - region and on the upper tributaries of the Missouri mounds are found - in profusion.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Dr. C. Thomas, of the above-named expedition, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>made - interesting discoveries in Dakota Territory, near the Northern Pacific - Railroad crossing of the James River. Mounds were examined giving - evidence of perhaps greater antiquity than those common in the interior - of the country, if their contents be depended upon as furnishing a - means of test.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Missouri <span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>valley seems to have been one of the - most populous branches of the wide-spread Mound-builder country. The - valleys of its affluents, the Platte and Kansas rivers, also furnish - evidence that these streams served as the channels into which flowed - a part of the tide of population which either descended or ascended - the Missouri. The Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, however, formed - the great central arteries of the Mound-builder domain. In Wisconsin - we find the northern central limit of their works; occasionally on the - western shores of Lake Michigan, but in great numbers in the southern - counties of the State, and especially on the lower Wisconsin River. - The peculiar and fantastic forms of most of these mounds have led some - writers to suppose that they belonged to a different race from that - which occupied the valleys to the south. Instead of the usual type of - the pyramid and circle, these remains mostly represent animals, or - birds, or men. Still Dr. Lapham, who has described them fully in his - admirable work<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> on the <cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, concluded - that sufficient resemblances between these remains and those of the - south exist to ascribe to them a common origin. A few instances of the - circle and square are found in association with the animal mounds, - while in Ohio, on Brush Creek in Adams <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>County, the “Great Serpent,” - and the “Alligator” in Licking County furnish proof that either the - same people built them or at least the same impulses, religious or - otherwise, actuated the people of both districts. The former of the - above figures is well described by its name, “with its head conforming - to the crest of a hill, and its body winding back for 700 feet in - graceful undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail.” - The length of the latter “from the point of the nose following the - curves of the tail to the tip, is about 250 feet, the breadth of the - body forty feet and the length of the legs or paws each thirty-six - feet.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Until recently no effigy mounds were believed exist further - south than <span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>Ohio; however, Mr. C. C. Jones, Jr., in the <cite>Smithsonian - Report</cite> for 1877 has shown this to be a mistake. Mr. Jones describes - an eagle-shaped stone mound north of Eatonton, in Putnam Co., Georgia, - of the following dimensions: Height of tumulus at the breast of the - bird, seven or eight feet; length from the top of the head to the - extremity of the tail, 102 feet; distance from tip to tip of the wings, - 120 feet; greatest expanse of tail, 38 feet. A careful regard to the - proportions of the bird are shown. A similar stone mound, of nearly the - same proportions, was found near Lawrence Ferry on the Oconee River - in Putnam County. In this instance a circle of stones encloses the - effigy. At Trenton, Wisconsin, and in many other places examined by - Dr. Lapham, cruciform works were found, some of which were constructed - with the arms extending toward the cardinal points.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Instances of - extinct or unknown animal forms occur occasionally: one instance is - that of an animal somewhat resembling a monkey, having a body of about - 160 feet in length, while the tail describes a semicircle and measures - alone 320 feet.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The most remarkable instance of the kind, however, - is that of the big elephant mound found a few miles below the mouth - of the Wisconsin River, so perfect in its proportions and complete in - its representations of an elephant that its builders must have been - well acquainted with all the physical characteristics of the animal - which they delineated.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> This fact suggests the inquiry whether these - people were Asiatic in origin and penetrated to the interior of the - country before their recollections of the elephant were forgotten, - or whether they were contemporaneous with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> the mastodon of North - America? In the remarkable works at Aztlan, Dr. Lapham finds not only - resemblances to the Ohio antiquities, but striking analogies with those - of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Elephant Mound, Wisconsin.</div> - </div> - - <p>Across the Mississippi in Minnesota and Iowa, the predominant type - of circular tumuli prevail, extending throughout the latter State to - the Missouri. There are evidences that the Upper Missouri region was - connected with that of the Upper Mississippi by settlements occupying - the intervening country. Mounds are found even in the valley of the Red - River of the North.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - - <p>Eastern Iowa, especially in the neighborhood of Davenport, has - furnished some of the most interesting mounds that have yet been - examined. Several gentlemen—especially Rev. Mr. Gass—of the Davenport - Academy of Sciences have within a couple of years recovered a number of - fine specimens of copper axes, nearly all wrapped in Mound-builder’s - cloth. This cloth had been “preserved by the antiseptic action of - the salts of copper, in all probability of the carbonates. In all - specimens one thread of the warp is double or twisted, and there are - about four to the one-fourth of an inch.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Stone pipes of excellent - workmanship carved to represent various animals were found. Pottery, - copper beads in considerable numbers, mica and sea-shells (Pyrula and - Cassis), one which had an internal capacity of 152 cubic inches, or - five and one-half pints, were among the relics recovered. Most of the - human remains were much decayed; although some, among them a skull, - were preserved. The character of the Altar mound in this group is - rather unusual. Within the mound hewn rectangular stones were laid upon - one another with perfect regularity, so as to break joints, forming - something resembling the exterior appearance of a chimney. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>We are not - aware of any similarly shaped altar ever having been discovered in the - mounds. The most remarkable discovery of all, however, was made January - 10, 1877, by Rev. Mr. Gass and his assistants in one of the mounds - which previously had been examined in part. Two tablets of coal slate - covered with a variety of figures and hieroglyphics were found.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> One - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>of these, the larger, is of a most interesting character. On one side, - as will be seen in the accompanying cut, a number of persons with hands - joined have formed a semicircle around a mound, upon which a fire has - been kindled, probably for the purpose of sacrifice, or for converting - into a hardened and water-proof covering the layer of clay which may - have been spread over the remains of some distinguished personage - beneath. The presence of a layer of baked clay above human remains - in so many Ohio mounds leads to this conjecture. The three prostrate - human figures may be those of wives or servants of the deceased, to be - sacrificed upon his grave, as has been the custom from the remotest - times in India and among many savage tribes. The conspicuousness of - the sun, moon, and stars, suggest even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> a sadder thought, that perhaps - it may be purely a religious ceremony in which human victims are being - offered to the heavenly bodies. Sabine worship, which spread throughout - the entire length of the continent, is known to have been accompanied - with the most horrid rites. Above the arch of the firmament are - hieroglyphics which if deciphered no doubt would tell of the nature of - this and other similar scenes. On the reverse side of the tablet is a - rude representation of a hunting scene in which various animals, such - as the buffalo cow, deer, bear, etc., etc., are figured. It has been - conjectured that a large animal in the upper left-hand corner may be a - mammoth, but there is little ground for the supposition. The scene is - probably a representation of the exploits of the person buried in the - mound. The smaller tablet is evidently a calendar stone with signs of - the zodiac regularly marked upon it; of this calendar we shall speak in - a future chapter. The above conjectures as to the significance of the - representations on these tablets are based upon the supposition that - they are genuine and not the work of an impostor, of which we cannot - refrain from expressing a slight suspicion. That Rev. Mr. Gass has - given a true account of his discovery there cannot be the slightest - doubt—that he and his co-laborers in the work of excavation believe - them to be genuine is equally certain.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Davenport Tablet.</div> - </div> - - <p>Descending to the interior, we find the heart of the Mound-builder - country in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. It is uncertain whether its - vital centre was in Southern Illinois or in Ohio—probably the former - because of its geographical situation with reference to the mouths of - the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. To enter upon a detailed description - of the antiquities of this remarkable region would alone more than - occupy the entire limits which we have prescribed for this work. This - undertaking has already been well performed by Atwater, Squier and - Davis, Foster, Baldwin, and many others. We shall therefore confine - our remarks to notices of the most conspicuous remains and the general - peculiarities of Mound-builder architecture. This people possessed - a due appreciation of the physical advantages of certain localities - for their cities. The site of St. Louis was formerly covered with - mounds, one of which was thirty-five feet high,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> while in the American - bottom on the Illinois side of the river their number approximates two - hundred. In a group of sixty or more, lying between Alton and East St. - Louis, stands the most magnificent of all the Mound-builders’ works, - the great Mound of Cahokia, which rises to a height of ninety-seven - feet and extends its huge mass in the form of a parallelogram, with - sides measuring 700 and 500 feet respectively. On the south-west<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> there - was a terrace 160 by 300 feet, reached by means of a graded way. The - summit of the pyramid is truncated, affording a platform of 200 by 450 - feet. Upon this platform stands a conical mound ten feet high. Dr. - Foster remarks: “It is probable that upon this platform was reared a - capacious temple, within whose walls the high-priests gathered from - different quarters at stated seasons, celebrating their mystic rites, - whilst the swarming multitude below looked up with mute adoration.”<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> - When we consider the analogy between the general features of this - pyramid and that on which the temple of Mexico was situated, it is not - unnatural to reflect that Cahokia may have served as the prototype of - the more magnificent structure which was so often deluged with the - blood of its thousands of human victims. The temple of Mexico and many - others of its type may have been the embodiment of the same principles - of architecture employed at Cahokia, but carried to greater perfection - under the more favorable conditions afforded in the valley of Anahuac, - or precisely the reverse may be true. Such speculations are, however, - more easily set forth than sustained. Dr. Foster, through a mistake, - states that the monster mound has been removed. This, we are happy to - say, is not the case.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp87"> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drilled Ceremonial Weapons.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <p>Numerous interesting explorations have been conducted recently in - Illinois with rich results. Among the most notable of these are the - discoveries of Mr. Henry R. Howland, reported in a paper read before - the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, March, 1877 (<cite>Bulletin of - the Buffalo Soc. of Nat. Sc.</cite>, vol. iii., p. 204 <i>et seq.</i>). - In January, 1876, Mr. Howland witnessed the removal of a mound near - Mitchell Station in the American Bottom. In a stratum four or five - feet from the base, composed chiefly of human bones, a large quantity - of matting and a number of copper relics were disclosed to view. The - matting was a coarse vegetable cane-like fibre simply woven, without - twisting. Among the articles wrapped in the matting were several - miniature tortoise shells formed of copper. They were of beaten copper - of one sixty-fourth of an inch in thickness, the largest being but - two and one-eighth inches in length. “A narrow flange or rim, about - five thirty-secondths of an inch in width, is neatly turned at the - base, and over the entire outer surface the curious markings peculiar - to the tortoise shell are carefully produced by indentation—the - entire workmanship evincing a delicate skill of which we have never - before found traces in any discovered remains of the arts of the - Mound-builders.” These shells were covered with several wrappings, the - first and nearest to the shell proving to be of vegetable fibre, the - second of a dark-brown color; when placed under the microscope and - examined by Dr. G. J. Engleman and Sir Joseph Hooker, proved to be - a very fine cloth woven from animal hair—of the rabbit and possibly - of the deer. The third envelope was made from the intestine of some - animal. The lower jaws of deer were discovered in which the forward - part containing the teeth were encased in thin copper and wrapped in - the fine hair-cloth just described. From holes bored in the back of - each jaw, it is inferred that the articles were suspended from the - neck as totems or badges of authority. Three wooden spool-like objects - were found in the same place, partially plated with thin copper. - Copper rods or needles from fourteen to eighteen inches in length, a - beautiful shell necklace, and a spear head of chert a foot long, were - also discovered. Among the rest were several sea-shells (<i>Busycon - Perversum</i>), evidently brought from the Gulf a thousand miles - distant. In the summer of 1874,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> Mr. H. R. Enoch, of Rockford, Ill., - discovered a tablet in a mound situated on the bank of Rock River, - five miles south of Rockford. The “Rockford Tablet” created quite a - sensation at first because it was thought to bear upon its face several - symbols found upon the Mexican Calendar stone. However, a thorough - investigation of its claims prove it to be a fraud, no doubt placed in - the mound where discovered for the purpose of deception. Mr. J. Moody - of Mendota, Ill., in referring to the twelve symbols of the tablet - said to be Mexican, remarks: “Six are nearly exact counterparts of - that number of Lybian characters which I find represented in Priest’s - <cite>American Antiquities</cite>. * * * From a comparison of the Rockford - Tablet with the plates in the work referred to above, the inference - is almost irresistible that the engraver had a copy of Priest’s - <cite>American Antiquities</cite> before him while doing his work.” (See - <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes, Luxembourg</cite>, 1877. Tome - ii, p. 160.)</p> - - <p>The same sagacity which chose the neighborhood of St. Louis for these - works, covered the site of Cincinnati with an extensive system of - circumvallations and mounds. Almost the entire space now occupied by - the city was utilized by the mysterious builders in the construction - of embankments and tumuli built upon the most accurate geometrical - principles, and evincing keen military foresight.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Dr. Daniel Drake - described these works in 1815, and many others subsequently.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The - most important discovery made among these remains was that of the - “Cincinnati Tablet” in 1841. This singular relic was taken from a large - mound formerly thirty-five feet high, removed at the above date from - the extension of Mound Street across Fifth <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>Street. When found, it was - lying on a level with the original surface under the skull of a much - decayed skeleton, with two polished, pointed bones about seven inches - long, and a bed of charcoal and ashes. This stone in all probability - served the double purpose of a record of the calendar and a scale - for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> measurement.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Mr. E. Gest, the courteous owner of the tablet, - provided the accompanying cuts expressly for this work, regarding them - as the first correct representations of the stone.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp64"> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cincinnati Tablet.</span> (Front.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp64"> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cincinnati Tablet.</span> (Back.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp83"> - <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dagger ½ Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <p>The vast number as well as the magnitude of the works found in the - State of Ohio, have surprised the most careless and indifferent - observers. It is estimated by the most conservative, and Messrs. - Squier and Davis among them, that the number of tumuli <span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>in Ohio equals - 10,000, and the number of enclosures 1000 or 1500. In Ross County - alone, 100 enclosures and upwards of 500 mounds have been examined. - Some of the works exhibit fine engineering skill; such, for instance, - are those near Liberty, Ohio, where two embankments, each forming a - perfect circle, are found in conjunction with a perfect square. The - larger circle measures 1700 feet in diameter and contains forty acres, - while the smaller has a diameter of 800 feet. The square contains - twenty-seven acres and measures 1080 feet on each side. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> set of - works in Pike County consists of a circle enclosing a square, the - four corners of which each touch the circular embankment. The opening - or doorway through the circle is opposite the opening in the square. - Prof. E. B. Andrews found a conical mound enclosed by a circle, the - base of the mound reaching to the edge of the ditch outside of which - is the circular wall. The mound was located on the Hocking River, - nine miles northward of Lancaster, Ohio (see <cite>Tenth Ann. Rep. of - Peabody Mus. of Arch. and Eth.</cite>, p. 51). The works at Hopetown, near - Chillicothe, present several combinations of the square and circle. - The two principal figures of these works are a square and circle—each - containing exactly twenty acres. The discovery of these geometrical - combinations—executed with such precision—in many parts of the country, - lead to the belief that the Mound-builders were one people spread over - a large territory, possessed of the same institutions, religion, and - perhaps one government. These facts are highly important as shedding - light upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> degree of their civilization. The evidence is ample - that they were possessed of regular scales of measurement, of the means - of determining angles and of computing the area to be enclosed by a - square and circle, so that the space enclosed by these figures standing - side by side might exactly correspond. In a word, their scientific and - mathematical knowledge was of a very respectable order.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp95"> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Works in Liberty Township, Ross County, Ohio.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Celts.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br /> - The large celt, upper line, from a mound (Tenn.). The others Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Chisels, Gouges and Adzes.</span> (Nat. - Mus.) Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <p>The military works of the Mound-builders, other than those previously - mentioned as existing on the Lakes and in Western New York State, - are of a twofold character, consisting first of fortified eminences, - of which an instance is found in Butler County, Ohio, where 16³⁄₁₀ - acres are walled in on the summit of a hill, and the entrance to the - enclosure guarded by a complicated system of covered ways. On Paint - Creek, Ross County, a remarkable stone work encloses 140 acres, in - the centre of which was an artificial lake, probably to supply water - in case of a siege. Perhaps the most remarkable fortification left by - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> Mound-builders is that known as Fort Ancient, Ohio, on the Little - Miami River, forty-two miles north-east of Cincinnati. The specialist - is already familiar with the oft-quoted description of the Survey by - Prof. Locke, made in 1843. We will therefore only refer to a few of - the measurements contained in that description. “The work occupies - a terrace on the left bank of the river, two hundred and thirty - feet above its waters. The place is naturally a strong one, being a - peninsula defended by two ravines, which, originating on the east side, - near to each other, diverging and sweeping around, enter the Miami, - the one above, the other below the work. The Miami itself, with its - precipitous bank of two hundred feet, defends the western side.” * * - * “The whole circuit of this work is between four and five miles. The - number of cubic yards of excavation may be approximately estimated - at 628,800”. The embankment stands in many places twenty feet in - perpendicular height. The most interesting and valuable paper on this - work is that by Mr. L. M. Hosea, of Cincinnati, in the <cite>Quarterly - Journal of Science</cite> (Cincinnati), October, 1874, p. 289 <i>et - seq.</i> This writer observes that it has often been remarked that - the form of Fort Ancient resembles a rude outline of the continent of - North and South America. None of the mounds contained in the enclosure - have yielded any relics of special interest. The greatest possible - diversity of opinion exists concerning the antiquity of the abandonment - of the works. Judges Dunlevy and Force, the latter in his memoir on the - <cite>Mound-builders</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> estimate the period as a thousand <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>years, - while Mr. Hosea thinks several thousand years would be required to - produce the numerous little hillocks and depressions which mark the - spot where trees have grown, fallen and decayed. Reasoning from other - data, we are inclined to the more conservative opinion of Judge Force - as altogether the safer. Fort Ancient, which could have held a garrison - of 60,000 men with their families and provisions, was one of a line - of fortifications which extend across the State and served to check - the incursion of the savages of the North in their descent upon the - Mound-builder country.</p> - - <p>The second class of military works, which are exceedingly numerous on - all the watercourses—existing not only on the Ohio and Mississippi, but - on all their tributaries, especially on the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, - Wabash, Illinois, Kentucky, and minor streams—are mounds which served - as outlooks. These were always placed in positions to command extended - views, and from which signals could be given to still others of the - same character, or probably to settlements remote from the watercourses.</p> - - <div class="figleft illowp55"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Square Mound, Marietta.</div> - </div> - - <p>A system of these works no doubt formerly existed on the Great Miami - River extending north of Dayton, Ohio, southward to the Ohio River, and - connected with the great settlement on the site of Cincinnati and with - the high bluffs on the Kentucky shore. The great Mound at Miamisburgh, - ten miles south of Dayton, formed a part of this chain. This monster - mound is sixty-eight feet high and 852 feet in circumference, and may - have served the double purpose of a signal station and the base of a - small edifice devoted to astronomical or religious purposes. There is - little doubt that the Mound-builders in the latter period of their - occupancy of this region, when apprehensive of danger from their - enemies, employed a system of signal telegraph by which communication - was had, through means of the watch-fire or the torch, between - localities as distant as those now occupied by Cincinnati and Dayton. - Only a few minutes were necessary by means of such a perfected system - in which to transmit a signal fifty or one hundred miles. Squier and - Davis remark on this subject: “There seems to have existed a system of - defences extending from the sources of the Alleghany and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> Susquehanna - in New York, diagonally across the country, through Central and - Northern Ohio to the Wabash. Within this range the works which are - regarded as defensive are largest and most numerous.” The signal system - we have reason to believe was employed throughout the entire extent - of this range of works. The majority of the enclosures found in the - Ohio and Mississippi valleys are presumed not to have been designed - for military purposes, since the trench is usually <em>inside</em> of - the embankment. However, instances of the trench being outside of the - parapet occur in Southern Ohio.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The most magnificent Mound-builder - remains in Ohio are the extensive and intricate works near Newark in - Licking County. The survey made by Col. Whittlesey and published in - the <cite>Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, is the most - reliable as well as the fullest source of our information concerning - their magnitude, though the plan has been corrected considerably by - more recent surveys. These works occupy an area of two miles square, - and formerly consisted of twelve miles of embankment. The spacious - gateways—one of which has embankments on both sides measuring - thirty-five feet in height from the bottom of the interior trench—the - labyrinthine system of avenues, the strangely-shaped mounds, one - of which resembles a huge bird-track with a middle toe 155 feet in - length and the remaining two each 110 feet in length—together with - the solitude of the ancient forest which entombed this buried city, - we confess impressed us with a sense of wonderment and that strange - perplexity which an insoluble mystery exercises over the mind. We - can appreciate the remark of Mr. Squier in his description: “Here - covered with the gigantic <span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>trees of a primitive forest, the work - truly presents a grand and impressive appearance; and in entering - the ancient avenue for the first time, the visitor does not fail to - experience a sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the - portals of an Egyptian temple, or in gazing upon the ruins of Petra of - the Desert.” It is estimated that a force of thousands of men assisted - by modern appliances and implements as well as horse-power, which the - Mound-builder did not possess, would require several months in which - to construct these works.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> At Marietta a most interesting system of - works exist, covering an area three-fourths of a mile long and half - a mile broad. These occupy the river terrace or second bottom at the - confluence of the Muskingum River with the Ohio, and present analogies - with the works further south and with those of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> Two - irregular squares inclose fifty and twenty-seven acres respectively. - The walls of the larger are between five and six feet high and from - twenty to thirty feet wide at the base. Within an enclosure are four - truncated pyramids or platforms, one of which, the largest, is 188 feet - long, 132 feet wide, and only 10 feet high, with a graded way reaching - to its summit, as have also two of the other pyramids. No one can look - at these structures without seeing the force of Lewis H. Morgan’s - Pueblo theory,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> which makes these mounds or flattened pyramidal - elevations the foundation for edifices of a perishable nature; - constructed perhaps of hewn wood, but not of a combination of the adobe - and wood as he supposes, since no material for such a combination is - found in the Ohio valley.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The most elevated of the Marietta works - is an elliptical mound thirty feet high, enclosed by an embankment.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Graded Way near Piketon, Ohio.</div> - </div> - - <p>The most recent and satisfactory exploration of mounds in Ohio, was - that conducted by Prof. E. B. Andrews for the Peabody<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> Museum of - American Archæology and Ethnology, and published in the Tenth Annual - Report of the Trustees (Cambridge, 1877). The mounds examined are in - Fairfield, Perry, Athens, and Hocking Counties. In Fairfield County - they were all located upon hills and commanded extensive views. Their - contents indicated great age, being much decayed. At New Lexington in - Perry County, ancient flint diggings, unquestionably worked by the - Mound-builders, were examined, many of the pits being six to eight feet - deep. In Athens County, on Wolf Plain, situated in Athens and Dover - Townships, several circles and nineteen conical mounds are found. One - of the latter measures forty feet high, with a diameter of 170 feet, - and contains 437.742 cubic feet. Another, known as the Beard Mound, was - excavated, and the interesting fact discovered that in its construction - the dirt had been “thrown down in small quantities—averaging about a - peck—as if from a basket.” Prof. Andrews is of the opinion that the - mound was a long time in building, “for we find,” he remarks, “at - many different levels, the proof that grasses and other vegetation - grew rankly upon the earth heap and were buried by the dirt.” In a - neighboring mound known as the George Connett Mound, under a bed of - charcoal five feet below the summit, a skeleton was found in a box or - coffin, enclosed by timbers. The upper part of the coffin and middle of - the body had been destroyed by fire. A circle of five hundred copper - beads was found around the body. A copper instrument resembling a - calker’s chisel, measuring 141 mm. in length, width at flattened end, - 52 mm., diameter of cylindrical part, 20 mm. The instrument was formed - from sheet copper, beaten with such care that no traces of the hammer - are visible. “The edges are brought together and united very closely - by a slight overlap.” Professor Andrews describes and figures a piece - of leather ornamented with oval copper beads taken from a point eight - feet below the surface of a mound designated as the “school-house - mound.” The original piece measured eight or ten inches square, but - unfortunately fell into the hands of bystanders, who tore it in pieces - for relics. The Professor regards the curiosity as of Mound-builder - origin, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> thinks it belonged to an ornamented dress. We cannot - detail these interesting explorations here, and must dismiss them with - the deduction that in certain cases the cremation of the bodies found - in mounds was accidental, caused by the heat penetrating through a - layer of earth on which a fire had been kindled. In other instances, - the body seems to have been burned intentionally, and the ashes and - charred bones heaped together in the centre of the mound. Some clay and - stone tubes of fine workmanship were obtained. The same document above - cited contains a valuable paper by Mr. Lucian Carr on his interesting - exploration of a mound in Lee County, Virginia.</p> - - <p>Grave Creek Mound, situated twelve miles below Wheeling in West - Virginia, is the Monster work of the Ohio Valley. It measures seventy - feet in height and nine hundred feet in circumference. Its form is that - of a truncated cone, the flattened area on the top being fifty feet in - diameter.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The States of Indiana<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and Illinois formed with Ohio - a portion of the great centre of the Mound-builder country, as the - remains found on the watercourses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> of both States testify. The valleys - of the Wabash, Kankakee, Illinois and Saline Rivers were the once - populous dwelling-places of a thrifty and industrious people who have - left thousands of structures behind them.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> The Alleghany Mountains, - the natural limit of the great Mississippi basin, appears to have - served as the eastern and south-eastern boundary of the Mound-builder - country. In Western New York, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, - and in all of Kentucky and Tennessee, their remains are numerous - and in some instances imposing. In Tennessee especially, the works - of the Mound-builders are of the most interesting character. Prof. - Joseph Jones, of the University of New Orleans, has by his thorough - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>and recent explorations under the patronage of the Smithsonian - Institution, brought to light very interesting materials for the study - of the history of this people. The works of defence in the shape - of stone forts, by some thought to be peculiar to New York and the - lake boundaries, with occasional exceptions in the Ohio Valley, have - been found to abound in Coffee and other counties. One very perfect - example of this kind of fortification, but very imperfectly described - and figured by Haywood,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> is that known as the stone fort near - Manchester, Tenn. This enclosure, containing over fifty-four acres, has - been minutely described by Prof. Jones.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> In the accompanying cut - the reader will obtain a pretty clear idea of the form of this fort. - The wall, which varies from four to ten feet in height, is composed - of loose rocks gathered apparently from the bed of the streams below, - and the vicinity. The ditch shown in the cut at the rear of the works - was probably designed to convey water from one creek to the other. - The entrance is quite complicated and constitutes the most remarkable - feature of the fortification.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pendants and Sinkers.</span> (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">STONE FORT.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p> - - <p>One peculiarity of burial noticeable in this locality, and one - which evidently indicates progression when we come to compare these - people with those farther north, is the fact that the ancient race of - Tennessee buried their dead in rude stone coffins or cists, constructed - of flat pieces of limestone or slaty sandstone which abound in the - central portions of the State. In most of the mounds this mode of - burial prevailed, but was not confined to them, for outside of the - mounds in many enclosures a large number of stone graves occur. Of - the class of “Stone-grave Burial Mounds”, one situated twelve miles - from Nashville, near Brentwood, is worthy of mention. This mound was - about forty-five feet in diameter by twelve feet high, and contained - one hundred skeletons. These were mostly in stone graves, which were - constructed in ranges one above another, three or four deep. The lower - graves were short and square, containing bones that had apparently - been deposited after the flesh had been removed. The upper graves - were full length and contained remains in which the bones occupied - their natural relation to each other. The workmanship both of the - mound and stone cists was of the most perfect character. The lids - of the upper stone cists were so arranged as to present a perfectly - rounded, sloping rock surface. The mound was situated on the eastern - slope of a beautiful hill, covered with a heavy growth of the native - forest. In a large and carefully constructed stone tomb, Prof. Jones - discovered the skeleton of an aged individual of immense length, having - toothless jaw bones. In a grave occupied by a skeleton of a female, - a small compartment or stone box was found near the head, separated - from the main coffin by stone slabs, in which was the skeleton of an - infant. It should be added that in the square or short graves so often - met with, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> skull was placed in the centre and the other bones - arranged around it.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Numerous stone graves not covered by mounds - were found on the Cumberland River opposite the mouth of Lick Branch, - surrounding a chain of four mounds. A similar graveyard was found - on the same bank of the Cumberland, a mile and a half farther down. - Others were met with on White Creek, nine miles from Nashville, at - Sycamore in Cheatham County; at Brentwood, in White County near Sparta, - and along the tributaries of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers at - short intervals. At Oldtown on the Big Harpeth, is an extensive and - remarkable collection of stone graves. All these burial grounds seem - to be those of the people who constructed the mounds, for most of the - mounds examined contained stone <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>graves, not in their upper strata, but - on the level of the surrounding land. A mound opposite Nashville, on - the east bank of the Cumberland River, of great interest, was examined. - Prof. Jones is convinced that it formerly served as the site or base - of a temple. Its dimensions were one hundred feet in diameter by only - ten feet high. In the centre of the mound and only three feet from its - surface the Professor uncovered a large sacrificial vase or altar, - forty-three inches in diameter, composed of a mixture of clay and - river-shells. The rim of this flat earthen vessel or sacrificial altar - was three inches in height and appeared mathematically circular. The - surface of the “altar” was covered by a layer of ashes about one inch - in thickness. The antlers and jaw-bone of a deer were found resting on - the surface of the altar, and it is probable that part of the animal - had been consumed as a sacrifice. The whole had been carefully covered - with three feet of earth and the ashes preserved. In this mound rude - sarcophagi were ranged around this sacred centre with the heads toward - the altar and the feet toward the circumference of the circle, while - the directions of the bodies were those of radii. Those bodies near - the altar were ornamented with numerous beads of sea-shell and bone. - In a carefully constructed stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> sarcophagus, in which the face of - the skeleton was turned toward the setting sun, the beautiful shell - ornament shown in the cut, measuring 4.4 inches in diameter, was found - lying on the breast-bone of the skeleton. It was made from some large - shell derived from the sea-coast. Of the numerous interesting places - examined by Prof. Jones, the site of Oldtown, on the Big Harpeth River, - about six miles south-west of Franklyn, Tennessee, is worthy of special - attention. The plan of the works and their general dimensions will be - seen in the cut. At present, the crescent-shaped wall of 2470 feet in - extent is but from two to six feet in height, having been reduced to - its present condition by the plowshare. Thirty years ago it is said - to have been so steep that it was impossible to ride a horse over - it. Within the enclosure are two pyramidal mounds; the larger is one - hundred and twelve by sixty-five feet and eleven feet high, and the - smaller, seventy by sixty feet by nine feet high; also a small burial - mound measuring thirty by twenty feet and 2.5 feet high. Another burial - mound is covered by the residence of the owner, Mr. Thomas Brown. Many - curiously-shaped clay vessels were obtained at these works by the - explorers. Some of the vases were fashioned into effigies of frogs and - various animals, and one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> vase obtained by Mr. Brown in excavating for - the foundation for his residence, had a neck terminating in two human - heads. Some of the vessels from Oldtown are figured in the cut.</p> - - <div class="figcenter0 illowp37"> - <img src="images/i_061a.jpg" alt="" /> - </div> - <div class="caption smcap">Clay Image from a Stone Grave in Burial Mound near - Brentwood, Tennessee.</div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100" id="i_061bi"> - <img src="images/i_061bi.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">“Stone Sword” from Ancient Earthwork on Big Harpeth - River, Tennessee. ¼ Natural Size.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Shell Ornament from the Breast of a Skeleton found - in a carefully constructed Stone Coffin in a Mound near Nashville, Tenn.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp70"> - <img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Plan of Oldtown Works.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_064a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Stone Pipe, Murfreesboro, Tenn. ¼ Natural Size.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_064b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Pottery from Oldtown, Tenn.</div> - </div> - - <p>The art of painting seems to have been extensively practised by the - mound people of Tennessee, not only in the decoration of pottery, but - in representing ideal conceptions, which they spread out in extensive - pictures upon the smooth faces of rocky<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> walls overhanging the rivers. - The material generally used was <em>red ochre</em>. Prof. Jones says: - “The painting representing the sun on the rocks overhanging the Big - Harpeth River, about three miles below the road which crosses this - stream and connects Nashville and Charlotte, can be seen for a distance - of four miles, and it is probable that the worshippers of the sun - assembled before this high place for the performance of their sacred - rites.”<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The Professor’s vast collection of relics in stone and - clay, including several images, we cannot here describe. We refer the - reader to the Memoir itself. The Professor has clearly shown that the - Mound-builder people and the Indians were distinct, and has set at - rest a question upon which some few doubts were still entertained by - a certain school of Archæologists, which has really never been very - strong. The connection with or identity of the Mound-builders and the - Toltics or the same family of people is also shown satisfactorily. We - will add that the Professor is disposed to consider the Natchez as the - connecting link between the Mound-builders and the Nahuas. We regard - the Memoir one of the most important which has ever appeared on the - subject of mound exploration. The rich collection of crania will be - referred to in a future chapter.</p> - - <div class="figright illowp36"> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Black Vase from an Aboriginal Cemetery, Nine Miles - from Nashville.</div> - </div> - - <p>In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss, also - a party under Major Powell excavated a large number of mounds and - stone graves, mostly in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. The - results were substantially the same as those obtained by Prof. Jones. - Prof. Putnam found within an earthwork near Lebanon, in Wilson County, - sixty miles east of Nashville, what he considers to be the remains of - dwellings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> of the Mound-builders. There were circular ridges of earth - varying from a few inches to a little over three feet in height, with - diameters ranging from ten to fifty feet. Within these enclosures, a - few inches below the surface, hard floors, upon which fires had been - made, were discovered. Under these floors, in many instances, infants - and children had been buried, while the adults had been interred in a - neighboring mound. Accompanying the skeletons of the children, many - beautiful vessels of strange and artistic forms were found (cuts of - three of these were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> kindly furnished by Prof. Putnam for this work), - all evincing the tenderness with which the offspring of this people - were regarded. Prof. Putnam examined nineteen of the earth-circles, - which he adds, “proved to my satisfaction that the ridges were formed - by the decay of the walls of a circular dwelling. * * * These houses - had probably consisted of a frail circular structure, the decay of - which would only leave a slight elevation, the formation of the ridge - being assisted by the refuse from the house.”<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Painted Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br /> - (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dish from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br /> - (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div> - </div> - - <p>Colonies of Mound-builders seem to have passed the great natural - barrier into North Carolina and left remains in Marion County, while - still others penetrated into South Carolina and built on the Wateree - River. In March, 1873, Mr. Jas. R. Page examined several mounds in - Washington and Issaquena Counties in the State of Mississippi. One - mound explored in Washington<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> County on the old bank of the Mississippi - River, was a truncated cone eighty feet in diameter by forty feet - high. A mound in the neighborhood, only eleven feet high, yielded - rich returns for the labors of excavation. A white oak on its summit - measured thirty-six inches in diameter. This mound yielded twelve - skeletons with their crania. The group was in a sitting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> posture around - a circle, with their faces looking toward its centre. Directly in - front of the mouth of each skeleton were placed two or three vessels - of pottery, beautifully ornamented with etchings and graceful lines. - The object of the vessels, placed in such near proximity to the mouths - of the buried remains, can only be conjectured. We regret that no - measurements of the crania are given, and what is more, we deplore the - loss of most of the crania in the course of their transportation.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> - Mr. W. Marshall Anderson, of Circleville, Ohio, examined Mounds in - Issaquena County, Miss., with interesting results; in one mound - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>opened, not far from its outer edge, three skeletons were found - buried in a standing position, as though they had acted as the guards - of a more distinguished person deposited in the centre. Penetrating - the mound still farther by means of a trench, Mr. Anderson reached a - large deposit of ashes and burnt earth. Near the centre of the mound - and five feet above the level of the earth, upwards of twenty-five - unbroken specimens of fine pottery were discovered. At the very centre - three individuals had been buried apparently in great state, with - all the insignia of their important positions in life. These were - ornaments, urns, vases, beads, and arrow-points; while adjoining the - heads of each were food and drinking vessels. Not far removed from - these, two skeletons were found with bowls placed upon their heads - like helmets. Mr. Anderson is the possessor of a very remarkable stone - disk obtained for him by Dr. Robinson from a Issaquena mound near - Lake Washington, Miss. The disk is nearly eight and a half inches - in diameter and three-quarters of an inch thick, of fine-grained - sandstone. The device which it bears upon its face is composed of two - entwined rattlesnakes. A trifling ornamental border is graven on the - reverse side of the disk. When found it was broken in two pieces. Mr. - Anderson, in comparing its strange device to the Aztec Calendar Stone, - remarks: “Here are the eighteen pipes of the border corresponding to - the eighteen months of the year, but the twenty days of the month and - the five intercalaries are not to be found. The thirteen hieroglyphical - figures, and the four zodiacal signs, which as multiples give the - fifty-two years of the Aztec cycle, are also absent on the Mississippi - stone.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> The serpent-symbol appears to have played its part among - the Mound-builders, as well as in Mexico and Central America. The great - serpent of Adams County, Ohio, is the most extensive delineation of - the all-important symbol on the continent. Out of eighteen engraved - circular plates made of the shell of the Pyrula and taken from - Brakebill and Lick Creek Mounds in East Tennessee (and now deposited - in the Peabody Museum of Archæology) thirteen bear the device of a - rattlesnake. In one of the mounds of “Mound City,” Ross County, Ohio, - several small tablets representing the rattlesnake were unearthed, - while other mounds in the same locality yielded pipes bearing the same - representation.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp58"> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jar from Child’s Grave (Tennessee).</span><br /> - (Prof. Putnam’s Exploration.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp78"> - <img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Works in Washington County, Miss.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Shuttle-like Tablets.</span> (Nat. Mus.) - Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <p>On the Southern Mississippi, in the area embraced between the - termination of the Cumberland Mountains near Florence and Tuscumbia in - Alabama and the mouth of Big Black River, this people left numerous - works, many of which were of a remarkable character.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> The whole - region bordering on the tributaries of the Tombigbee, the country - through which the Wolf River flows and that watered by the Yazoo River - and its affluents, was densely populated by the same people who built - mounds in the Ohio Valley. Mr. Fontaine describes the mounds of this - region and of the Tennessee River Valley as being most frequently of - the truncated pyramidal type, and refers to one (seen by him in 1847) - seventy feet high, covering an acre of ground. It is remarkable that - the entire valley of the great river from Cairo to the mouth of Pointe - à la Hache, fifty miles below New Orleans, is thickly studded with - mounds.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> As at Cahokia the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>Monarch Mound occupied a space equal - to six acres, so at Seltzertown, Mississippi, we have another immense - mound covering nearly the same area. Its dimensions are: length, about - six hundred feet; breadth, four hundred feet at the base; height, - forty feet, with a summit nearly four acres in area, reached by means - of a graded way. The structure lies with its greatest length nearly - due east and west. Upon the platform summit are three conical mounds, - one at each end and the third in the centre. The mound at the western - extremity of the summit rises to a height of nearly forty feet, while - the one at the opposite extreme does not fall far short of the same - altitude. This would give a total height of eighty feet above the level - of the base. Both of these mounds are truncated. Eight other mounds of - minor proportions are observable. The most remarkable feature connected - with this mound is a wall of sun-dried bricks, built two feet thick, as - its support on the northern side. These were filled with grass rushes - and leaves, while some of the bricks of great size used in angular - tumuli which mark the corners of the mound, retain the impressions of - human hands.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> The Mound-builders were certainly numerous in the - Gulf States east of the Mississippi. On the Etowah River in Alabama a - mound seventy-five feet high and twelve hundred feet in diameter at the - base, has a graded avenue leading to its flattened summit. It has close - affinities to the Mexican and Yucatan mounds.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> M. F. Stephenson - describes a group of ten mounds near Cartersville, Georgia, on the - Etowah River, the principal one of which is eighty feet high and one - hundred and fifty feet square on the top. A stone idol, gold beads, - mica mirrors, translucent quartz beautifully wrought, and many relics - of interest were here discovered. He also describes three chambers hewn - out of the solid rock at the falls of Little River, near the Alabama - line; while at Nacooche the crest of a conical hill was cut off at - fifty feet from its base, leaving a platform top with an area of an - acre and a half. Two sides are quite precipitous, but the others are - protected by a ditch and wall. Two other instances of the stone wall - are mentioned. First at Yond Mountain, four thousand feet high of solid - granite, and perpendicular on all sides except a small space which - is protected by a stone wall of artificial construction. The second - instance is quite similar, occurring at Stone Mountain, which reaches a - height of 2360 feet.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> These natural eminences no doubt were utilized - for the purposes of worship or observation, just as many natural hills - in Mexico were graded and shaped symmetrically to serve similar uses.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p> - - <p>Wm. McKinley, Esq., has described and surveyed additional works in - Georgia of quite a remarkable character, on Sapelio Island in McIntosh - County and on Dry Creek in Sacred Grove, Early County. But the most - lofty work of all, the giant of the mounds, is the pyramid of Kolee - Mokee in the same county, reaching a height of ninety-five feet and - having a circumference at its base of 1128 feet. Its form is that of - a parallelogram, 350 feet long and 214 wide. The plane on the summit - measures 181 feet in length by 82½ feet in width.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In Florida the - works of the Mound-builders have been extensively examined by Prof. - Jeffries Wyman, to whose labors we shall refer in the next chapter. - Dr. A. Mitchell made some interesting explorations in 1848 on Amelia - Island, and was rewarded by the recovery of some well-marked mound - crania.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> - - <p>Returning to the confluence of the Missouri with the Mississippi, - the point at which we left the western boundary of the Mound-builder - country in order to treat the characteristics of its central region, - we find mounds, as we previously stated, in great numbers in the - neighborhood of St. Louis. In the valley of the St. Francis River, - mounds that have been explored have yielded <span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>many rich relics, artistic - water vessels, vases and statuettes. In Green County, Missouri, N. Lat. - 37° 20´ and 16° Long, west of Washington City, is a very remarkable - truncated conical mound which has only been externally surveyed. This - mound is 60 feet high, 350 feet in diameter at the base, and 130 feet - in diameter on the top. It is surrounded by a trench (except about - twenty feet at the north) about two hundred feet wide and four feet - deep. On the north the excavation is seven or eight feet deep.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> - These trenches served a double purpose—that of furnishing material for - the construction of the mound, and when completed, of providing an - impassable moat filled with water, that neither enemies nor the rabble - might approach the sacred mount.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> In Phillips County, Prof. Cox - discovered an ancient fortification near Helena, built like a part of - the Seltzertown mound, of sun-dried bricks; stems and leaves of the - cane were used instead of straw in making the bricks.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span></p> - - <p>Professor Swallow, in company with a number of scientific gentlemen, - opened a large mound in Lewis’ Prairie, west of New Madrid, Missouri - (in December, 1856), in which he found a great collection of earthen - dishes and vases. The mound was elliptical in form, measuring 900 - feet in periphery at the base, 570 feet at the top and twenty feet in - height. The remarkable feature of the mound was that it contained a - room formed of poles, lathed with split cane and plastered with clay - both inside and out, forming a solid mass. “Over this room was built - the earthwork of the mound, so that when it was completed the room was - in its centre. The earthwork was then coated with the plaster, and - over all nature formed a soil. This mud plastering was left rough on - the outside of the room, but smooth on the inside, which was painted - with red ochre.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Some of the plastering was burned as red and hard - as brick, while other parts were only sun-dried. Professor Swallow - believes the mounds of the region to be very ancient. On mounds - and neighboring embankments a sycamore tree twenty-eight feet in - circumference, three feet above the ground, a black-walnut twenty-six - feet in circumference, a white ash twelve feet and a chestnut oak - eleven feet in circumference were observed. In addition to these - evidences of age, the Professor states that six feet of stratified - sands and clays have formed around the mounds since they were deserted. - (See Eighth <cite>Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 16 <i>et - seq.</i> Cambridge, 1875.)</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> - - <p>Mr. A. J. Conant, in a very able paper published in the <cite>Transactions - of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences</cite> for April 5, 1876, has more - fully described the mound works near New Madrid. On the western bank of - the Bayou St. John, partly in a cypress swamp covered with heavy timber - and partly on adjacent prairie land, an earthwork encloses an area of - about fifty acres. In this enclosure are three large mounds, one of - which is pyramidal in form and still has traces of a graded way. An - ancient well is discernible near it. A circular mound at the opposite - end of the enclosure is estimated by Mr. Conant to have afforded a - place of burial for a thousand individuals. The bodies were buried with - their heads pointing toward the centre of the mound. A gourd-shaped - vase, a small jug or drinking vessel, and an earthen pan or platter - was found with each skeleton. The mouths of the vases were fashioned - into the form of the head of some bird or the figure of some animal or - of a human female. In depressions about three feet deep, within the - enclosure, remains of burnt clay ovens were found. Fire-places were - disclosed, as well as fragments of earthen vessels capable of holding - ten or twelve gallons. The veritable kitchens of the Mound-builders, - with their furniture, seem to have been brought to light. In front of - the enclosure and projecting out into the bayou, are tongues of land - about thirty feet long by ten or fifteen feet in width, and about the - same distance apart, “resembling upon a small scale the wharves of a - seaport town.” Mr. Conant pronounces them artificial, and that when - employed by these builders, the present cypress swamp was the channel - of a river. The multitude of mound works which are scattered over the - entire south-eastern portion of Missouri indicate that the region “was - once inhabited by a population so numerous, that in comparison its - present occupants are only as the scattered pioneers of a newly-settled - country.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp83"> - <img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Discoidal Stones.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br /> - <span class="xsmall">Central figure, upper line, from Illinois Mound.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>Prof. C. G. Forshey in <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, presents - most valuable information relative to the mounds in the south-west. His - observations convince us that the State of Louisiana and the valleys of - the Arkansas and Red Rivers were not only the most thickly populated - wing of the Mound-builder domain, but also furnish us with remains - presenting affinities with the great works of Mexico so striking that - no doubt can longer exist that the same people were the architects - of both. He describes works, some of them of immense proportions, on - the Mississippi fifty <span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>miles above Vicksburg; on Walnut Bayou; the - south-west bend of Lake St. Joseph, and at Trinity in the parish of - Catahoula, Louisiana. On the east bank of the Little River, a couple of - miles above its mouth, where it empties into Lake Ocalohoola, stands a - bluff walled with roughly hewn stone. The same writer observed a mound - near Natchez twenty-five feet high, standing isolated in a swamp. This - mound is one among many in different parts of the lower Mississippi - region surmounted by comparatively younger trees than are found on the - remains farther north. Works occur in the Atchafalaya basin, in the - rear of Baton Rouge, on the uplands of Lake Pontchartrain and on the - banks of Bayou Gros Tête. A remarkable group of truncated pyramids, - peculiarly Mexican in their style of architecture, exist in Madison - Parish, Louisiana, and are figured in Squier and Davis and copied - by Foster.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> It is needless to discuss the fact that the works of - the Mound-builders exist in considerable numbers in Texas, extending - across the Rio Grande into Mexico, establishing an unmistakable - relationship as well as actual union between the truncated pyramids - of the Mississippi Valley and the Tocalli of Mexico and the countries - further south.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> There can be no doubt as to the unity of the origin - of the works in both countries. There are evidences also that the most - recent works of Louisiana and Texas do not compare in antiquity with - any found in the Ohio Valley, showing it to be altogether probable - that the Mound-builders occupied the Lower Mississippi Valley and - Gulf coast for a considerable period after they were driven from the - northern and central region by their enemies.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>Several recent - writers, with no more proof than that obsidian from Mexico has been - found in the mounds, have confidently expressed the belief that the - Mound-builders entered the Mississippi Valley and the Central Region - from the South. This was based also on the assumption that no remains - were found in the North-west. It, however, is proper to note here the - marks of architectural progression observable in the geographical - distribution of ancient works. Men all around the world have been - mound or pyramid builders. To attempt to demonstrate this well-known - fact to an intelligent reader by citing the customs of antiquity and - the works of the present great Asiatic nations, would seem little - less than pedantry rather than the work of serious investigation. The - religious idea in man, whether observed in the darkest heathenism or - partially enlightened civilization, has always associated a place of - sanctuary with the conditions of elevation and separateness. It matters - not whether you apply the rule to the practices of the most obscure - antiquity, where a hill or natural eminence was the sanctuary of an - idol, the residence of a god, or examine the motives which prompt <span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>the - erection of the dome of a St. Paul or a St. Peter’s, or coming nearer - home, analyze the reasons for the construction of the ordinary church - spire, the same inexplicable intuition is found at the bottom of them - all. The simple mound so common in the northern and central region - of the United States, represents probably the first attempts at the - imitation of nature in providing a place of worship. In the absence - of hills and natural eminences on great plains like the prairies of - the North-west (for instance in such cases as are cited on <a href="#Page_28">pages 28 - and 29</a>), nothing would be more natural than the construction of an - artificial hillock, especially if the elements and nature were the - objects of worship. The next step might have been again a copy or an - imitation, but instead of choosing a subject from inanimate nature, - an advance is made in the artistic scale, and the animal kingdom - furnishes not only one but varied models for reproduction. The custom - among savage tribes of personifying the deity, of dressing him up in - some form, tangible and visible, was especially characteristic of the - mythology of the Nahua nations of Mexico. It is not necessary to go to - Egypt, or India, or China to find animals of various kinds dedicated - to and associated with the national gods, for in the Maya and Nahua - mythologies, as well as in the traditions of some of the wild tribes of - the Pacific coast, the serpent, the coyote, the beaver and the buzzard - play an active part. The erection of religious structures representing - animals no doubt sacred to the Mound-builders, was carried on to a - remarkable extent in Wisconsin. These strange works probably indicate - the second step in their scale of architectural progression. In the - Ohio Valley, while the ordinary mound is found in great numbers, and a - few instances of animal mounds occur, three new architectural features - present themselves in marked prominence, all of which are artistically - in advance of those existing in the North and North-west. These are - the enclosures, the truncated mounds, and principally the truncated - pyramids, all of which are a departure from the strict imitation of - nature, and exhibit the gradual growth of the architectural idea and - the outcropping of the notion of utility. South of the Ohio Valley - the animal mounds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> disappear altogether and the truncated mounds grow - less common, while the truncated pyramid, the highest artistic form, - with its complicated system of graded ways and its nice geometrical - proportions, becomes the all predominant type of structure. In the - Lower Mississippi Valley, in some cases, as we have observed, dried - brick were used in the walls and angles of pyramids of the most - perfect type. Stone was also employed in a few instances. Here we find - the transition to Southern Mexico complete. No break exists in the - architectural chain.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stone Plates. ⅙ Natural Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)<br /> - <span class="xsmall">The left and central figures from an Alabama Mound.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>Squier and Davis (and Foster as well as most other writers have - followed their example) classified the works of the Mound-builders as - follows:</p> - - <table summary="Mound classification"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdrm"><div>I.</div></td> - <td class="pr3"><span class="smcap">Enclosures</span></td> - <td class="bl bt bb"> </td> - <td><i>For Defence.</i><br /> - <i>Sacred.</i><br /> - <i>Miscellaneous.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrm"><div>II.</div></td> - <td class="pr3"><span class="smcap">Mounds</span></td> - <td class="bl bt bb"> </td> - <td><i>Of Sacrifice.</i><br /> - <i>For Temple-Sites.</i><br /> - <i>Of Sepulture.</i><br /> - <i>Of Observation.</i></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p class="noindent">To this some have added mounds for residence.</p> - - <p>It does not fall within the scope of this work to treat of the specific - character and uses of the works of the Mound-builders,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> but rather - to note their extent and indications of age with relation to their - bearing on the antiquity of man in this country. Some of the arts and - manufactures of the Mound-builders are set forth in the illustrations - interspersed throughout the chapter.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> A few of the cuts figure - objects found upon the surface. Yet it is not improbable that a due - proportion of these objects were of Mound-builder origin.</p> - - <p>The domestic arts appear the most advanced of any among this ancient - people. Pottery of respectable quality and of varied patterns is - abundant among their remains. Coarse cloth woven of vegetable fibre, - and in some instances partly made of hair, has been discovered in - mounds in several localities. Shell and copper beads for the purposes - of ornamentation were made in great numbers. Copper axes of good - quality have occasionally been exhumed. Copper and bone needles with - well-drilled eyes were made by them. They wove baskets and coarse - matting. They carved pipes in stone or moulded them in clay, sometimes - in fantastic forms, while again they fashioned them with rare skill - into the perfect effigies of animals and birds, or possibly ornamented - them with likenesses of their own faces. With <span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>the exception of a - few observations on the altar and sepulchral mounds, we refrain from - a further treatment of the works above classified, as having no - particular bearing on the question in hand, and refer the reader to - the works of Squier and Davis, and also to that of Dr. Foster, already - often quoted. Of the Altar or Sacrificial Mounds, the first-named - authors remark: The general characteristics of this class of mounds - are: 1. That they occur only within the vicinity of the enclosures - or sacred places; 2. That they are stratified; 3. That they contain - symmetrical altars of burned clay or stone, on which were deposited - various remains which in all cases have been more or less subjected to - the action of fire.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The same authors present the following <span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>section - of a mound examined by them at Mound City, near Chillicothe, Ohio, - which is a fair sample of the usual stratification observed in altar - mounds.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> The altar which this mound contained was a parallelogram - measuring 8 × 10 feet at its base and 4 × 6 feet at its top. It was - only eighteen inches in height, and contained a basin with a dip of - nine inches. In this basin were found fine ashes, fragments of pottery - and shell beads. A reference to the figure shows that the sand-stratum - is semicircular, with its extremities resting on the outer sides of - the altar. The skeleton shown in the figure designates a point three - feet below the apex of the mound where two well-preserved skeletons - were found. The strata were disturbed for their burial evidently at - a considerable period after the construction of the mound. This is a - fair example of the “intrusive burial” practised in the mounds by Red - Indians. The same authors found some of these altars rich in relics; - one especially in the vicinity of the above-described mound contained - nearly two hundred pipes carved in stone. Also a considerable number - of pearl and shell beads and copper ornaments covered with silver. It - is quite probable that the copper was from their Lake Superior mines, - as they alone are known to yield deposits of silver with copper. The - same peculiarity was observed with reference to the copper ornaments - and implements found in the Marietta works. The pipes secured in this - mound were much calcined by heat, and considerable copper had been - fused in the basin of the altar. In some of the mounds examined large - collections were obtained, and in some instances, articles made of - obsidian, which it is believed could be procured nowhere nearer than - the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo, or the region west of the Rocky - Mountains.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pestles and Mullers.</span> (Nat. Mus.) Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Section of Altar Mound.</span> (After Squier and Davis.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figright illowp44"> - <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Vase from an Ohio Mound.</div> - </div> - - <p>The evidences are abundant that some mysterious rites were performed - at the altar mounds; cremation only may have been practised, but we - fear that even more awful and heart-sickening ceremonies took place - upon these altars as well as upon the high temple sites in which human - victims may have been offered to appease the elements or the sun or - moon by their death agonies. What splendid ceremonial, what mystic - rites administered by a national priesthood in the presence of a - devout multitude may have accompanied these horrible sacrifices, are - beyond even the limits of conjecture. Besides cremation, inhumation - was also <span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>practised extensively. Multitudes of mounds were devoted - either partly or exclusively to such uses. Mr. Tomlinson, the owner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> - of the Grave Creek Mound, who sank a shaft from its original summit to - its centre, and intercepted it by a tunnel along the surface of the - ground, speaking of the latter excavation, remarks: “At the distance - of one hundred and eleven feet we came to a vault, which had been - excavated before the mound was commenced, eight by twelve feet and - seven in depth. Along each side and across the ends, upright timbers - had been placed, which supported timbers thrown across the vault as a - ceiling. These timbers were covered with loose unhewn stone, common - to the neighborhood. The timbers had rotted and tumbled into the - vault. * * * In this vault were two human skeletons, one of which - had no ornaments, the other was surrounded by six hundred and fifty - ivory (shell) beads, and an ivory (bone) ornament six inches long.” - Thirty-five feet above the bottom vault another was found containing - a skeleton decorated with copper rings, plates of mica and shell - disks. The number of disks cut from the shell known as the <i>Buscycon - perversum</i> and collected by the excavators was 2350; of mica 250 - specimens, and of the little shell known as <i>Marginella apicina</i>, - 500; all of which had been pierced and strung as beads. Ten skeletons - were subsequently found together upon enlarging the horizontal tunnel. - Ashes, charcoal and burnt bones were also discovered in large masses. - Though this was the largest of this class of mounds, still the general - characteristics of the contents are the same in all of them, and are - usually disposed in the same relative position to each other.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> One - of the most interesting explorations of sepulchral mounds was that - conducted in the autumn of 1865 by Professor O. C. Marsh, assisted by - Mr. Geo. P. Russell, of Salem, Mass., in what is known as the “Taylor - Mound,” situated two and a half miles south of Newark, Ohio. The mound - was ten feet high and eighty feet in diameter, and was surmounted by - a forest of oak trees ranging from two and a half to eight <span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>feet in - thickness, while the decaying trunks of a former growth were lying - upon the ground. The mound was excavated from the apex downward. Five - feet from the surface a pipe and a tube of stone unknown in Ohio - were found. Seven feet from the top, in a thin white layer of earth, - a string of more than one hundred beads of native copper were found - around the neck of a child about three years old. The salts of the - copper had preserved the cord of vegetable fibre on which they were - strung. The beads were about one-fourth of an inch in length and - one-third in diameter. They evidently had been hammered out of the - metal in its original state, and the workmanship displayed no inferior - skill. One foot deeper the remains of two adults, male and female, - were found carefully buried in layers of bark, their heads towards - the east, and the body of the female resting upon that of the male - skeleton. Immediately above these were found a considerable number of - charred human bones and the evidences of cremation or human sacrifice - in honor to the couple (probably man and wife) below. The Professor - even expresses the fear that the wife—who appears to have been about - thirty years of age—may have been put to death and buried above the - remains of her deceased consort. A foot deeper the party found another - layer of charcoal, ashes and charred bones, similar to the above, and - immediately beneath it a carefully-buried skeleton, much decomposed, - lying in a white layer of earth, and with its head toward the east. - A few inches below this skeleton several carelessly-buried skeletons - were found near the natural level of the earth. Below the natural - surface a cist six feet long, three feet wide and two feet deep was - found containing the remains of eight or more skeletons, which seem - to have been imperfect when buried. The remains had been thrown into - the grave in a careless and perhaps hasty manner. In the grave were - found nine lance and arrow-heads of flint. Six small hand-axes, one of - them of hematite and the others of compact greenstone or diorite, a - small hatchet of hematite, a flint chisel and scraper, fine needles or - bodkins made of the metatarsal bones of the common deer, a whistle made - from the tooth of a young bear, and spoons cut from the shells of river - mussels. A rude vessel of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> clay was found, but broken, while several - bones of animals, all but two of existing species in Ohio at present, - were discovered; though it is worthy of remark that the remains of - the deer were of a size seldom attained by the species at the present - day. All the skulls found in the mound were broken, and all but two so - badly decayed that no effort was made to preserve them. These two were - of small size showing the vertical occiput, prominent vertex and large - inter-parietal diameter. There is abundant evidence that the mound had - never been disturbed by Indians.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp72"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Stone Pipes from Ohio Mounds.</div> - </div> - - <p>One of the best evidences which we have of the systematic government - and habits of the Mound-builders, together with the comparatively - advanced state of the practical arts among them, is found in the - ancient copper mines of the Lake Superior Region so extensively - operated by them at quite a remote period.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> These were first - discovered by Mr. S. O. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, - in 1848. One excavation explored by this gentleman was thirty feet - deep, filled with clay and a mass of mouldering vegetable matter. - Eighteen feet from the surface he found a mass of copper ten feet long, - three feet wide and two feet thick, weighing over six tons. By digging - around this great lump of metal, he observed that it was resting on “a - cob-work of round logs or skids six or eight inches in diameter, the - ends of which showed plainly the strokes of a small axe or cutting tool - about two and a half inches in width”. The wood, from its exposure to - moisture, had lost all its consistency, and opposed no more resistance - to a knife-blade than would ordinary <span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>peat. After having raised the - mass of copper over five feet along the foot wall of the lode on the - timbers by means of wedges, the ancient miners had abandoned the task. - The walls of the mine still show the marks of fire; charcoal and stone - mauls were taken from this and similar excavations. The largest of - these mauls weighed thirty-six pounds and was encircled by a double - groove around its centre. Withes were probably wound in these grooves - by which two men could wield the maul very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> effectively. The number of - smaller hammers of greenstone and porphyry removed from these works by - Mr. Knapp exceeded ten cart-loads. In one of the pits a rude oak ladder - was found, made by trimming the branches of a tree at a distance from - the trunk to leave a sufficient foothold. Wooden levers, preserved - beneath the water, were also of frequent occurrence. A copper maul, - shaped by pounding in a cold state, and weighing upwards of twenty - pounds, was found in this locality, as well as many well-formed copper - implements designed for various purposes. Upon a mound of rubbish near - one of the excavations, Messrs. Foster and Whitney saw a pine stump ten - feet in circumference—the trunk having been broken fifteen feet from - the ground—which must have grown and died after the earth was thrown - up. Mr. Knapp mentions a hemlock which he found growing on a heap of - rubbish which had 395 rings of annual growth. Fallen and decayed trees - of a previous generation were found lying across the pits. In front - of the Waterbury mine are blocks of stone weighing two and three tons - which had been removed by the ancient miners from the shaft, and when - observed by Colonel Whittlesey, they were covered by a forest growth of - the full size and kind common to the neighboring region. Under a pile - of rubbish the remains of a trough of cedar bark was brought to light - and had been used to carry off water baled from the mine by means of - wooden bowls, some of which were preserved by water in the mines. Mr. - S. W. Hill communicated to Dr. Foster in 1872 the discovery of mining - pits in Isle Royal, measuring fifty feet in depth.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> In the Ontonagon - region for thirty miles traces of the ancient miners abound. The idea - that the Indians formerly worked these mines was abandoned shortly - after their discovery. They possess no tradition of copper mines, nor - did their ancestors visited by the Jesuit Fathers in the early part - of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>the seventeenth century obtain any intelligence of mines, though - they penetrated this region in 1660. They often mention the occurrence - of loose masses of copper found in the shape of boulders, but could - learn nothing from the Indians as to their origin. It is quite certain - that no traditions were current among them on the subject. “Instead,” - says Col. Whittlesey, “of viewing copper as an object of every day - use, they regarded it as a sacred Manitou, and carefully preserved - pieces of it wrapped up in skin in their lodges for many years; and - this custom has been continued to modern times.”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Father Allouez, - in his <cite>Relation</cite>, has described this custom.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Father Dablon, - who shortly afterward visited the Lake Superior tribes, has described - their superstitions concerning an island where the missionaries first - met with copper.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> That the Mound-builders were these ancient - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>miners, there is abundant evidence. Col. Whittlesey has described a - collection of copper implements from Carp River containing pieces of - native silver, such as have often been found in the Ohio mounds.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> We - have already referred to this peculiarity of the Lake Superior copper. - The use of copper by the Mound-builders was very general all the way - from Wisconsin to the Gulf, and the labor involved in a journey of a - thousand miles from the Ohio Valley to the copper regions, the toil of - the summer’s mining, and the tedious transportation of the metal to - their homes upon their backs, and by means of an imperfect system of - navigation, indicates either industry and resolution such as no savage - Indian ever possessed, or a condition of servitude in which thousands - occupied a position of abject slavery.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_090a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Aboriginal Stone Axes.</span> Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_090b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stone Mauls and Hammers.</span> Surface Finds.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figleft2 illowp51"> - <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap0">Copper Celts—the smaller from a Mound near Savannah, - Tennessee.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <p>No permanent abodes were erected by the miners in this region, no - mounds were constructed, but the indications all point to a summer’s - residence only and a return to the south with the accumulation of - their toil when the severities of winter approached. Frederick von - Hellwald expresses it as his opinion that the Mexicans obtained all - their copper from the Lake Superior<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> mines, and adds that no evidences - exist that copper was mined in Mexico or Central America prior to the - Spanish Conquest.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Humboldt affirms that various metals were mined - by the Mexicans, but does not specify copper.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Col. Whittlesey and - Prof. Andrews estimate that in the ancient Lake Superior mines worked - by the Mound-builders, the removed metal would aggregate a length of - one hundred and fifty miles in veins of varying thickness. This fact - certainly indicates that great supplies were transported southward.</p> - - <p>This remarkable people was evidently possessed of the beginnings of - science; at least if the Davenport and Cincinnati tablets are genuine, - astronomy must have received considerable attention at their hands. In - the former tablet we observe a cycle divided into twelve months (which, - however, is so modern and coincides so strictly with our division as to - excite suspicion of fraud), while in the latter we have the number 368 - as the sum of the products of the longer and shorter lines, suggestive - of an approximation to the number of days in a year. Other supposed - astronomical instruments have been discovered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>in the mounds of - Ohio, and several of these, <em>antique tubes, telescope devices</em>, - were discovered in the course of excavations made in 1842 in the most - easterly of the Elizabethtown group, West Virginia. Mr. Schoolcraft - makes the following statement concerning them: “Several tubes of stone - were disclosed, the precise object of which has been the subject of - various opinions. The longest measured twelve inches, the shortest - eight. Three of them were carved out of steatite, being skillfully cut - and polished. The diameter of the tube externally was one inch and - four-tenths; the bore eight-tenths of an inch. By placing the eye at - the diminished end, the extraneous light is shut from the pupil, and - distant objects are more clearly discerned.”<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> A silver figure found - in Peru represents a man in the act of studying the heavens through one - of these tubes, and Captain Dupaix saw a stone in Mexico bearing the - figure of a man sculptured on its side in the act of using a similar - tube.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp68"> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Clay Vessels from Mounds in the Mississippi Valley. - ¼ Size.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp87"> - <img src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Clay Tube from an Ohio Mound. ½ Natural Size.</span> - (Peabody Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <p>With reference to the civilization of the Mound-builders, however - much writers may differ, we think the following conclusions may be - safely accepted: That they came into the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>country in comparatively - small numbers at first (if they were not Autochthones, and there is - no substantial proof that the Mound-builders were such), and during - their residence in the territory occupied by the United States they - became extremely populous. Their settlements were widespread, as the - extent of their remains indicate. The magnitude of their works, some of - which approximate the proportions of Egyptian pyramids, testify to the - architectural talent of the people and the fact that they had developed - a system of government which controlled the labor of multitudes, - whether of subjects or slaves. They were an agricultural people, as the - extensive ancient garden-beds found in Wisconsin and Missouri indicate. - Their manufactures afford proof that they had attained a respectable - degree of advancement, and show that they understood the advantages of - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> division of labor.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Their domestic utensils, the cloth of which - they made their clothing, and the artistic vessels met with everywhere - in the mounds, point to the development of home culture and domestic - industry. There is no reason for believing that the people who wrought - stone and clay into perfect effigies of animals have not left us - sculptures of their own faces in the images exhumed from the mounds.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Large Clay Vessel from Milledgeville, Georgia. Size - 14 Inches High and 13 Inches across Aperture.</span> (Nat. Mus.)</div> - </div> - - <p>They mined copper, which they wrought into implements of war, into - ornaments and articles for domestic use. They quarried mica for mirrors - and other purposes.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> They furthermore worked flint and salt mines. - They probably possessed some astronomical knowledge, though to what - extent is unknown.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum">99</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp63" id="i_099"> - <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Copper Relics from Wisconsin.</span> - (From photos furnished by Prof. Butler.)</div> - </div> - - <p>Their trade, as Dr. Rau has shown, was widespread, extending probably - from Lake Superior to the Gulf, and possibly to Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> They - constructed canals by which lake systems were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>united, a fact which - Mr. Conant has recently shown to be well established in Missouri.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> - Their defences were numerous and constructed with reference to - strategic principles, while their system of signals placed on lofty - summits, visible from their settlements and communicating with the - great watercourses at immense distances, rival the signal systems in - use at the beginning of the present century. Their religion seems to - have been attended with the same ceremonies in all parts of their - domain. That its rites were celebrated with great demonstrations is - certain. The sun and moon probably were the all-important deities, to - whom sacrifices (possibly human) were offered. We have already alluded - to the development in architecture and art which marked the possible - transition of this people from north to south. Here we see but the - rude beginnings of a civilization which no doubt subsequently unfolded - in its fuller glory in the valley of Anahuac, and spreading southward - engrafted a new life upon the wreck of Xibalba. Though there is no - evidence that the Mound-builders were indigenous, we must admit that - their civilization was purely such—the natural product of climate and - the conditions surrounding them.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_II"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">ANTIQUITY OF MAN ON THE WESTERN CONTINENT.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Antiquity of the Mounds—No Tradition of the - Mound-builders—Vegetation Covering the Mounds—Age of Mound - Crania—Probable Date of the Abandonment of the Mounds—Ancient - Shell-heaps—Man’s Influence on Nature—Supposed Testimony of - Geology—Agassiz on the Floridian Jaw-bone—Remains on Santos - River—The Natchez Bone—Remains on Petit Anse Island—Brazilian - Bone caves—Dr. Koch’s Pretended Discoveries—Ancient Hearths—Age - of the Mississippi Delta—Dr. Dowler’s Discovery at New - Orleans—Dr. Abbott’s Discoveries in New Jersey—Discoveries in - California—Inter-Glacial Relics in Ohio—Crania from Mounds in - the North-west—No Evidences as yet Discovered Proving Man’s - Great Antiquity in America.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">AT the opening of the preceding chapter we made some allusions to - the supposed antiquity of the Red Indian, a subject of growing - archæological significance, though as yet it affords us rather - unsatisfactory evidence, scientifically considered, relative to the - problem of man’s antiquity on this continent. Quite different, however, - is the estimate which we place on data left us by the people of the - mounds. The question of the antiquity of the Mound-builders is one - which cannot be accurately determined; no chronometric scale can be - applied to the uncertain record which they have left behind them. - Their history is a sealed book, and the approximate date of their - first occupancy of the Mississippi Basin is as uncertain as the period - of man’s origin. However, certain data present themselves for our - consideration which lead us to conclude that a few thousand years, - three or four perhaps, and possibly even less time, is all that is - required in which to account for their growth into a nation and the - moderate advancement which they made toward civilization. As to when - the Mound-builders left this country, is another question, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> can be - approximated more closely. It is a well-known fact that no tradition - was ever found among the Indians as to the origin or the purpose for - which the mounds were constructed. They described them as having been - found by their ancestors in the same condition in which we now see - them, and clothed, if not with the same, at least with a growth of - vegetation similar to that which covers them to-day. It is true the - Iroquois, who are supposed to have reached the lake regions and the - Ohio Valley some time previous to the Algonquins, had certain vague - traditions of a people whom they called the “Allighewi;” but there - seems to be nothing in those indefinite allusions which would associate - that unknown people with the mounds. Still, Indian tradition is nearly - valueless in determining this question, since any fact, however grave, - was soon forgotten by a people so savage and unsettled. The tribes - of the lake region, says Dr. Lapham in his <cite>Antiquities</cite>, so - soon forgot the visit of the Jesuit Fathers that their descendants - a few generations later had no tradition of the event. The same is - true of the Indians of the Mississippi Valley with reference to De - Soto’s expedition, “which must,” remarks Dr. Foster, “have impressed - their ancestors with dread at the sight of horses ridden by men, and - the sound of fire-arms, which they must have likened to thunder. Sir - John Lubbock states that the New Zealanders at the time of Captain - Cook’s visit had forgotten altogether Tasman’s visit, made less than - one hundred and thirty years before.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Another <span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>argument for the - construction of the mounds at a remote period, and which is certainly - of little more value than Indian tradition, is that which supposes - the Mound-builders to have erected works on the lowest of the river - terraces existing at the time of their occupancy of the country. - Much stress has been laid on the fact that no works have been found - on the lowest-formed of the river terraces which mark the subsidence - of the western rivers. “And as there is no good reason,” remarks Mr. - Baldwin, “why their builders should have avoided erecting them on - that terrace while they raised them promiscuously on all the others, - it follows, not unreasonably, that this terrace has been formed since - the works were erected.”<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> To any one familiar with the great rise - and fall which takes place annually in the water-level of the Ohio - and Mississippi and all of their tributaries, the fallacy of such - an argument is at once apparent. We must at least allow that the - Mound-builders learned by experience, just as animals do, even if we - could deny them a very high order of intelligence. Little time could - have elapsed after their advent to these valleys before they observed - the impracticability of erecting mounds or enclosures on most of the - alluvial bottoms bordering these streams. The raging torrents which - sometimes sweep through the valleys of the central basin, uprooting - the largest trees, carrying away natural embankments, forming immense - deposits of new alluvium, submerging miles of adjacent country, and - in many ways changing its physical conformation, would in a few years - obliterate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> any traces of earthworks built within their reach.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Far - more certain data, however, is furnished in the arborescent vegetation - which covers many of the works, with which to measure part of the - period during which they have remained unoccupied, though we are left - in uncertainty as to the remoteness of their abandonment. The annular - rings of a tree present us indisputable evidence as to its age.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> It - is evident that the forests which cover these remains have grown up - since they were vacated, as no difference exists between them and the - surrounding vegetation—no break exists in the density of the forests - in the immediate vicinity of the works. The oldest of the trees found - upon the works present eight hundred annual rings, indicating as many - years of growth.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> This cannot, however, be set down as the limit of - the period of their abandonment, since, as it seems that this country - was open and mostly unwooded in the sections thickly settled by the - Mound-builders, a considerable time would be requisite for the slow - encroachments of a forest, even when the trees which now stand upon - the mounds may have been preceded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> by trees of other species or by - two or three generations of their own.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The age of the trees on - the mound-works in the Ohio Valley or farther north, rarely exceeds - five hundred or six hundred years, and such cases as that cited by Sir - Charles Lyell are the exceptions. Farther south, in the Mississippi - Valley and near the Gulf, they are still younger than those at the - north.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> So noticeable is this that we are led to think the Gulf - coast may have been occupied by the Mound-builders for a couple of - centuries after they were driven by their enemies from the country - north of the mouths of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. The condition of - skeletons found in the mounds indicate an antiquity which they furnish - us no means of measuring. It is not to be presumed that all human - remains discovered in excavating the works were interred immediately - previous to the abandonment of the country. Some of them may belong - to the middle or beginning of the period of their residence in the - territory occupied by the United States. Human remains taken from the - mounds, perhaps furnish us better evidence of the long residence of the - Mound-builders in this country than any other data in our possession. - It suffices to say that few Mound-builder crania have been recovered in - a condition to be of any service to science; although of late years, - several valuable collections <span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>have been made. The preservation of the - skeletons depends greatly on the composition of the soil in which they - are found. The Loess has afforded well-preserved remains, however, - with the gelatinous matter leached out. The crania of the sandy loam - of river bottoms, on the other hand, are in all cases so far decayed - upon discovery that the greatest precautions fail to prevent them from - crumbling to dust when exposed to the light and air. Mastodon bones, - on the contrary, recovered from peat swamps, and much older than any - of the remains of the Mound-builders, are found to have retained so - much of their gelatinous matter as to furnish a nourishing soup.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> - To these evidences may be added the testimony derived from the ancient - ruins which points to long-continued occupation and to a considerable - lapse of time since their abandonment.</p> - - <p>How long the Mound-builders occupied the country north of the Gulf of - Mexico it is impossible in the present state of science to determine. - Some authors conjecture that they were here two thousand years; that - we think would be time enough, though after all it is but conjecture. - It seems to us, however, that the time of the abandonment of their - works may be more closely approximated. A thousand or two years may - have elapsed since they vacated the Ohio Valley, and a period embracing - seven or eight centuries may have passed since they retired from the - Gulf coast. As an evidence of a large population having existed in this - country at a former period, we have immense shell-heaps artificially - collected, extending along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to - Florida, on the Gulf coast and up the river valleys through nearly - all of the Southern States. It is difficult to assign the formation - of these vast remains to any definite period or to any particular - people. Though of the same character as the <i lang="da">Kjökken-Möddings</i> - (Kitchen-Middens) of the Danish, they furnish no indications of so - great an antiquity. This has been shown by Dr. Jeffries Wyman in his - researches in Maine and Massachusetts.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Sir Charles Lyell made an - examination of a shell-bank on St. Simon’s Island, near the mouth of - the Allamaha<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> River, Georgia, so extensive that it covers ten acres to - a depth varying from five to ten feet.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Dr. Brinton has described - immense accumulations in Florida. On Amelia Island, shells exist to - the depth of three feet over an area 150 yards wide and a quarter of a - mile long. Notable instances of a similar kind are Turtle Mound near - Smyrna—a mass of oyster shells thirty feet thick—and a shell-bank - on Crystal River four miles from its mouth, reaching a height of - forty feet.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Dr. Wyman carefully examined many of the fresh-water - shell-heaps of Florida and obtained pretty satisfactory results.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> - Near the Silver spring upon a shell-heap covering nearly twenty acres, - stand several live-oaks of immense size, the largest of which measured - between twenty-six and twenty-seven feet in circumference. Excavations - under this monster, taken together with its position on the side of - the shell-bank, proved it to be of more recent origin than the latter. - Prof. Wyman, by allowing twelve rings to the inch and granting it a - semi-diameter of fifty inches, estimated that it was not less than - six hundred years old. Of course the shell-bank may have existed a - long time before any vegetation appeared upon it. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>crania of - the shell-banks of Florida differ from those of the Mound-builders - in greater thickness as well as greater mean capacity.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In his - <cite>Fresh-water Shell-Mounds of the St. John’s River</cite>, and in his - memoir on <cite>Human Remains in the Shell-heaps of the St. John’s - River</cite> (<cite>Seventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 26 - <i>et seq.</i>), Dr. Wyman reports having discovered the startling - fact that cannibalism prevailed among the barbarous people of the - shell-banks. In the Peabody Museum a collection of human bones taken - from the shell-banks by Dr. Wyman are arranged to illustrate this sad - discovery. It is possible that this people had some relationship to - the Caribs. Prof. Forshey has described in brief the vast extent and - proportions of the marine shell-banks of the Gulf coast, and the shores - of the bayous, lakes and lagoons where Guathodon shells are found. - Those of Louisiana, especially near New Orleans, are remarkable, but - have yielded no remains, except broken pottery, flint flakes and stone - hatchets. A shell-bank at Grand Lake, on the Teche, however, upon which - great live-oaks are growing, situated fifteen miles inland, from which - the sea has receded since its formation, “yielded unique specimens of - axes of hæmatitic iron-ore and glazed pottery.”<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Probably the most - remote shell-bank from the sea containing marine shells, occurs on the - Alabama River, fifty miles inland.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Fresh-water shell-banks, other - than those examined in Florida, furnish evidences of slow accumulation - and indicate a comparatively remote antiquity for their origin. On - Stalling’s Island, in the Savannah River, two hundred miles above its - mouth, is a shell-bank three hundred feet in length by one hundred - and twenty feet in width, with an average depth of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>over fifteen - feet.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> In the American Bottom and on many of the tributaries of - the Mississippi, shell-banks occur, composed of varieties of the - Unios and Anodons. A remarkable example of such accumulation is the - well-known shell-bank a mile and a half south of New Harmony, Indiana, - and situated on a high hill 170 feet above the level of an arm of the - Wabash River. The bank covers an area of a quarter of an acre, and - has attracted the attention of eminent scientists like Leasure, Say, - Lyell and others, but nothing of value was developed that would refer - the construction of this and similar banks to any people more ancient - than the Mound-builders.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> On the Pacific coast, great numbers of - shell-banks exist, but contain nothing different from those in other - parts of the country. (See Researches in the Kjökken Möddings of the - Coast of Oregon and of the Santa Barbara Islands and Adjacent Mainland, - by Paul Schumacher. <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey</cite>, - vol. iii, No. 1.) There can be little doubt but these strange and vast - accumulations indicating the presence of an extinct population, had a - remote beginning, and have been added to from time to time by different - peoples, removed from each other both by the diversities of race and - the lapse of time.</p> - - <p>A trifle more than a decade ago the treatment of the subject of this - chapter would have called for a discussion of the antiquity of the - magnificent architectural remains of Southern Mexico, and of the still - older ruins of the Maya civilization in Yucatan, and the branches of - that people in Central America; but the indefatigable labor which has - been bestowed by several eminent antiquarians upon the ancient history - of the civilized nations of the New World previous to its discovery by - Europeans, has transferred this part of the subject to another field; - has elevated it from the uncertain position it occupied in archæology - to a place in the realm of history. It is true that it is difficult - to draw the line between tradition and history, and especially so in - this case; but as tradition does not conflict with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>archæology in its - bearing on the ancient civilization of Tropical America, it is better - than nothing; certainly archæology thus far has amounted to little - more than nothing in revealing the approximate period of the origin of - these remains. While it has done much towards verifying tradition and - assisted largely in its interpretation, it has not been adequate to the - task of solving the age of these remains. Tradition, on the contrary, - and we might almost say history, carries us back three thousand years, - if not farther, as the period when man—whether the first here or - not—appeared upon the Western Continent. The discussion of this part of - our subject will be given in a future chapter. Too much doubt exists - with reference to the stupendous remains of Peru, especially in the - neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, Tiahuanaco, Old Huanaco, and Grau-Chimu, - as to whether they antedated the arrival of the Incas by a great lapse - of time, to admit of a serious discussion here. Nothing of a scientific - character is available as yet upon which even to base conjecture. - Rivero and Tschudi, it is true, have treated the subject, and their - work has been often quoted, but after all it amounts to but little - more than a description of the remains, which serves the good end of - exciting interest in the subject. The antiquities and legendary history - of the Peruvians have so recently been treated with such ability by Mr. - E. G. Squier, that the South American civilization needs no attention - in this connection.</p> - - <p>In considering the question as to how long man has inhabited this - continent, his influence upon nature cannot be overlooked. In the - animal kingdom, certain animals were domesticated by the aborigines - from so remote a period that scarcely any of their species, as in the - case of the lama of Peru, were to be found in a state of unrestrained - freedom at the advent of the Spaniards. In the vegetable kingdom more - abundant testimony of the same nature is presented. A plant must be - subjected to the transforming influences of cultivation for a long - time before it becomes so changed as no longer to be identified with - the wild species, and infinitely longer before it becomes entirely - dependent upon cultivation for propagation. Yet we find that both - of these facts have been accomplished with reference to the maize, - tobacco,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> cotton, quinoa and mandico plants; and the only species - of palm cultivated by the South American Indians, that known as the - <i>Gulielma speciosa</i>, has lost through that culture its original - nut-like seed, and is dependent upon the hands of its cultivators - for its life.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> Alluding to the above-named plants, Dr. Brinton - remarks: “Several are sure to perish unless fostered by human care. - What numberless ages does this suggest? How many centuries elapsed ere - man thought of cultivating Indian corn? How many more ere it had spread - over nearly a hundred degrees of latitude and lost all resemblance - to its original form?”<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Certainly this class of evidence, though - furnishing no chronometric scale, points us to an antiquity for man on - this continent more venerable than that suggested either by tumuli or - architectural remains. The peculiar value of this argument rests in the - fact that with the exception of cotton, none of the plants indicated - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>have ever been cultivated by any other people than the aborigines of - America, and could not have matured their characteristics of dependence - in the old world, and been brought hither through the channel of - immigration.</p> - - <p>Back of the age of man’s monuments of an architectural character, - beyond the beginning of the first existing shell-heap, and at a time - probably more remote than the first cultivation of maize, it has been - supposed that man occupied the Western Continent as a contemporary with - the mastodon, megalonyx and other extinct animals. Our information - in this department is entirely dependent upon the revelations of - geological science. Unfortunately very little data which may be termed - truly scientific has been brought to light. While considerable seeming - testimony to man’s antiquity on this continent has been produced - from a geologic quarter, still it mostly has been of an unscientific - character. Fossils and human remains are said to have been discovered - in localities and in associations that if the statements of those who - found them could be relied on, would give man an antiquity here as - great as in the valley of the Somme or in the bone caves of Belgium, - France, and England. In the instances alluded to, it is not so often - feared that the veracity of discoverers is doubtful as that their - general lack of acquaintance with the science should make them liable - to error. Where a competent geologist is not present to examine a - fossil <i>in situ</i>, and report intelligently upon its position and - surroundings, the case must remain open to suspicion. Unfortunately - for science, this is precisely the weak point in most of the reputed - “finds” which are cited as evidence in this field. In 1848, Count - Pourtales found in Florida, according to Agassiz, a human jaw and - teeth, and bones of the foot, embedded in a calcareous conglomerate - forming a part of a coral reef. This reef, according to Agassiz, may - be 135,000 years old, and the human remains at least ten thousand - years.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> This statement has been accepted as reliable by Sir Charles - Lyell,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> Daniel Wilson,<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> and other noted scientific gentlemen. - Count Pourtales, however, makes a statement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> which materially alters - the case. He says: “The human jaws and other bones found by myself in - Florida in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in a fresh-water - sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated with fresh-water - shells or species still living in the lakes (Paulina, Ampullaria, - etc.). No date can be assigned to the formation of that deposit, at - least from present observation.”<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Human remains were found a number - of years ago embedded in the solid rock in the island of Guadaloupe. - “But more careful investigation proved the rock to be a concretionary - limestone formed from the detritus of corals and shells.”<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> This - rock was ascertained to have been one of very rapid formation.</p> - - <p>Sir Charles Lyell, in his <cite>Travels in America</cite> in 1842, expressed - the opinion that certain human remains found embedded in the solid rock - near the town of St. Paul on the Santos River, Brazil, were of great - antiquity.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> Subsequently referring to the memoir of Dr. Meigs on - the shell-heap of which the rock was a part,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> he expresses the - opinion that shells were brought to the place and heaped up over the - remains, and “were bound together in a solid stone by the infiltration - of carbonate of lime, and the mound may therefore be of no higher - antiquity than those above alluded to on the Ohio.”<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In a few - instances it has been alleged that the remains of man have been found - associated with the remains of the mastodon and other extinct animals. - More than thirty years ago Dr. Dickson of Natchez discovered the pelvic - bone of a man, the <i lang="la">os innominatum</i>, mingled with the bones of - extinct animals (megalonyx and mylodon). This discovery was made two - and one-half miles from Natchez, at the bottom of what is known as - Bernard’s Bayou, an immense ravine from thirty to sixty feet deep and - several miles long, formed by the convulsions of the earthquake of - 1811–12. This bone is now in the possession of the Academy of Natural - Sciences of Philadelphia. Sir Charles Lyell visited the spot where it - was discovered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>in 1846, and made a careful examination of the bone - then in the possession of Dr. Dickson, and also explored the “Mammoth - Ravine.” He discusses the case as follows: “It appeared to be quite - in the same state of preservation and was of the same black color as - the other fossils, and was believed to have come like them from a - depth of about thirty feet from the surface. In my <cite>Second Visit - to America</cite> in 1846,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> I suggested as a possible explanation - of this association of a human bone with remains of a mastodon and - megalonyx, that the former may possibly have been derived from the - vegetable soil at the top of the cliff, where, as the remains of - extinct mammalia were dislodged from a lower position, and both may - have fallen into the same heap or talus at the bottom of the ravine, - the pelvic bone might, I conceived, have acquired its black color - from having lain for years or centuries in a dark superficial peaty - soil common in that region. I was informed that there were many human - bones in old Indian graves in the same district stained of as black - a dye.” * * * “No doubt, had the pelvic bone belonged to any recent - mammifier other than man, such a theory would never have been resorted - to; but so long as we have only one isolated case, and are without - the testimony of a geologist who was present to behold the bone when - still engaged in the matrix, and to extract it with his own hands, it - is allowable to suspend our judgment as to the high antiquity of the - fossil”.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> Both Dr. Joseph Leidy<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and Prof. C. G. Forshey,<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> - who have examined the case, agree with the above. A few years ago a - fragment of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>matting composed of the outer bark of the southern cane - (<i>Arundinaria macrosperma</i>) was discovered on Petit Anse Island - in Vermillion Bay, Louisiana, in connection with the remains of a - fossil elephant. This island, containing about five thousand acres, - is the locality of an extraordinary mine of rock salt, discovered and - worked considerably during the late rebellion. The salt is found in - nearly all parts of the island at the depth of fifteen or twenty feet - below the surface of the soil. The matting was discovered near the - surface of the salt, and about two feet above it were the remains of an - elephant, including the tusks. Prof. Henry was the first to call public - attention to the matter in a notice based on the verbal statements - of T. F. Cleu, Esq., who presented a specimen of the matting to the - Smithsonian Institution.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> In 1867, Prof. E. W. Hilgard and Dr. E. - Fontaine, secretary of the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, examined - the locality. We regret to say that the report made by the latter is - so confused in its use of terms and so conflicting in its statements - as to be of no service to science.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Prof. Hilgard is, on the - contrary, clear on the subject. He considers the heap in which the - matting, elephant bones, and subsequently pottery in great profusion, - were found, “A mass of detritus washed down from the surrounding - hills.” “The pottery,” he remarks, “at some points form veritable - strata three and six inches thick.” He then adds in a note that “it - is very positively stated that mastodon bones were found considerably - <em>above</em> some of the human relics. In a detrital mass, however, - this cannot be considered a crucial test.”<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Dr. Foster, after - citing the above, interposes the objection, “That in an island whose - area is less than eight miles square, there would be few floods of - sufficient power to transport such heavy bones as the tusks and molars - of mastodons to any considerable distance.”<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> Certainly the question - is an open one, and in its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>present unsettled status proves nothing. - The same uncertainty attaches itself to the discoveries of Dr. Lund, - the distinguished Swedish naturalist, made many years ago in the bone - caves of Minas Geraes, Brazil. This indefatigable investigator examined - more than eight hundred caverns, and in only six were human remains - found. In one instance out of the six, the remains were associated - with the bones of animals now extinct, but the original stratification - had been disturbed, and the presumption is that it was a case of - comparatively recent interment.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> - - <p>The most remarkable instance of the supposed, or we might be allowed - in this case to say <em>pretended</em> discovery of human remains in - association with those of extinct animals, is that set forth by Dr. - Koch. This collector of curiosities described his discovery of a - <i>mastodon giganteus</i> in 1839 in Gasconade County, Missouri, - at a spot on the Bourbeuse River, first in a newspaper article of - January 1839, and cited in the <cite>American Journal of Science and - Arts</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> And a second time in the St. Louis <cite>Commercial - Bulletin</cite> of June 25, 1839, which article was also noticed in the - above Journal.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> This article was signed “A. Koch, Proprietor of the - St. Louis Museum.” Subsequently he published descriptions in pamphlets, - which unfortunately did not always convey the same impressions.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> - Dr. Koch, after referring to the discovery of a back and hip bone - of this remarkable animal, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>gives the following description: “I - immediately commenced opening a much larger space; the first layer - of earth was a vegetable mould, then a blue clay, then sand and blue - clay. I found a large quantity of pieces of rocks, weighing from two - to twenty-five pounds each, evidently thrown there with the intention - of hitting some object. It is necessary to remark that not the least - sign of rocks or gravel is to be found nearer than from four or five - hundred yards, and that these pieces were broken from larger rocks, - and consequently carried here for some express purpose. After passing - through these rocks I came to a layer of vegetable mould; on the - surface of this was found the first blue bone, with this a spear and - axe; the spear corresponds precisely with our common Indian spear; the - axe is different from any I have seen. Also on this earth were ashes - nearly from six inches to one foot in depth, intermixed with burned - wood and burned bones, broken spears, axes, knives, etc. The fire - appeared to have been the largest on the head and neck of the animal, - as the ashes and coals were much deeper here than in the rest of the - body; the skull was quite perfect, but so much burned that it crumbled - to dust on the least touch; two feet from this was found two teeth - broken off from the jaw, but mashed entirely to pieces. By putting them - together, they showed the animal to have been much larger than any - heretofore discovered. It appeared by the situation of the skeleton, - that the animal had been sunk with its hind feet in the mud and water, - and, unable to extricate itself, had fallen on its right side, and in - that situation was found and killed as above described; consequently - the hind and fore-feet on the right side were sunk deeper in the mud, - and thereby saved from the effects of the fire; therefore I was able - to preserve the whole of the hind foot to the very last joint, and the - fore foot, all but some few small bones that were too much decayed - to be worth saving. Also between the rocks that had sunk through the - ashes, were found large pieces of skin that appeared like fresh-tanned - sole leather, strongly impregnated with the lye from the ashes; and - a great many of the sinews and arteries were plain to be seen on the - earth and rocks, but in such a state as not to be moved except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> in - small pieces the size of a hand, which are now preserved in spirits.” - “Should any doubts arise in the mind of the reader of the correctness - of the above statement, he can be referred to more than twenty - witnesses who were present at the time of digging.”<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> Subsequent - accounts agree substantially with the above except that we never again - hear of the “large pieces of skin,” the “sinews and arteries,” “which - are now preserved in spirits.” The presumption is that the author, upon - mature reflection, arrived at the conclusion that in reality he had - seen nothing of the kind, and in fact had never preserved such relics - in spirits.</p> - - <p>Dr. Koch made a second discovery about one year subsequently in Benton - County, Missouri, in the bottom of the Pomme-de-Terre River, at about - ten miles above its junction with the Osage River. His description is - as follows: “The second trace of human existence with these animals - I found during the excavation of the Missourium. There was embedded - immediately under the femur or hind-leg bone of this animal, an - arrow-head of rose-colored flint, resembling those used by the American - Indians, but of larger size. This was the only arrow-head immediately - with the skeleton; but in the same strata, at a distance of five or - six feet, in a horizontal direction, four more arrow-heads were found. - Three of these were of the same formation as the preceding. The fourth - was of very rude workmanship. One of the last-mentioned three was of - agate, the others of blue flint. These arrow-heads are indisputably - the work of human hands. I examined the deposit in which they were - embedded, and raised them out of their embedment with my own hands. - The original stratum on which this river flowed at the time it was - inhabited by the <i>Missourium theristocaulodon</i> and up to the - time of its destruction, was of the upper green sand. On the surface - of this stratum, and partly mingled with it, was the deposit of the - before-described skeleton. The next stratum is from three to four feet - in thickness, and consisted of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>a brown alluvium of the <em>Eocene</em> - region, and was composed of vegetable matters of a tropical production. - It contained all the remainder of the skeleton.” “Most of these - vegetables were in a great state of preservation and consisted of a - large quantity of cypress burs, wood and bark, tropical cane, ferns, - palmetto leaves, several stumps of trees, and even the greater part of - a flower of the strelitzia class, which when destroyed was not full - blown. There was no sign or indication of any very large trees; the - cypresses that were discovered being the largest that were growing here - at the time. These various matters had been torn up by their roots - and twisted and split into a thousand pieces apparently by lightning - combined with a tremendous tempest or tornado; and all were involved - in one common ruin. Several veins of iron pyrites ran through the - stratum.” “The next over this formation was a layer of plastic clay of - the <em>Eocene</em> region, also with iron pyrites. It was three feet - in thickness; over this a layer of conglomerate from nine to eighteen - inches in thickness; over this a layer of marl of the Pliocene region, - from three to four feet in thickness; next, a second conglomerate from - nine to eighteen inches in thickness. This was succeeded by a layer of - yellow clay of the Pliocene; over this a third layer of conglomerate - from nine to eighteen inches in thickness, and at last the present - surface, consisting of brownish clay mingled with a few pebbles, and - covered with large oak, maple, and elm trees, which were, as near as I - could ascertain, from eighty to one hundred years old. In the centre - of the above-mentioned deposit was a large spring which appeared to - rise from the very bowels of the earth, as it was never affected by the - severest rain, nor did it become lower by the longest draught.”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> - The preceding accounts were presented to the St. Louis Academy of - Sciences in a special paper several years later (1857).<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> - - <p>Dr. Foster is inclined to believe that Dr. Koch was not mistaken - in his claimed discovery, having arrived at that opinion by - pointedly questioning him on the subject a short time before <span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>his - (Koch’s) death.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Charles Rau is also of the opinion that he was - truthful.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Mr. J. D. Dana, however, discusses the case as follows: - “In the account of the second case above cited Dr. Koch says that - the Missourium was embedded in a brown alluvium of the Eocene region - resting on the ‘upper green sand;’ that next over it was plastic - clay of the ‘Eocene region’ and beds of the ‘Pliocene region.’ He - thus makes his Missourium to have come from the lower tertiary, and - from a bed just above the green sand (cretaceous) when actually from - quartenary beds; and he uses the terms Eocene and Pliocene, as if he - had no familiarity with geological facts or language. The earlier - pamphlet of 1840 avoids this bad geology, ‘the upper green sand,’ in - that being called simply quicksand and the other beds merely beds of - clay and conglomerate. All the pamphlets sustain the conclusion that - Dr. Koch knew almost nothing of geology, and that what he gradually - picked up from intercourse with geologists, he generally made much - of but seldom was able to use rightly.”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The same critic says: - “In zoological knowledge he was equally deficient,” and cites the - fact of the discoverer recognizing the resemblance to the mastodon, - still makes the animal an inhabitant of the watercourses like the - hippopotamus; states that his food “consisted as much of vegetables as - of flesh, although he undoubtedly consumed a great abundance of the - latter,” and makes the marvelous revelation that he “<em>was capable - of feeding himself with his fore-foot after the manner of the beaver - or otter</em>.” Mr. Dana continues: “He says that one arrow-head lay - ‘immediately under the femur or thigh-bone,’ and he further states in - his later article of 1857, that ‘he carefully thought to investigate - the point as to its having been brought thither after the deposit of - the bone’ and decided against it. The observation and conclusion would - have been more satisfactory had the author been a better observer.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> - “The descriptions of the deposits in Gasconade County containing the - remains of an animal the principal part of which was consumed by - fire is a still more unsatisfactory basis for a safe conclusion as - to age. But in the article of 1857, he says that the layer of ashes, - etc., ‘was covered by strata or alluvial deposits consisting of clay, - sand and soil, from eight to nine feet thick, <em>forming the bottom - of the Bourbeuse (River) in general</em>,’ which seems to make it - almost certain that the beds were of quite recent origin.”<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> Mr. - Dana considers Dr. Koch’s evidence as “<em>very doubtful</em>.”<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> - Dr. Foster has figured a fossil which, for a better name, he has - designated as a “stone hatchet,” from the modified drift of Jersey - County, Illinois.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> He is positive as to the position in which it - was found, but has doubt as to its human origin. The probabilities are - that its peculiar shape is due to its exposure to atmospheric agents. - He remarks, however: “On the whole, I will not positively assert that - this specimen is of human workmanship, but I affirm that if it had - been recovered from a plowed field I should have unhesitatingly said - it was an Indian hatchet.” In the <cite>Proceedings of the Philadelphia - Academy of Sciences</cite> for July, 1859, Dr. Holmes describes the - occurrence of fragments of pottery in close proximity with the bones of - the mastodon and megatherium, on the Ashley River in South Carolina. - The case, however, has not been considered authentic by scientific - men. Dr. Holmes is possibly mistaken.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> Col. Charles Whittlesey, - in 1838, saw at <span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>Portsmouth, Ohio, on the Ohio River, remains of - ancient fire-places situated eighteen to twenty feet above low water - and about fifteen feet below the surface. He states, “at low water and - thence up to a height of twelve or fifteen feet is a bed of sand and - transported gravel, containing pebbles of quartz, granite, sandstone - and limestone, derived partly from the adjacent Carboniferous and - Devonian rocks and partly from the northern drift, the upper part - much the coarsest. On this is a layer of blue quicksand from one to - five feet thick, in which is a timber-bed including large numbers of - the trunks, branches, stumps and leaves of trees, such as are now - growing on the Ohio, principally birch, black-ash, oak and hickory. - Over the dirt-bed is the usually loamy yellow clay of the valley, - fifteen to thirty feet thick, on which are very extensive works of the - Mound-builders. In and near the bottom of this undisturbed homogeneous - river-loam I saw two places where fire had been built on a circular - collection of small stones, a part of which were then embedded in the - bank.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Near these fire-places the writer of the above found the - membranous covering of common river shells (the Unios). We think that - no geologist familiar with the constant changes of the Ohio River bed, - will consider that the conditions surrounding these ancient fire-places - warrant us in assigning them a much greater antiquity than we attach - to the Mound-builders’ works in the neighborhood. In 1846, Sir Charles - Lyell, when at New Orleans, made an estimate of the time required to - account for the immense annual deposit of the Mississippi River in the - neighborhood of its delta. From a computation based on certain data, - which assumed the area of the alluvial plain which is the result of - those deposits, to equal 30,000 square miles, several hundred feet - thick in some places, he estimated that probably 100,000 years would - be requisite.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> Subsequently, during the process of excavating for - the New Orleans Gas Works, it was found necessary to cut through four - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>buried cypress forests. At the depth of sixteen feet and on the fourth - forest level, a human skeleton distinctly of the Indian type,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> was - found under the roots of a cypress tree, together with burnt wood. Dr. - Dowler, dividing the history of the delta into, 1. The epoch of grasses - or aquatic plants; 2. That of the cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) - basins, and 3. That of the live-oak platform, tabulates the age of the - strata overlying the skeleton as follows:</p> - - <table class="w90" summary="Age of strata"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Epoch of aquatic plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>1,500</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>years</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Epoch of the cypress basin, in which he assumes only two successive growths</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>11,400</div></td> - <td class="tdc bottom"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Epoch of live-oak platform</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>1,500</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>———</div></td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl12">Total</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>14,400</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>years</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>The basis for his estimate of the age of the cypress basins was the - computed age of the trees of the fourth level, ten feet in diameter and - probably reaching 5,700 years.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Sir Charles Lyell in a later work, - though still adhering to his former estimate of the time required in - which to form the delta, cannot accept Dr. Dowler’s great antiquity - for the remains.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> The question in hand of course involves the - question of the antiquity of the deposit where the skeleton was found, - which is well-nigh identical with the vexed question of the age of - the delta. The very diversity of opinion on this subject precludes - the possibility of its consideration here. We will content ourselves - by citing two estimates in addition to those already given. Professor - Edward Hitchcock calculated that the entire delta embraced a bulk of - matter equal to 2,720 <em>cubic</em> miles, for the deposit of which he - thought 14,204 years necessary.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> Humphries and Abbot think that - both the area and thickness of the deposit have been overstated, and - instead of 30,000 square miles for the former, they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>claim only 19,450. - As to the latter, they estimate the thickness of the alluvial matter as - but twenty-five feet on the river banks along the St. Francis swamp; - thirty-five along the Yazoo swamp, and continuing of uniform thickness - to Baton Rouge; while the artesian well at New Orleans showed it in - that locality to reach a point forty feet below the level of the Gulf. - These authors base their calculations as to the age of the deposits on - the following ascertained facts: the total yearly contributions of the - river equal a prism two hundred and sixty-eight feet in height, with a - base of one mile square; two hundred and sixty-two feet is the supposed - mean yearly advance of the river; the original mouth of the Mississippi - was near the afflux of the Bayou Plaquemine, and has hence progressed - two hundred and twenty miles since it began to empty its deposits into - the Gulf. Supposing these data to be correct, they estimate that only - four thousand four hundred years have elapsed since that period.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> - This would give the skeleton alluded to a comparatively recent origin. - We are inclined to believe that the above estimate assigns a period for - the formation of the delta as much too short as that of Sir Charles was - too long. As to the antiquity of the skeleton, probably Dr. Foster’s - solution of the question is as near correct as any that ever may be - proposed: “Thus, then, with these carefully-observed computations - before us, we are not prepared to accept the high antiquity assigned - by Dr. Dowler to the human remains found beneath the surface at New - Orleans. What he regards as four buried forests which once flourished - on the spot, may be nothing more than driftwood brought down the river - in former times which became embedded in the silts and sediments which - were deposited on what was then the floor of the Gulf.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - - <p>If all the indications were verified, we should be justified in - assigning man a much greater antiquity in the Rocky Mountain region - and on the Pacific slope than in any other part of North America. - Mr. E. L. Berthoud collected numerous stone implements in what he - considers to be tertiary gravel on Crow Creek and in the region of the - South Platte River, Lat. 40 N., Long. 104 W. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>Two shells secured in - the same locality by him have been pronounced a <i>corbicula</i> and - a <i>rangia</i> respectively, and are thought to belong to the older - Pliocene or possibly to the Miocene.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> The evidence in this case is, - however, unsatisfactory, and cannot be admitted to be of scientific - value without further authentication.</p> - - <p>In 1857 a portion of a human cranium was found associated with bones - of the mastodon at the depth of one hundred and eighty feet below the - surface in a mining shaft at Table Mountain, California. Dr. C. F. - Winslow sent this fragment to the Boston Natural History Society, but - no importance was attached to it, since no other evidence other than - that furnished by workmen in the mine could be obtained. Subsequently, - when an entire skull was reported to have been found in the gold drift - near Angelos in Calaveras County, in a shaft one hundred and fifty - feet deep, the intelligent portion of the community pronounced the - finder guilty of a scientific fraud, and it is not yet a certainty - that their decision was incorrect. However, Professor Whitney, of the - State Geological Survey, upon hearing of the case examined the mine, - and found that the shaft passed through five beds of lava and volcanic - tufa and four beds of auriferous gravel. It was in one of these beds - that the skull was said to have been found. Some of the cemented gravel - was still adhering to the skull when it came into the Professor’s - possession, and Professor Wyman, to whom it was submitted subsequently, - refers to the difficulty which he had in removing the incrustation. - Professor Whitney, on the testimony of the possessor of the skull, - pronounced it an authentic “find,” and while his decision has been - acquiesced in by a number of scientific gentlemen of repute, Professor - Wyman among them, still the great majority, we believe, are unwilling - to rest their faith on such slender evidence. Though no crack was - apparent through which the skull might have fallen from the surface, - such might have existed at an earlier period. In a region which is the - product of volcanic action there is room for suspicion, especially in - cases like both of these, where, as Sir Charles Lyell has said, no - geologist was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>present at the moment of discovery to see the fossil - <i>in situ</i> and extricate it with his own hands from the matrix - which contained it.</p> - - <p>President Edward Orton, of the Ohio State University, recently called - our attention to the discovery of relics of human workmanship found - many years ago near Waynesville, Ohio, at the depth of over twelve feet - below the surface. Dr. Robert Furnas, a clergyman of the Society of - Friends, courteously furnished us the following statement: “The relic - was obtained about the year 1824. It was in the process of digging - a well for my grandfather. My father, then twenty-one years of age, - was performing the work of excavation, when at the depth of thirteen - or fourteen feet he came to a dark mould about two feet deep, on the - top of which was lying <em>a thimble and a piece of coarse cloth</em> - six inches wide and a yard long. The outer edge containing the fringe - showing the end of the <em>chain</em> or warp at the end of the fabric - and point of fastening in weaving.” “The removal above after passing - through the soil consisted of solid clay of a yellowish-brown color. - The farm was purchased by my grandfather in 1803, and occupied by him - to the time of his death in 1863. He was the pioneer of the place, - having settled there in an unbroken forest. The location is on the - top of the hill on the east side of the Little Miami River forty or - fifty feet above the level of the stream. The cloth soon lost all - traces of texture on coming in contact with the air. The thimble was - in a pretty good state of preservation.”<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Professor Orton, who - has examined the locality and studied the case in hand, expressed the - opinion to us that it was not only authentic, but (while not amounting - to absolute proof) seemed to associate man’s works with a deposit which - has furnished remains of the mastodon. The Professor considers the - dark mould referred to as that upon which the relics were lying to be - of an inter-glacial vegetable deposit peculiar to Southern Ohio, and - once constituting an ancient surface of the land inhabited with animal - life.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>cloth from its coarse character bears a resemblance to - that of the mounds, while its length of just a yard is suggestive of - more modern measurements.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p> - - <p>Dr. C. C. Abbott has unquestionably discovered many palæolithic - implements in the glacial drift in the valley of the Delaware River - near Trenton, New Jersey. Among a number of rude implements from the - undisturbed gravel of the region is a spear-head, found six feet from - the surface, on the site of the Lutheran Church, Broad Street, Trenton, - N. J. The circumstances surrounding it were such as to justify the - conclusion that the weapon had not gotten into its position where found - “subsequently to the deposition of the containing layer of pebbles.” - Subsequent investigation has brought to light sixty well finished flint - implements, all of them from what appears to be undisturbed drift. - Some of the relics have as many as from twenty to forty planes of - cleavage, all equally weathered. The specimens are not unlike their - neolithic counterparts taken from the aboriginal graves and stone cists - of Tennessee.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Dr. Abbott concludes that the gravel, boulders, - and rude implements associated with them were deposited by ice-rafts - on the descent of a glacier down the valley, and that man more rude - and ancient than the red Indian dwelt at the foot of the glacier, - being driven south by its advance and following it again to the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>north - upon its return.<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Professors Shaler and Pumpelly, however, while - considering the deposit as of glacial origin, think it was subsequently - modified by water-action. Dr. Abbott, with great fairness, admits that, - “Inasmuch as such subsequent action may have occurred long after the - final deposition of the gravel, as true glacial drift, the antiquity of - the contained stone implements is proportionately lessened.” Professor - Shaler, after a partial examination of the locality, remarks that “if - these remains are really those of man, they prove the existence of - inter-glacial man on this part of our shore.”<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> Dr. Abbott and Prof. - Aug. R. Grote believe that the Eskimo is the surviving representative - of paleolithic and glacial man in North America. The latter believes - that man reached this continent during the Pliocene, and before the - ice-period had interfered with a warm climate in the north.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> - Recently Dr. Abbott has said: “It may be that, as investigations are - carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very - great antiquity, as in showing how much more recent than usually - supposed was the final disappearance of the glacier.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> On - <a href="#Page_30">page 30</a> we referred to mounds examined in the North-west, N. lat. 47°, W. - long. 98° 38´, by General H. W. Thomas.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> In these mounds crania - indicating a very low type of intelligence were discovered—in form - resembling skulls of the great Gibbon monkey.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> From the standpoint - of the development<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> theory (and by this we do not mean evolution, but - that progression which takes place when a savage advances from his - low state toward civilization), the evidences are abundant that man - is older by far on the Western side of the continent and perhaps in - the North-west, than elsewhere in the new world. Though this discovery - by General Thomas does not reach back in antiquity to geologic times, - still it cannot be denied that a considerable period must have elapsed - before low-type crania of the North-west could have developed into the - crania of the Ohio Valley Mounds. Professor James Orton, in commenting - on the investigations of Wilson on the coast of Equador, refers to the - discovery of gold, copper and stone vestiges of a former population - in the system of terraces traced from the coast through the province - of Esmeraldas to Quito. He remarks: “In all cases these relics are - situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of marine sediment, from which - he (Wilson) infers that this part of the country formerly stood higher - above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the antiquity of these - remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast is exceedingly - slow.”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> The antiquity of man in Europe is an established fact, but - how <span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>remote is a question which science as yet fails to answer. When - geologic research opens up Central Asia, no doubt man will be found to - have existed there a long period anterior to his advent in Europe. But - for the decadence of Arabic glory and learning we should now probably - be in possession of a fund of information concerning that region as - well as of man’s early history. Were the discovery of the human skull - in the gold drift of California an authentic case, we should have - strong reasons for supposing a remote intercourse existed between Asia - and the Pacific coast. It is quite certain the crania of the North-west - Mounds, as compared with those of the Mississippi region, clearly point - to that fact. We have seen that as yet no truly scientific proof of - man’s great antiquity in America exists. This conclusion is concurred - in by most eminent authorities.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> At present we are probably - not warranted in claiming for him a much longer residence on this - continent than that assigned him by Sir John Lubbock, namely, 3,000 - years. Future research may develop the fact that man is as old here - as in Europe, and that he was contemporaneous with the Mastodon. As - the case stands in the present state of knowledge, it furnishes strong - presumptive evidence that man is not autochthonic here, but exotic, - having originated in the old world, perhaps thousands of years prior to - reaching the new.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_III"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">DIVERSITY OF OPINION AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT AMERICANS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Conflict of Discovery and Dogmatism—Antipodes—Arabic - Learning in the 8th Century—Spirit of Early - Writers on America—Common Opinion as to the Origin - of the Americans—Father Duran—Lost Tribes of - Israel—Garcia—Lascarbot—Villagutierre—Torquemada—Pineda, - etc.—Abbé Domenech—Modern Views—Pre-Columbian - Colonization—Plato’s Atlantis—Kingsborough—The Book of - Mormon—Phœnicians—George Jones—Greek and Egyptian Theories—The - Tartars—Japanese and Chinese Theories—Fusang—The Mongol - Theory—Traces of Buddhism—White-Man’s Land—The Northmen—The - Welsh Claim.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">VARIOUS perplexing problems presented themselves to the minds of - the discoverers of the new continent for solution, as well as to - their immediate successors, which were greatly intensified by the - dogmatic teaching of the times. The status of science in the Middle - Ages was defined from time to time by some ecclesiastical utterance - without any reference to the phenomena of nature or the revelations - of accidental discovery. We say accidental, for no designed or - systematic investigation was so much as tolerated, much less encouraged - by friendly recognition. This unfortunate antagonism to progress - had its foundation chiefly in ignorance, and its origin in the - misinterpretation and perversion of Sacred Scripture.</p> - - <p>Two questions, especially in view of the dogmatic utterances of the - day, presented grave difficulties to the minds of the discoverers and - their successors in the New World. “Is the world a sphere?” “Are the - Inhabitants of the Indias of a common origin with the rest of mankind?” - These were the most serious problems that forced themselves upon their - consideration. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> long ago as 280 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the investigations - of Aristarchus of Samos, though not accepted by antiquity, suggested - an affirmative answer to the first question. But the Fathers of the - Church had spoken authoritatively on this subject at quite an early - day, and consequently left no room for speculation. St. Augustine - discusses the question as follows: “But as to the fable that there are - antipodes, that is to say, men on the opposite side of the earth, where - the sun rises when it sets to us, men who walk with their feet opposite - ours, that is on no ground credible. And, indeed, it is not affirmed - that this has been learned by historical knowledge, but by scientific - conjecture, on the ground that the earth is suspended within the cavity - of the sky, and that it has as much room on the one side of it as on - the other; hence they say that the part which is beneath us must also - be inhabited. But they do not remark that although it be supposed or - scientifically demonstrated that the world is of a round and spherical - form, yet it does not follow that the other side of the earth is bare - of water; or even though it be bare, does it immediately follow that - it is peopled. For Scripture, which proves the truth of its historical - statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, gives no false - information; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have taken - ship and traversed the whole wide ocean, and crossed from this world to - the other, and that thus even the inhabitants of that distant region - are descended from that one first man.”<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> - - <p>Though, during the kalifate of Al-Mamoun (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 813–833) - Arabic learning had well-nigh demonstrated the globular form of - the earth and determined its circumference, according to their - measurements, to be about 24,000 miles, still not a man in Christendom - ventured to advocate the theory for almost half a dozen <span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>centuries, - such was the power of the ban put upon investigation which ran counter - to the pre-expressed opinions of a dark age. The theories of Tascanelli - and the observations of Columbus on the polar star prepared the way for - the great triumph achieved by De Gama in 1497–8, in his voyage around - the Cape of Good Hope; and the question of the globular form of the - earth was forever set at rest twenty-two years afterwards by the voyage - of Magellan.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> When it was definitely determined that America was a - continent of itself and not the eastern extremity of India, the fact - that it was inhabited gave rise to speculations which have since been - often repeated. Through an unaccountable misapprehension, not only - the questions of the origin of the Americans, but the manner of their - separation from the rest of the race, together with the routes they - pursued in reaching the new world—all were thought to be capable of - solution by the light of Scripture. The education of the early writers - enables us to account for the intolerance with which they looked upon - any other solution of the problem than that which alone would conform - to the teachings of the church.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> - - <p>It is true that the natural nobility of character possessed by such - writers as Las Casas, Duran and a few others, tempered the fanaticism - which had been inculcated by education, and enabled <span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>them to furnish - invaluable information concerning the real condition and traditions - of the so-called Indians. But, upon the other hand, there were great - numbers of blind, unscrupulous ecclesiastics who either destroyed - outright the manuscripts and picture-writing of the natives, committing - them to the flames, or so warping tradition in order that it might - conform to their mistaken theology, that in many cases the most - precious information is irretrievably lost. Such men could hardly be - expected to have treated calmly and with any degree of liberality - the question before us—one which has so often been asked, but as yet - never satisfactorily answered, and one which in the present state of - knowledge cannot be.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p> - - <p>The unanimity with which the most celebrated writers on the Americans - during three centuries following the discovery, fixed upon a solution - of the problem, will be best illustrated in the following pages: One of - the most ingenious and at the same time most calmly expressed opinions - on the origin problem is that recorded by Father Duran, a native of - Tezcuco in Mexico, in his <cite>History of New Spain</cite>, written in - the year 1585.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>He was convinced that the natives had a foreign - origin, and that they performed a long journey of many years duration - in their migration to the new world. He arrived at these conclusions - on account of several considerations, some of which are as follows: - The natives had no definite knowledge of their origin, some claiming - to have proceeded from fountains and springs of water, others that - they were natives of certain caves, and others that they were created - by the gods, while all admit that they had come from other lands. - Furthermore, they preserved in their traditions and pictures the memory - of a journey in which they had suffered hunger, thirst, nakedness and - all manner of afflictions, “with which,” he adds, “my opinion and - supposition is confirmed that these natives are of the ten tribes of - Israel that Salmanasar, king of the Assyrians, made prisoners and - carried to Assyria in the time of Hoshea, king of Israel, and in the - time of Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem, as can be seen in the fourth - Book of the Kings, seventeenth chapter, where it says that Israel - was carried away from their land to Assyria, etc., from whence, says - Esdras, in Book Fourth, chapter third, they went to live in a land, - remote and separated, which had never been inhabited, to which they - had a long and tedious journey of a year and a half, for which reason - it is supposed these people are found in all the islands and lands of - the ocean constituting the Occident.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> The preceding opinion was - concurred in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>by many Spanish writers; but the first English writer to - support the theory was Thorowgood, in his work entitled, <cite>Jewes in - America</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> L’Estrange, who replied to this work, controverted - the theory of the lost tribes of Israel, but concluded that Shem - was the progenitor of the Americans; that he was ninety-eight years - old at the time of the flood, and was not present at the building - of Babel.<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> “Thus far,” he quaintly remarks, “have I offered my - week conceptions, first, how America may be collected to have bin - first planted, not denying the Jewes leave to goe into America, but - not admitting them to be the chief or prime planters thereof, for I - am of opinion, that the Americans originated before the captivity of - the ten tribes, even from Shem’s near progeny.”<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> Garcia presents - an argument in favor of the same theory, based upon the presence of - Scripture names in Peru and Yucatan. He is positive that the word Peru - has the same meaning as Ophir, the name of the grandson of Heber, - from whom the Hebrews derive their name. In Yucatan he also finds the - name Ioctan, identical with that of Ophir’s father.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>However, - with a determination not to be surpassed by any other theorist who - might assume the unity of the race as the basis of his conjectures, - he offers a plan for populating the new world so comprehensive that - no room was left for originality in any who might follow him in the - same field. Hispaniola, Cuba and neighboring isles, he believed to - have been peopled by the Carthaginians. The natives of other parts - proceeded from the ten lost tribes; others from the people whom Ophir - commanded to colonize Peru; others from the people living in the isle - Atlantis; others from regions adjoining that island, and by means of it - passed to America; others from the Greeks; others from the Phœnicians, - and still others from the Chinese and Tartars.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> Lescarbot cites - five opinions on the subject, all based more or less on scriptural - authority, and adds his own that the Americans were the descendants - of Noah. He thinks it not impossible for voyagers to have reached the - western continent when Solomon’s ships were sent on voyages of three - years’ duration.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Herrera, with characteristic soberness, states - that because of the lack of knowledge concerning the proximity of the - continents at the “ends of the earth” he is unable to say positively - from whom the natives were descended, but it seems most reasonable to - him to suppose that they are the descendants of men who passed to the - West Indies by the proximity of the land.<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> Villagutierre reiterates - the same opinion, believing that Noah’s descendants were able to reach - the new world either by land in some unknown quarter, or by swimming, - or by embarking in canoes and balsas, for short distances. He supposes - that animals reached the new continent in the first two ways.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> - Torquemada, after a long discussion of the subject, falls in with - this view, adding, however, the opinion that, because of their color, - they in all probability were descended from the sons and grandsons - of Ham.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> Pineda adopts substantially the preceding opinion, but - improves upon it somewhat by pointing out the particular branch of the - family of Ham, to which we may trace the origin of the first Americans. - For some reason, perhaps no more apparent to himself than us, he - designates Naphtuhim, son of Mezraim and grandson of Ham, as their - progenitor. He thinks that the colonization was accomplished soon after - the confusion of tongues, and may have been effected in any of the - numerous ways we have previously mentioned. He cites the tradition of - Votan as a proof.<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Siguenza y Gongora and Sister Agnes de la Cruz, - according to Clavigero, were the authors of this opinion, who further - designated Egypt as the starting-point for that important expedition of - colonists.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span></p> - - <p>Echevarria y Veitia treats the subject fully, tracing it through - the traditions of the people. He cites their creation and flood - myths, their account of the building of the Tower of Babel and the - confusion of tongues, their dispersion upon the face of the earth, - and the passage of seven families to the new world (to <i>Hue hue - Tlappalan</i>) by means of balsas, with which they crossed rivers - and arms of the sea which they encountered in their journey. Though - minute in his details, he does nothing more in this respect than other - important writers to whom we shall refer in a further chapter, except - that his computations by means of the Mexican calendar have enabled - him to assign dates to some of these occurrences, which, though they - probably are not accurate, are at least interesting. His study of - the Mexican paintings convinces him that the natives had a foreign - origin.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> The same author <span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>in a part of his work refers to the - giants as the first inhabitants of the country, but fails to state - whether they came from the old world or not.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> Ulloa thinks Noah’s - long and aimless voyage in the ark was not without fruit to the science - of navigation. It gave confidence to his immediate descendants, who - no doubt were enterprising enough to construct similar vessels and - undertake voyages in them. These, falling in with adverse winds and - treacherous currents, were driven to strange islands and even to the - new world, and being unable to return, became the first colonists in - these remote regions. He thinks the custom of eating raw fish, common - to the American tribes, was acquired during long sea voyages.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The - Abbé Domenech’s opinion has been cited by Mr. Bancroft in his summary - of the views of this class of writers; we presume, however, only for - the amusement of the reader.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The Abbé, less than a score of years - ago, committed himself to the ludicrous and antiquated theory that - Ophir had colonized Peru.<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Clavigero considers the creation, flood, - and Babel myths of the natives sufficient evidence of unity of origin. - He, however, believes that the migration to this continent began at a - very early period.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span></p> - - <p>These few writers pretty well represent the opinions of their numerous - contemporaries who, though they wrote voluminously enough on this - subject, added nothing to what we have noted. The opinions of modern - writers are as diverse as those of Garcia, and only surpass him in the - ingenuity with which they press their favorite theories. Very little - has been done in this field <span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>with a true scientific spirit. Each has - been an advocate rather than an inquirer; has had his theory to prove - sometimes at the expense of reason and fact, and it is remarkable that - the majority of works written by such advocates have presented the - familiar anomaly of more learning than of probability. It is scarcely - the province of this work to discuss these well-known productions of - imaginative and too often credulous writers. To more than refer to them - would be to lose sight for the time of the object before us.</p> - - <p>The claims for the Pre-Columbian colonization of this continent of - course include most of those already mentioned, and properly are - of two classes: First, those which fix the period of colonization - remote enough to account for the old civilization or some phases of - it. Second, those which avowedly are too recent to have accomplished - that civilization. Of the first-named class there are about a dozen - thoroughly elaborated claims, while of the second there are less - than half that number. Mr. Warden years ago treated them all in a - manner and with a fullness which has not been excelled by any more - recent writer.<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> Though it is due to Mr. Bancroft to say that - never before has the subject been so exhaustively handled in our own - language as by him.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> As nothing new has been developed in this - field of speculation since Mr. Bancroft, and we might add since Mr. - Warden treated it, and as nothing could be contributed either to - the sciences of ethnology or archæology by a repetition of the old - discussion here, for we have our doubts whether any of the claims can - ever be substantiated at all, we will content ourselves with the simple - enumeration of the theories. A theory which rivals in antiquity, if - Egyptian chronology is reliable, the claims of the Fathers that the - immediate descendants of Noah peopled the new world shortly after the - deluge, is that which seeks to establish the truth of the tradition - told to Solon by the Egyptian priests of Psenophis, Sonchis, Heliopolis - and Sais concerning the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>island Atlantis. Critias, whose - grandfather had heard the tradition from Solon, communicated it to - Socrates. Plato first committed it to writing, and states that the - events which it described occurred nine thousand Egyptian years before - Solon heard it. After speaking of the “Atlantic Sea,” the priest adds - “that sea was indeed navigable, and had an island fronting that mouth - which you call the Pillars of Hercules; and this island was larger - than Libya and Asia put together, and there was a passage hence for - travellers of that day to the rest of the islands, as well as from - those islands to the whole opposite continent that surrounds the real - sea. For as respects what is within the mouth here mentioned, it - appears to be a bay with a kind of narrow entrance, and that sea is - indeed a true sea, and the land that entirely surrounds it may truly - and most correctly be called a continent.” The priest concludes his - account with the statement that an earthquake in a single night buried - the entire island and its inhabitants. This mysterious island has been - sought for in every quarter of the globe; but the fact that part of - the description seems applicable to the West Indies and the Gulf of - Mexico, has led theorists to place its submerged shores between that - locality and the Cape Verde or Canary groups. It is claimed that this - imaginary land bridge, this backbone of earth and rock, may have once - been the connecting link between the two continents. The claim has had - many champions, but none so celebrated as the lamented Abbé Brasseur - de Bourbourg. The labors of this learned Américaniste are too well - known to require comment.<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> The Codex Chimalpopoca, a Nahua MS. of - anonymous authorship, which served the Abbé as the chief <span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>authority for - the Toltec Period of his <cite>Histoire des Nations Civilisées</cite>, is - the basis upon which he rests the advocacy of his “Atlantic Theory.” - This singular Codex, which appears to the eyes of the uninitiated to be - only “A History of the Kingdoms of Culhuacan and Mexico,” he considers - susceptible of an allegorical interpretation, in which he reads the - history and fate of that first of the continents, on whose soil - originated all civilization and whose inhabitants were the genii of the - arts, the origin of which are without even a tradition.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> - - <p>The popularity of the Jewish theory at an early date has been indicated - by our citations from some of the Spanish missionaries. Garcia, after - a seven years residence in Peru, wrote his work for the purpose of - proving conclusively that the Jews had been the chief colonists of - the continent at an early date. He elaborated the argument set forth - by Father Duran,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> which is founded on passages in Esdras, but - proceeded to prop up this theory with a catalogue of analogies between - the Jews and Americans, some of which are so remote from each other - that the very attempt to assimilate them is simply puerile. Garcia - has had many disciples, some of whom have been no more critical than - himself.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> The illustrious advocate of the Jewish colonization of - America was that indefatigable antiquary, Lord Kingsborough. No more - masterly, no abler and more exhaustive defence was ever made in behalf - of a hopeless and even baseless claim than his; and as the result, the - historian and antiquary has placed at his disposal fac-simile prints - of most of the important hieroglyphic MSS. of Mexican authorship - deposited in the various libraries of Europe, as well as pictures - of the architecture and stone records common to ancient America. - We must confess that the work itself, with its curious plates, its - maze of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>notes and references, its masterly and novel discoveries of - analogies, though many of them are imaginary, is to us, after prolonged - examination, as much of a riddle as the great and improbable theory - which it seeks to establish.<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> Closely allied to the theory of the - ten lost tribes, is the claim set forth in that pretentious fraud, the - Book of Mormon, which attributes the colonization of North America, - soon after the confusion of tongues, to a people called Jaredites, who, - by divine guidance, reached our shores in eight vessels, and developed - a high state of civilization on our soil. These first colonists, - however, became extinct about six centuries <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, because of - their social sins. The Jaredites were followed by a second colony, this - time of Israelites, who left Jerusalem in the first year of the reign - of Zedekiah, King of Juda. They reached the Indian Ocean by following - the shores of the Red Sea, where they built a vessel which bore them - across the Pacific to the western coast of South America. Having - arrived in the new land of promise, they separated into two parties, - called Nephites and Laminites respectively, after their leaders. They - grew to be great nations and colonized North America also. Religious - strife sprang up between the two nations because of the wickedness - of the Laminites; the Nephites, however, adhered to their religious - traditions and the worship of the true God. Christ appeared in the new - world and by his ministrations converted many of both peoples to Him. - But towards the close of the fourth century of our era, both Laminites - and Nephites backslid in faith and became involved in a war with - each other which resulted in the extermination of the latter people. - The numerous tumuli scattered over the face of the country cover the - remains of the hundreds of thousands of warriors who fell in their - deadly strife. Mormon and his son Morani, the last of the Nephites - who escaped by concealment, deposited by divine command the annals of - their ancestors, the Book of Mormon written on tablets, in the hill of - Cumorah, Ontario County, New York, in the vicinity of which the last - battle of these relentless enemies took place.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>claim, of - course, merits mention only on the ground of its romantic character, - and not on the supposition for a moment that it contains a grain of - truth. The Phœnician and Carthaginian colonization of this continent - has been much discussed and credited by a larger number of Americanists - than any other theory, except that which refers the original population - to those parts of Asia adjacent to Alaska. This claim is based on the - maritime achievements of that nation of navigators. The three-year - voyages of Hiram and Solomon’s fleet to Ophir and Tarshish, has often - been made to do service for this theory. Ophir has most frequently - been placed by its advocates in Hayti or Peru.<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> Such speculations, - however, are incapable of proof, and are scarcely deserving of sober - consideration. The theory itself is one of the few that command - respectful attention, since tradition, history, and many facts in - natural science, seem to point to its probability.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> Mr. Bancroft - refers at some length to the voyage of Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, - whose exploits beyond the pillars of Hercules, with a fleet of sixty - ships and thirty thousand men, is recorded in his <cite>Periplus</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> - With true critical insight, Mr. Bancroft rejects the opinion that - Hanno reached America, and thinks he only coasted along the shores of - Africa.<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> The only tradition preserved by the Americans is that of - the mysterious Votan, whom some have sought to assign to a Phœnician - nativity.<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Of late years the theory of the Phœnician colonization - has failed to receive its share of support from new writers. This - is owing probably to the fact that the labors of Mr. George Jones, - embodied in his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span><cite>Original History of Ancient America Founded on the - Ruins of Antiquity; the Identity of the Aborigines with the People of - Tyrus and Israel, and the Introduction of Christianity by the Apostle - St. Thomas</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> may have rendered all such support unnecessary. It - is more probable, however, that the assumption and credulity displayed - in this extraordinary work have discouraged any critical writer from - aspiring to the honor of having his name transmitted to posterity - as an advocate of the Phœnician theory, side by side with that of - the author of the Original History. We have no space to devote to so - positive a writer, except to state that he colonizes America with a - remnant of the inhabitants of Tyre who escaped from their island-city - when it was besieged by Alexander the Great in 332 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> - They sailed out beyond the Pillars of Hercules to their colonies in - the Canaries, whence the trade-winds bore them across the Atlantic to - the shores of Florida. Ezekiel xxvii. 26, is quoted as proof: “Thy - rowers have brought thee into great waters; the east wind hath broken - thee in the midst of the seas.”<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> The theory that the ancient - Americans descended from the Greeks has been incidentally advocated - by several authors, most of the arguments being based upon supposed - Greek inscriptions. Two advocates of the theory are, however, quite - decided in its defence, namely, Mr. Pidegeon<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> and Mr. Lafitau.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> - The latter <span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>believing that the ancient inhabitants of the Grecian - archipelago were driven from their country by Og, king of Bashan, - supposes the inhabitants of the new world descended from that people, - and cites numerous analogies of a political and social nature.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> No - claim has been advanced, we believe, which advocates an actual Egyptian - colonization of the new world, but strong arguments have been used - to show that the architecture and sculpture of Central America and - Mexico have been influenced from Egypt, if not attributable directly to - Egyptian artisans. These arguments are based on the resemblance between - the gigantic pyramids, the sculptured obelisks, and the numerous idols - of these pre-historic countries and those of Egypt. It requires no - practised eye to trace a resemblance in general features, though it - must be said that the details of American architecture and sculpture, - are peculiarly original in design.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> The principal advocate of - the theory, Delafield, has furnished many comparisons, but we think - no argument has been presented sufficiently supported by facts to - prove that American architecture and sculpture had any other than an - indigenous origin.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> Turning westward our attention is arrested - by the probability of the theory which claims that this continent - was peopled with the Tartars and nations occupying the regions of - North-western Asia. No one can consider the natural certainty of - long-continued communication between the two continents at Behring’s - Straits without being impressed with the truth that that narrow channel - served probably as the first highway between the old world and the new, - and <i>vice versa</i>. Certainly a part of the ancient population of - America came upon our soil at that quarter. Mr. Bancroft remarks: “The - customs, manner <span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>of life, and physical appearance of the natives on - both sides of the straits are identical, as a multitude of witnesses - testify, and it seems absurd to argue the question from any point. Of - course, Behring’s Strait may have served to admit other nations besides - the people inhabiting its shores into America, and in such cases there - is more room for discussion.”<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> Nearly as plausible is the theory - which claims that if the original population of this continent were not - Japanese, at least a considerable infusion of Japanese blood into the - original stock has taken place from time to time, either by intentional - colonization or by the accidents incident to navigation. The great - number of shipwrecks which are continually being cast upon our Pacific - coast by the Japanese current or Kuro-suvo are constant and substantial - witnesses to the reasonableness of the claim.<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p> - - <p>The Chinese colonization theory, unfortunately, does not date far - enough back to account for the oldest American civilization. It is - nevertheless remote enough, were it proven true, to considerably - antedate the Aztec and Inca periods. Upwards of a century ago the - learned French sinologist Deguignes announced that he had found in the - writings of early Chinese historians the statement that in the fifth - century of our era certain adventurers of their race had discovered - a country which they called Fusang.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> He further expressed it as - his opinion that the country described must be Western America, and - probably Mexico. The original document on which the Chinese historians - base their statements was the report of a Buddhist missionary named - Hoei-Shin, who in the year 499 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, claims to have returned - from a long journey of discovery to the remote and unknown east. - This report, whatever may be its intrinsic value, was accepted as - true by the Chinese, and found its way into the history of Li yan - tcheon—written at the beginning of the seventh century of our era. In - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>1841, Dr. Neumann, Professor of Oriental Languages and History at - Munich, after a residence of a couple of years at Canton, published a - translation of the narrative of Hoei-Shin with comments upon it.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> A - few of the most striking passages of the account given by this Buddhist - missionary are as follows: “Fusang is about 20,000 Chinese <i>li</i> in - an easterly direction from Tahan and east of the Middle Kingdom.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> - Many Fusang trees grow there whose leaves resemble the <i>Dryanda - cordifolia</i>; the sprouts, on the contrary, resemble those of the - bamboo tree, and are eaten by the inhabitants of the land. The fruit - is like a pear in form, but is red. From the bark they prepare a sort - of linen which they use for clothing, and also a sort of ornamental - stuff. The houses are built of wooden beams; fortified and walled - places are there unknown. They have written characters in this land, - and prepare paper from the bark of the Fusang. The people have no - weapons and make no wars, but in the arrangement of the kingdom, they - have a northern and southern prison. Trifling offenders are lodged in - the southern prison, but those confined for greater offences in the - northern. The name of the king is pronounced Ichi. The color of his - clothes changes with the different years. The horns of the oxen are so - large that they hold ten bushels. They use them to contain all manner - of things. Horses, oxen, and stags are harnessed to their wagons. - Stags are used here as cattle are used in the Middle Kingdom, and - from the milk of the hind they make butter. No iron is found in the - land; but copper, gold, and silver are not prized, and do not serve - as a medium of exchange in the market. Marriage is determined upon in - the following manner: the suitor builds himself a hut before the door - of the house where the one longed for dwells, and waters and cleans - the ground every evening.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> When a year has passed by, if the maiden - is not inclined to marry him he departs; should she be willing it is - completed. In earlier times these people lived not according to the - laws of Buddha, but it happened that in the second year—named ‘Great - Light’ of Song (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 458)—five beggar-monks from the kingdom - of Kipin went to this land, extended over it the religion of Buddha, - and with it his early writings and images. They instructed the people - in the principles of monastic life, and so changed their manners.”<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> - Dr. Neumann does not claim that the Chinese Fusang tree is identical - with the Maguay plant, but that the resemblance between it and the - great numbers of the latter found in Mexico suggested a name for the - country to the discoverer. The uncertainty as to the distance, arising - out of our inability to determine what was considered the length of a - Chinese <i>li</i> in the fifth century, is of course an obstacle to the - satisfactory solution of the question. The amusing and preposterous - statement as to the size of the horns of oxen is no argument against - the general truth of the narrative, since we have no data from which - to determine the capacity of the measure, the name of which is here - translated bushel, since the widest possible difference exists between - the ancient and modern Chinese tables of measurement. The references to - horses and oxen are perplexing, and give the narrative the air either - of imposture or mistake, since both were brought to America first by - the Spaniards.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> The argument by the opponents of this theory that - Fusang was Japan stands on a very slender foundation, since at a very - early period, centuries before our era, Japan afforded naval stations - for Chinese ships.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> Klaproth, and later Dr. E. Bretschneider, - designated the island of Tarakai, known as Saghalien on our maps, as - the Fusang of Hoei-Schin.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>M. D’Eichthal and Professor Neumann - have both made able arguments in defence of the authenticity and - reasonableness of this claim, but there are too many uncertainties - about it to admit of its unqualified acceptance. We are more disposed - to give credence to the theory that the Chinese discovered America at - a very early day, than to attach much importance to the particular - account of that discovery by Hoei-Shin. The theory is a good one, - with an abundance of geographical and ethnological testimony in its - favor.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p> - - <p>Closely allied to the Chinese theory is that so enthusiastically - advocated by Ranking, who maintains that the Mongol emperor Kublai - Khan, in the thirteenth century sent a large fleet against Japan, but - that the vast armada was destroyed by a tempest, and a portion of - its ships were wrecked on the shores of Peru.<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> The first Inca he - believes was the son of Kublai Khan. It is a well-known fact that the - Mongol fleet was dispersed by a storm, but there are grave objections - to the opinion that any of the vessels were cast upon the shores of - South America. No tradition was found among the Peruvians only three - centuries later concerning the Incas or any other people having reached - their shores by the accident of shipwreck, or who could be identified - as of Asiatic origin. It is true the Incas may have designed to keep - their human origin as well as their misfortunes a secret, that they - might the better set up their claim to imperial and divine honors among - the people whom they sought to subjugate by that most powerful ally to - ambition—superstition. Mr. Ranking wrote a very plausible book, but - often fell into errors of credulity and unrestrained enthusiasm which - leaves many of his statements open to suspicion. The theory cannot be - accepted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>without additional and more satisfactory proof.<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> Should - it prove to be true, it certainly cannot throw light upon the origin of - the population, but only on a phase of civilization. Humboldt, Tschudi, - Viollet-le-Duc, Count Stolberg and other writers have pointed out - striking analogies between the religion of Southern Asia, especially - of India and that of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> If the argument from analogy is to - be relied on, there is abundant reason to believe that Buddhism in a - modified form had permeated the religious systems of the new world with - its mystic element besides grafting upon them some of its better and - more humane institutions.</p> - - <p>These are all the colonization claims worth mentioning, which date - back far enough to account for the ancient civilization. Of the - second class (those too recent to have made much impression on the - existing state of things) there are three. The earliest of these as - to date, is the claim which credits the Irish with the colonization - of the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida. “White-Man’s - Land,” so often located in this country, is no doubt imaginary. The - obscure and unsatisfactory chronicle which forms the basis of this - claim destroys its own authority by the statement that White-Man’s - Land was six days’ sail from Ireland.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> Another legend set forth by - Broughton, which claims that St. Patrick preached the Gospel in the - “Isles of America,” carries its own refutation upon its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>face by the - use of the word America in its text.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The Scandinavian discovery - of America is a well-known fact, and requires no discussion here. The - <cite>Codex Flatioiensis</cite>, as expounded by the learned Prof. Rafn in - the <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, has, no doubt, set at rest the whole - matter. Humboldt, in reviewing the evidence upon which the claim is - founded, sums it up in these words: “The discovery of the northern - part of America by the Northmen cannot be disputed. The length of the - voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the sun’s - rising and setting, are accurately given. While the caliphate of Bagdad - was still flourishing under the Abbassides, and while the rule of the - Samanides, so favorable to poetry, still flourished in Persia, America - was discovered about the year 1000 by Lief, son of Eric the Red, at - about 41½° north latitude.” No evidence of a substantial character has - been produced to show that the Scandinavians left any impress upon the - American civilization. It is true, Brasseur de Bourbourg, when he first - began his labors in the field of American archæology expressed such - an opinion, but we believe he never repeated it in the latter years - of his life.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> The learned Abbé was guilty of many contradictions, - and this may be considered one of them. The most positive claims in - this direction are advanced by two recent authors, M. Gravier<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> and - Prof. Anderson,<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> the former attributing the Aztec civilization to - Norse influence. He cites the discovery in Brazil of an ancient city - near Bahia, in which was found the statue of a man pointing with his - forefinger to the North Pole; of course, according to M. Gravier, he - was a Northman.<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> Several authorities for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>the discovery of Norse - remains in the United States might be cited, but the unwarrantable - arguments of most of them add nothing to the already established - fact of Norse colonization in the tenth century of our era. Another - Pre-Columbian claim to the discovery of America is that which declares - Madoc-Ap-owen and his Welsh countrymen to have reached this continent - in 1170 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> The chronicle on which the claim is based, is - wanting in authority. A translation of it, taken from a history of - Wales by Dr. Powell, was published by Hakluyt, in 1589. As this claim - can have no relation to our subject, we refrain from a discussion of it - here.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> The only remaining theory, and probably the most important - of all, because of its purely scientific character, which presents - itself for our consideration, is that which not only considers the - civilization of ancient America to have been indigenous, but also - claims the inhabitants themselves to have been autochthonic; in a word, - that by process of evolution or in some other way, the first Americans - were either developed from a lower order in the animal kingdom or were - created on the soil of this continent. As the latter theory involves a - denial of the unity of the race, it requires a separate and critical - examination.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_IV"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IV</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICANS AS VIEWED FROM THE STANDPOINT OF SCIENCE.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Origin Theories—Indigenous Origin—Separate Creation Theory—Dr. - Morton’s Theory—Agassiz’s Views—Dr. Morton’s Cranial - Measurements Classified—Prof. Wilson’s Measurements—Dr. - Morton’s Theory of Ethnic Unity Groundless—Ethnic - Relationships—Typical Mound-skull—Crania from the - River Rouge—Dr. Farquharson’s Measurements—Crania - from Kentucky—Researches in Tennessee by Prof. - Jones—Measurements—Prof. Putnam’s Collection of Crania from - Tennessee Mounds—Low Type Crania from the Mounds—Development - Observable in Mound Crania—Head-Flattening Derived from - Asia—Diseases of the Mound-builders—Physiognomy of the Ancient - Americans—Languages—Evolution and its Bearing on the Origin of - the American—Darwin and Hæckel on the Indigenous American—The - Autochthonic Hypothesis Groundless—Unity of the Human - Family—Accepted Chronology Faulty.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">THE want of evidence for the theories which designate particular - nations as the first colonizers of the Western Continent, long ago - produced a feeling of distrust, which led some to repudiate all claims - for the foreign origin of the first inhabitants of this continent. This - theory, which claims for the most ancient inhabitants an autochthonic - origin, has had from time to time among its advocates some of the - most respectable ethnologists. The character of their attainments, - and in many cases their arguments in behalf of this most remarkable - hypothesis, command the respect of all who are interested in this - fascinating field of speculation.</p> - - <p>At first it was maintained that the Creator had placed an original - pair of human beings here, as Scripture teaches that He did in the old - world.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> Other writers equally confident that the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>first ancestors - of the American race were indigenous, have not so definitely expressed - themselves as to the manner of their origin.<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> The most recent phase - of the autochthonic theory is that which designates evolution as the - means by which the continent was populated with human beings, developed - from its own fauna. This latter question is now the most absorbing - of all that occupy <span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>the attention of the American Anthropologists. - But to go back to the separate creation view, we find it expressed in - general and unscientific utterances at first, mostly based on the hasty - observation of travellers who, in many cases, had little knowledge - of anthropologic or ethnic principles. In fact, the subject was not - fairly discussed and its advocacy based on satisfactory investigation - until the justly celebrated Dr. Samuel G. Morton, of Philadelphia, - issued his <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, containing the results of the most - diligent researches on the skulls of the Mound-builders, Mexicans, - Peruvians, and many of the known tribes of the Red Indians. In the face - of abundant proof among the crania of his own splendid collection, and - contrary to the testimony of his numerous measurements, which have - often since been used against his theory, this diligent investigator - arrived at the conclusion that the Americans were a distinct race, - originated in this continent, having a uniform cranial type (excepting - only the Eskimo), from the Arctic Circle to Patagonia.</p> - - <p>A division, however, of this supposed homogeneous race was made by this - author into Toltecan and Barbarous nations; the former appellative - comprising all the semi-civilized peoples, while the latter embraced - the wild tribes. All were believed to have had the same origin and to - belong to the same cranial type. “It is curious to observe, however,” - remarks Dr. Morton, “that the Barbarous nations possess a larger brain - by five and a half cubic inches than the Toltecans; while, on the - other hand, the Toltecans possess a greater relative capacity of the - anterior chamber of the skull in the proportion of 42.3 to 41.8. Again - the coronal region, though absolutely greater in the Barbarous tribes, - is rather larger in proportion in the semi-civilized tribes; and the - facial-angle is much the same in both, and may be assumed for the race - at 75°.”<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> In conclusion, the author is of the opinion that the - facts contained in his work tend to sustain the following propositions: - (1) “That the American race differs essentially from all others, not - excepting the Mongolian; nor do the feeble analogies of language, and - the more obvious ones in civil and religious institutions and the - arts, denote anything beyond <span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>casual or colonial communication with - the Asiatic nations; and even these analogies may perhaps be accounted - for, as Humboldt suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from - similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes.” - (2) “That the American nations, excepting the Polar tribes, are one - race and one species, but of two great families which resemble each - other in physical, but differ in intellectual character.” (3) “That - the cranial remains discovered in the mounds, from Peru to Wisconsin, - belong to the same race and probably to the Toltecan family.”<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> - Among the several ethnologists and naturalists who accepted without - question the conclusions reached by Morton, the chief was Agassiz, - who adopted them as auxiliary to his theory of the correspondence of - human life with certain associations in the animal kingdom.<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> They - served as a sure foundation, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>so far as this continent is concerned, - for his opinion that the races originated in nations. “We maintain,” - says the eminent naturalist, “that, like all organized beings, mankind - cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been - created in that numerical harmony which is characteristic of each - species. Men must have originated in <em>nations</em>, as the bees have - originated in swarms, and as the different social plants have covered - the extensive tracts over which they have naturally spread.”<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> - This view has been enlarged upon by Messrs. Nott and Gliddon, who - argue that, “if it be conceded that there were two primitive pairs of - human beings, no reason can be assigned why there may not have been - hundreds.”<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> The uniqueness of the so-called American race not only - fails of proof, but is positively disproven by the measurements of - crania accompanying Morton’s plates, and any thoughtful person cannot - avoid surprise that so distinguished a scholar as Agassiz should - have committed himself to a theory without first submitting it to a - crucial test. That there is a great variety of type observable among - the crania figured by Morton, even a superficial examination will - show, while a more careful classification presents several facts of - interest. For this classification we consider the simple division of - the crania into long and short skulls sufficient. The question of other - divisions has been often discussed, but with Mr. Huxley we content - ourselves with the simplest classification. Referring to a particular - instance, he says, “taking the antero-posterior diameter as 100, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>the - transverse diameter varies from 98 or 99 to 62. The number which thus - expresses the proportion of the transverse to the longitudinal diameter - of the brain-case is called the <em>cephalic index</em>. Those people - who possess crania with a cephalic index of 80 and above are called - <em>brachycephali</em> (short-skulled), those with a lower index are - <em>dolichocephali</em> (long-skulled).”<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> Dr. Meigs, while accepting - the classification into long and short skulls, admits that it is open - to the objection that it forces into either and opposite classes crania - closely related to each other in type and measurement.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Yet it must - be admitted, that in proportion as arbitrary divisions are increased, - these difficulties are multiplied, and that this simple, twofold - classification presents the fewest.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> In the following tables, which - contain all the measurements accompanying the plates in the <cite>Crania - Americana</cite>, the <em>cephalic index</em> is placed in the left-hand - column. That a wide difference of type is apparent between the extremes - of the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic measurements, certainly - cannot be denied.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span></p> - - <table class="small mt3" summary="Dolichocephalic Crania 1"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="13" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div><b>(<i>A</i>) DOLICHOCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION LESS THAN 80 TO 100.</b></div></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Extreme Length of Head and Face.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Interior Capacity.</i>*</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th colspan="1" class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Cap. of<br />Anterior<br />Chamber.</i>*</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">66.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">3.7</td> - <td class="bl">7.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">64.</td> - <td class="bl br">17.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>IV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">8.2</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">19.8</td> - <td class="bl">81.5</td> - <td class="bl br">31.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">67</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>V</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">8.8</td> - <td class="bl">11.5</td> - <td class="bl">3.6</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">18.</td> - <td class="bl">65.5</td> - <td class="bl br">19.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.2</td> - <td class="bl">78.</td> - <td class="bl br">30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">14.8</td> - <td class="bl">20.3</td> - <td class="bl">89.</td> - <td class="bl br">52.?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="bl">19.1</td> - <td class="bl">82.</td> - <td class="bl br">35.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">14.3</td> - <td class="bl">20.1</td> - <td class="bl">81.5</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">20.9</td> - <td class="bl">94.</td> - <td class="bl br">43.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXX</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">14.9</td> - <td class="bl">21.</td> - <td class="bl">90.</td> - <td class="bl br">33.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">16.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">15.8</td> - <td class="bl">22.1</td> - <td class="bl">98.</td> - <td class="bl br">35.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.3</td> - <td class="bl">3.9</td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.8</td> - <td class="bl">71.</td> - <td class="bl br">26.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">20.</td> - <td class="bl">78.5</td> - <td class="bl br">33.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">65.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">15.5</td> - <td class="bl">20.8</td> - <td class="bl">93.5</td> - <td class="bl br">35.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.9</td> - <td class="bl">20.8</td> - <td class="bl">92.5</td> - <td class="bl br">36.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">19.8</td> - <td class="bl">74.</td> - <td class="bl br">32.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">76.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XL</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">13.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.9</td> - <td class="bl">77.</td> - <td class="bl br">38.?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="bl">20.3</td> - <td class="bl">86.5</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">74.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">20.</td> - <td class="bl">85.5</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">20.2</td> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">20.2</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">84.5</td> - <td class="bl br">32.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb">74.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb">....</td> - <td class="bl bb">7.1</td> - <td class="bl bb">5.3</td> - <td class="bl bb">5.2</td> - <td class="bl bb">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl bb">14.4</td> - <td class="bl bb">4.2</td> - <td class="bl bb">14.5</td> - <td class="bl bb">19.9</td> - <td class="bl bb">82.6</td> - <td class="bl br bb">32.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="13" class="tdc bl bt bb br pt1 pb1"><div>* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements - in lineal inches.</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <table class="small mt3" summary="Dolichocephalic Crania 2"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="6" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div>(<i>A</i>) DOLICHOCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION LESS THAN 80 TO 100.<br />(Continued)</div></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Posterior Chamber.</i>*</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Coronal Region.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br">REMARKS.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">66.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Peruvian Child from Atacama (ancient).</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>IV</div></td> - <td class="bl">50.</td> - <td class="bl">16.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>73°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Ancient Peruvian Cemetery near Arica.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">67</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>V</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.7</td> - <td class="bl">12.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>61°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Peruvian.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">48.</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Female Skull from Acapacingo, Mexico. Supposed Ancient Tiahuica.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">37.?</td> - <td class="bl">19.?</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole Warrior from Florida.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXV</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.</td> - <td class="bl">12.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Cherokee Warrior.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVII</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Uchee.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">51.</td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>84°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Chippeway (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXX</div></td> - <td class="bl">56.5</td> - <td class="bl">13.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Miami Chief (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">62.5</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Potowatamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Naumkeag from Massachusetts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.5</td> - <td class="bl">16.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Female Lenapé or Delaware.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">65.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXV</div></td> - <td class="bl">58.5</td> - <td class="bl">11.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Cayuga Chief 150 years old (Iroquois).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">72.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">56.5</td> - <td class="bl">18.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>74°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Oneida (Iroquois).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">73.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">41.5</td> - <td class="bl">9.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Huron Chief.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">76.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XL</div></td> - <td class="bl">44.?</td> - <td class="bl">18.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Black Foot.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LI</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Supposed Mound-builder, Circleville Mound.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">74.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LII</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>79°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Supposed Mound-builder from a Mississippi River Mound.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXI</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">75.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXIV</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Charib of Venezuela.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">79.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXV</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Charib of St. Vincent.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">78.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">52.</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Arucanian Chief, Chili.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb">74.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb">....</td> - <td class="bl bb">49.2</td> - <td class="bl bb">15.3</td> - <td class="bl bb">76°</td> - <td class="tdl bl br bb">Mean.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6" class="tdc bl bt bb br pt1 pb1"><div>* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements - in lineal inches.</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> - - <table class="small mt3" summary="Brachycephalic Crania 1"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="13" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div><b>(<i>B</i>) BRACHYCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION, 80 AND - UPWARDS TO 100.</b></div></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Extreme Length of Head and Face.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Interior Capacity.</i>*</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Cap. of<br />Anterior<br />Chamber.</i>*</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">66.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">3.7</td> - <td class="bl">7.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">64.</td> - <td class="bl br">17.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>III</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">8.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">13.8</td> - <td class="bl">18.5</td> - <td class="bl">72.5</td> - <td class="bl br">26.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">83.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">67.5</td> - <td class="bl br">28.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">100.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VII</div></td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">61.</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VIII & IX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">12.7</td> - <td class="bl">18.4</td> - <td class="bl">71.7</td> - <td class="bl br">28.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.1</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">16.</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">83.</td> - <td class="bl br">33.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI A</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">16.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">20.2</td> - <td class="bl">89.</td> - <td class="bl br">34.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">92.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI B</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">13.2</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="bl">76.5</td> - <td class="bl br">30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI C</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">13.2</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="bl">77.</td> - <td class="bl br">28.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI D</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">13.6</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">68.5</td> - <td class="bl br">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.1</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">20.5</td> - <td class="bl">83.</td> - <td class="bl br">39.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">19.9</td> - <td class="bl">89.5</td> - <td class="bl br">33.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII A</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">13.6</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="bl">74.</td> - <td class="bl br">28.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">13.5</td> - <td class="bl">20.2</td> - <td class="bl">77.</td> - <td class="bl br">30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">20.</td> - <td class="bl">85.</td> - <td class="bl br">39.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">15.3</td> - <td class="bl">20.7</td> - <td class="bl">93.</td> - <td class="bl br">35.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">20.5</td> - <td class="bl">91.5</td> - <td class="bl br">44.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">20.8</td> - <td class="bl">94.7</td> - <td class="bl br">42.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">82.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="bl">19.9</td> - <td class="bl">86.5</td> - <td class="bl br">36.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXI</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">20.9</td> - <td class="bl">91.5</td> - <td class="bl br">40.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">13.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">13.</td> - <td class="bl">19.1</td> - <td class="bl">70.5</td> - <td class="bl br">31.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">85.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">13.5</td> - <td class="bl">19.8</td> - <td class="bl">85.</td> - <td class="bl br">36.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">90.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">13.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">83.</td> - <td class="bl br">37.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.4</td> - <td class="bl">74.</td> - <td class="bl br">33.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">88.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="bl">8.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">12.9</td> - <td class="bl">20.</td> - <td class="bl">69.</td> - <td class="bl br">32.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">96.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.2</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">13.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.</td> - <td class="bl">70.</td> - <td class="bl br">30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">91.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLV</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">6.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">8.5</td> - <td class="bl">15.7</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">21.</td> - <td class="bl">92.</td> - <td class="bl br">34.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="bl">8.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">13.</td> - <td class="bl">19.8</td> - <td class="bl">78.</td> - <td class="bl br">26.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">92.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">6.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.2</td> - <td class="bl">8.8</td> - <td class="bl">14.8</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">13.</td> - <td class="bl">20.4</td> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="bl br">35.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="bl">4.8</td> - <td class="bl">7.9</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">13.</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">79.</td> - <td class="bl br">36.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">7.</td> - <td class="bl">6.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">8.8</td> - <td class="bl">13.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">12.7</td> - <td class="bl">20.2</td> - <td class="bl">75.</td> - <td class="bl br">28.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">99.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6?</td> - <td class="bl">6.</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">111.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">5.9</td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">12.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.6</td> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LV</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">87.5</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.2</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">3.8</td> - <td class="bl">13.3</td> - <td class="bl">18.5</td> - <td class="bl">74.5</td> - <td class="bl br">30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.9</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">15.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.7</td> - <td class="bl">79.</td> - <td class="bl br">29.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">86.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.5</td> - <td class="bl">5.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="bl">3.8</td> - <td class="bl">13.2</td> - <td class="bl">19.2</td> - <td class="bl">76.5</td> - <td class="bl br">34.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.3</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">13.5</td> - <td class="bl">19.2</td> - <td class="bl">74.</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LX</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.6</td> - <td class="bl">5.3</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">4.</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.3</td> - <td class="bl">76.</td> - <td class="bl br"> ....</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">5.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="bl">4.1</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="bl">19.3</td> - <td class="bl">81.</td> - <td class="bl br">35.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.4</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">4.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">4.9</td> - <td class="bl">13.4</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">77.</td> - <td class="bl br">32.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">6.8</td> - <td class="bl">5.7</td> - <td class="bl">5.1</td> - <td class="bl">4.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">14.6</td> - <td class="bl">4.2</td> - <td class="bl">13.9</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="bl">79.5</td> - <td class="bl br">37.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="13" class="bl bt bb br pt1 pb1">Forty Skulls.<span class="ml10">* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements - in lineal inches.</span></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <table class="small mt3" summary="Brachycephalic Crania 2"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="6" class="tdc bt bl br pt1 pb1"><div>(<i>B</i>) BRACHYCEPHALIC CRANIA, SCALE OF CLASSIFICATION, 80 AND - UPWARDS TO 100.<br />(Continued)</div></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cephalic Index, proportion of the Parietal to the Longitudinal Diam. (the latter assumed as 100).</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>No. of Plate in Morton’s Work.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Posterior Chamber.</i>*</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Cap. of Coronal Region.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br">REMARKS.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">66.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>II</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br"><div>Peruvian Child from Atacama (ancient).</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>III</div></td> - <td class="bl">46.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>68°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Peruvian from Lake Titicaca.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">83.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VI</div></td> - <td class="bl">39.</td> - <td class="bl">10.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Chimuyan, Peru.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">100.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VII</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian Child.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>VIII & IX</div></td> - <td class="bl">43.</td> - <td class="bl">11.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian Female from Temple of Sun, near Lima.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI</div></td> - <td class="bl">49.5</td> - <td class="bl">15.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI A</div></td> - <td class="bl">55.5</td> - <td class="bl">20.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">92.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI B</div></td> - <td class="bl">46.5</td> - <td class="bl">12.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">98.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI C</div></td> - <td class="bl">49.</td> - <td class="bl">11.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XI D</div></td> - <td class="bl">35.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Inca Peruvian from Temple of the Sun.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">44.</td> - <td class="bl">17.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Mexican from Cerro de Quesilas.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">56.</td> - <td class="bl">19.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Ancient Mexican from Tacuba.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVII A</div></td> - <td class="bl">46.</td> - <td class="bl">11.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Mexican Indian from Pamas tribe.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">From an Ancient Tomb near Mexico.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.7</td> - <td class="bl">13.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>71°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Chetimaches from Cemetery in St. Mary’s parish, Louisiana.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">57.5</td> - <td class="bl">25.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole Warrior.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.5</td> - <td class="bl">18.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Seminole.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">52.2</td> - <td class="bl">15.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Skull of the Chief of the Creek Indians.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">82.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">50.</td> - <td class="bl">15.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>79°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Menominee Female (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXI</div></td> - <td class="bl">51.5</td> - <td class="bl">12.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Ottogamie (Algonquin-Lenapé).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">39.5</td> - <td class="bl">10.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Pawnee Female from the Platte River.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">85.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XXXIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">49.</td> - <td class="bl">16.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Dakota Warrior.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">90.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLI</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Osage.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLII</div></td> - <td class="bl">41.</td> - <td class="bl">14.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Chinouk (natural form).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>88.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">36.5</td> - <td class="bl">9.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Chinouk (artificially flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">96.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIV</div></td> - <td class="bl">40.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Klalstonl of Oregon, (artificially flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">91.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLV</div></td> - <td class="bl">58.</td> - <td class="bl">19.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>73°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Killemook Chief. Oregon (artificially flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">59.</td> - <td class="bl">8.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Clalsap, Columbia River (artificially flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">92.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">51.5</td> - <td class="bl">11.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>68°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Kalapooyah, on Oregon River (artificial).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">42.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>70°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Clickitat from Columbia River (artificially flat.)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>XLIX</div></td> - <td class="bl">47.</td> - <td class="bl">6.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>66°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Cowalitek, Columbia River (artificially flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">99.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIII</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Grave Creek Mound.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">111.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIV</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">From an Alabama River Mound. Supposed Natchez (flattened).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LV</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Mound in Tennessee.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVI</div></td> - <td class="bl">44.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>71°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Mound at Santa Peru.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">81.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVII</div></td> - <td class="bl">49.5</td> - <td class="bl">14.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Tumulus in the Valley of Rimac, Peru.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">86.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">42.5</td> - <td class="bl">13.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>74°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Mound Skull, Valley of Rimac, Peru.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">84.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LIX</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">From an Ancient Tomb at Ottumba, Mexico.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">89.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LX</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">From Ancient Tomb, Ottumba, Mexico.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXII</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.7</td> - <td class="bl">18.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Skull from a Cave at Golconda, Illinois.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">80.6</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>LXVIII</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.</td> - <td class="bl">11.9</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>72°</div></td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Arucanian Chief from Chili.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">87.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="bl">45.</td> - <td class="bl">14.2</td> - <td class="bl">75°31⁠´</td> - <td class="tdl bl br">Mean.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6" class="bl bt bb br pt1 pb1">Forty Skulls.<span class="ml10">* In cubic inches, the remaining measurements - in lineal inches.</span></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p> - - <p>It will be observed that the widest range is found between the - proportions of the skull of the Cayuga chief 100 years old (Plate XXXV) - with a cephalic index of only 65.4, and those of some of the Peruvian - crania having a cephalic index of over 98. The supposed Natchez skull - (Plate LIV) is so artificially flattened as to exclude it from the - calculation. The mean cephalic index of each of the tables exhibits a - well-defined type of the long and the short skull respectively. The - former 74.7 and the latter 87 are both far enough removed from the - dividing line (80) to leave no doubt that the types are distinct and - separate. Additional data, materially strengthening the conclusion of - the variety of types found among American crania, has been furnished by - that eminent authority Dr. Daniel Wilson.<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The following table of - measurements in inches is based upon his extensive researches:</p> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements "> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl"><i>No. of<br />Crania in<br />each Class.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl"><i>Description of Crania.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl"><i>Mean<br />Longitudinal<br />Diameter.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl"><i>Mean<br />Parietal<br />Diameter.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl br"><i>Cephalic<br />Index.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="tdl bt bl">Mound Crania (two from Morton, four undoubtedly from the mounds).</td> - <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>6.54</div></td> - <td class="tdc bt bl"><div>5.67</div></td> - <td class="tdc bt bl br"><div>86.7</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cave Crania.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.62</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.78</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>85.7</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="bl">Peruvian Brachycephalic Crania.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.97</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.12</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>85.7</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td> - <td class="bl">Peruvian Dolichocephalic Crania.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.49</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.95</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>76.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="bl">Mexican Dolichocephalic Crania.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.05</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.41</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>76.7</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="bl">Mexican Brachycephalic Crania.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.56</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.51</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>84.0</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>31</div></td> - <td class="bl">Dolichocephalic Crania of Am. Indians.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.24</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.47</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>75.5</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>22</div></td> - <td class="bl">Brachycephalic Crania of Am. Indians.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.62</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.45</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>82.3</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="bl">Living Algonquins, Brachycephalæ.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.25</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>82.7</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>39</div></td> - <td class="bl bb">West Canadian Hurons (male).</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.39</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>74.4</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>It requires no careful examination of these figures to observe that the - type of skull among the American aborigines, ancient or modern, was in - no sense constant, since among the same tribes long and short skulls - occur in almost equal numbers. This fact is especially true among the - savage Indians. Among the semi-civilized nations, however, as among the - Peruvians and Mexicans, the long and short skulls mark the successive - existence and destruction of distinct peoples having physiological - characteristics peculiar to themselves. The Peruvian elongated crania - are always found with large-boned skeletons having strong hands, while - the short or rounded crania accompany very small bones, such as were - unable to endure labor like the building of pyramids and the erection - of such edifices as are found in Peru.<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p> - - <p>It is with the utmost deference to the genius, and with full - recognition of the valuable researches of Dr. Morton, that we disagree - with his conclusions and pronounce his theory without foundation in - fact. There is no evidence furnished by the measurement of crania - that an American race, as unique in itself and distinct from the rest - of mankind, ever existed.<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> One of the most interesting studies - connected with these tables, as well as other measurements made - more recently, is the question of relationship between the various - semi-civilized peoples of the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>period. First and most naturally - the type of the mound crania attracts attention, and calls for - comparisons with the Indian type and with that of the remarkable people - of the more southern civilization.</p> - - <p>The “Scioto Mound” skull figured by Dr. Davis in Plates xlvii and - xlviii of <i>The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</i>, was - pronounced by Dr. Morton in Dr. Meigs’ catalogue of the human crania in - the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, as - “perhaps the most admirably formed head of the American race hitherto - discovered.”</p> - - <p>The most important measurements are as follows:</p> - - <table class="mt2 mb2" summary="Scioto Mound skull measurements "> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td>Longitudinal diameter</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>6.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>inches.</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Parietal „</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>6.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vertical „</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>6.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Inter-mastoid arch</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>16.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Horizontal circumference</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>19.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>——</div></td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cephalic index</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>92.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc"><div>„</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>The chief features as pointed out by the above-named author, are: the - elevated vertex, flattened occiput, great inter-parietal diameter, - ponderous bony structure, salient nose, large jaws and broad face. - These he pronounces to be characteristics of the American cranium. Dr. - Wilson has shown that Dr. Morton has contradicted his own previous - definition of what that type is as well as the description given by - Humboldt.<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> The propriety of selecting any single cranium as typical - of the Mound-builders would be as questionable in this connection as - it was for Dr. Morton and the authors of the <cite>Types of Mankind</cite> - to designate the Scioto Mound skull as a type of the American cranium. - Until within a few years but few genuine mound skulls were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>accessible, - and considerable suspicion was reasonably attached to the genuineness - of several, including three or four of the so-called mound skulls in - the <cite>Crania Americana</cite>. Recent explorations have brought to light - a large number, of unquestioned genuineness. The Peabody Museum alone - possesses 300, and of these 200 were exhumed by Prof. F. W. Putnam.</p> - - <p>From a number of measurements only is it possible for us to approximate - the type of the mound skull. We have already referred to the low - type skulls secured by Gen. H. W. Thomas from a mound in Dakota - Territory.<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> Unfortunately we are without measurements, but from - the description we observe that the forehead is decidedly receding, - and the orbital ridges are excessively developed. The inferior - maxillary is of unusual prominence and much more massive, as is the - entire bony structure, than in the common Indian cranium. Another - cranium of similar characteristic was exhumed from the great mound on - the River Rouge near its junction with the Detroit River, Michigan, - by Mr. Henry Gillman. From this mound several crania were taken, of - which one (though evidently adult) presented the hitherto, I think I - may say, unprecedented feature of its capacity being only fifty-six - cubic inches. The mean given by Morton and Meigs of the Indian cranium - is eighty-four cubic inches, the minimum being sixty-nine cubic - inches. This cranium, forwarded with other relics to the Peabody - Museum, presents (though in no wise deformed) the further peculiarity - of having the ridges for the attachment of the temporal muscle only - .75 of an inch apart, in this respect resembling the cranium of the - chimpanzee. It is rarely that in human crania those ridges approach - each other within a distance of two inches, while they vary from that - to four inches apart.<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Eight crania were exhumed by Mr. Gillman - from the great mound on Rouge River, which furnished him the following - measurements:</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span></p> - - <div class="center bold mt2 mb1">DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF CRANIA EXHUMED FROM THE GREAT MOUND, RIVER ROUGE, MICHIGAN.</div> - - <table class="small mb2" summary="Dimensions of Crania"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="bl bt" rowspan="16"><i>No.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity (Approximate).</i><a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Circumference.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Height.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth of Frontal.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Height.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of<br />Foramen<br />Magnum.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.65</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.35</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.02</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.822</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.733</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.465</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.712</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.767</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.547</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.95</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.777</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.800</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.500</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.47</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.77</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.07</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.763</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.801</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.479</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.54</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.70</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.94</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.74</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.681</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.716</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.23</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>22.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.80</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.80</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.63</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.63</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.853</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.828</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.397</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.82</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.62</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.01</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.739</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.736</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.473</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.93</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.35</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.03</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.55</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.08</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.940</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.037</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.605</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>Means.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>17.84</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>19.48</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>6.93</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.01</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>.786</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>.802</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt br bb"><div>.495</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <table class="small mb2" summary="Dimensions of Crania"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="bl bt bb" rowspan="16"><i>No.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipital Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Frontal.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Parietal.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length of Occipital.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Zygomatic<br />Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1.<a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.65</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2.<a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.80</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.75</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.35</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.95</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.20</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.65</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.85</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.45</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.<a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10.25</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.95</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.75</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.70</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.00</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.<a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.00</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.85</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.40</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.60</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.85</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.00</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.<a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.50</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12.80</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>Means.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>11.80</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>12.16</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>11.16</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>14.30</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>5.01</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.90</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bt bb"><div>4.54</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br bt bb"><div>4.93</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The fragments of a cranium, consisting chiefly of a - very retreating frontal, and presenting traits of a low and brutal - character, reminding one of the Neanderthal skull, were found - underneath the above tabulated crania.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p> - - <p>We observe that only three of these crania are brachycephalic, while - the remaining five, and the mean of all, fall under the class of - dolichocephalic crania, according to our classification. Mr. Gillman - would call some of them Orthocephalic, and the mean of the eight crania - giving a cephalic index of .786 and .802 as an index of height might - properly be so classified. The same gentleman exhumed from an ancient - mound on Chambers Island, Green Bay, Wisconsin, six crania, which as - to type were equally divided into long and short skulls, while the - mean cephalic index, .817, assigned them to the brachycephalic class. - The long skulls were not far removed, however, from the dividing line - between the classes (.80). The energetic and intelligent labors of - Dr. R. J. Farquharson of the Davenport, Iowa, Academy of Sciences, - has placed within our reach measurements upon twenty-five mound - crania.<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> The following are the most important measurements in - inches:</p> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Wisconsin crania"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="6" class="bt bb bl br">CRANIA.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Circumference.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Transverse Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Internal Capacity.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Cephalic Index<br />or Ratio<br />of Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Nine Crania from Albany, Ill.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.1 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>68. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.768</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Eleven from Rock River, Ill.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>74.48</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.771</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl bl">Mean of Four from Henry County, Ill.</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>74.47</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>.743</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl bl bb">One from Davenport</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>19.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.25</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>76.20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>.752</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>This table introduces a new feature into the investigation in hand; - the brachycephalic or the near approximation to the short skull is - displaced by a mean cephalic index of .758, indicating the well-marked - dolichocephalic type. The mean internal capacity 73.3 inches falls - considerably below the mean of mound crania as measured by Squier and - Davis, Wilson and others, from localities farther south.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p> - - <p>The mean results of Dr. Farquharson’s measurements<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> show a greater - vertical than transverse diameter, a peculiarity of most Mississippi - mound skulls, distinguishing them from Peruvian crania. In the Ohio - Valley the brachycephalic type is quite decided, though the general - features of high receding forehead, flattened occiput, and great - transverse diameter, establish their relationship to all other North - American mound crania yet discovered. Three Ohio Valley mound skulls, - as to the genuineness of which no suspicion can be entertained, namely - the Scioto Mound cranium and two crania from the Grave Creek Mound, - give the following measurements in the mean: Longitudinal <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>diameter, - 6.5 inches; parietal diameter, 6 inches; vertical diameter, 5.5 inches, - and 90.7 as their cephalic index. The mean internal capacity, though - not obtainable with any degree of accuracy, in this instance is no - doubt from eight to ten cubic inches greater than in the Davenport - crania. With the general characteristics alike, minor differences may - in most instances be attributed to artificial pressure. A valuable - collection of mound crania was made in Kentucky for the Smithsonian - Institution and the Peabody Museum, by Mr. S. S. Lyon, and is - thoroughly reliable as a basis for measurements. Professor Wyman, in - the <cite>Fourth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite>, describes them - as follows: “The twenty-four crania measured (Table VIII) show a mean - capacity of 1313 cubic centimetres, which is greater than that of the - Peruvians, but less than that of the North American Indians generally - (viz., 1376 cubic centimetres, or 84 cubic inches). They differ also - from those of the ordinary Indians in being lighter, less massive, - in having the rough surface for muscular attachments less strongly - marked. * * * In proportions they present a very considerable variation - among themselves. Assuming the length of the skull to be 1.000, - the breadth ranges from 0.712 to 0.950 of the length. The average - proportion is 0.857, which places them in the short-headed group.”</p> - - <p>We have already called attention to the extensive and thorough - work performed by Professor Joseph Jones in Tennessee, the report - of which was published in 1876 by the Smithsonian Institution in a - “contribution” entitled <cite>Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains - of Tennessee</cite>. Professor Jones secured above a hundred mound and - stone grave crania, mostly in the valley of the Cumberland and on the - banks of the Big Harpeth River. Some of the skeletons accompanying - these crania were of gigantic stature, a fact which is at variance - with the opinion that they were related to the diminutive race of Inca - Peruvians.<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> - On the contrary, however, a strong argument for the - relationship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> between the Mound-builders and the Peruvians is found in - the frequent occurrence of the Inca-bone (<i>os inca</i>) so-called, - on the mound crania.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> - Mr. Henry Gillman found this same bone in - one of the crania exhumed by him from the great mound of Rouge River, - Michigan, with a disposition to its formation in several others.<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> - Professor Jones is convinced of the unity of the mound race throughout - the entire Mississippi Basin. The following table of measurements, - published in the <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, is one of the most - valuable which has yet been prepared:</p> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements Tennessee"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="13" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Cranium.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="12" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Facial Angle in Degrees.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="11" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Internal Capacity in Cubic Inches.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="10" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Longitudinal Diameter in Inches.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Parietal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Frontal Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Inter-Mastoid Line.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Occipito-Frontal Arch.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Periphery.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Diameter of<br />Head and Face.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Zygomatic<br />Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.1</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.1 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>84. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>68. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.6</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>103. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>78. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>79. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5. </div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>76. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>90. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>77. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5. </div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>92. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>79. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>17</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.1 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>....</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>79.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.2 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.3 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.3</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>21</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>80.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.6 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.4</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>Max.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>103. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.8 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15.7 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>5.5</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>Min.</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>75. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>68. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3.9 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.5 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13.9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4.4 </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13. </div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18.2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>4.6</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>Mean</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>78.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>81.44</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>6.5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.68</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4.21</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>5.56</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15.0</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4.57</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>13.88</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>19.8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>7.4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>5.2</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>The most noticeable feature in the table aside from the mean cephalic - index .874 is the great internal capacity of cranium No. 7, which was - found in a stone grave in a mound near Nashville, with a skeleton over - six feet long. The occiput is but slightly flattened, and the general - contour of the head is symmetrically <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>oval. Morton gives as the mean - internal capacity of fifty-two Caucasian skulls 87 cubic inches; the - largest of the series measured 109 cubic inches, and the smallest 75 - cubic inches. This remarkable cranium gives an internal capacity of 103 - cubic inches, vastly above the mean European skull, and only falling - six cubic inches below the largest measured by Morton. As we observed - a considerable increase in capacity in the Scioto Mound cranium, - with its ninety cubic inches, over the crania of the north-west and - north, of Michigan and Davenport, so here a most remarkable advance - upon the capacity of the Scioto cranium is presented. The evidence of - considerable development in the size of the cranium in this same race - is clear; and taken with other testimony, such as the great improvement - in art and architecture, indicates probably a movement from north to - south, and that the mound race was older in the former region than in - the latter.</p> - - <p>In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss exhumed - sixty-seven crania from stone graves located in the neighborhood of - Nashville, Tennessee. These crania were measured by Miss Jennie Smith - and Mr. Lucian Carr, and the latter has tabulated and described them - in the <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite> (pp. 361 - <i>et seq.</i>, Cambridge, 1878). As some interesting features occur - in the tables, we insert here Mr. Carr’s mean measurements. It will be - observed that the classification in this instance is threefold, besides - the distinct position assigned to the “much flattened” crania.</p> - - <div class="small center mt2 bold">MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF SIXTY-SEVEN CRANIA FROM STONE GRAVES IN TENNESSEE.</div> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Cranial measurements from stone graves"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="bl bt"> </th> - <th class="bl bt"> </th> - <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Crania.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Length.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Breadth.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Height.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Index of Height.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Width of Frontal.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Index of Breadth.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="bl">Dolichocephali</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1325</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>184</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>132</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>142</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.716</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.775</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>94</div></td> - <td class="bl br">.730 and under. </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="bl">Orthocephali</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1346</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>172</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>134</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>141</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.775</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.819</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>89</div></td> - <td class="bl br">.740 @ .800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>28</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"></td> - <td class="tdc bl"></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="bl">Brachycephali</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1284</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>165</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>141</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>142</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.856</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.865</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>90</div></td> - <td class="bl br">.800 @ .900</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>4</div></td> - <td class="bl bb">Much Flattened</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1461</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>156</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>152</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>145</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.973</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.907</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>93</div></td> - <td class="bl br bb">.900 and over.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>Mr. Carr calls attention to the fact that while the classified crania - as a whole are brachycephali, still from twenty-three to thirty-three - per cent. of the whole cannot be considered as falling within that - group. Whether the five dolichocephali in the table belonged to the - same race cannot be determined. They were buried together, for Prof. - Putnam found a long and a short skull side by side in the same grave. - Mr. A. J. Conant (see <cite>Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>, St. Louis, 1877, - 8vo, pp. 106–7) discovered in a mound in South-eastern Missouri two - crania belonging to skeletons buried in regular order, with a large - number of other skeletons at the bottom of the mound, which differed - strangely from all others found in that locality. The forehead was - entirely wanting, and the contour of the top of one of the skulls was - almost flat. It closely resembles the Neanderthal skull. Mr. Conant - thought it at first to be an intrusive burial, but careful examination - proved it to have been placed in position before the building of the - mound, and to have been interred with as much care as was bestowed upon - any of the other occupants of the mound. Vases, drinking vessels and - food-pans accompanied it as they did all the other skeletons.</p> - - <p>Mr. Carr thinks such crania as he has pointed out belonged to - individuals who were conquered in war, or adopted or introduced into - the tribe by intermarriage. Mr. Conant considers that the low type - cranium which he discovered belonged to a very ancient race, the - predecessors of the Mound-builders, and not far removed from the - palæolithic races of Europe.</p> - - <p>The mound skulls are readily distinguishable from those of the Red - Indian. Only in the Davenport crania and the five dolichocephali - from Tennessee do we see any approximation as to form. However, the - remaining characteristics of the Davenport crania establish the fact - that they belonged to people of the mounds. In our classification - of Dr. Morton’s measurements, it will be observed that only two - <em>supposed</em> mound skulls appear among the dolichocephali (long - skulls, A), and too much doubt is attached to their genuineness to - admit of their use in drawing inferences. All the remainder belong - to the savage tribes except three Peruvians of the ancient race of - the region of Titicaca. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>In the table of brachycephali but few of the - savage tribes are represented, except those which practice artificial - compression to the extent of deformity. The mound skull as compared - with the Inca Peruvian presents few resemblances, except that both - generally belong to the brachycephalic class, and the singular and - important fact already mentioned that the Inca bone has been found in - North American mound crania. It is possible that when more extensive - research is made, this distinguishing feature may lead to the - conclusion that the races were one or closely related. On the other - hand, the massive bony structure of some of the mound crania does not - correspond with the facial bones of the Inca crania, which are very - light and delicate. Prof. Wilson has pointed out the additional fact - that the vertical diameter of the Peruvian short crania is not so great - as that of the mound and Mexican short skulls, but a reference to the - Professor’s own tables shows that the mean difference amounts only to - thirty-seven-hundredths of an inch, altogether too small a variation - to serve as the basis for ethnic generalizations.<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> Few if any - similarities can be traced between the dolichocephali of Peru and the - brachycephalic Mound-builders, the only resemblances being the heavy - bony structure possessed in common by both races. The crania of the - dolichocephali of Peru are pronounced of a Mongol cast and form, and - are in every respect unlike the mound crania. Turning our attention, - however, to the ancient Mexican crania, we find, so far as we are - able to judge from the limited number of skulls which have come into - the possession of ethnologists, a parallelism in measurements and - resemblance in the various distinctive features, such as flattened - occiput, broad transverse diameter, retreating forehead, strong bony - structure, and a remarkable agreement in vertical diameter with those - of the mounds of the Mississippi Basin, which point unmistakably to - the closest relationship. Seven Mexican brachycephali measured by - Prof. Wilson in the Boston and Philadelphia collections previously - referred to, gave a mean vertical diameter of 5.55 inches.<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> Four - Mound-builder <span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>crania measured by the same investigation gave precisely - the same result, while the remaining measurements varied from each - other but slightly. In confirmation of this result it is worthy of - notice that the mean vertical diameter of the twenty-one mound and - stone grave crania from Tennessee varied from that of the Mexican - crania by only one one-hundredth of an inch (5.56).</p> - - <p>When Dr. Morton began his investigations, he was disposed to recognize - the existence of distinct races, represented by the dolichocephalic - and brachycephalic crania of Peru.<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> But in later years, and at - a period subsequent to the issue of his justly celebrated work, - he concluded that the Peruvian elongated head was the product of - artificial compression and not the distinguishing mark of an ancient - race which long antedated the Incas.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> Prof. Wilson has thoroughly - discussed this subject, and from a series of investigations, conducted - on a much more extensive scale than those of Dr. Morton, he has - shown conclusively that the distinguished craniologist was quite - mistaken as to the facts upon which he based his later views.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> - Much valuable information was afforded Prof. Wilson by the researches - and collections of John H. Blake, Esq., made during that gentleman’s - residence in Peru, as well as the extensive collection of Dr. J. C. - Warren of Boston. Prof. Wilson points out the essential difference - between the compressed and the naturally dolichocephalic cranium in - these words: “Few who have had extensive opportunities of minutely - examining and comparing normal and artificially formed crania, will, - I think, be prepared to dispute the fact that the latter are rarely, - if ever, symmetrical. The application of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>pressure on the head of the - living child can easily be made to change its natural contour, but it - cannot give to its artificial proportions that harmonious repetition - of corresponding developments on opposite sides which may be assumed - as the normal condition of the unmodified cranium. But in so extreme - a case as the conversion of a brachycephalic head averaging about 6.3 - inches longitudinal diameter by 5.3 inches parietal diameter into a - dolichocephalic head of 7.3 by 4.9 inches diameter, the retention - of anything like the normal symmetrical proportions is impossible. - Yet the dolichocephalic Peruvian crania present no such abnormal - irregularities as could give plausibility to the theory of their form - being an artificial one, while peculiarities in the facial proportions - confirm the idea that it is of ethnic origin and not the product - of deformation.” Besides these differences there are peculiarities - of a structural nature sufficient in themselves to distinguish the - Peruvian long from the short crania. The former is small, narrow and - decidedly long; the forehead is low and retreating, and two-thirds - of the brain-cavity lies behind the occipital foramen. The superior - maxillary is protruding and holds the incisor teeth obliquely. The - weight of the bony structure also exceeds that in the brachycephalic. - Though both classes are found artificially compressed, yet they are - always distinguishable from each other. One of the best illustrations - of this fact, and one already used by Prof. Wilson, is afforded in - contrasting two dolichocephalic crania, both obtained by Mr. Blake - in his explorations of the ancient cemeteries of Arica and Atacama. - Both are evidently of children; one is in its normal condition, - symmetrical, and when viewed from above presents the outlines of a - graceful oval form, while the other was subjected to such compression - as to throw the volume of the brain backward and to greatly deform the - frontal bone.<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> A slight tendency to assume the dog-shaped head of - the Chinooks of the Columbia River is manifest, where deformation is - carried to such an extent as to produce monstrosities. However, even - then, the normal brachycephalic type of skull of the Chinooks is not - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>transformed to the dolichocephalic, since the base of the cranium - remains comparatively unaffected while distension takes place in a - posterior and upward direction. Mr. Squier in his <cite>Peru</cite> (p. 580, - Appendix), has shown that circular compression produces a symmetrical - effect in the same direction.</p> - - <p>The custom of artificially flattening the head has, upon investigation, - been shown not to be peculiar alone to the aborigines of America, - but to have been practised by many of the semi-civilized peoples of - antiquity in different parts of Europe and Asia. Hippocrates, in his - treatise <cite>De Aëre, Aquis, et Locis</cite>, has described this savage - practice among a people whom he calls <i>Machrocephali</i>, supposed - to have inhabited the region near the Palus Mæotis, in the vicinity of - the Caucasus. He says, “The custom stood thus: as soon as the child was - born, they immediately fashioned its soft and tender head with their - hands, and by the use of bandages and proper arts, forced it to grow - lengthwise, by which the spherical figure of the head was prevented - and the length increased.” Strabo refers to a people occupying a - portion of Western Asia, who were addicted to the same custom and - had foreheads projecting beyond their beards.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Pliny places them - in Asia Minor,<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> while Pomponius Mela places the Machrocephali on - the Bosphorus.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Blumenbach has figured in his first decade, a - compressed skull obtained by him from Russia and probably originally - from one of the tumuli of the Crimean Bosphorus, where it is supposed - to have been exhumed during the Russian occupation. In 1843, Rathke - figured and described in Müller’s <cite>Archiv für Anatomie</cite>, another - example of the compressed human crania, obtained from an ancient - grave near Kertsch in the Crimea. In 1820, Count August von Brenner - obtained on his estate at Fuersbrunn near Grafenegg in Austria, a - skull of similar characteristics. This was, upon examination, decided - to have belonged to an Avarian Hun. Prof. Retzius described it in - the <cite>Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm in - 1844</cite>, adducing arguments to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>strengthen that supposition. Dr. - Tschudi, however, conceived the idea that it might have been a Peruvian - skull which had been brought to Europe as a curiosity during the - reign of Charles V. and afterwards thrown aside. His communication - appeared in Müller’s <cite>Archiv für Anatomie</cite>. The opinion of the - learned traveller was, however, subsequently reversed by the discovery - at Atzgersdorf, near Vienna, of another and similar cranium. More - recently others have come to light at the Village of St. Roman in - Savoy, and in the Valley of the Doubs near Mandense. Dr. Fitzinger has - probably investigated this subject with more thoroughness than any - other writer, and has shown in his articles in the <cite>Transactions of - the Imperial Academy of Vienna</cite>, that this custom was native to the - Scythian region in the vicinity of the Mœtian Moor, and prevailed in - the Caucasus and along the shores of the Black and Caspian seas and the - Bosphorus. Among the most interesting relics cited as sustaining his - views is an ancient medal struck in commemoration of the destruction - of Aquileia by Attila the Hun in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 452, and bearing the - bust of that “Scourge of God.” The head represented in profile is of - precisely the same shape as those of the other Avir skulls, having a - flattened form in a vertical and oblique direction. Thierry in his - <cite>Attila</cite> has traced the origin of the custom of flattening the - skull, to the Huns, who, descending from their home upon the steppes of - Northern Asia, left their remains upon many a field in Europe. One of - these deformed skulls was discovered in 1856 by J. Hudson Barclay, in - a large cavern near the Damascus Gate at Jerusalem. The skeleton was - of unusually large size and decayed, but the skull, which was pretty - well-preserved, was brought to this country and is preserved in the - collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> Dr. - J. Atkinson Meigs concluded, upon careful examination, that its occiput - had been flattened by pressure during childhood. The testimony of Dr. - Tschudi, rendered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> undesignedly, amounts to the best of evidence of the - transition of this custom from the eastern shores of Asia to Peru, and - this isolated instance has been strengthened beyond question or doubt - by the abundant proof which has been brought to light since attention - was directed to the subject.<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p> - - <p>In referring to the methods by which artificial compression was - brought about in America, Prof. Wilson remarks: “Trifling as it may - appear, it is not without interest to have the fact brought under our - notice by the disclosures of ancient barrows and cysts, that the same - practice of nursing the child and carrying it about, bound to a flat - cradle-board, prevailed in Britain and the North of Europe long before - the first notices of written history reveal the presence of man beyond - the Baltic or the English Channel, and that in all probability the - same custom prevailed continuously from the shores of the German Ocean - to Behring Straits.”<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Dr. L. A. Gosse testifies to the prevalence - of the same custom among the Caledonians and Scandinavians of the - earliest times,<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> and Dr. Thurman has treated the same peculiarity - of the early Anglo-Saxon.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> It is a matter of no little surprise - to the inquirer in this field to learn that this system of skull - distortion introduced into Southern Europe by the Asiatic hordes which - overran it in the fifth century has been perpetuated, though somewhat - modified, and at present is in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>vogue in the south of France.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> - The distinguished Dr. Foville, in charge of the Asylum for Insane - in the Department Seine-Inférieure and Charenton, has figured this - process in his work on the <cite>Anatomy of the Nervous System</cite>, as - well as a number of skulls which have striking Peruvian resemblances. - The artificial form in this case is produced by the use of peculiar - head-dresses or bandages.<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> The Egyptians placed a pillow under the - neck and not for the head; hence the elongated crania characteristic of - the race, and it is not a little remarkable that the Feejee Islanders - have the same custom at the present day. The Kankas of the Sandwich - Islands produce the flattened occiput by supporting the infant’s head - always in the palm of the hand.<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> The South Sea Islanders have a - flattened occiput, as Pickering describes it, projecting but slightly - beyond the line of the neck.<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> Prof. Wilson comments upon this fact - as follows: “Traces of purposed deformation of the head among the - islanders of the Pacific, have an additional interest in their relation - to one possible source of the South American population by Oceanic - migration, suggested by philological and other independent evidence. - But for our present purpose the peculiar value of these modified skulls - lies in the disclosures of influences operating alike undesignedly, - and with a well-defined purpose, in producing the very same cranial - conformation among races occupying the British Islands in ages long - anterior to earliest history, and among the savage tribes of America - and the simple islanders of the Pacific in the present day.”<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> It - is a well-known fact that flattening the skull has prevailed from the - earliest times in most parts of the American Continent, especially on - the Pacific coast. From the extreme north to Southern Peru, flattening - the skulls was regarded as an artistic improvement on nature and was - practised <span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>with a maternal solicitude, if we judge from the customs - of the modern Chinooks, deserving of a higher aim. More centrally - and toward the Atlantic border the custom was not so carefully and - generally practised, unless we may except the case of the Natchez, who - carried it to almost the extreme reached at present by the Columbia - River tribes. The object of this strange transformation is believed - to have been twofold, “to give,” as Torquemada supposes, in referring - to the Peruvians, “a fierce appearance in war,” and to obtain the - mark of a royal and dominant race, a fashion which seems to have - been transmitted without a variation, from its Mongol source. The - Chinooks consider it the mark of superiority, and will not permit the - tribes subject to them to practise it. Mr. Paul Cane, has illustrated - this subject with drawings made during his visit to the Columbia - and Vancouver’s Island, while Dr. Pickering, Mr. Hale and others, - have described the hideous and beastly aspect of the singular people - practising the deformation. Skull flattening among the American tribes - may be classified as intentional and unintentional. To the class of - intentionally <span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>flattened skulls we may assign those of the twenty or - more tribes of the North-west coast, the Natchez, the ancient Mayas, - the Peruvians, and some of the more central and eastern South American - tribes. The North-western flatheads subject the head of a child during - the first eight or ten months of its life to pressure produced by means - of a cradle or cradle-board, provided with a board which rests upon - the forehead and tied down upon it by means of cords extending to the - foot of the cradle, while the other end is connected to the head of the - cradle with a hingelike attachment.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Chinooks (Flat-Heads), after Catlin.</div> - </div> - - <p>The Natchez produced the artificial form by bandaging the infant’s head - to a well-cushioned cradle-board by means of strips of deer-skin.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> - The Caribs bandaged the head with pieces of wool, and gave it a very - quadrangular shape. The Choctaws produced artificial compression by - means of a bag of sand.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> The unintentional flattening of the - skull arose from the quite general use of the cradle-board without - any board for pressure, or the custom common among many American - tribes of the mother suckling the child over her shoulder, a practice - widely prevalent in Africa and among savage nations. In the former - instance it is but reasonable to suppose that the form of a tender and - pliable skull would be modified more or less by the shape of the hard - cradle-board, and by the position in which it was placed upon its rest. - This fact accounts for the slight occipital compression of the mound - skulls and also for the irregularity of the flattening in many cases. - The latter process, that of nursing the child from its position on the - shoulder or back would no doubt subject the head to a slight pressure, - perhaps in most cases in a lateral direction.</p> - - <p>The general prevalence of the unnatural custom of flattening the skull - on the eastern border-land of Europe and among the numerous tribes of - the western coast of America, together with its presence in Polynesia - as a connecting link, we think justifies us in concluding that it - originated among the wild hordes of the northern steppes of Asia, from - which centre it spread in lines of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>radiation until it reached the - remote localities in which recent research has found it.<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> This fact - is suggestive of a remote intercourse between peoples separated by seas - and mountains, if it does not serve as an argument for the unity and - common origin of the human family.</p> - - <p>A careful examination of the remains of the pre-historic races other - than the measurement of crania has contributed largely to our fund of - information concerning their life and habits. Science has rendered us - pretty familiar with some of the diseases to which they were subject. - Dr. Farquharson has described a singular manifestation of disease of - the cervical vertebræ, shown in a peculiar roughening of the articular - surfaces, and also by a true or bony anchylosis of these points. He - concludes that the people of the mounds must have been possessed of a - considerable degree of civilization and facilities for the care of the - sick during a long period, in order to have effected the cure which - the condition of the bones indicate had taken place.<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> One of the - most alarming discoveries, however, is that which apparently shows - the general prevalence of syphilis. That this loathsome disease was - common <span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>among the various tribes of Equinoctial America is attested to - by the discoverers and their successors, and has been much commented - upon, and held by some authors to have been of American origin. The - most recent supporter of this view is Professor Jones, to whom we have - already referred.<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> He found in most of the mounds which he explored - in Tennessee bones bearing syphilitic nodes, and believes them to be - the oldest traces of the disease in existence. Dr. Farquharson made - similar discoveries in the Iowa and Illinois mounds. Prof. Putnam, - however, attributes the nodes to other diseases. That flattening of the - leg-bone or tibia, peculiar to pre-historic man in Europe, and perhaps - the result of rugged exertion in climbing mountains and traversing - the country with that rapidity which the chase required where the - horse is wanting, is more noticeable in the remains of some of the - Mound-builders than in any other people. This peculiarity of the tibia - called platycnemism, is probably a provision of nature, securing a - firmer and better defined process upon which the muscles of the leg - could fasten themselves, and its prominence among the people of the - mounds indicates the possession of great pedestrian powers.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p> - - <p>The singular custom of perforating the skull after death (and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>possibly - during life) is shown to have been in vogue by the discovery of a - number of crania at the River Rouge Mound in Michigan with artificial - apertures. No light as yet has been thrown upon the significance - of this strange practice.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The nearest approach to the natural - condition and characteristic physiognomy of the pre-historic - inhabitants of this continent, is observable in the Peruvian mummies - collected in latitude 18° 30´ S., on the shore of the Bay of Chacota, - near Arica, by Mr. Blake, and transferred by him to Boston. Many - others have since been exhumed, and though embalmed and buried in a - climate which preserves the brightest colors of the garments with which - they were enshrouded, still the shrivelled condition of the corpses - furnishes us the assurance that their type of features can never be - truly recovered from nature. Dr. Morton has figured the head of one - of these mummies in Plate I of the <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, from - which the physiognomy may be partially restored by the aid of a vivid - imagination. Notwithstanding the temptation which presents itself, and - one which has been sufficiently indulged already, it would certainly - be idle to speculate as to what that type might have been. However, - one feature of the Peruvian mummies has been preserved true to life, - and is of the greatest value in determining ethnic relations. The - silicious sand and marl of the plain southward of Arica, where the - most remarkable cemeteries are situated, is slightly impregnated with - common salt as well as nitrate and sulphate of soda. These conditions, - together with the dry atmosphere rivalling that of Egypt, and in which - fleshy matter dries without putrefaction, the human hair has been - perfectly preserved, and comes to us as one of the best evidences of - the diversity of the American races yet produced. In general it is a - lightish brown, and of a fineness of texture which equals that of the - Anglo-Saxon race.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> - Straight, coarse, black hair is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>universally - characteristic of the Red Indians, and is known to be one of the last - marks of race to disappear in intermarriage with Europeans. The ancient - Peruvians appear, from numerous examples of hair found in their tombs, - to have been an auburn-haired race. Garcilasso, who had an opportunity - of seeing the body of the king Viracocha, describes the hair of that - monarch as snow-white.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Haywood has described the discovery at - the beginning of this century of three mummies in a cave on the south - side of the Cumberland River, near the dividing line of Smith and - Wilson Counties in Tennessee. They were buried in baskets, as Humboldt - has described some of the Peruvians to bury, and the color of their - skin was said to be fair and white, and their hair auburn and of a - fine texture.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> The same author refers to several instances of the - discovery of mummies in the limestone and saltpetre caves of Tennessee - with light yellowish hair.<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> Prof. Jones supposes that the light - color of these so-called mummies of Tennessee and Kentucky was due to - the action of lime and saltpetre.<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - - <p>We have every reason to believe that the men of the mounds were - capable of executing in sculptures reliable representations of - animate objects. The perfection of the stone carvings, as well as the - terra-cotta moulded figures of animals and birds obtained from the - mounds, have excited the wonder and admiration of their discoverers. - It was evidently a favorite pastime for those primitive artists to - reproduce the human features, for effigies and masks have often been - exhumed together with other sculptures. The perfection of the animal - representations furnish us the assurance that their sculptures of the - human face were equally true to nature.<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> The accompanying figures - of sculpture <span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>and masks together with those found in the sculpture - of the Mayas and Nahuas, shown in a future chapter, furnish us with - a twofold argument: first, that an American type of physiognomy as - such did not exist; that, upon the contrary, it was as variable - and diversified as can now be found among the peoples <span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>of Europe or - elsewhere; second, that a strong resemblance between some of the - sculptures of the mounds and those of Mexico exist. It is a remarkable - fact that those of Palenque furnish the most striking likeness to - those of the Mississippi Valley.<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> There is, perhaps, no means of - ascertaining of what color the pre-historic Americans were, certainly - not of the Mound-builders; but judging from the great variety of tints - and shades that prevail among the wild tribes of North America alone, - we may conclude that no argument in favor of an <em>American</em> race - can be based upon color.<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp73"> - <img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mound Sculptures</span>: upper left-hand figure from a - shell-heap near Mobile, Ala., the others from Tennessee mounds.</div> - </div> - - <p>The Menominees, sometimes called the “White Indians,” formerly occupied - the region bordering on Lake Michigan, around Green Bay. The whiteness - of these Indians, which is compared to that of white mulattoes, early - attracted the attention of the Jesuit missionaries, and has often been - commented upon by travellers.<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> While it is true that hybridity - has done much to lighten the color of many of the tribes, still the - peculiarity of the complexion of this people has been marked from the - first time a European encountered them. Almost every shade, from the - ash color of the Menominees, through the cinnamon red, copper and - bronze tints, may be found among the tribes formerly occupying the - territory east of the Mississippi—the remnants of some of which are now - in the Indian Territory and others in the North-west—until we reach - the dark-skinned Kaws of Kansas, who are nearly as black as the negro. - The Indians in Mexico are known as the “black people,” an appellation - designed to be <span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>descriptive of their color. Viollet le Duc is of the - opinion that the builders of the great remains in Southern Mexico - and Yucatan belonged to two different branches of the human family, - a light-skinned and dark-skinned race respectively.<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> The variety - of complexion is as great in South America as among the tribes of the - northern portion of the continent.</p> - - <p>Probably one of the most incontrovertible arguments against American - ethnic unity is that which rests upon the unparalleled diversity of - language which meets the philologist everywhere. The monosyllable and - the most remarkable polysyllables known to the linguist; synthetic and - analytic families of speech, simplicity and complexity of expression, - all seem to have sprung up and developed into permanent and in some - cases beautiful and grammatical systems side by side with each other - until the Babel of the Pentateuch is realized in the indescribable - confusion of tongues. The actual number of American languages and - dialects is as yet unascertained, but is estimated at nearly thirteen - hundred, six hundred of which Mr. Bancroft has classified in his third - volume of the <cite>Native Races of the Pacific States</cite>. It is true - that the American languages present a few features quite peculiar to - themselves (which will be treated hereafter), but as language is never - constant, is not a pyramid with its unchanging architectural plan, but - is a plant which passes through such transitions in the process of its - growth as to lose entirely some of the elements which it possessed - at first, so we may as reasonably expect that in the course of time - certain peculiarities incident to certain climatic conditions, certain - phases of nature and certain types of civilization, should develop - themselves as distinguishing features of the speech of the continent. - The very fact that language is unstable—is a matter of growth—renders - the argument that these peculiarities indicate unity of the American - race valueless; while, on the other hand, the fact that here we have - a greater number and variety of languages than is to be found in any - of the other grand divisions of the earth, is strong evidence of a - diversity more radical than that which simply arises <span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>from tribal - affiliations. In view of the wide differences existing between the - native Americans themselves in every feature which admits of being - subjected to a scientific test, we are forced to the conclusion, solely - resting on the evidence in the case, that the theory of American ethnic - unity is a delusion, an infatuating theory which served only to blind - its advocates as to the plain facts, and led them into grave errors - which will become all the more palpable as scientific investigation - progresses.</p> - - <p>As yet no substantial reason for considering the ancient occupant - of this continent as peculiar in himself, and as unlike the rest - of mankind, has been set forth. Nothing in the American’s physical - organization points to an origin different from that to which each of - the species of the <i>genus homo</i> may be assigned. Whatever truth - there may be in the diverse origin of the black and white race, the - separate creation theory, in so far as it maintains that the Creator - originated upon the soil of this continent a peculiar and separate - race of men, must in the eyes of this age of criticism lack evidence, - and be assigned to its place with thousands of others which from time - immemorial have been contributing to the construction of a foundation - reef which will ultimately rise like a bold headland above the dark - waters of uncertainty into the realm of truth.</p> - - <p>A few students of American Anthropology have solved the question of - the origin of the ancient population upon the hypothesis of its having - developed from a lower order in the animal kingdom, itself indigenous - to the Western Continent. One of the most distinguished representatives - of this school, perhaps, is Frederick von Hellwald of Vienna, who - states his views as follows: “I am unable to give in my adhesion to the - theory which assumes that the original seat of the human races must be - sought in higher Asia or somewhere else, whence mankind are supposed to - have spread themselves gradually over the whole globe; an assumption - which is contradicted in the most decisive manner by the peopling of - the new world. It is impossible to enter here into all the hypotheses - which have been framed for the explanation of a fact so perplexing to - the Biblical students of the sixteenth century, and of course later - times; it is enough <span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>to say that thus far not one of them have been - found to correspond even approximately to the demands of science, and - that theory is probably in every point of view the most tenable and - exact which assumes that man, like the plant, a mundane being, made - his appearance generally upon earth when our planet had reached that - stage of its development which unites in itself the conditions of man’s - existence. In conformity with this view, I regard the American as an - Autochthon.”<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> This subject resolves itself into two questions: - (1) Is the origin of the human race by the processes of development - from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact? (2) If so, does - the American continent furnish any species of ape or any known fauna - from which man could have developed? It is taken for granted that - the reader is fully familiar with Darwinism (the origin of species - by means of natural selection, the joint result of the independent - researches of Darwin and Wallace) and Lamarckism (the theory of man’s - descent from the ape),<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> both of which have been so enthusiastically - advocated by Spencer, Huxley, Hæckel and many others. Their works and - the magnificent array of facts which their patient researches have - accumulated command our admiration, even if full assent cannot be given - to all their conclusions.</p> - - <p>The first question: <em>Is the origin of the human race by the processes - of development from a lower order of animal an ascertained fact?</em> - would at first seem to require a lengthy discussion at our hands. But - in a special work on a subject altogether foreign to the question, - such a discussion would certainly be out of place. Even if this were - not true, the above question as stated requires no discussion. We - believe that no advocate of the hypothesis of evolution could be found - so sanguine or so unguarded, who would come forward and answer the - question in the affirmative. On the contrary, we believe the question - would call forth an honest negative from the great body of scientists - who hold to the hypothesis of evolution. Obstinacy <span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>alone could deny - that the groups of facts which have been brought to our knowledge, the - occasional well-marked transitional forms<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> which are turning up, - the unquestionable tendency in species to vary, and possibly of their - varieties slowly to form new species under modified surroundings, point - to a principle, a law in nature, which may be characterized as the law - of development or evolution. But on the other hand, the hypothesis - that such a law exists, or, if you please, the fact that it exists, - does not imply that it is <em>universal in its application</em> or that - it has <em>extended through all the realm of nature</em>. Indeed, pure - justice to the advocates of the hypothesis requires the statement that - they have never made such a claim.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> The fact that such eminent - scientists as Mivart and Wallace deny the development of man from a - lower order, is sufficient evidence that the hypothesis in its widest - bearing is not accepted by all, much less is an ascertained “fact.” It - appears, therefore, that the first question being unsettled, and as yet - incapable of solution, the argument turns upon the second question: - <em>Does the American Continent furnish any species of ape or any known - fauna from which man could have developed?</em> Before answering the - question in the light of present knowledge, it will be of interest to - note the reply made by the late Professor Joseph Henry to the view of - Frederick von Hellwald, quoted on a preceding page. His estimate of - the probabilities of man developing from the lower orders of animals - in more than one locality on the globe is expressed as follows: - “The spontaneous generation of either plants or animals, although a - legitimate subject of scientific inquiry, is as yet an unverified - hypothesis. If, however, we assume the fact that a living being will - be spontaneously produced when all the physical conditions necessary - to its existence are present, we must allow that in the case of man, - with his complex and refined organization, the fortuitous assembly of - the multiform conditions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>required for his appearance would be extremely - rare, and from the doctrine of probabilities could scarcely occur more - than at one time and in one place on our planet; and further, that - this place would most probably be somewhere in the northern temperate - zone. Again, the Caucasian variety of man presents the highest physical - development of the human family; and as we depart either to the north - or south, from the latitude assumed as the origin of the human race - in Asia, we meet with a lower and lower type until at the north we - encounter the Esquimaux, and at the south the Bosjesman and the Tierra - Fuegian. The derivation of these varieties from the original stock - is philosophically explained on the principle of the variety in the - offspring of the same parents, and the better adaptation and consequent - chance of life of some of these to the new conditions of existence in - a more northern or southern latitude.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> As a direct answer to the - question, however, we can do nothing more than refer to the opinions of - the two greatest advocates of evolution. “In order to form a judgment - on this head,” says Mr. Darwin, “with reference to man, we must glance - at the classification of the Simiadæ. This family is divided by almost - all naturalists into the Catarhine group, or old world monkeys, all - of which are characterized (as the name expresses) by the peculiar - structure of the nostrils, and by having four pre-molars in each jaw; - and into the Platyrhine group or new world monkeys (including two very - distinct sub-groups), all of which are characterized by differently - constructed nostrils and by having six molars in each jaw. Some - other small differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably - belongs, in his dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and in - some other respects, to the Catarhine or old world division; nor does - he resemble the Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any - characters, excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently - of an adaptive nature. Therefore, it would be against all probability - to suppose that some ancient new world species had varied, and had - thus produced a man-like creature with all the distinctive characters - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>proper to the old world division, losing at the same time all its own - distinctive characters. There can, consequently, hardly be a doubt - that man is an offshoot from the old world Simian stem, and that under - a genealogical point of view he must be classed with the Catarhine - division.”<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> Such was Mr. Darwin’s opinion in 1871; and that the - views of evolutionists have not changed since that time as to this - question, we call attention to the words of the distinguished Professor - Hæckel in his <cite>History of Creation</cite>, which are as follows: - “Probably America was first peopled from North-eastern Asia by the same - tribe of Mongols from whom the Polar men (Hyperboreans and Esquimaux) - have also branched. This tribe first spread in North America, and from - thence migrated over the isthmus of Central America down to South - America, at the extreme south of which the species degenerated very - much by adaptation to the very unfavorable conditions of existence. - But it is also possible that Mongols and Polynesians emigrated from - the west and mixed with the former tribe. In any case the aborigines - of America came over from the old world, and did not, as some suppose, - in any way originate out of American apes. Catarhine or narrow-nosed - apes never at any period existed in America.”<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> The same argument - holds good if it be ascertained that both man and apes developed from - a common ancestor. With these authoritative utterances from the most - celebrated representatives of the development school, we shall rest the - fanciful hypothesis of the autochthonic origin of the ancient American - population. Some who may not concur in our opinion as to the question - of man’s development from lower animal forms, may be willing to admit - that the Americans had an old world origin, which certainly, in the - light of facts, is the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>only rational view.<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> The unity of the human - family is a theory, if not a fact, which is supported by a mass of - testimony of the most diversified character. The habits and customs, - the sympathies, the wants and fears, the simpler arts, as well as most - bodily proportions, point to a relationship which finds its easiest - explanation in a unity of origin. It is chiefly, however, in the ruder - arts that this correspondence of style or type is observable. No better - illustration of this offers itself than the similarity of form or - forms in which flint arrow-heads are found in all parts of the world. - It would be impossible for the most expert archæologists to assign a - promiscuous collection of flint weapons to the various quarters of the - globe from which they may have been gathered, simply on the ground of - characteristic forms.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> The common methods of producing fire by - means of friction, employed with but slight variation among people - the most remotely separated,<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> is an inexplicable fact, except on - the ground of an early community of residence or identical inventive - genius. The universality of certain architectural forms such as the - pyramid, and the singular fact that they have generally been used for - places of sepulture, offers an argument in the same direction. The - fact indicates either an early community of residence or identity of - mental organization. The physical resemblances of all races in certain - stable features which have never been known to change, indicate a - divergence from a common centre—from one type. The slight differences - in the type of skull which characterize some nations <span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>from others, is - no argument against original unity, since those peculiarities are - certainly of more recent origin than the unknown events which at a - remote period scattered men over the face of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> Probably - no difference between the races of men has been considered so essential - as that of color, for none has furnished such reasonable ground for - the views of polygenists as the marked contrast between the African - and Caucasian types. Years ago the view that color was the result of - tropical climate was abandoned,<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> for the Eskimo and Lapps are - almost as dark as many Africans, and their residence under the arctic - circle has continued from a remote antiquity. Upon the other hand every - variation in color, from the darkest to the lightest possible shades, - exist among African tribes. The antiquity of the negro type as we - now see it, is unquestionably considerable. As proof of this we have - the oft-referred to argument from Egyptian paintings. In a temple at - Beyt-el-Welee, in Nubia, constructed in the reign of Rameses II, is a - painting which has been reproduced by Bonomi, in which a negro kneels - at the feet of Sethos I, father and predecessor of Rameses II. All - the peculiarities of the Negroid type are conspicuous; the blackness - of the color, the thickness of lips, flatness of nose and woolliness - of hair which pertain to the African of to-day are unquestionably - present.<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> The painting representing this remarkable ethnic fact - is 3200 years old, dating from 1400 years before Christ. The Duke of - Argyll, on the authority of Prof. Lepsius, states that in earlier - representations of the negro, referable to the “Twelfth Dynasty” or - about 1900 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, the negro color is strongly marked, but not - the negro features.<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> It is a question whether this fact indicates - a transition from one type to another, or whether the painting is a - true representation of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>the Nubians, who are known not to have flat - noses or projecting lips. It is supposed also that the unskillfulness - of the artists may account for the absence of the typal lines.<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> - Hieroglyphic writings have been found dating about 2000 years <span class="allsmcap">B. - C.</span>, in which mention is made of the employment of Negro or black - troops by an Egyptian king in the prosecution of a great war.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> At - that remote period, when Abraham was almost the sole representative - of the Jewish race, the negro type had multiplied and developed into - strong tribes, which were important factors in the military contests of - the oldest of powers—the Egyptian.</p> - - <p>Notwithstanding this seeming permanence of type, it is well known that - of all physical conditions, color is the most liable to change in - every organism. Many animals under domestication change their color - entirely.<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> In our Southern States it was observed that house-slaves - of the third generation presented quite a markedly different appearance - from field slaves.<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> This was owing as much, no doubt, to different - food and different habits of life as to protection from the sun, though - many different races have quite the same color while their habits of - life are as different as well could be imagined. Of this class, the - Eskimo, Chinese, and Fuegeans are examples. However, the fact that - color is variable even in a slight degree, indicates that considerable - if not radical changes might be brought about during a great length - of time. Mr. Darwin has furnished the most rational solution of the - question, which he describes briefly <span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>as follows: “Various facts which - I have elsewhere given, prove that the color of the skin and hair is - sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a complete immunity - from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from the attack - of parasites. Hence it occurred to me that negroes and other dark - races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker individuals - escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly influence - of the miasmas of their native countries.”<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> This doctrine of the - survival of only the fittest, while all the weaker and perhaps lighter - complexioned individuals of a race gradually succumbed to the deadly - influence of climate, no doubt will explain the origin of the dark - races, known to enjoy a special immunity against yellow and other - fevers.<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> At all events, the formation of the distinctive features - of races requires a great lapse of time. The geologist asks for time - in which to account for the formation of strata, and the intelligent - world now grants it to him without limit, and just as reasonably may - the ethnologist ask for time in which to account for the formation of - racial types.<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> Nor need the most literal interpreter of Genesis - object to this demand on the ground of any conflict with the letter - even of the historic narrative of the Pentateuch. The accepted - chronology, based on Archbishop Usher’s interpretation, is no part of - the text of Genesis. It is purely the product of his inadvertence and - the blindness of many others of his school of Biblical chronologists. - It is evident that the rules of interpretation applied to the tenth - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>chapter of Genesis, according to which the names of the descendants - of Noah’s sons are taken to represent individuals only, cannot hold. - The probabilities are that they represent considerable tribes or - nations. This probability is an established fact in the sixteenth - and subsequent verses. In the fifteenth verse we learn that Canaan, - the grandson of Noah, “begat Sidon, his first-born, and Heth.” Here - the writer seems to refer to individuals, but it is probable that he - alludes even to the origin of tribes. In the sixteenth verse we are - not left in doubt on the subject, for there he no longer speaks of - individuals or generations but of the growth of nations. He immediately - adds after the above quotation, “and [begat] the Jebusite, and the - Amorite, and the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the - Sinite,” etc., etc.<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> The account makes no pretensions at chronology - or at furnishing data for any system, and the constructions put upon - its condensed account of the origin and growth of nations during an - indefinite lapse of time by short-sighted interpreters, are unwarranted - and certainly do injustice to the oldest of our histories. When we - go back of the birth of Christ two thousand years—to the time of - Abraham—this is as far as we can tread with certainty in the light of - History. This period has been aptly designated by the Duke of Argyll - as “Time absolute.” But when we go back of 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, we are - compelled to walk in a twilight glimmer, with only the dim rays from - occasional cuneiform inscriptions, and the condensed accounts contained - in Genesis, falling across our uncertain pathway. This period the above - able writer has chosen to call “Time relative,” and the probabilities - are that its measure is double if not treble that of the portion of - “Time absolute” which precedes the Christian Era. An additional fact in - this connection which strengthens the preceding is, that the three most - ancient versions of the Pentateuch—the Hebrew, the Samaritan and the - Septuagint—vary considerably in their statements as to the ages of many - of the patriarchs at the birth of their sons. So wide is the difference - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>in this respect between the Hebrew and Septuagint versions that their - chronologies cannot be reconciled at all, the latter allowing a period - of eight hundred years more than the former from Adam to Abraham; such - being the case, it is impossible to arrive at the time of the flood or - the origin of the race. These contradictions in versions, however, do - not in any way impeach the historic authority of the Pentateuch, since - it is in no sense a chronology any more than it is a work on geographic - or astronomic science. The known antiquity of Egypt and China, to say - nothing of the facts revealed by geology concerning man’s antiquity, - can never be reconciled with Usher’s system, which is in no sense the - true chronology of any known version of the Pentateuch.<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a></p> - - <p>In this chapter we have seen that there is nothing to indicate that the - Americans owe their origin to a special act of creation, and further, - if they originated by the process of development (for which there is no - sufficient evidence), that it was not upon the American continent. We - are supported in these conclusions by the most respectable writers on - American Ethnology<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> - and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>Antiquities. That the American population - is of old world origin there can be little doubt; but from whence it - came, and to what particular people or peoples it owes its birth, is - quite another question.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> - That view seems open to least objections - which maintains that the Western Continent received its population at - a comparatively early period in the history of the race, before the - peoples of Western Europe and Eastern Asia had assumed their present - national characteristics or fully developed their religious and social - customs.<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_V"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER V</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE MAYA NATIONS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Ancient Civilization of Tabasco and Chiapas—The Tradition of - Votan—The First Emigrants to America—City of Nachan—The - Votanic Document—Ordoñez—Brasseur and Cabrera on the Tzendal - Document—The Empire of the Chanes—The Oldest Civilization—The - Earliest Home of the Mayas—The Quichés—Their Origin - Tradition—The Quiché Cosmogony—The Creation of Man—The Quiché - Migration—Tulan—Mt. Hacavitz—Human Sacrifices instituted—Four - Tulans—Association of the Mayas and Nahuas—Heroic Period of - the Quichés—Xibalba and its Downfall—Exploits of the Quiché - Chieftains—War of the Sects—Xibalba and Palenque the same—Mayas - of Yucatan and their Traditions—Culture-Heroes—Zamna and - Cukulcan—Christ Myth.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">THE most ancient civilization on this continent, judging from the - combined testimony of tradition, records, and architectural remains, - was that which grew up under the favorable climate and geographical - surroundings which the Central American Region southward of the - Isthmus of Tehuantepec afforded. The great Maya family with its - numerous branches, each in time developing its own dialect if not its - own peculiar language, at an early date fixed itself in the fertile - valley of the River Usumasinta, and produced a civilization which was - old and ripe when the Toltecs came in contact with it. Here in this - picturesque valley region in Tabasco and Chiapas we may look for the - cradle of American civilization. Under the shadow of the magnificent - and mysterious ruins of Palenque a people grew to power who spread into - Guatemala and Honduras, northward toward Anahuac and southward into - Yucatan, and for a period of probably twenty-five centuries exercised a - sway which, at one time, excited the envy and fear of its neighbors. We - are fully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> aware of the uncertainty which attaches itself to tradition - in general, and of the caution with which it should be accepted in - treating of the foundations of history; but still, with reference to - the origin and growth of old world nations, nothing better offers - itself in many instances than suspicious legends. The histories of the - Egyptians, the Trojans, the Greeks, and of even ancient Rome rests on - no surer footing. It is certain that while the legendary history of any - nation may be confused, exaggerated, and besides full of breaks, still - there are some main and fundamental facts out of which it has grown, - and this we think is especially true of the new world traditions. - Clavigero says: “The Chiapanese have been the first peoplers of the new - world, if we give credit to their traditions. They say that Votan, the - grandson of that respectable old man who built the great ark to save - himself and family from the deluge, and one of those who undertook the - building of that lofty edifice which was to reach up to heaven, went - by express command of the Lord to people that land. They say also that - the first people came from the quarter of the north, and that when they - arrived at Soconusco, they separated, some going to inhabit the country - of Nicaragua and others remaining in Chiapas.”<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> The tradition - of Votan, the founder of the Maya culture, though somewhat warped, - probably by having passed through priestly hands, is nevertheless one - of the most valuable pieces of information which we have concerning - the ancient Americans. Without it our knowledge of the origin of the - Mayas would be a hopeless blank, and the ruins of Palenque would be - more a mystery than ever. According to this tradition, Votan came from - the East, from Valum Chivim, by the way of Valum Votan, from across - the sea, by divine command, to apportion the land of the new continent - to seven families which he brought with him. It appears that he had - been preceded in America by two others named Igh and Imox, if the - researches of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg can be relied upon. In - the Tzendal calendar, Votan’s name appears as that of the third day, - while Igh and Imox are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>the first and second respectively. If, as is - supposed, the names represent the true succession of the Maya chiefs, - there is some ground for the Abbé’s view.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> The doubtful portions of - the tradition which may be interpolations are the ambiguous assertions - that he saw the Tower of Babel, and was present at the building of - Solomon’s temple. Probably the remains only of the former structure may - be referred to.</p> - - <p>With these contradictions we have nothing to do, as they do not in any - way affect the subsequent history of the Votanites, or interfere with - the probability of their old world origin. To attempt to designate the - point from which Votan started or the means by which he reached the new - world, would be the height of folly. Votan is said to have made four - journeys to the land of his nativity. His achievements in the new world - were, however, as great as those of any of the heroes of antiquity. His - great city was named “Nachan,” (city of the serpents), from his own - race, which was named Chan, a serpent. This Nachan is unquestionably - identified with Palenque. The date of his journey is placed at 1000 - years <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span><a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> - The kingdom of the serpents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> - flourished so rapidly that Votan founded three tributary monarchies - whose capitals were Tulan, Mayapan, and Chiquimula.<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The former is - supposed to have been situated about two leagues east of the town of - Ococingo; Mayapan is well-known to have been the capital of Yucatan, - and Chiquimula is thought to have been Copan in Honduras.<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> One of - the great works of this hero was the excavation of a tunnel or ‘snake - hole’ from Zuqui to Tzequil. He also deposited a great treasure at - Huehuetan, in Soconusco, which he left under the vigilant care of - a guard, directed by one of the most honorable women of the land. - Finally, he wrote a book in which he recorded his deeds and offered - proof of his being a Chane (or serpent). This ancient document, which - is claimed to have been written by one of Votan’s descendants, of the - eighth or ninth generation and not by himself,<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> was in the Tzendal - language, a dialect or branch of the Maya, spoken in Chiapas and around - Palenque. Its history is, however, quite checkered, and the information - which it contained comes very indirectly. For generations the Votanic - document was scrupulously guarded by the people of Tacoaloya, in - Soconusco, but was finally discovered by Francisco Nuñez de la Vega, - Bishop of Chiapas. In the preamble of his <cite>Constituciones</cite>, § - xxx,<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> he claims to have read this document, but it is probable - that only a copy, still in the Tzendal language but written in Latin - characters, had come into his possession.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> He fails to give - any definite information from the document except the most general - statements with reference to Votan’s place in the calendar, and his - having seen the Tower of Babel, at which each people was given a new - language. He states that he could have made more revelations of the - history of Votan from this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>document but for bringing up the old - idolatry of the people and perpetuating it. With the zeal of a true - Vandal, the bishop committed the dangerous documents, together with - the treasure which he claims Votan to have buried in the dark-house, - to the flames in 1691. There seems to have been other copies, however, - of this remarkable manuscript, for about the close of the eighteenth - century, Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera was shown a document in the possession - of Don Ramon de Ordoñez y Aguiar, a resident of Ciudad Real in Chiapas, - which purported to be the Votanic memoir.<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> Ordoñez, at the time, - was engaged upon the composition of his work on the “<cite>History of - the Heaven and Earth</cite>.”<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> It appears that Cabrera was admitted - to the confidence of Ordoñez, and availed himself of a few facts - communicated to him by the latter, which he supplemented by drawing - from his imagination for the rest of his account.<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Brasseur de - Bourbourg accuses Cabrera of seriously misrepresenting Ordoñez and of - warping his account.<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> The following, which is Cabrera’s account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> - may be of interest to the reader: “He (Votan) states that he conducted - seven families from Valum Votan to this continent and assigned lands - to them; that he is the third of the Votans; that having determined to - travel until he arrived at the root of Heaven, in order to discover - his relations, the Culebras, and make himself known to them, he made - four voyages to Chivim (which he expressed by repeating four times from - Valum Votan to Valum Chivim, from Valum Chivim to Valum Votan); that - he arrived in Spain, and that he went to Rome; that he saw the great - house of God building; that he went by the road which his brethren, - the Culebras, had bored; that he marked it, and that he passed by - the houses of the thirteen Culebras. He relates that in returning - from one of his voyages he found seven other families of the Tzequil - nation who had joined the first inhabitants, and recognized in them - the same origin as his own, that is, of the Culebras. He speaks of - the place where they built the first town, which, from its founders, - received the name of Tzequil; he affirms the having taught them - refinement of manners in the use of the table, table-cloth, dishes, - basins, cups, and napkins; they taught him the knowledge of God and - of his worship; his first ideas of a king and of obedience to Him; - that he was chosen captain of all those united families.” It is not - necessary for us to point out the hand of the interpolator in this - account; it is sufficiently apparent. However, its obnoxious prominence - need not destroy our faith in the general facts of the account. The - interpretation of the document we submit to the reader with the simple - reminder that the symbol of life and power among the Central Americans - and Mexicans has ever been a serpent, a fact which may have derived its - significance from the meaning of the name of the Votanites together - with the power attained by Palenque.<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> Votan’s followers were called - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>Tzequites by their predecessors, probably by the descendants of Igh - and Imox, the signification of which term is ‘men with petticoats.’ The - Tzendal traditions refer always to the city of Nachan as the capital - of the kingdom of the Chanes or Serpents, and the most significant - feature of the traditional names of this people is the fact that - the name Culhua, applied by the Nahua nations and especially by the - Toltecs to a powerful people who had preceeded them at the south, is - the exact equivalent of Chanes; the same is true of Culhuacan.<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> - The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg obtained a copy of the fragmentary MS. - of Ordoñez, which he informs us was written in two separate parts in - quarto, at different times. The first or mythological part exists in - a copy owned by the Abbé.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> The second or historical part, if ever - written, has never reached the light, and from the description <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>of - its contents found in the first part, we should think that the author - might have made a rather imaginative historian.<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> While some of - the details of the Votanic tradition are not worthy of a moment’s - consideration, it is quite certain that in the general facts we have - a key to the origin of what all Americanists agree in pronouncing the - oldest civilization on this continent, one which was gray and already - declining when the Toltecs entered Mexico. There is not the slightest - evidence that it originated in any other place than in Chiapas, where - it is found, and extended itself into Guatemala, Yucatan, and possibly - branched northward in a colony as remote as Culhuacan. Sr. Orozco y - Berra has found fifteen languages or dialects to be related to the Maya - language, a fact which indicates the age and extent of that remarkable - civilization.<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> Sr. Orozco is convinced from linguistic and other - researches, that the inhabitants of Cuba and others of the West India - Islands were Mayas, and points out the intermediate location of Cuba - between Florida and Yucatan. He thinks the earliest home of the Mayas - on this <span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>continent was on the Atlantic coast of the United States, from - whence they emigrated to Cuba and thence to Yucatan.<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> Though we are - not fully satisfied that the Mayas ever occupied Florida, it is quite - likely that the islands of the Gulf were inhabited by them at an early - day. The culture hero Votan is a mystery, and to arrive at his true - character or office is simply an impossibility. For those disposed to - speculate, there is abundant opportunity.<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> The most interesting - traditionary history which has been discovered is that of the Quichés - of Guatemala. By the name Quiché, in this immediate connection, we do - not mean to speak of that people after they became amalgamated with - the Nahua nations from Central Mexico, but as a branch of the great - Maya monarchy, in all probability located at first at Tulha or Tula, - which, it is believed, was situated near Ococingo. At first, we think, - the Quichés developed their own institutions, dialects, etc., as one - of the allied powers associated with the capital city Nachan, but - gradually assumed an individuality which became distinctive, until a - rivalry between the capital and its allied neighbor sprang up, which - ultimately ended in the overthrow of the former. Sr. Pimentel, on the - authority of an ancient author, states that the name Quiché was applied - to the first empire of Palenque and signified <em>many trees</em>. It - was employed by the “innumerable families of different nations which - composed it, to symbolize its various branches.”<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> The tradition of - their origin states that they came from the far East, across immense - tracts of land and water; that in their former home they had multiplied - considerably and lived without civilization, and with but few wants; - they paid no tribute, spoke a common language, did not bow down to wood - and stone, but lifting their eyes toward heaven, observed the will of - their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>Creator, they attended with respect to the rising of the sun, - and saluted with their invocations the Morning Star; with loving and - obedient hearts they addressed their prayers to Heaven for the gift - of offspring. “Hail, Creator and Maker! regard us, attend us. Heart - of Heaven, Heart of the Earth, do not forsake us, do not leave us. - God of Heaven and Earth, Heart of Heaven, Heart of Earth, consider - our posterity always. Accord us repose, a glorious repose, peace and - prosperity, justice, life and our being. Grant to us, O Hurakan, - enlightened and fruitful, Thou who comprehendest all things great and - small.”<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> In the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, the sacred book of the Quichés, - we are enabled to arrive more closely at the cosmogony and worship - of that remarkable people.<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> The reader may not be prepared for - the irreconcilable contradictions and for the obscure and figurative - language in which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>this work abounds; but with the remembrance that - all nations of antiquity delighted in the use of figures, parabolic - disguises and personifications under which the truth was couched, we - may be able to profit by even the seeming foolishness and confusion - of the Quiché record. The strange, wild poetry of the Quichés, can - only be fully enjoyed by pursuing the unabridged accounts for which we - regret we have not space.<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> In the order of the Quiché creation, the - heavens were first formed and their boundaries fixed by the Creator - and Former, by whom all move and breathe, by whom all nations enjoy - their wisdom and civilization. At first there was no man or animal - or bird or fish or green herb—nothing but the firmament existed, - the face of the earth was not yet to be seen, only the peaceful sea - and the whole expanse of heaven. Silence pervaded all; not even the - sea murmured; there was nothing but immobility and silence in the - darkness—in the night.<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> The Creator, the Former, the Dominator—the - feathered serpent—those that engender, those that give being, moved - upon the water as a glowing light. Their name is Gucumatz, heart of - heaven—God. “Earth,” they said, and in an instant it was formed and - rose like a vapor cloud; immediately the plains and mountains arose - and the cypress and pine appeared. Then Gucumatz was filled with joy, - and cried out, “Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven, Hurakan, - thunderbolt!”<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> Animals were next formed, but because they could - not praise their Maker they were doomed to become objects of prey. - Four creations of men then followed. The first man was made of clay, - but he had no intelligence and he was consumed in the water. Upon a - second trial a man and a woman were made of a sort of pith, but they - too were unsatisfactory experiments; though they had life and peopled - the earth, they were very inferior, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>living like beasts and forgetting - the Heart of Heaven. The Creator then destroyed them with a flood of - resin, allowing only a few to escape, that now exist as little apes - in the woods. The persons of the Godhead, enveloped in the darkness - which enshrouded a desolated world, counseled concerning the creation - of a more perfect order, and as a result they formed four perfect men - named: Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah, and Iqi-Balam. These men - were miraculously formed of white and yellow maize, and the Creator - was content with his labors. “Verily, at last, were there found men - worthy of their origin and their destiny; verily, at last, did the gods - look upon beings who could see with their eyes and handle with their - hands and understand with their hearts, grand of countenance and broad - of limb, the four sires of our race stood up under the white rays of - the morning star—sole light as yet of the primeval world—stood up and - looked. Their great clear eyes swept rapidly over all; they saw the - woods and rocks, the lakes and the sea, the mountains and the valleys, - and the heavens that were above all; and they comprehended all and - admired exceedingly. Then they returned thanks to those who had made - the world and all therein was: we offer up our thanks, twice—yea, - verily, thrice; we have received life, we speak, we walk, we taste, we - hear and understand, we know both that which is near and that which - is far off, we see all things, great and small, in all the heaven and - earth. Thanks, then, Maker and Former, Father and Mother of our life, - we have been created—we are.”<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> These four creatures were considered - too perfect by the gods, and in order that their omniscience might be - destroyed, they breathed a cloud of mist over their vision. To each of - these men wives were made while they slept. A fourth creation seems to - have taken place by which the ancestors of other races were formed.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p> - - <p>The account which the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> furnishes of the migrations of - the ancient Quichés is somewhat confused, and it is scarcely possible - to hope that the locations named should ever be fully identified. - Their worship was at first purely spiritual. “Only they gazed up into - heaven, not knowing what they had come so far to do.” In their original - home, wherever that might have been, they grew weary of this kind of - service—of watching for “the rising of the sun”—by which it seems they - meant the coming of temporal power. The four men then forsook their - abode and journeyed to Tulan-Zuiva, the seven caves or seven ravines. - Here they found gods; to each of the four men a different deity was - assigned. To Balam-Quitzé the god Tohil was given; to Balam-Agab the - god Avilix; and to Mahucutah, the god Hacavitz; and though the fourth - man Iqi-Balam also received a god, no special account is taken of him, - since the latter of the four men left no progeny. The journey to Tulan - is said to have been a very long one. Doubtless in this account we have - an allusion to one of those modifications in religious notions which - seems to have often attended a change of residence in early times. The - abstract worship of the Creator is supplanted by the more material - and ceremonial worship of intermediate deities (demi-gods). Tulan - is described as a much colder climate than the eastern and tropical - land which they had forsaken, and the god Tohil came to their relief - by the creation of fire. But incessant rains, accompanied with hail, - extinguished all their fires, which were again kindled repeatedly - by the fire-god. Tulan was an unfavorable locality for permanent - abode—rains, extreme cold, dampness, famine prevailed, and the peculiar - misfortune of the confusion of tongues there befell them. No longer - were the brother propagators of the race able to communicate with each - other. “At Tulan there was as yet no sun,” is the significant but - perplexing language of the narrative. At last Tulan, the mysterious - land of the “seven-caves,” was forsaken, and under the leadership - of Tohil the people began a migration which was attended with - indescribable hardships and famine itself. Their way led through dense - forests, over high mountains, a long sea passage, and by a rough and - pebbly shore. We are, however, told that the sea was parted for their - passage. Their tribulations were at an end when at last they arrived at - a beautiful mountain, which they named after their god Hacavitz. Here - they were informed that the sun would appear, and, as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> consequence, - the four progenitors of the race and all the people rejoiced. Here - was everything beauteous and gladdening. The morning star shed forth - a resplendent brightness, and the sun itself at last appeared, though - then it had not the warmth which it possessed at a later day. Before - the light of the sun, however, the gods Tohil, Avilix and Hacavitz, - together with the tiger and lion and reptiles, were changed into stone. - To interpret this paragraph, which is greatly condensed, is a difficult - undertaking, still there are certain facts which seem to serve as the - basis of intelligent speculation. The language is extremely figurative - throughout the entire narrative, and especially so here. Their worship - of the morning star at an early period seems to connect them with the - Mediterranean peoples of the old world. The allusions to the sun not - yet having come may be retrospective, indicating that the worship of - the sun had not been adopted at that early day, or it may indicate - that the period of national strength had not dawned. The fact that the - morning star shone more brilliantly on Mt. Hacavitz than at Tulan (the - seven caves), may mean either that the worship of the star was more - splendidly celebrated, or it may have reference to an astronomical - fact, that the star itself was more luminous, and furnish evidence in - harmony with the statements of the narrative that Mt. Hacavitz was a - more southern location than the tempestuous Tulan. The petrifaction - of the three tribal gods may have been the result of an age of peace - and prosperity which offered an opportunity for developing their - cultus; or, upon the other hand, if the coming of the sun refers to - the advent of a new religion, that which is known to have prevailed - among the Nahuas, the old gods may have been sculptured in stone, - that their national character and deeds might not be forgotten before - the increasing importance of the new faith. There they instituted - sacrifices of beasts to the three stone gods Tohil, Avilix and - Hacavitz; they even drew blood from their own bodies and offered it - to them. Finally, not content with these, the first four men, led by - Balam-Quitzé, instituted human sacrifices. Captives were taken from - neighboring tribes, kidnapping was practised extensively, until the - hostility of their neighbors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> broke forth into open war. The contest, - however, resulted favorably to the Quichés, and the surrounding tribes - became subject to the victorious power. In Hacavitz they composed - a national song called the Kamucu (“we see”)—a memorial of their - misfortunes in Tulan—a lament for the loss of so many of their people - in that unfortunate locality. This loss is described as occasioned by a - portion of their race being left behind, rather than as the result of - the misfortunes which attended them there. At last, at the noon-day of - their national glory, it came to pass that the ancestors of their race, - Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam, died—the men who - came from the east, from across the sea, died—and their remains were - enveloped in a great bundle and preserved as memorials of the ancestors - of the race.<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> Then the Quichés sang the sad Kamucu, and mourned the - loss of their leaders and that portion of their race which they left - behind them in Tulan.</p> - - <p>The definite location of Tulan is almost out of the question; it may - only be conjectured. We have already stated, on the authority of - Ordiñez, that there was a Tulan near Ococingo.<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> The Cakchiquel MS., - known only through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but evidently - a document containing the same facts as those stated in the <cite>Popol - Vuh</cite>, gives the following information concerning Tulan: “Four - persons came from Tulan, from the direction of the rising sun—that is - one Tulan. There is another Tulan in Xibalbay, and another where the - sun sets, and it is there that we came; and in the direction of the - setting sun there is another, where is the god; so that there are four - Tulans; and it is where the sun sets that we came to Tulan, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>from the - other side of the sea where this Tulan is; and it is there that we were - conceived and begotten by our mothers and our fathers.”<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> From this - it appears that two of these Tulans were not upon the continent at all; - one in the east across the sea, the birthplace of the race; another - an imaginary locality somewhere toward the region of the setting sun, - where the deity dwells; another Tulan is pretty certainly located in - Chiapas near the capital of Xibalba; with this place, however, they - do not state that they had any relationship, but another Tulan where - the sun sets is designated as the locality to which they came from - across the sea. Mr. Bancroft confounds the Tulan of their misfortunes - with that which was located near Xibalba; but this view is plainly - wrong, since the climatic surroundings of the Chiapan Tulan are quite - the opposite of those described as prevailing at that Tulan where - fire was so necessary. In the Tulan to which they journeyed they - suffered from cold, and their god Tohil, whom they received there, - gave them fire. Señor Orozco y Berra quite positively identifies this - Tulan with the Toltec capital Tollan, north of Anahuac, and certainly - with reason.<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> There their tongues were changed, there the Nahua - language was encountered. No doubt that in the first period of the - Toltec power in Tollan, the Maya-Quichés who had migrated northward - from some locality in the Usumacinta region and intermingled with the - Nahuas, sharing in their worship and appropriating certain elements of - language, migrated southward to the elevated regions of Vera-Paz and - founded a Quiché power in Guatemala.</p> - - <p>Upon the downfall of the Toltec monarchy in the eleventh century, no - doubt many noble Toltec families forsook the unfortunate and fallen - capital and founded in Guatemala the Quiché-Cakchiquel monarchy, - composed of Maya and Toltec elements, which spread itself southward - in colonies and branches into various parts of Central America, and - flourished with such <span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>power and fame at the time of the Conquest. It - is not the province of this work to take up the annals of this or any - other people, but only to treat of their most primitive period. The - gap in Quiché history between that which we have been treating and the - period of the Annals is considerable, and no document has yet been - discovered which will fill it with the wanting record. Mr. Bancroft - has placed the annals within the reach of the English reader in his - fifth volume. Mt. Hacavitz was the point at which the scattered tribes - collected and formed the nucleus of the subsequently powerful monarchy - in Guatemala of which Utatlan was the capital. The two places may - have been identical. Several facts point to the early association of - the ancestors of the Quichés with the Nahuas who subsequently figure - so conspicuously as Toltecs and Aztecs. The tribes which migrated - northward were called Yaqui (according to the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>), - and the name ethnographically has the same meaning as Nahuatl.<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> - The Quichés applied the name to the inhabitants of Mexico. The god - Tohil was called by the Yaqui tribes Yolcuat Quitzalcuat while the - Quichés were in Tulan. Quetzalcoatl, of whom we shall speak more - fully hereafter, was the greatest of the Nahua divinities.<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> The - Aztecs and Toltecs as well as the Quichés came from the “Seven Caves,” - that Tulan which seems to have been the early home of the two great - families speaking radically different languages—the Maya and the Nahua. - The statement so often met with that Tulan was across the sea is - perplexing. Can we look for it upon some of the islands of the Gulf or - Caribbean Sea? or are we to look upon the reference to the sea passage - as an earlier event in the history of both peoples, which because of - the lack of records has been confounded with some of the adventures - of the march toward the northern Tulan, which was undertaken at least - by the Mayas and possibly by the Nahuas from their common home in the - Usumacinta valley? We are inclined, in the light of a large margin - of testimony, to accept the latter view, and consider the Tulan of - the Chiapan region to have been the early home of both peoples—the - primitive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> one of the Mayas and the adopted one of the Nahuas—after - leaving Hue Hue Tlappalan, the accidental centre to which in their - wanderings they converged, and in which they met; here in an age of - simpler manners they lived in the enjoyment of peace, preserving each - their own institutions and language, though considerably influencing - each other’s customs. The Tulan of this Central American region may - have been confounded in name and characteristics with the original home - of each race “across the sea.”</p> - - <p>The Quiché record furnishes us with the account of an epoch in the - early Quiché history which we are justified in characterizing as - their heroic period. It occupies the same place in their history as - the Trojan war in the history of Greece. The tradition of the fall of - Xibalba, the terror of its neighbors, the power which by its enemies - was called infernal, is a heroic composition founded on a combination - of events as mysterious and wonderful as those contained in the Iliad - itself. To locate the events in their proper place, to assign them - their true period, is attended with as many difficulties as attend the - Homeric history. The authorities differ as to the proper chronologic - order of the record. The <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, both in the Ximinez and - Brasseur editions, give the narrative to which we have reference - immediately after the destruction of the men made of pith or wood—the - result of the first creation. Mr. Bancroft is somewhat indifferent - about the order and follows the narrative. Brasseur de Bourbourg, - however, considers that chronologically the narrative follows the third - creation, that of the four founders of the Quiché race.<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> If we - look upon the so-called creations as simply tribal origins and not as - mythical accounts of the origin of man, there is room for the heroic - period before the days of the four ancestors of the Quichés; but if, - on the contrary, the two creations preceding that of Balam-Quitzé and - his associates are mythical, are the legendary accounts of a fancied - order in creation and not the origin of tribes, the view taken by the - Abbé is the only one which can be accepted. The question cannot at - present be definitely settled. If we resort to the latter view, that - of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>Abbé, it is necessary for us to suppose that the long reign - of Balam-Quitzé, Balam-Agab, Mahucutah and Iqi-Balam is that of a - line, a dynasty, and not of individuals—which is altogether probable. - Brasseur supposes the time of which the tradition speaks to have been - about fifteen centuries before the Spanish conquest, and thinks Copan - was the capital of a province called Payaqui (“in the Yaqui,” which we - have seen was the name of the Nahuas), and that this capital, otherwise - known as Chiquimula, owed its origin to a warrior known as Balam, who - introduced human sacrifices. His authority is the <cite>Isagoge Historico - MS.</cite> cited by Pelaez, to whose work we have already referred.<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> - To attempt to determine upon the time definitely would be a hopeless - undertaking. The mysterious tradition with its confused statements and - allegorical allusions we will attempt to condense into intelligible - shape. This has already been accomplished by Mr. Bancroft, and his - version greatly facilitates our efforts in the same direction.</p> - - <p>The second division of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> contains the account of - two attempts at the overthrow of the great Xibalban monarchy, founded - by Votan. The first of these proved unsuccessful and fatal to the - enemies of the great power; the second, undertaken by the descendants - of the defeated chieftains, resulted in the downfall of the empire - of the Serpents or Votanites, and in the revenge of the death of - the unsuccessful warriors. The account is provokingly figurative; - different allies of each of the powers being spoken of as owls, wild - beasts, rabbits, deer, rats, lice, ants, etc., a custom which has - always prevailed among savage and semi-civilized nations. Savages of - the forests are usually referred to as wild beasts in early tradition. - Xibalba is so hated by its enemies that its usual title is the - “infernal regions.”<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> Torquemada refers to it as <em>hell</em>, and - its king as the king of the “shades.”<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> The hatred was intense, and - the worst <span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>invectives were mild in the estimation of the enemies of - the no doubt oppressive power. We have already given the account of - creation in which Gucumatz (the Plumed Serpent) figured conspicuously. - He, however, is seen to have acted at the word of Hurakan (“Heart of - Heaven”). The closing paragraphs of the first division of the <cite>Popol - Vuh</cite> give some of the exploits of the young heroes Hunahpu and - Xbalanque, who figure as the defendants of the worship of the Heart of - Heaven. A certain Vucub-Cakix, who assumed to be the sun and god of - the people, and who in his pride offended the Heart of Heaven, fell at - their avenging hands. His sons Zipacna and Cabrakan, whose pride was - as offensive to Hurakan as had been their father’s, shared the same - fate; though the brothers lost four hundred of their allies in the - undertaking, by Zipanca toppling over a house upon them while they were - rejoicing at his supposed death in a pit in which they had buried him.</p> - - <p>The second division of the account reverts to events which preceded - those in the closing paragraphs of the first division by one or - more generations. The exploits of the ancestors of the brothers are - narrated. Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, grandparents of the sun and moon, - had two sons, Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu. The former of these sons - married, and to him were born also two sons, Hunbatz and Hunchouen, - who grew up to be wise and skillful and great artists. With all - these persons Hurakan, the Heart of Heaven, communicated through his - messenger Voc. At last Hunhunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu undertook a journey - toward Xibalba, playing ball as they went, by which we understand that - they set out upon a march of conquest. Upon hearing of their approach, - Hun Came and Vukub Came, kings of Xibalba, sent them a challenge to - a game of ball by four messengers who were called owls. From the - ball-ground of Nimxab Carchah (now the name of an Indian town in Vera - Paz), they followed the messengers down the steep road to Xibalba, - crossing rivers and ravines and a bloody stream. After arriving at - the royal palace, and during the process of arranging for the contest - in which their strength should be tried, they were so unfortunate as - first to be made the subjects of ridicule for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> whole court, then - put to torture, and afterwards were cruelly and it seems treacherously - murdered. The head of Hunhunahpu was hung upon a tree, which at once - became overgrown with gourds so as to hide the head of the unfortunate - chief. Notwithstanding the royal decree that no one should approach - the tree, Xquiq, a virgin princess, a Xibalban, determined to taste - its forbidden fruit, and in an hour of solitude was in the act of - reaching forth to pluck it, when Hunhunahpu spat into her hand and she - immaculately conceived. Her condition was discovered by her father, who - delivered her to the owls, the royal messengers, to be put to death. By - bribing her executioners she escaped and went to the dwelling of the - old grandmother Xmucane, who upon the death of Hunhunahpu’s wife had - taken charge of his sons, the youthful Hunbatz and Hunchouen. Xquiq, - by miraculous performances, satisfied Xmucane that Hunhunahpu was the - father of her unborn children, and was received into her home. The - Xibalban virgin brought forth twin sons in the house of the enemies - of her country. These she named Hunahpu and Xbalanque. From the very - first their lot with their great-grandmother was a hard one. Their - half-brothers Hunbatz and Hunchouen treated them harshly, but in time - the twins revenged themselves by changing the former into monkeys, and - succeeding to their artistic skill and musical fame.</p> - - <p>Various exploits of the twin brothers are narrated, chiefly—as we would - interpret the figurative language—with the more savage tribes of the - forests and mountains. From one of their captives whom they call a rat, - they learned of the expedition of their father and uncle, and were - brought into possession of their ball implements. The old ball-ground - (probably battle-ground) of their fathers was resorted to by Hunahpu - and Xbalanque, and when the Xibalban monarchs, Hun Came and Vukub Came, - heard of their purposes, they were angered and sent a challenge to - them as they had done to their ancestors. The message was delivered - at the great-grandmother’s home, and the two chieftains, upon being - acquainted with the news, returned to bid both mother and grandmother - farewell. Before taking final leave, they planted in the centre of - the house (probably the court) each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> a cane, which was endowed with - the singular attribute of revealing to the family the fortunes of - each of the brothers. The life and fate of each cane was inseparably - connected with that of Hunahpu and Xbalanque. On their route to Xibalba - the bloody river was passed and a stream called Papuhya; but, more - wise than their predecessors, they took cunning precautions not to be - deceived and sacrificed by the Xibalban monarchs. For this purpose, it - is said, they sent an animal called Xan before them, equipped with a - hair from Hunahpu’s leg, with which he pricked the princes and by their - exclamations learned their names. Thus they detected the artificial - wooden men whom we are told deceived their ancestors and made them the - objects of ridicule.</p> - - <p>By this strange personification we think we may understand that the - father and the uncle of the two young heroes had treated with a couple - of irresponsible Xibalbans who had been sent out to meet them, with - the pretence that they were the kings, and when they had induced their - enemies to enter the city, the true monarchs seized them and repudiated - the action of the so-called wooden men, avowing no responsibility for - their pledges. Hunahpu and Xbalanque avoided two other artifices of - which their ancestors were the victims; one of these was a seat on a - red-hot stone under the pretence that it was the seat of honor; the - other was an ordeal in the “House of Gloom.”<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> The angry Xibalban - kings then met them in a game of ball, but suffered a defeat. Hun Came - and Vukub Came then requested the victors to give them four bouquets of - flowers, which request was granted, the fortunate brothers themselves - bearing them to the defeated kings. At their instance, however, the - guards of the royal gardens committed Hunahpu and Xbalanque to the - house of lances—the second of five ordeals common at Xibalba. Scarcely - had this been done before a swarm of ants—allies of the brothers—came - to their rescue, entered the royal gardens, bribed the lancers, - released their leaders and punished the owls—guards of the Xibalban - kings—by splitting their lips. The defeated <span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>monarchs began to realize - the seriousness of the contest which was being waged against them. - Hunahpu and Xbalanque were then subjected to ordeals in the houses of - cold, of tigers, and of fire respectively, but without suffering harm. - As we proceed, the account becomes more figurative than ever. In the - next ordeal in the house of bats, we are told that Hunahpu’s head was - cut off by the ruler of the bats, who, it seems, was recognized as of - super-terrestrial origin. Strange to say, this violent proceeding did - not prove fatal to Hunahpu; the animals assembled, came to the heroes’ - relief, and by the strategic skill of the turtle and rabbit, at a - great game of ball, the brothers came out of all the Xibalban ordeals - unharmed.</p> - - <p>The next act was designed as the beginning of the end of the great - struggle. Xibalba had failed because the brutes were not its allies. - The brothers were determined to show the haughty rival their personal - greatness, and resorted to the use of their magical arts. After - proper instructions to their sorcerers, Xulu and Pacam, Hunahpu and - Xbalanque mounted a funeral pyre and endured a voluntary death. But - their ashes and bones which were thrown into a river, rose instantly - into life, assuming the shape of young men. Five days subsequent to - this wonderful event they appeared in the form of man-fishes; and on - the day following, the sorcery was complete, for the brothers now - presented themselves in the form of “ragged old men, dancing, burning - and restoring houses, killing and restoring each other to life, and - performing other wonderful things. They were induced to exhibit their - skill before the princes of Xibalba, killing and resuscitating the - king’s dog, burning and restoring the royal palace. Then a man was - made the subject of their art. Hunahpu was cut in pieces and brought - to life by Xbalanque. Finally the monarchs of Xibalba wanted to - experience personally the temporary death; Hun Came the highest was - first killed, then Vukub Came, but life was not restored to them.”<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> - The twin sons of the unfortunate Xibalban virgin, an outcast from her - home, triumphed, their father and uncle were avenged, the warlike - Xibalbans—the fierce, frightful-looking, owl-like, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>faithless, - hypocritical tyrants, black and white, and with painted faces, as they - are described—were overthrown forever. The ancestors of the victorious - chieftains were then deified and given places in the sun and moon; - while their allies, the enemies of Xibalba, were made stars in the - firmament.</p> - - <p>To interpret fully this figurative account requires further knowledge, - which it is hoped ultimately may come to light. The beheading of - Hunahpu in the house of bats may signify the loss of the most important - division of his army; for when the “animals” came to his relief—by - which we understand the less civilized tribes of the country—he - obtained a victory. The closing paragraphs of the account indicate that - a long and tiresome warfare brought the brothers repeated victories, - but not the entire overthrow of Xibalba; and that stratagem was - resorted to—a stratagem no more improbable or difficult to understand - than that of the wooden horse said to have been used by the Greeks - at Troy. The stratagem was at last successful, and Xibalba, of the - Votanites—we suppose the empire of the Chanes—fell. The war seems to - have been one of religion in part, for Hurakan, “Heart of Heaven,” - inspired the contest, and Gucumatz, “the Plumed Serpent,” one of - his associate though minor deities, was the god of Hunahpu and - Xbalanque. The wicked Xibalbans were puffed up against the Heart of - Heaven, would not accept the true faith, and hence their overthrow - before the advancing power of a new religion.<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> It is certain that - the conquerors of Xibalba (which was no doubt Palenque) were near - neighbors, who had been closely allied to the great power. Bancroft is - of the opinion that they were the Tzequiles, who arrived during Votan’s - absence and introduced new ideas of government and religion among - his people.<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> Garcia Pelaez, in his <cite>Memorias</cite>, agrees with - Juarros in calling them Carthaginians, and states that they arrived in - that region about four hundred years before Christ, founded Tulan, the - present Ococingo, and overthrew ancient Culhuacan or Palenque.<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> - Brasseur de Bourbourg says <span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>that the Nahuas, coming into Mexico by sea - at the south [<i>i. e.</i>, in the south central region] slowly moved - toward the north, to the regions bordering on California, and also - spreading their civilization across the Usumacinta River, went into - Yucatan and even Guatemala. This he thinks occurred in the year 174 of - our era; Xibalba was at the height of her power, but was overthrown in - the revolution and conquest.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> While we do not attach much certainty - to the Abbé’s date, still we think that the fall of Xibalba was due to - Nahua influences brought to bear upon the ancestors of the Quichés. - The old religion and civilization of the Votanites were compelled - to yield to the vigorous and warlike power which brought with it a - religion which has ever commended itself to the senses and impulses of - semi-civilized peoples. The worship of the sun-symbol of the Heart of - Heaven was destined to supplant all other faiths.</p> - - <p>It will be remembered that Quetzalcoatl was the leader and deity of the - Nahuas, and that in their language his name signified “plumed serpent,” - while Gucumatz, leader and patron deity of the Xibalban conquerors - has precisely the same significance in the Quiché language. Utatlan - upon the Guatemalian highlands was doubtless the point from which the - allied forces under the brothers descended the precipitous road to - the Usumacinta region below. It is probable that the Nahuas had lived - for some time in the country, had reached it in their migrations by - water along the Gulf coast, and spread their population to quarters - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>both north and south of the point at which they entered. They may - have been permitted to settle in the country without molestation, and - in time to have united their forces with the rivals of Xibalba for - the overthrow of a power which was the dread of the entire Central - American region. The crumbling though wonderful ruins of Palenque are - the sole vestiges which are left to us of a grand capital and noble - empire, and these offer us nothing but the sealed histories which are - graven in hieroglyphics upon its walls. Subsequently the Maya-Quiché - nations divided and extended their language in three directions; - one division journeyed toward Guatemala, another toward Mexico, and - another into Yucatan; the latter region has ever remained a peculiarly - Maya country. Las Casas states that some of the Guatemalians had a - legend of their origin, to the effect that a divine pair of beings had - thirteen sons (but by comparison with other authors, namely, Roman in - Garcia, and Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 74–5, it is clear that the writer - designed to write three—<em>tres</em>—instead of thirteen—<em>trece</em>), - or rather three sons. The eldest was puffed up in his own conceit, and - attempted to create man against the will of his parents, but failed, - except that he was able to produce vessels of the meaner sort. The - younger sons, who exhibited quite a different spirit, were granted - the privilege, and after creating the sun and moon and stars, created - the first man and woman, the progenitors of the human race.<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> Las - Casas adds, “They <span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>have among them knowledge of the flood and of the - end of the world. They call it ‘butic,’ a name which signifies a flood - of many waters. They also believe that another ‘butic’ and judgment - will come, not of water but of fire. They hold that certain persons - who escaped from the flood populated their land; these were called the - Great Father and Great Mother.”<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> In Yucatan the origin traditions - point directly to an eastern and foreign source for the population. - The early writers report that the natives believed their ancestors to - have crossed the sea by a passage which was opened for them.<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> It - was also believed that part of the population came into the country - from the West. Lizana says that the smaller portion of the population, - the “little descent,” came from the East, while the greater portion, - “the great descent,” came from the West.<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> Cogolludo disagrees with - this view, and considers the eastern colony as the larger; a view which - is not likely to be true. The author himself is not quite certain as - to what he thinks upon the subject, and contradicts himself squarely - on the same page, as to the direction from which Zamna, the Yucatanic - culture-hero, is said to have come.<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> Señor Orozco y Berra, thinks - that the Yucatanic population came from the north-east (from Florida), - by way of Cuba and the islands adjacent.<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> The culture-hero, Zamna, - the author of all civilization in Yucatan, is described as the teacher - of letters and the leader of the people from their ancient home. His - relation to the people and his office of priest and deity combined—the - fact that he was the leader of a colony from the East, that he named - all the divisions of the land, all the towns, coasts, bays and - rivers—identifies him with Votan or rather with one of his disciples - or associates. Cogolludo’s statement, first that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>he came from the - West, may be true of the direction from which he came into Yucatan; and - the statement that he came from the East, may refer to the original - migration by which he in company with Votan reached Chiapas and from - thence entered the peninsula on the north-east. He was the founder of - the capital city of Mayapan, and after a long life died and was buried - at Izamal.<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> This became a shrine for pilgrims and was visited for - centuries afterwards by religious devotees in large numbers. Zamna is - supposed to have founded the oldest royal house in Yucatan—that of the - Cocomes.<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> The second culture-hero, of whom mention is made by all - the early writers, was Cukulcan (meaning plumed serpent, precisely - the same as Quetzalcoatl), who entered the country from the West and - settled at Chichen-Itza.<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> Landa is not certain whether he preceded - or followed the Itzas. His celibacy, general purity of morals, and the - advanced character of his teachings, seem to identify him with the - Nahua culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, and it is believed, with reason, - that he appeared in Yucatan after his mysterious disappearance in - the province of Goazacoalco. For some unknown reason, Cukulcan left - Chichen-Itza after a residence there of ten years. Herrera states that - he had two brothers who remained in Chichen-Itza, while Cukulcan went - to Mayapan. He describes all as practising the purest asceticism. After - the disappearance of Cukulcan, temples were erected to his memory and - he was worshiped as a god.<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The date of his residence in Yucatan - is a matter of considerable dispute, Cogolludo placing it in the - twelfth century, Herrera in the ninth, Brasseur de Bourbourg in the - eleventh, and Bancroft in the second. To fix dates on no <span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>better data - than such legends is folly. It is probable, however, that Cukulcan - was the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, who was the teacher of the Nahua - nations and figured as the introducer of the fine arts, of purity of - morals, of confessional ceremonies and a humane and enlightened system - of religion at Cholula, and afterwards disappeared toward the East - upon the waters of the Gulf. With the rule of the Cocomes and the - annals of that remarkable branch of the Chiapan family, composed of - Maya and Nahua elements known as the Tutul Xius, we have nothing to do - in this work.<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> Las Casas, in examining the doctrine of Hunab Ku, - “the only God” among the Yucatecoes, who is described as the father - of Zamna, discovered a most striking Christ myth; one which conforms - so closely to the gospel account of Christ’s birth and ministry that - we must conclude that either some foreigner must have been cast upon - the coast after the Christian era began, bringing the gospel with him, - or that one of two views is true, namely, that the Fathers fabricated - the story, or that the natives, expecting favor of their conquerors, - endeavored to harmonize their belief with that which was being taught - them. Las Casas tells us of their belief in a Trinity consisting of - Izona, the Father; Bacab, the Son, and Echuah, the Holy Ghost.<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> - The Son was born of the Virgin Chibirias, and was rejected of men, was - scourged and crucified on a tree with cross-arms; he descended into - the regions of the dead, but rose again on the third day, and finally - ascended to heaven. In fact the story is the Apostles’ Creed without - the “Credo,” and is probably as much the work of the credulous and - imaginative Spanish Fathers as of the designing natives. The story - ought to be repudiated without question. It only remains for us to - submit the question to the reader, whether the Maya peoples are not of - transatlantic origin, as we believe the facts in this chapter indicate.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_VI"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VI</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE NAHUA NATIONS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">The Early Inhabitants of Mexico—Quinames—Miztecs and - Zapotecs—Totonacs and Huastecs—Olmecs and Xicalancas—The - Nahuas—The Cholula Pyramid—Its Origin Explained in the Duran - MS.—No Relation to a Flood—Ixtlilxochitl’s Deluge Tradition—The - first Toltecs—The Codex Chimalpopoca Account—The Discovery - of Maize—Sahagun’s Origin of the Nahuas—They came from - Florida—Their Settlement in Tamoanchan—Their Migrations—Hue Hue - Tlapalan—Its Location, according to the Sources—Not Identical - with Tlapallan de Cortés—Not in Central America—Probably in - the Mississippi Valley—Beginning of the Toltec Annals—The - Chichimecs not Nahuas—The Nahuatlacas—The Aztecs—Aztlan—As - Described by Early Writers—Aztec Migration—Aztec Maps—Señor - Ramirez on Migration Maps—The Seven Caves—Three Claims for the - Location of Aztlan—The Culture Hero—Quetzalcoatl.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">IN considering the origin of the Nahua nations, especially of the - Toltecs and Aztecs, it is common to look upon the former as the first - inhabitants of Mexico. Such a conclusion is, however, erroneous, since - the Toltecs were preceded in Central-Southern Mexico, and even in - Anahuac, both by people of different extraction from themselves and - by scattering tribes of their own linguistic family, the Nahua. Of - the former class, the most conspicuous are the so-called Quinametin - (or Quinames), otherwise known as giants. These fierce and powerful - people were encountered by the Olmecs, the first Nahuas to colonize - the region north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All the early writers - refer to them in terms which indicate that they were disposed to accept - the existence of a race of giants as a fact. Veytia and Clavigero, - however, are convinced that the report is not to be accepted literally. - The widest possible difference of opinion as to their origin and - relationship to existing tribes prevails<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> with different authors. All - agree, however, that they were the first inhabitants of the country. - These cruel monsters, addicted to the most disgusting vices, the - terror of the immigrating peoples, at last met their fate, according - to Ixtlilxochitl, in a great convulsion of nature which shook the - earth and caused the mountains and volcanoes to swallow up and kill - them.<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> It is probable that this account was figurative. Duran - says they were destroyed by the Tlascaltecs while eating.<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> Veytia - attributes the destruction to the Olmec chiefs, who made a feast for - their enemies and when they were stupid and drunken fell upon them - and slew them. We think that in this allusion to the giants, “the - first inhabitants of the land,” we see the Votanic colonists from - Xibalba that are supposed to have penetrated Anahuac at an early - day. They may not have carried any special degree of refinement with - them from their old home, and if they did, they probably lapsed into - a state of semi-barbarism. Their power as a people, their enmity to - the immigrants, and their traditional connection with the hated and - all-powerful Xibalba, may have won for them the name of giants because - of the fear that was entertained of them; or, as Mr. Bancroft thinks, - they may not have been savages at all, but a civilized branch of the - Xibalbans, carrying on the warfare in the North which had been waged - farther South.<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> It is quite probable that we have here a figurative - allusion, from a Nahua standpoint, to the fall of the Xibalban power - itself—the new-world Babylon, which, like the old, may have met its - fate during a drunken revel.<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span></p> - - <p>To the tribes which figured conspicuously in Mexico prior to the - Toltecs and not related to the Nahuas, we may add the Miztecs and - Zapotecs, whose language, though not Maya, is in some respects similar - to it, while the architectural remains and traditional origin of - this people associates them with the Nahuas. Their civilization in - Oajaca rivalled that of the Aztecs in its degree of advancement.<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> - The Totonacs were formerly, according to Torquemada, of Nahua - extraction; but the authority in the face of linguistic difficulties - is doubtful.<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> According to Torquemada’s claim, they were the - builders of the temple of the sun and moon at Teotihuacan near Lake - Tezcuco.<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> The Huastecs of northern Vera Cruz were a Maya branch - of the power at the south; they mark the most northern point reached - by the Maya tongue. Of the Nahua predecessors of the Toltecs in - Mexico the Olmecs and Xicalancas were the most important. They were - the forerunners of the great nations which followed. According to - Ixtlilxochitl, these people—which are conceded to be one—occupied the - new world in the third age; they came from the East in ships or barks - to the land of Potonchan, which they commenced to populate, and on - the shores of the River Atoyac, between the Ciudad de los Angeles and - Cholula, they found some giants who had escaped the calamity which - overtook that race in the second age of the world.<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> Here then comes - the destruction of the giants referred to above. The first settlement - of the Olmecs and Xicalancas in Mexico is supposed to have been on the - site of the ancient city of Xicalanco at the point which still bears - the name, at the entrance of the Laguna de Terminos, while a second - city, built probably a little later, was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>situated on the coast a short - distance below Vera Cruz; the entire region bore the name of Anahuac - Xicalanco.<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> The first great exploit of the Olmec chiefs, the - destruction of the giants, we observe was performed at some distance - from their earliest settlement. The state of Puebla became their chosen - ground, and quite soon after the above achievement they undertook the - building of the famous tower of Cholula, which is so closely allied in - its traditional history with the Tower of Babel. Several authors state - that the erection of the pyramid of Cholula was done in memory of the - erection of the tower of Babel, at which it is claimed the ancestors - of the Olmec chiefs were present. Boturini is probably one of the - most sanguine advocates of this view.<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> Others consider that the - knowledge which the ancestors of this people transmitted to them with - reference to Babel, in time became associated with the Cholula edifice - and confounded with its history.</p> - - <p>The Toltecs possessed a deluge tradition, which we will notice - hereafter, which unquestionably had reference to a very general and - devastating flood; perhaps the scriptural one, but it is clear, as we - think we have the authority to show, that the Cholula pyramid and its - origin had no relation to that tradition, though so often confounded - with it and the tower referred to by the Nahua chroniclers. The - generally accepted origin of the pyramid is as follows: from the great - cataclysm which destroyed the giants, seven of that race of monsters - escaped by shutting themselves up in a mountain cavern. After the - waters subsided, Xelhua, one of their number, went to Cholula and began - the construction of this pyramid “to escape a second flood, should - another occur,” according to Kingsborough, or as a “memorial of the - mountain called Tlaloc which had sheltered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>him,” according to Pedro de - los Rios. The bricks which were manufactured at the foot of the Sierra - de Cocotl were transported to Cholula by being passed through the - hands of a file of men extending between the two localities. But the - angered gods seeing the presumption of mortals, smote both the tower - and its architects with thunderbolts and stopped their work.<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> Lord - Kingsborough so intimately connects the erection of the tower with the - Toltec deluge legend as to derive Xelhua, the builder of the tower, - from the Toltecs rather than from the race of giants, by claiming - that he escaped from the deluge with Paticatle the Mexican Noah in - an ark, and adds that when the tower was destroyed and the tongues - of the builders confounded, Xelhua led a colony to the new world. - This last will serve as a specimen of how the Cholula legend has been - misunderstood and confounded with the tower of Babel. Father Duran in - his MS.,<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, 1585 <span class="allsmcap">A. - D.</span>, quotes from the lips of a native of Cholula, over an hundred - years old, a version of the legend which assigns quite a different - object for building the Pyramid, one which shows that it never was - erected as a memorial of Babel nor ever had any reference to an escape - from any flood either past or in anticipation. It is as follows: “In - the beginning before the light of the sun had been created, this land - was in obscurity and darkness and void of any created thing; all was - a plain without hill or elevation, encircled in every part by water - without tree or created thing; and immediately after the light and the - sun arose in the east, there appeared gigantic men of deformed stature, - and possessed the land, who desiring to see the nativity of the sun as - well as his occident, proposed to go and seek them. Dividing themselves - into two parties, some journeyed toward the West and others toward - the East; these travelled until the sea cut off their road, whereupon - they determined to return to the place from which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>they started, and - arriving at this place (Cholula), not finding the means of reaching the - sun, enamored of his light and beauty, they determined to build a tower - so high that its summit should reach the sky. Having collected material - for the purpose, they found a very adhesive clay and bitumen, with - which they speedily commenced to build the tower, and having reared - it to the greatest possible altitude, so that they say it reached to - the sky, the Lord of the Heavens, enraged, said to the inhabitants of - the sky, ‘Have you observed how they of the earth have built a high - and haughty tower to mount hither, being enamored of the light of the - sun and his beauty? Come! and confound them; because it is not right - that they of the earth, living in the flesh, should mingle with us.’ - Immediately at that very instant the inhabitants of the sky sallied - forth like flashes of lightning; they destroyed the edifice and divided - and scattered its builders to all parts of the earth.”<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> This - account, the most ancient on record, makes no reference to a flood, - and is quite distinct from the Mexican deluge tradition. Its value as - an interpreter of the tendency of the American tribes not only of the - United States and Mexico, but of both Americas, to erect mounds and - truncated pyramids is not inconsiderable, since it confirms the opinion - long entertained that they were connected with sun-worship. The great - culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, the white saintly personage from the East, - said to have been the leader of the Nahuas, appeared during the Olmec - rule, and to his honor the Cholulans erected a temple upon the pyramid - which their countrymen or predecessors had failed to complete.<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> - Quetzalcoatl was, however, no tribal hero, but was so intimately - identified with the institutions and civilization of the entire Nahua - race that we purposely defer a consideration of his character at - present in order that we may hasten to the traditional origin of the - Toltecs.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p> - - <p>It is not our purpose to go back to the several traditions of the - creation of man, preserved in as many localities in Mexico, each with - its own variations, but simply to take up tradition where it first - relates to the Toltec families. We are fully aware of the wide range - of opinion with reference to what properly constitutes this tradition, - and of the irreconcilable variations in dates and numeric details - among the several Spanish writers. Probably all will agree that the - native writer Ixtlilxochitl, who inherited the rich collection of royal - archives and hieroglyphic paintings belonging to his ancestors (and - which fortunately escaped the wholesale vandalism of the conquerors), - though both contradictory and negligent, has furnished us the most - reliable narrative which has yet been brought to light. Without - attempting to correct or unravel his chronology, we simply translate - his account of the origin of the Toltecs. Speaking of the first age - of the world, the pre-diluvial period, he says: “It is found in the - histories of the Toltecs that this age and first world as they call - it, lasted 1716 years; that men were destroyed by tremendous rains and - lightning from the sky, and even all the land without the exception - of anything, and the highest mountains, were covered up and submerged - in water ‘caxtolmoletlti,’ or <em>fifteen cubits</em>, and here they - add other fables of how men came to multiply from the few who escaped - from this destruction in a ‘toptlipetlacali,’ that this word nearly - signifies a close chest; and how after men had multiplied they erected - a very high ‘zacuali,’ which is to say a tower of great height, in - order to take refuge in it, should the second world (age) be destroyed. - Presently their languages were confused; and not able to understand - each other, they went to different parts of the earth. The Toltecs, - consisting of seven friends with their wives, who understood the - same language, came to these parts, having first passed great land - and seas, having lived in caves, and having endured great hardships - in order to reach this land, which they found good and fertile for - their habitation; and relate that they wandered one hundred and four - years through different parts of the world before they reached Hue hue - Tlapalan, which was in Ce Tecpatl, five hundred and twenty years after - the flood. Seventeen hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> and fifteen years after the flood, there - was a terrible hurricane that carried away trees, mounds, houses and - the largest edifices, notwithstanding which many men and women escaped - principally in caves and places where the great hurricane could not - reach them. A few days having passed, they set out to see what had - become of the earth, when they found it all covered and populated with - monkeys. All this time they were in darkness without seeing the light - of the sun nor the moon that the wind had brought them. The Indians - invented a fable which says that men were changed into monkeys. * * * - One hundred and fifty-eight years after the great hurricane and 4994 - from the creation of the world, there was another destruction of this - land, which was of the Quinametin, giants who lived in New Spain, which - destruction was a great trembling of the earth, which swallowed up and - killed them, the mountains and volcanoes burst upon them, that for a - certainty none should escape. At the same time many of the Toltecs - perished and the Chichimecs their neighbors. That was in the year Ce - Tecpatl; and this age they call Tlachilonatnip, that is to say, sun [or - age] of earth.”<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> Here follows an account of the construction of - the calendar by the assembly of Lords in Hue hue Tlapalan in the year - 5097 of the creation of the world and 104 after the destruction of the - giants.</p> - - <p>The singular agreement of this account with the Mosaic description, - in some of its details, such as the height attained by the waters - above the mountains, the escape of certain persons in an ark, and - the erection of a high tower, together with the subsequent confusion - of tongues, Lord Kingsborough is convinced furnishes proof that the - Toltecs were of Jewish descent.<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> While we are not prepared to - believe the sanguine speculations of that eminent author in this - case, still one of two views must be true: either the Toltecs were - of old world origin, and at a remote period treasured up among their - traditional histories notices of the Mosaic deluge, traditions of - which are so generally <span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>current among the Asiatic nations, or the - Mexican traditions of local inundation were warped by the teachings - of the Spanish priests in a degree beyond any precedent in history - or reasonable expectation, and that within a comparatively few years - after the conquest. Our authority in this case is a native of Tezcuco, - a son of the queen; and because of his acquaintance with both the - hieroglyphic writings and the Castilian, served as interpreter to - the viceroy. His <cite>Relacions</cite> were composed from the archives of - his family and compared with the testimony of the oldest and best - informed natives. It does not seem to us that the sense of historic - integrity cultivated to so nice a point at Tezcuco, where the censorial - council, just prior to the advent of the conquerors, punished with - death any who should willfully pervert the truth, could have so - sadly degenerated that Ixtlilxochitl and the venerable natives who - were conscious of the representations contained in his work, should - proclaim a falsehood which would not meet with contradiction.<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> We - are aware that this author’s chronology is an inextricable maze of - contradictions which cannot be unravelled or reconstructed. The Toltec - families, seven in number, are, however, said to have reached Hue hue - Tlapalan five hundred and twenty years after the flood. The journey, - however, occupied only one hundred and four years of that time. Their - wanderings, attended with severe experiences, nakedness, and hunger and - cold, were over many lands, across expanses of sea and through untold - hardships.<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p> - - <p>The date of the migration to Hue hue Tlapalan cannot be approximated - from available data, but it is evident that Ixtlilxochitl fixes it - at 520 years after the flood, or 2236 years after the creation—a - period which must have antedated the Christian era by a score of - centuries or more, even if we accept his chronology, which (on p. - 322 of his <cite>Relacions</cite>), implies that more than five thousand - years elapsed between the creation and the birth <span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>of Christ. The - <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, a Nahua record written in Spanish letters, - which occupies probably the same relation to early Mexican history - that the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> does to the Maya history, has been made - known to us through the writings of Brasseur de Bourbourg, but as - yet it has not been published. Ixtlilxochitl was the copyist of this - document, and of course used it in composing his <cite>Relacions</cite>. - Mr. Bancroft has attempted to collect from scattered passages, taken - from the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> and found in Brasseur’s writings, - a continuous narrative, but with little success. “The division of - the earth,” by the sun, “six times four hundred, plus one hundred, - plus thirteen years ago to-day, the twenty-second of May, 1558;” in - other words, in the year 955 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, is a date obtained which - seems to refer to the division of the land among the followers of - Votan.<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> In the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, Gucumatz (whose name signifies - plumed serpent) is described as going in search of maize, while the - <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> describes Quetzalcoatl, whose name is - identical in meaning with that of Gucumatz, as entering upon the same - undertaking, though under somewhat different circumstances, and states - that when he had found it, he brought it to Tamoanchan.<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> We shall - see hereafter that Sahagun locates Tamoanchan in Tabasco, a fact of - considerable value in studying the Toltec migration. The reader will - not, however, associate Quetzalcoatl with the above date, since such - is not the purport of the record. The <cite>Chimalpopoca</cite> implies that - Quetzalcoatl afterwards becoming obnoxious to his companions forsook - them, a statement noted by Mr. Bancroft, though its full value does not - seem to have been observed by that author.<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> The account clearly - refers to the role of Quetzalcoatl among the Quichés, when he was - known as Gucumatz, and prior to his appearance among the Olmec (Nahua) - tribes. It indicates that the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> account of the - discovery of maize is purely Quiché, and has no reference to the Nahuas - whatever. The search for maize by the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>plumed serpent, call him by - either his Quiché or Nahua name if you wish, was prior to the advent of - that remarkable personage among the Nahuas. The reputed discovery we - consider nothing more than a figurative allusion to the introduction of - agriculture by this culture-hero, the knowledge of which he afterwards - communicated to the Nahuas at Tamoanchan. If these inferences are - true, the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, so far as we are acquainted - with its contents, can render us no assistance with reference to the - question in hand. We will now return to the beginning of the subject - and cite additional authorities, chief among them Sahagun. In the - introduction to his <cite>Historia General</cite>, in speaking of the origin - of this people, he expresses the opinion that it is impossible to - definitely determine more than that they report “that all the natives - came from seven caves, and that these seven caves are the seven ships - or galleys in which the first populators of the land came.” He adds, - “The first people came to populate this land from towards Florida, - and came coasting and disembarked at the port of Pánuco, which they - called Panco, which signifies a place to which they come who pass the - water. This people came in quest of the terrestrial paradise, and - were known by the name Tamoanchan, by which they mean, ‘we seek our - home.’ They settled around the highest mountains that they found. In - coming toward the midday to find the terrestrial paradise, they did - not err, because it is the opinion of the knowing that it is under the - equinoctial line.”<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> The above account is rendered more definite - in the following passage from his third volume:<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> “Countless years - ago the first settlers arrived in these parts of New Spain—which is - nearly another world—coming with ships by sea, approached a port at - the North, and because they disembarked there, it is called Panutla or - Panaoia, place where they arrive who come by the sea; at present it - is corruptly called Pantlan. From that port they commenced to journey - by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>the shores of the sea, ever beholding the snow-capped Sierras and - the volcanoes, until they came to the province of Guatemala, being - guided by their priest who carried with him their god, with whom he - always counseled concerning what he should do. They settled down in - Tamoanchan, where they were a long time, and never ceased to have their - wise men or prophets, called Amoxoaqui, which signifies ‘men learned - in the ancient paintings,’ who, although they came at the same time, - did not remain with the rest in Tamoanchan, for leaving them there, - they re-embarked and took with them all the paintings of the rites - and mechanic arts which they had brought.” The account continues by - stating that the priests informed their companions before leaving them, - that their God had made them masters of the land, and that they should - inhabit it and await his return. The priests then departed towards - the East with their idol wrapped in blankets. Whereupon the people - invented judicial astrology and the art of interpreting dreams. They - there also constructed the calendar which was followed during the time - of the Toltecs, Mexicans, Tepanecs and Chichimecs. The first migratory - movement was to Teotihuacan, where they erected two mountains in honor - of the sun and moon. Here they elected their rulers and buried their - princes, erecting mounds over their graves. This seems to have become - their holy city. The main power which had remained for a long time in - Tamoanchan was changed to Xumiltepec. From this latter place they, - however, at the instance of their priests, started again on their - migrations. First going to Teotihuacan in order to choose their wise - men. Notwithstanding the remarks of Sahagun that the seven caves were - the seven ships in which the first settlers came to New Spain, he here - affirms that in the course of their migration they came to the valley - of the seven caves. How long they remained in this national centre - we have no means of knowing, but eventually their god told them to - retrace their steps, which they did, going to Tollancingo (Tulancingo) - and finally to Tulan (Tollan). Ixtlilxochitl, if he can be relied - upon (and if he is unreliable we might as well give up the task of - tracing the early history of this or any other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> Mexican people) shows - clearly that the ancestors of the Toltecs were possessed of certain - traditions which point to an Asiatic origin; that at a remote period - they set out from that common home of so many peoples, possessing the - same traditions, in search of a suitable country in which to live; that - after one hundred and four years occupied in traversing broad lands and - seas, they arrived in a country called Hue hue Tlapalan. This event, - according to his chronology, must have occurred upwards of twenty - centuries before Christ. He tells us also that in Hue hue Tlapalan, the - Toltecs regulated their calendar. Sahagun says that countless years - ago the first inhabitants of the country (Mexico) came by sea from the - direction of Florida on the North, and landing at Pánuco, journeyed - down the coast to Guatemala (which is supposed to have embraced Chiapas - and perhaps Tabasco, though such is only the conjecture of an earnest - advocate of the Southern location of Hue hue Tlapalan, <i>i. e.</i>, - Mr. Bancroft) where they established a city called Tamoanchan—there - the calendar was regulated or corrected. Whether this was the same - construction of the calendar referred to by Ixtlilxochitl as having - taken place in Hue hue Tlapalan is questionable. If positive proof of - the identity of these occurrences could be produced, the identity of - Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan would be complete, and the disputed - location of the latter would be fixed in the Chiapan region or the - country of the Xibalbans. The fact that Quetzalcoatl brought maize to - Tamoanchan seems to indicate a comparative proximity of that country to - the Southern region where that culture-hero figured so conspicuously - under the Quiché name of Gucumatz. If no other testimony need be - introduced the disputed locality might be fixed as above indicated. - However, the contradictory records of Ixtlilxochitl, which we are now - about to cite, unsettle this conclusion. The Toltec migration from Hue - hue Tlapalan is briefly as follows: Three hundred and thirty-eight - years after Christ a revolt occurred among the Toltecs in Hue hue - Tlapalan, in which two rebel princes attempted to depose the legitimate - successor to the throne. These rebel chiefs, named Chalcatzin and - Tlacamihtzin respectively, were unsuccessful, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> together with five - other chiefs and their numerous allies and people, were driven out of - their city Tlachicatzin in Hue hue Tlapalan. After a journey of sixty - leagues, they arrived at a place which they called Tlapallanconco, or - Little Tlapalan. Their departure from their old home did not occur till - they had withstood a contest of eight years—or, according to Veytia, - thirteen years—duration.<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> At Tlapallanconco they lived three years, - at the end of which time there arose among them a great astrologer, - named Hueman or Huematzin, who counseled them to forsake the land of - their misfortunes and journey toward the rising sun, where there was - a happy land formerly occupied by Quinames, but now depopulated. This - advice seeming good they set out on their journey at the end of the - three years, or eleven years after leaving Hue hue Tlapalan. After - traveling twelve days and accomplishing seventy leagues they arrived - at Hueyxalan, and remained there four years. From thence a twenty days - journey toward the East, or according to Veytia, toward the West, and - of one hundred leagues in length, brought them to Xalisco, near the - sea-shore. Here they remained eight years. Twenty days journey and 100 - leagues more brought them to Chimalhuacan on the coast opposite certain - islands, where they resided five years. Eighteen days or 80 leagues - traversed toward the East, and they arrived at Toxpan, where they - dwelt five years more. Proceeding eastward twenty days’ journey or 100 - leagues, they came to Quiyahuitztlan Anahuac, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span>situated on the coast. - Here they were obliged to pass inlets of the sea in boats. During a - six years’ sojourn at this point, they suffered many hardships. An - eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Zacatlan where - they dwelt seven years. From thence they journeyed eighty leagues to - Totzapan and dwelt there six years. They next journeyed to Tepetla, - distant twenty-eight days, or 140 leagues, where they dwelt seven - years. Eighteen days’ journey or 80 leagues brought them to Mazatepec, - where they remained eight years, and a similar journey brought them - to Ziuhcohuatl where they tarried also eight years. Turning northward - from this unknown point, they journeyed twenty days or 100 leagues - and halted at Yztachuexucha, where they dwelt twenty-six years. - At last, after a journey of eighteen days or eighty leagues, they - arrived at Tulancingo (Tulantzinco, or Tollantzinco) a name already - familiar to us. Here the Toltecs emerge from what has been to us an - unknown wilderness without geographic guide-post or even a polar - star by which to reckon. Their itinerary, full of so many gaps and - inconsistencies, its frequent omission of the directions traversed, - with its starting-point so indefinitely located, is meaningless and - confusing, and so far as the reader is concerned, practically begins - nowhere and ends in nothing. At Tulancingo they remained eighteen - years, living in a house sufficiently large to accommodate them all. - Their knowledge of architecture must have been quite advanced to have - enabled them to construct such an edifice. The third year after their - arrival at Tulancingo, marked a Toltec age of 104 years from the time - they left their home in Hue hue Tlapalan. Finally, eighteen years - having elapsed, they transferred the capital to Tollan, afterwards the - centre of the Toltec empire. Tollan is stated to have been eastward - of Tulancingo (in all probability a mistake).<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> In this migration - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>we have a distance of 1150 leagues traversed; the first two moves, - aggregating 130 leagues, is in an unknown direction; the next advance - is 100 leagues in an easterly direction, according to one author, and - westerly according to another; however, it is agreed that the point - was on the sea-shore. The next move of 100 leagues is still along the - sea-shore, but the direction is not stated. We then have two advances - amounting to 180 leagues, in an easterly direction. The confusion - is completed in the following advances, aggregating 460 leagues in - unknown directions. Of the remaining 180 leagues, 100 were traveled in - a northern direction, while the remaining 80 leagues were taken toward - an unknown quarter. It is quite plain to any one, that the distances - traversed in the directions stated could not be traced consistently - with the geography of Mexico and Central America, upon the assumption - that Tamoanchan and Hue hue Tlapalan are identical and situated in the - Rio Usumacinta region. The itinerary would carry the emigrants far - out upon the Gulf of Mexico. It is evident that a broader territory - than that of Southern Mexico and Central America is required for the - realization of such distances. The account of the migration is no doubt - faulty; but even if we disregard the gaps, it presents insuperable - difficulties when applied to the South-Mexican region. It is manifest - that Sahagun and Ixtlilxochitl refer to different migrations. The - former to the Olmecs, who came by sea to Pánuco and thence to Tabasco, - from which they migrated north to Teotihuacan. The latter narrates the - wanderings of the Toltecs who subsequently came into Mexico by land. - If this distinction is borne in mind, much of the obscurity attending - the subject is cleared away. We are inclined to think that the accounts - of the two distinct migrations have become confused, and the details - of one substituted for the details of the other. Every one familiar - with the study of traditional histories is aware of this danger, or - even more, this tendency among semi-civilized peoples. No better - illustration of this fact can be presented than the sad confusion which - has been wrought by nearly every writer who has attempted to describe - the two distinct personages in Mexican history, known by the name of - Quetzalcoatl. Only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> Sahagun of all the early writers has seemed to have - any clear conception of their individual and independent attributes. - The demi-god, and the Toltec king, and the achievements of each, have - been made to change places so often by Spanish writers, that the result - has, with each new treatment of the subject, been confusion worse - confounded. Sahagun’s account of the arrival of the Nahuas in ships, - from the direction of Florida, their landing in Pánuco, their journey - toward Guatemala, their residence in Tamoanchan (probably somewhere - in the Chiapan region) and their subsequent migration northward to - Teotihuacan with its well-known pyramids, and finally their removal - to Tollan, north of the City of Mexico, by the way of Tolancingo, - is a straightforward account which finds support in the best of - evidence, both of a material and linguistic character. Sr. Orozco y - Berra has clearly shown by linguistic testimony that the Nahua nations - entered the country somewhere between the nineteenth and twenty-first - degrees of north latitude, on the Gulf coast, migrated southward to - a point seventeen and one-half degrees north latitude, almost to the - Chiapan region, and then retracing their steps northward, almost to a - point opposite Vera Cruz, they crossed Mexico to the Pacific coast, - along which they extended their language northward nearly to the - twenty-seventh degree north latitude.<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Sahagun says nothing of Hue - hue Tlapalan in his account of the migration from Tamoanchan to Tollan - or from Chiapas to Anahuac, for his account refers to the Olmecs, the - first Nahuas to reach Mexico.</p> - - <p>Mr. John H. Becker, of Berlin, in an able paper addressed to the - Congrès des Américainistes at Luxembourg (<cite>Compte Rendu de la Seconde - Session</cite>, tom. i, pp. 325–50), after offering plausible arguments - for the identification of Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, Hue hue Tlapalan - of the Toltecs, Amaquemecan of the Chichimecs, and Oztotlan of the - Aztecs, with the region of the upper Rio Grande del Norte and Rio - Colorado—the land of the ravines, of grottoes, and of cañons—attempts - to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>trace the Toltec migration as given by Ixtlilxochitl. His - interesting solution of the difficult problem is as follows: “The - Toltecs driven out of Hue hue Tlapalan by civil wars (towards the end - of the fourth century of our era?) move in a westerly direction sixty - leagues to Tlapalanconco (northern Sinaloa and Sonora on the Rio Yaqui, - where distinct traces of the Nahua language exist?); thence, after - eleven years, they go to Hueyxalan, seventy leagues distant (perhaps - the northern part of Durango, where the Tepehuana language shows strong - Nahua affinities); thence to Xalisco on the coast, one hundred leagues - distant; thence to Chimalhuacan Atenco on the coast opposite some - islands, one hundred leagues (opposite the islands in the southern end - of the Gulf of California)? In that case they did undoubtedly suffer a - reverse in Xalisco (where they touched upon the more thickly populated - and civilized country, and by which they were forced to retire); thence - eastward eighty leagues to Toxpan (in the neighborhood of the Laguna de - Tlahuila and on the upper Sabina River). In that country there is even - now a tribe of Tochos, and the Tarahumara language there spoken, shows - distinct affinities to the Nahua tongue; thence eastward one hundred - leagues to Quahuitzlan Anahuac, on the coast with inlets—the coast-land - of the state of Tamaulipas, on the Gulf of Mexico? About this locality - there can scarcely be a doubt, since this eastern coast country and the - eastern plateau bore the general name Quetzalapan or Huitzilapan, until - the Nahuas took possession of them, when the plateau was designated - as <i>Huitznahuac</i>, and the name above given would be the natural - one to apply to the coast, since while <i>nahuac</i> (<i>an</i>) means - simply the Nahualand, <i>Anahuac</i> (<i>an</i>) means the ‘Nahua land - on the water,’ while Quahuitzlan is the old name retained in order to - distinguish this Anahuac on the Gulf coast from the Anahuac around the - Mexican lakes. Here they ‘suffered great hardships,’ and finally went - westward eighty leagues to Zacatlan (the northern part of the State - of Zacatecas?); from there eighty leagues to Totzapan, probably again - in the neighborhood of Toxpan before mentioned (where the Tusanes are - located even to-day); thence one hundred and forty leagues to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> Tepetla - (the extraordinary distance shows that at last they gained a decisive - victory, and broke through the frontier of the more civilized country - which they had hitherto felt). Tepetla, mountainland, must consequently - be sought in the neighborhood of the high mountains of Anahuac; thence - eighty leagues to Mazatepec (the mountain of the Mazahuas, skirting - the valley of Mexico towards north and west); thence eighty leagues to - Ziuhcohuatl, where they probably suffered another defeat, for they move - full one hundred leagues northward to Yztachuechucha, and stop there - twenty-three years, a sufficient time to raise another generation of - warriors; thence eighty leagues to Tollantzingo, and then finally to - ‘Tollan,’ the capital of their future empire, which if Ixtlilxochitl’s - dates can be trusted, they built about 500 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, on the site - of a former city of the Otomis.” This ingenious and thoughtful review - of the route commends itself to all who are interested in this subject. - Mr. Becker considers that one great argument for the correctness of the - starting-point which he has chosen is “the fact that even the distances - as given by Ixtlilxochitl agree with the actual situation of the - various localities here indicated.” Ixtlilxochitl, obscure as he is, - gives in another part of his work an additional account, besides the - one we have already quoted, which greatly strengthens our conviction - that the Toltecs came into Mexico from the north, and confirms the - investigations of both Mr. Becker and of Sr. Orozco. The account is - as follows: “In this fourth age there came to this land of Anahuac, - which is at present called New Spain, those of the Toltec nations who, - according to the accounts of their histories, were expelled from their - land, and after having navigated and coasted on the South Sea along - various lands as far as the present California, they came to what is - called Huitlapalan, that which at present they call after Cortés. This - locality they passed in the year called Ce Tecpatl, which was in the - year 387 of the incarnation of our Lord. Having coasted the land of - Xalisco, and all the coast of the south, they set out from the port - of Huatulco, and went through various lands as far as the province of - Tochtepec, situated on the coast of the North Sea, and having traversed - and viewed it they came to stop in the province of Tulantzinco,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> having - left some people in most of their stopping-places in order to populate - them.”<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></p> - - <p>It will be observed that in this migration part of the same general - route above referred to, along the Pacific coast nearly opposite the - extremity of the California peninsula, and then returning southward - and inland, is clearly marked out. The Pacific ocean, called the South - Sea, seems to have facilitated their movements northward. Xalisco - was coasted, and the entire width of Mexico traversed, the Gulf of - Mexico reached (Sea of the North), and finally Tolancingo chosen as a - suitable home. It will be observed that the Huitlapalan named above is - not identical with Hue hue Tlapalan, the earliest home of the nations. - Mr. Bancroft has apparently confounded the two names, and endeavors to - find in the Tlapallan de Cortés (so named because of Cortés’ expedition - to a Tlapallan) the ancient Hue hue Tlapalan.<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> The Abbé Brasseur - de Bourbourg attempts precisely the same thing. The investigations of - both these writers on this point are interesting, though without any - result, unless unintentionally to strengthen the above distinction - between Huitlapalan and Hue hue Tlapalan. Substantially the facts are - as follows: Pedro de Alvarado, writing from Santiago or old Guatemala - to Cortés in 1524, refers to Tlapallan as fifteen days march inland, - and Mr. Bancroft thinks that the name must have been applied to a - region corresponding to either Honduras, Peten or Tabasco. Cortés’ name - was affixed to a Tlapallan said to lie towards Ihueras or Ibueras, the - former name of Honduras, because of his expedition to that country. - The Abbé says the name was applied to a region between the tributaries - of the Rio Usumacinta and Honduras. Finally, the fact that the second - Quetzalcoatl, when he embarked on the Gulf coast near the Goazacoalco - River, announced his intention of going to Tlapallan, is cited as - proof that the name was applied to a southern locality.<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>The - entire argument is perfectly satisfactory in locating a Tlapallan in - the Usumacinta region, but it does not have the slightest value in - proving that Hue hue Tlapalan was identical with that locality. On - the other hand, Cabrera, in referring to the ancient country of the - Toltecs, calls it Hue Hue Tlapalan, and states that the simple name was - Tlapallan, but that it was called Hue hue—old—to distinguish it from - three other Tlapalans which they founded in the new districts which - they came to inhabit. This statement is confirmed by Torquemada.<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> - It is therefore probable that Bancroft’s and Brasseur’s investigations - were all expended on one or more of these three Tlapalans. The - undoubted residence of a tribe of the Nahuas (Olmecs) in the Tabasco - region for a considerable period—one which is measured relatively in - the language of Sahugun between the “countless years ago when they - arrived from towards Florida” and their departure towards Anahuac in - the fourth or fifth century—has led many writers to suppose that they - were of southern origin, notwithstanding the statement of Sahagun, - Ixtlilxochitl and all the early writers to the contrary. Supposing - that the sweeping assumption of the northern origin so persistently - adhered to by native and Spanish writers is nothing but a priestly - fabrication, be admitted, simply that our attention may be turned to - other testimony, still the evidence is against the southern origin - theory. The material relics of Honduras and Nicaragua absolutely - disprove the positive supposition that they were ever the work of the - people who figured in Anahuac, and no transition from one style of - sculpture to the other has ever been discovered, nor could be imagined. - An examination of the first few chapters of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth - volume and the works from which it has been drawn will fully satisfy - the reader of this fact. The evidence from the linguistic standpoint is - even more satisfactory, since the Nahua language as spoken in Central - America, in the states of San Salvador and Nicaragua, is dialectic, - indicating a fragmentary migration southward.<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span></p> - - <p>It has been the common custom of Spanish writers and those who - followed them down to the middle of this century, to locate Hue hue - Tlapalan on the Californian coast. Vater and Humboldt from their - standpoints of investigation fell in with this view. The former, - basing his convictions on seeming linguistic affinities in the - north-west, which, while they are quite significant, indicative of - Nahua influences if not of Nahua residence, are too few to prove any - lengthy sojourn. Humboldt based his opinion chiefly on the traditions - and certain ethnological and geographical facts. Buschmann<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> has - completely overthrown the arguments of Vater in his series of works - on American languages, while Mr. Bancroft has shown conclusively that - there are no material remains assignable to the Toltecs to be found on - the Californian coast or the adjoining region.<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> When he asserts, - however, that there are no remains farther north than California, he - overlooks a well-known fact. We refer to the mounds of Oregon and - their extension eastward into the Yellowstone and North Missouri River - region. The most reasonable conjecture as to the locality of Hue hue - Tlapalan is that which places it in the Mississippi Valley, and assigns - the works of our Mound-builders to the Nahua nations. In previous - chapters we have shown the close resemblance of the mound crania to - the ancient Mexican, and have pointed out the gradual transition from - the rude and simple mounds of the north to the truncated pyramid of - the south, constructed on strict geometrical principles, having one - or more graded ways, and so closely resembling the Mexican teocallis. - Besides the testimony of Sahagun that the first settlers of Mexico - came from towards Florida, and the universal report of a northern - origin prevalent among the Aztecs at the time of the conquest, there - are other evidences of a racial identity common to Mound-builders and - Mexicans, such as pottery, sculptured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> portraitures of the facial type, - indications of commercial intercourse between the two countries, such - as the discovery of Mexican obsidian in the mounds of the Ohio Valley, - and the probability that both worshipped the sun and offered human - sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a></p> - - <p>With the Toltec annals proper we have nothing to do; only the most - primitive period of the growth of this people concerns us here, and - that period is conceded to have closed with the establishment of the - great capital at Tollan, on the site of the present village of Tula, - thirty miles north-west of the city of Mexico. Seven years after the - arrival of the Toltecs in Tollan, the government was a theocratic - republic, with the seven chiefs who had conducted them thither acting - as their rulers, under the advice of the venerable Huemen. Finally, - in the beginning of the eighth century, somewhere between 710 and - 720 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, the republic was changed into a monarchy and the - throne given to the son of their dreaded enemies and former neighbors, - the warlike Chichimecs, as a peace-offering, on condition that the - Toltecs should always be a free people and in no way tributary to the - Chichimecs. The history of the Toltec monarchy during the three and - a half centuries of its duration to the final overthrow of Tollan - (1062 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) as well as the power of the remarkable people - who built the ancient capital, has often been sketched, and for us - to repeat what has been recorded in almost every language of modern - Europe, would add nothing to the cause of science. This part of ancient - American history, so replete with the romantic and marvellous, so - confusing at times, because of our ignorance of many geographic and - archæologic features entering into it (which, in time, will probably - be brought to light), so saddening because of its stories of wholesale - misfortunes to a people whose civilization rivalled that of Europe in - the middle ages; and yet, after all, so fresh and novel, must <span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>continue - to receive increased attention, if only as a means of recreation to - the student of history, wearied with the beaten paths from Rome to - Greece, and from Greece to Rome. Mr. Bancroft has given an excellent - <i>resumé</i> of the annals of the Toltec period, accompanying it with - an ample literary apparatus in the notes. During the last century of - the Toltec power, Anahuac was overrun by the incursions of a fierce and - dreaded people—the Chichimecs. These semi-barbarians, taking advantage - of the internal dissensions in the Toltec monarchy, became a powerful - factor, either on their own part or in the hands of the enemies of - Tollan, in the overthrow of the empire. In the Toltec traditions we - read of the Chichimecs being their neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan.<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> - In the annals as given in Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada and many writers, - the Chichimecs are represented as having pursued and annoyed the - Toltecs, to have followed them up in their wanderings. This probably - is not literally true, but their arrival upon the borders of Anahuac, - soon after its occupation by the Toltecs, is quite certain. It has - been common to consider the Chichimecs as a Nahua people, and even so - critical a writer as Mr. Bancroft adopts this popular error. As long - ago as 1855, Sr. Francisco Pimentel undertook to show the mistake into - which many had fallen, and in his <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite> - (published in 1862), has furnished conclusive proof that the Chichimecs - originally spoke a different language from the Nahua nations, but - subsequently adopted the Nahua tongue, on the principle set forth by - Balbi: “It is not the language of the conquering people that invariably - dominates, but that which is most regular and cultured.” On the - testimony of Torquemada,<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> Ixtlilxochitl<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> and Juan Bautista - Pomar,<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> Sr. Pimentel shows that the Chichimec language was once - distinct and different from the Nahua, and that these people came under - the civilizing influences of the Toltecs during their golden age, - but in their declining period availed themselves <span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>of the opportunity - of possessing their country and advanced civilization.<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> If the - Chichimecs were the neighbors of the Toltecs in Hue hue Tlapalan, it - is reasonable to expect some light on the situation of that disputed - locality in the Chichimec traditions; but in this expectation we are - disappointed. There is no mention of that ancient home of the Nahuas, - nor of any route pursued in their migrations. Amaquemecan is the only - name which is applied to their most primitive land or history; one of - the cities which they occupied at some remote period seems to have - borne the name. When the Toltecs sent to the Chichimecs for their first - king, they were, according to Ixtlilxochitl, in the neighborhood of - Panuco. Panes describes them as having passed the sea, and, according - to their reckoning, in the year Five Tolti to have arrived at the seven - caves. Thence they journeyed to Amacatepeque, and certain persons - left that province to go to Tepenec, which is to say “the Mountain - of Echo.”<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> Ixtlilxochitl and some other authors derive them from - Chicomoztoc, a rendezvous of the nations, which has been located by - Clavigero at about twenty miles south of Zacatecas but is considered - by Duran and Acosta as identical with Aztlan in the region of - Florida.<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> It is impossible to determine either the starting-point - or route of this people, who subsequently became amalgamated with the - scattered Toltecs after the fall of Tollan, and whose rule in Anahuac - may properly be dated from the (1062) middle of the eleventh until - nearly the middle of the fifteenth (1431) century.</p> - - <p>A few years after the Chichimec power was established there came - from the North (at least their last move is admitted to have been - from that quarter) six tribes of Nahuatlacas, who arrived in the - country adjoining Tollan. There were altogether seven tribes, namely, - the Xochimilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecs, Tlahuicas, Acolhuas, Tlascatecs - and Aztecs or Mexicans. The latter people, however, had separated - themselves from the remaining <span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>six tribes at Chicomoztoc and did not - reach Anahuac until about 1196 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> These people all acted - as tributary to the Chichimecs at first; and of the seven tribes, - two eventually arose to great political importance, the Tlascatecs - who founded an independent republic, and the Aztecs whose empire - has been the wonder of students of antiquity and the subject of - histories as romantic as the purest fiction. Some authors add a number - of tribal names to those already given as belonging to fragments - of the Nahuatlaca family, but the probability is that these minor - and unimportant tribes were offshoots from the others, after their - arrival on the central plateau. The representative branch of all the - Nahuatlacas was the Aztec nation, who separated from their brethren - in Chicomoztoc, and whose arrival at the Lake region of Mexico, is - dated subsequent to that of the other tribes. All of these tribes - are said to have come from the unknown Aztlan, their early home. The - question of its locality has been as much a subject of controversy - as the location of Hue hue Tlapalan, since, in fact, the question is - possibly one and the same, for the Nahua speaking people who migrated - into Mexico at intervals, extending over a period of a thousand years, - must have had a common origin. Aztlan is described by Duran as a most - attractive land and the presumption is that the Nahuas were forcibly - driven from their fair heritage by the gradual encroachments of their - enemies. The account of this delightful country given by Cueuhcoatl to - the elder Montezuma, is as follows: “Our fathers dwelt in that happy - and prosperous place which they called Aztlan, which means “whiteness.” - In this place there is a great mountain in the middle of the water, - which is called Culhuacan, because it has the point somewhat turned - over toward the bottom, and for this cause it is called Culhuacan, - which means “crooked mountain.” In this mountain were some openings, - or caves or hollows, where our fathers and ancestors dwelt for many - years; there, under this name Mexitin and Aztec, they had much repose; - there they enjoyed a great plenty of geese; of all species of marine - birds and water fowls; enjoyed the song and melody of birds with yellow - crests; enjoyed many kinds of large and beautiful fish; enjoyed the - freshness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> of trees that were upon those shores, and fountains enclosed - with elders, and savins (junipers) and aldertrees, both large and - beautiful. They went about in canoes, and made furrows in which they - planted maize, red-peppers, tomatoes, beans and all kinds of seed that - we eat.”<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> The location of Aztlan is not a philosophical question - for our consideration, since scarcely sufficient data of a definite - character are available on which to base a process of reasoning. The - report common among the Aztecs was that they had come from the North, - and this was no doubt true of the final move prior to their settlement - in Anahuac, but whether it was true of their starting-point and the - general course of the Aztec migration, is a question which cannot - be satisfactorily answered. Most Spanish writers and others of the - earlier school, locate Aztlan directly north of the present boundary - line of Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> others again California,<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> while some favor - the North-western Mexican States.<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> A recent school of Americanists - assign Aztlan a southern location, placing it in the Central American - region.<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> Duran and Brasseur de Bourbourg,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> both celebrated - authorities, on the other hand locate Aztlan in the United States; the - former in Florida, by which we are to understand the region of the Gulf - States,<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> while the latter simply expresses the conviction that - Aztlan was situated to the north-east of California.<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p> - - <p>The Aztec migration and the itinerary as generally accepted demands - consideration before forming any judgment on the location of Aztlan. - In this primitive abode we are told that each year the Aztecs crossed - a great river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan for the purpose of offering - sacrifices in honor of their god Tetzauch. But it happened that a - bird appeared to Huitziton, one of the greatest of their chiefs - (whom Bancroft thinks was identical with Mecitl or Mexi—hence the - name Mexicans), and constantly reiterated the word <i>tihui</i>, - <i>tihui</i>, meaning “let us go, let us go.” This singular occurrence - was interpreted by Huitziton as a command from the gods for them to - seek a new country, and after persuading the chief Tecpatzin to his - view, the divine oracle was announced to the people. Accordingly, in - the year 1064, according to some authors,<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> or in 1090 according - to others,<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> or a century later than the first-named date - according to some of the interpreters of the Aztec migration maps, - the Nahuatlaca tribes left their ancient home and entered upon one of - those strange and aimless journeys so characteristic of semi-civilized - and superstitious peoples. The Aztec migration as given by several - authorities is scarcely more satisfactory than that of the Toltecs, - nor can any additional light be thrown on the route pursued until Sr. - Orozco y Berra publishes the results of his critical examination of the - subject.<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> The unimportance of the itinerary in the solution of any - question is apparent, since it contributes but little to our knowledge - of the location of Aztlan.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p> - - <p>Mr. Bancroft has greatly facilitated the comparison of the lists of - stations as given by different authors, in a note of great length on - pp. 322–4, thus presenting to the eye at a glance the diversity of - opinion which meets the reader of this subject. As an example, we - select two or three of the itineraries, simply to show the wide range - that opinion has taken on the subject. According to Veytia, the tribes - left Aztlan in I Tecpatl, 1064 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and one hundred and four - years afterwards reached Chicomoztoc, where they dwelt nine years; - the subsequent stations and the duration of their sojourn in each as - follows: Cohuatlicamac three years, Matlahuacallan six, Apanco five, - Chimalco six, Pipiolcomic three, Tollan six, Cohuactepec (Coatepec) - three, Atlitlalacayan two, Atotonilco one, Tepexic five, Apasco three, - Tozonpanco seven, Tizayocan one, Ecatepec one, Tolpetlac three, - Chimalpan four, Cohuatitlan two, Huexachtitlan three, Tecpayocan three, - Tepeyacac (Guadalupe) three, Pantitlan two, and thence to Chapultepec, - arriving in 1298, after a journey of one hundred and eighty-five - years, reckoning an additional forty-nine years for their stay at - Michoachan.<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> According to Tezozomoc, the stations are as follows: - Aztlan, Culhuacan, Jalisco, Mechoacan, Malinalco (Lake Patzcuaro), - Ocopipilla, Acahualcingo, Coatepec (in Tonalan), Atlitlanquin, or - Atitalaquia, Tequisquiac, Atengo, Tzompan, Cuachilgo, Xaltocan, and - Lake Chnamitl, Eycoac, Ecatepc, Aculhuacan, Tultepetlac, Huixachtitlan, - Tecpayuca (in two Calli), Atepetlac, Coatlayauhcan, Tetepanco, - Acolnahuac, Popotla (Tacuba), Chapultepec in two Tochtli.<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> - Clavigero states that they left Aztlan in 1160, crossed the Colorado - River, stayed three years in Hucicolhuacan, went east to Chicomoztoc, - reached Tula in 1196, and finally Chapultepec in 1245.<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> Acosta, - Herrera and Duran state that Nahuatlaca tribes left Aztlan in 820 - <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and eighty years later reached Mexico; that the Aztecs, - however, did not start until 1122 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span><a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> Duran identifies - Aztlan <span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>with Teo-Culhuacan, and locates it towards our Mississippi - Valley. He in common with other writers identifies Chicomostoc with the - seven caves.<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p> - - <p>The Tarascos, though speaking a different language, are said to have - separated from the Nahuatlacas at Michoacan. They describe the route - to the seven caves as across a sea, which they passed in balsas and - the trunks of trees.<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> This statement may be of some value in - locating that disputed rendezvous of so many tribes; and certainly - is more important than a mass of groundless speculation. The next - source of interest in this connection is the much perverted and sadly - misunderstood migration map first published by Gemelli Carreri, in - Churchill’s collection of voyages (vol. iv). Humboldt has given an - interpretation which, with the exception of that part which connects it - with a deluge and Colhuacan, “the Ararat of the Mexicans,” is generally - received.<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></p> - - <p>Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt and many others were quite certain that they - could read in this map the account of the Mosaic deluge.<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> Don José - Fernando Ramirez, of the Mexican Museum, however, pointed out the fact - that the Gemelli Carreri map, copied from one owned by Sigüenza, and - published by Humboldt, Clavigero and Kingsborough, was in each case - incorrectly represented, and states that the copy contained in the - <cite>Atlas</cite> of Garcia y Cubas is the first correct reproduction of the - original presented to the public.<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> Sr. Ramirez explains away the - illusion of the Mexican Ararat and deluge in a manner both simple and - conclusive.<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> The dove with commas proceeding from its <span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>beak, is not - talking, nor giving tongues, but is repeating the word <i>tihui</i>, - “let us go,” referring to the legend already cited, of the bird in - Aztlan incessantly uttering this word in the hearing of Huitziton - the chief. A little bird called <i>tihuitochan</i> is still heard in - Mexico, having a note which is interpreted by the common people to mean - the same as their ancestors interpreted it in Aztlan. Sr. Ramirez is - convinced that the map referred to is only a record of the wanderings - of the Aztecs among the lakes of the Mexican Valley, and that it has - no reference whatever to any deluge, not even to one of the former - traditional destructions of the world found in the Nahua cosmogony. Mr. - Bancroft has added the valuable argument that the story of Cox-cox and - the deluge is only the product of false interpretation, or else some - of the earlier writers would have been acquainted with the legend. On - the contrary, Olmos, Sahagun, Motolinia, Mendieta, Ixtlilxochitl, and - Camergo are all silent with regard to it. The mountain and boat and - their several adjuncts are found to be nothing but hieroglyphics for - proper names.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p> - - <p>Chalco Lake is, in the opinion of Señor Ramirez, the point of - departure for the fifteen chiefs at the end of their first cycle. His - interpretation of the Boturini map of the migration results in the same - conclusion. The fifteen chiefs left their island home, passing through - Coloacan (Colhuacan, according to Gondra’s interpretation) as their - second station. It appears that the first move and point of departure - are both unknown, and no satisfactory solution of the question has yet - been offered. The prevailing tradition that it is in the north has - been perplexing, since no material remains undoubtedly attributable - to the Aztecs are found north of the central plateau of Mexico, nor - indeed in the territories of the United States. If we adopt the general - theory that the Aztecs came from the Mississippi Valley, possibly the - original home of the Nahuas, occupied by the Olmecs prior to their - arrival at Panuco and their descent into the Chiapan region, and by - the Toltecs before their migration to Anahuac, we have a theory which - agrees with the testimony of Duran and Sahagun, and seems to find - support in the pyramidal mounds of the Lower Mississippi, which we - have already seen are almost as perfect in their plan and construction - as those found in Mexico, which do not furnish evidence of as great - antiquity as those of the Ohio and Missouri Valleys. According to most - accounts, a considerable period elapses between their departure and - their arrival at Chicomoztoc—the seven caves. According to Veytia it - was 104 years, but Brasseur adopts twenty-six years, which is also - the opinion of the majority of writers. Chicomoztoc has some features - which remind us of the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés—their seven caves, - from which so many tribes derived their origin. Chicomoztoc is the - point at which the six Nahuatlaca tribes separated from the Aztecs, and - thence proceeded to the Mexican lake region. It is quite probable that - a considerable distance may have been traversed in this interval of - twenty-six years, a distance which could have brought the Aztecs from - a comparatively northern latitude to the Chiapan region. Opposed to - this, however, is the fact that the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés was in a - cold, inhospitable region, no doubt at the North. Mr. Bancroft suggests - that the first part of the migration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> tradition may refer vaguely - back to the events which followed the Toltecs’ destruction.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> We - have already referred to the tendency to confusion in histories that - are chiefly traditional. In opposition to the view that Aztlan and - Chicomoztoc were remote from each of these, we have the statement of - Duran<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> that these caves are in Teo-Culhuacan, otherwise called - Aztlan, which implies that both Teo-Culhuacan and Chicomoztoc were - points in the region of Aztlan. Every year it was the custom of the - Aztecs, while in Aztlan, to cross a river or channel to Teo-Culhuacan - in order to sacrifice to their god Tetzauh, and after their arrival - at Chicomoztoc they continued the occupation of boatmen, which they - had followed while in Aztlan.<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> By way of summary, then, we may - venture the following: 1. Viewed from the standpoint of Sr. Ramirez, - Aztlan may be located somewhere not far distant from Chalco Lake. The - islands which it encircles may correspond to the description of the - ancient home of the Aztecs, given by Duran as quoted on <a href="#Page_257">page 257</a> and - described as Culhuacan. Teo-Culhuacan, where the Aztecs sacrificed - yearly, may be the city of Culhuacan situated in that neighborhood. As - additional testimony we have the fact that most of the stations named - in the migrations can be located in the Central Mexican region. The - report that they came from the north may refer only to the scattering - of the Nahua or Toltec people from Tollan, just north of the valley. - 2. The statements of all the writers that the Aztecs came from the - north, the fact that Duran and Sahagun assign the primitive Nahua home - to the region of Florida, and the prevalence of mounds and shell-heaps - in great numbers in the Gulf States, together with the extension of - those mounds through Texas into Mexico, may warrant the opinion that - Aztlan was in the Mississippi Valley, or, looking in another direction, - the rock or cave dwellings recently discovered in Southern Utah and - the Rocky Mountain region (of which we shall give a description in - the next chapter) may indicate the locality of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>ancient and - much-sought-for land. The identity in meaning of Chicomoztoc (seven - caves) and Tulan Zuiva (seven caves) together with the fact that both - places in Quiché and Nahua history were the point of separation for - many tribes, is a singular coincidence, if they are not one and the - same. In the preceding chapter we have seen that Tulan Zuiva of the - Quichés was in a northern or at least a colder climate, where they - suffered greatly for want of fire, a fact of no little significance. On - the other hand Teo-Culhuacan, the place of yearly sacrifice, may have - been a city of the Chiapan region, since Sahagun located Tamoanchan the - first city of the Nahuas (Olmec) after their arrival from Florida in - Mexico, somewhere in the Usumacinta Valley. It is possible that a large - number of the immigrants remained behind the company which migrated - northward to Teotihuacan and thence to the seven caves, subsequently - uniting with the Toltecs at Tollan. This view has had quite a number - of advocates.<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> We will not undertake, in the present state of - knowledge on the subject, to decide which of these <span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>three claims is the - true one, if either one of them is correct. Our only wish is to furnish - the reader a margin for his choice. It seems to us that it would be - unscientific to attempt to decide a question based upon such slender - and contradictory data.</p> - - <p>It is unnecessary for us to follow the Aztecs farther in their - history. The magnificent empire of the Montezumas, with its advanced - civilization, but at the same time cursed with its horrid worship, in - which thousands of human victims bathed the altars of Mexico yearly - with their life-blood, has been described and its glory handed down to - history by that most graceful and romantic of American writers, William - H. Prescott. We cannot, however, dismiss this the most primitive period - of the growth of the Nahua nations without a reference to the reputed - author of the higher phases of their civilization. We refer to that - semi-mythical and semi-divine personage, Quetzalcoatl. The numerous - legends concerning this culture-hero, scattered chronologically over - hundreds of years of Nahua history, may have originated in the life and - character of some noted personage—the leader and civilizer of the most - ancient branches of the Nahua family, or in the personification of an - ideal deity, a nature-god whose chief attribute, whose distinguishing - office, was the fertilization of the earth, the revivification of the - slumbering forces in nature and consequently the author of prosperity, - agriculture, and the arts of peace. In either case the name of the - original Quetzalcoatl, were he either man or deity, was eventually - inherited by a line of individuals who became the priests of his - worship, or the representatives of his teachings, and the inculcators - of the most humane and noble principles which entered into the ancient - civilization. Without entering into a lengthy discussion of the - probabilities in the case, we give the substance of the traditions, - arranged in what appears to us not only the most consistent, but also - the proper order. We have already acquainted the reader with the - meaning of Quetzalcoatl, namely, “plumed serpent.”</p> - - <p>From the distant East, from the fabulous Hue hue Tlapalan, this - mysterious personage came to Tulla, and became the patron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> god and - high-priest of the ancestors of the Toltecs.<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> He is described - as having been a white man, with a strong formation of body, broad - forehead, large eyes, and flowing beard. He wore a mitre on his head, - and was dressed in a long, white robe, reaching to his feet, and - covered with red crosses. In his hand he held a sickle. His habits were - ascetic; he never married, was most chaste and pure in his life, and - is said to have endured penance in a neighboring mountain, not for its - effects upon himself, but as an example to others. Some have here found - a parallel for Christ’s temptation. He condemned sacrifices, except - of fruits and flowers, and was known as the god of peace; for when - addressed on the subject of war, he is reported to have stopped his - ears with his fingers.<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p> - - <p>Quetzalcoatl was skilled in many arts, having invented gem-cutting - and metal-casting. He furthermore originated letters and invented the - Mexican calendar. The legend which describes the latter states that the - gods, having made men, thought it advisable that their creatures should - have some means of reckoning time, and of regulating the order of - religious ceremonies. Therefore two of these celestial personages, one - of them a goddess, called Quetzalcoatl to counsel with them, and the - three contrived a system which they recorded on tables, each bearing - a single sign. That sign, however, was accompanied with all necessary - explanations of its meaning. It is noticeable that the goddess was - assigned the privilege of writing the first sign, and that she chose a - serpent as her favorite symbol.</p> - - <p>Some accounts represent that Huemac was the temporal king, or at least - associated with Quetzalcoatl in the government; the latter occupying - the priestly as well as the kingly office. Sahagun <span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>calls the associate - ruler Vemac. At all events, Quetzalcoatl had an enemy, the deity - Tezcatlipoca, whose worship was quite opposite in its character to - that of Quetzalcoatl, being sanguine and celebrated with horrid human - sacrifices. A struggle ensued in Tulla (Tollan) between the opposing - systems which resulted favorably to the bloody deity and the faction - who sought to establish his worship in preference to the peaceful and - ascetic service of Quetzalcoatl.</p> - - <p>Tezcatlipoca, envious of the magnificence enjoyed by Quetzalcoatl, - determined upon his destruction. His first appearance at Tulla was - in the <i>rôle</i> of a great ball-player, and Quetzalcoatl, being - very fond of the game, engaged in play with him, when suddenly he - transformed himself into a tiger, occasioning a panic among the - spectators, in which great numbers were crowded over a precipice into - a river, where they perished. Again the vicious god appeared at Tulla. - This time he presented himself at the door of Quetzalcoatl’s palace in - the guise of an old man, and asked permission of the servants to see - their master. They attempted to drive him away, saying that their god - was ill. At last, because of his importunities, they obtained leave to - admit him.</p> - - <p>Tezcatlipoca entered, and seeing the sick deity, asked about his - health, and announced that he had brought him a medicine which would - ease his body, compose his mind, and prepare him for the journey which - Fate had decreed that he must undertake.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> Quetzalcoatl received the - sorcerer kindly, inquiring anxiously as to the journey and the land of - his destiny. His deceiver told him that the name of the land was Tullan - Tlapalan, where his youth would be renewed, and that he must visit it - without delay. The sick king was moved greatly by the words of the - sorcerer, and was prevailed upon to taste the intoxicating medicine - which he pressed to his lips. At once he felt his malady healed, and - the desire to depart fixed itself in his mind.</p> - - <p>“Drink again!” exclaimed the old sorcerer; and again the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>god-king - pressed the cup to his lips, and drank till the thought of departure - became indelible, chained his reason, and speedily drove him a wanderer - from his palace and kingdom.</p> - - <p>Upon leaving Tulla, driven from his kingdom by the vicious enmity - of Tezcatlipoca, he ordered his palaces of gold, and silver, and - turquoise, and precious stones, to be set on fire. The myriads of - rich-plumed songsters that made the air of the capital melodious with - song accompanied him on his journey, pipers playing on pipes preceded - him, and the flowers by the way are said to have given forth unusual - volumes of perfume at his approach.</p> - - <p>After journeying one hundred leagues southward, he rested, near a city - of Anahuac, under a great tree, and as a memorial of the event, he cast - stones at the tree, lodging them in its trunk.<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p> - - <p>He then proceeded still farther southward in the same valley, until he - came to a mountain, two leagues distant from the city of Mexico. Here - he pressed his hands upon a rock on which he rested, and left their - prints imbedded in it, where they remained visible down to a very - recent date. He then turned eastward to Cholula, where he was received - with greatest reverence.<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> The great pyramid was erected to his - honor. With his advent the spirit of peace settled down upon the city. - War was not known during his sojourn within it. The reign of Saturn - repeated itself. The enemies of the Cholulans came with perfect safety - to his temple, and many wealthy princes of other countries erected - temples to his honor in the city of his choice.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p> - - <p>Here the silversmith, the sculptor, the artist, and the architect, we - are led to believe, from the testimony of both tradition and remains, - flourished under the patronage of the grand god-king.</p> - - <p>However, after twenty years had elapsed, that subtile, feverish draught - received from the hand of Tezcatlipoca away back in Tulla, like an old - poison in the veins, renewed its power. Again his people, his palaces, - and his pyramidal temple were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>forsaken, that he might start on his - long and final journey.<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> He told his priests that the mysterious - Tlapalla was his destination, and turning toward the East, proceeded - on his way until he reached the sea at a point a few miles south of - Vera Cruz. Here he bestowed his blessing upon four young men, who - accompanied him from Cholula, and commanded them to go back to their - homes, bearing the promise to his people that he would return to them, - and again set up his kingdom among them. Then, embarking in a canoe - made of serpent-skins, he sailed away into the East.<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p> - - <p>The Cholulans, out of respect to Quetzalcoatl, placed the government in - the hands of the recipients of his blessing. His statue was placed in - a sanctuary on the pyramid, but in a reclining position, representing - a state of repose, with the understanding that it shall be placed upon - its feet when the god returns. When Cortés landed, they believed their - hopes realized, sacrificed a man to him, and sprinkled the blood of the - unhappy victim upon the conqueror and his companions.<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a></p> - - <p>Father Sahagun, when on his journey to Mexico, was everywhere asked - if he had not come from Tlapalla.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> No wonder when the fleet of - Cortés hove in sight on the horizon, almost in the same place where - Quetzalcoatl’s bark had disappeared, that the Mexican, who had been - waiting centuries for the prince of peace to return, believed his - waiting to be at an end. No wonder that he inquired of the distant and - mysterious Tlapalla. In this state of expectancy we find a most natural - and fruitful soil for the operations of the Spanish conquerors.</p> - - <p>Such is the form into which the mass of legends concerning - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>Quetzalcoatl have been woven. There is scarcely a doubt, however, that - it is a matter of growth—is the accumulation of several centuries. - The name Quetzalcoatl (Nahua), Gucumatz (Quiché) and Cukulcan (Maya), - translated “feathered” or “plumed” or “winged” serpent, may originally - have been applied to an intelligent princely foreigner who was cast - upon the shores of the Central American region, and who introduced the - art of casting metals, and especially taught agriculture. His doctrines - of peace and virtue may have been sufficiently wide-spread to have - brought about the prosperity which is ascribed to his age. From this - standpoint we would consider him at first to have cast his lot among - the descendants of Votan, otherwise known as the “Serpents,” from which - occurrence he may have received his name of “Feathered Serpent.” On - <a href="#Page_241">pages 241–42</a> we referred to the statements of the Codex Chimalpopoca, - that Quetzalcoatl, becoming obnoxious to his companions, who seem to - be Quichés, forsook them. The account also states that he afterwards - brought maize to Tamoanchan (the city of the Nahuas). Our next account - of him describes him as figuring among the Olmecs at Cholula. This - realistic view of the tradition applies to the first Quetzalcoatl, - who may have been an actual man. While entertaining this view, we - must not forget that centuries prior to this period (which we may as - well assign to the first or second century as to any other date), the - Quichés possessed the ideal of such a personage whom they considered - a deity, who figures so actively in their cosmogony under the name of - Gucumatz. This deity was the vivifying force in nature, the bringer of - the gentle south winds, the god of the harvest and of the air. He was - best symbolized to the mind of the savage by the vernal shower and the - return of spring.</p> - - <p>The serpent was everywhere considered an emblem of the vernal shower, - and was thought to be in some way instrumental in bringing it, together - with its refreshing and fructifying influences. So here, in the name of - Quetzalcoatl, we find a progressive step indicated in the workings of - the mind, an advance from the lower figure of the serpent alone to that - of an aërial combination, which, while it contained all the virtues of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> - the serpent, is lifted to a higher element—that from which the shower - falls. The feathery vapor-clouds of summer are but the plumes or wings - of the shower which the serpent symbolized.</p> - - <p>At last when a teacher of agriculture and the mechanic arts, so - conducive of prosperity and plenty, appeared—an individual who - discovers maize and directs the process of its reproduction and guards - an improvident people against want and famine, the attributes of the - god are recognized as dwelling in him, the ideal vaguely represented - by the vernal shower is concreted, is become incarnate, is presented - in a shape more comprehensible to the untaught mind, and at once the - name, reverence and worship of the god are attached to the man, the - culture-hero. This we believe to be the simplest interpretation of the - origin of the worship of Quetzalcoatl. A priesthood appears to have - been founded who perpetuated the doctrines of this deified man. That - part of the legend which relates to Tulla (Tollan) with the expulsion - of the king and that which followed, properly belongs to Ceacatl, - surnamed Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king of Tollan, who ascended the throne - about 873.<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> The father of this monarch had been cruelly murdered, - and in his early boyhood Ceacatl is said to have wreaked a terrible - vengeance on the murderer of his father, after which he concealed - himself for about twenty years. At about the above-named date he - reappeared, and established his claims to the throne. He espoused the - religion of Quetzalcoatl, and the peace which followed brought great - prosperity. Human sacrifices were forbidden, and a golden age seemed - to dawn in which Tollan exceeded all the cities of the Mexican valley - in importance and wealth. But a rivalry at once sprang up between the - priests of the bloody god Tezcatlipoca, worshipped in Culhuacan and at - Teotihuacan, and those of the peaceful and humane Quetzalcoatl, which - resulted in the voluntary departure of the Pontiff king, to whom the - name of his god was attached. The contest between the two sects is - symbolized in the legend by the tricks of Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl - was received at Cholula, where he remained some years, but was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>at last - driven away before the leader of the Tezcatlipoca faction, namely, - King Huemac, who advanced upon the peaceful king with a strong army. - Quetzalcoatl again voluntarily withdrew, rather than occasion the - bloodshed of his subjects. It is probable that he ultimately reached - Yucatan and figured there in his old character under the name of - Cukulcan.<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a></p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_VII"><span>CHAPTER VII</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS AND CLIFF-DWELLERS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Casas Grandes of Chihuahua—Ruins in the Casas Grandes and Janos - Valleys—Casa Grande of the Rio Gila—Ruins in the Gila - Valley—Also in the Valley of the Rio Salado—Ruins in the Cañon - of the Colorado—In the Valley of the Colorado Chiquito—Pueblos - of the Zuñi River—Zuñi and the “Seven Cities of Cibola”—“El - Moro”—Pueblos of the Chaco Valley—Cliff-Dwellers—Mr. Jackson’s - Discoveries in the Valley of the Rio San Juan—Cliff Houses - of the Rio Mancos—Cliff-Dwellings on the McElmo—Traditional - Origin and Fate of the Cliff-Dwellers—Ancestors of the - Moquis—Remarkable Discoveries by Mr. Holmes—The Seven Moqui - Towns—The Montezuma Legend.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">IN the State of Chihuahua, Mexico, and in our Territories of Arizona, - New Mexico, Utah and the State of Colorado, a class of remains are - found, wholly unlike those of the Mayas, Nahuas, or Mound-builders, - though in some instances they are associated with earthworks resembling - those of the latter race. The style of architecture is unlike that of - any other people on either continent, and though varying considerably - in its individual examples, still present certain marked and general - features which leave little room for doubt that the peoples of the - Pueblos and the Cliffs were the same. The earliest discovered of - this class of remains are known as the Casas Grandes, situated at - about half a mile from the modern town of the same name, in the - fertile valley of the Casas Grandes or San Migual River in Northern - Chihuahua. These ruins have often been described second-hand and their - nature is well-known to persons interested in this field of inquiry. - Of the above-named class of descriptions, the latest and best is - by Mr. Bancroft, who has added a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> bibliographical apparatus to his - account.<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> We will, therefore, confine our discussion of this group - of remains to the essential facts as given by Mr. J. R. Bartlett, whose - account of his researches is quite full and satisfactory.<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> These - facts we will give as briefly as possible, preferring to devote our - space to the new material composing the latter part of the chapter. - Several of the early writers refer to the Casas Grandes as one of the - Aztec stations; but a little intelligent study of the characteristics - of the ruins, especially in the light of recent explorations in - the Territories, is likely to dissipate such an opinion. The first - examination of the ruins of which any reliable record is left, was by - Sr. Escudero, in 1819, published in his <cite>Noticias Estadísticas del - Estado de Chihuahua</cite>. A contributor to the <cite>Album Mexicano</cite> - (tom. i, pp. 374–5) furnished a good account of the ruins as he - found them in 1842. None of the hasty sketches subsequently made by - several writers are worth a reference until we come to the excellent - description written by Mr. Bartlett in 1851, while acting as United - States Commissioner, in fixing the United States and Mexican boundary - line. The Casas Grandes, according to Mr. Bartlett, are built of adobe - or mud, in large quadrangular blocks measuring about twenty-two inches - in thickness by three feet or more in length. The irregularity of the - length of the blocks, however, seemed to indicate that they had been - formed on the wall, <i>in situ</i>, by means of a box open at the ends, - which, when the block dried, was moved along to mould a fresh block. - The mud is filled with coarse gravel from the plateau, which gives - greater hardness to the material. The Casas face the cardinal points - and consist of erect and fallen walls, ranging from five to thirty - feet in height. The accumulation of rubbish is, however, considerable, - and if the highest standing walls rest upon a common level with the - lowest, they will measure from forty to fifty feet in height. The - edifice was discovered in ruins by the conquerors, and could not have - been occupied for a century, at the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>least calculation, prior to its - discovery. It is, therefore, reasonable to presume that all the walls - now standing were originally much higher than at present. It appears - that the outer portions of the edifices were the lowest, and not more - than one story in height, while the central ones were from three to - six stories. The central or inner walls are better preserved, partly - by their greater thickness—five feet at the base—and partly by the - heaps of ruined walls which have fallen around them. Once prostrate, - the blocks absorb the water, and in a few years are reduced to a mass - of mud and gravel. It was with difficulty that Mr. Bartlett traced all - the outlines of the buildings; but close examination revealed the fact - that three lofty edifices were connected into one by means of a low - range of buildings, one storey high, which may have merely inclosed - intervening courts. The total length of this continuous edifice was - at least 800 feet by 250 feet wide. A regular and continuous wall was - observed on the south side, while the eastern and western fronts, with - their projecting walls, were very irregular. The question of the exact - number of stories is not capable of solution, as no vestige of timbers - or wood now remains. The explorer could not even detect a trace of - any cavities where the floor-timbers had been inserted in the walls, - so decayed and washed was their condition. Many doorways remained, - but the lintels having decayed, the tops had fallen in. Clavigero - states that the edifice had “three floors with a terrace above them - and without any entrance to the under floor, so that a scaling ladder - is necessary.” García Condé confirms this statement as to the three - stories besides a roof,<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> while both authors consider this to have - been a station on the Aztec migration. Certainly, no architectural - analogies with the remains farther south justify this opinion. Mr. - Bartlett was unable to obtain but a partial plan of the Casas Grandes. - <span class="figright2 illowp28"> - <img class="pl3" src="images/i_277.jpg" alt="" /> - <span class="xxsmall bold">PART OF GROUND PLAN OF CASAS GRANDES CHIHUAHUA.</span> - </span> - One class of apartments, however, attracted his especial attention, - from the fact that they were evidently designed for granaries. They - were arranged along one <span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>of the main walls, and measured twenty feet in - length by ten in breadth. They were connected by doorways “with a small - inclosure or pen in one corner, three or four feet high.” Numerous long - and narrow apartments, too contracted for sleeping or dwelling-rooms, - lighted by circular apertures in the upper walls, are supposed to have - been devoted to the same use. Large inclosures, too extensive in their - dimensions ever to have been roofed, evidently were used as courts. - Two hundred feet west of the Casas, on the plateau, are the remains of - a building about 150 feet square, divided into compartments, as shown - in the accompanying plan: - <span class="figleft2 illowp28"> - <img class="pl3" src="images/i_278.jpg" alt="" /> - <span class="xxsmall bold">GROUND PLAN OF ONE OF THE CASAS GRANDES AT CHIHUAHUA.</span> - </span> - Between this edifice and the main building, - are three mounds of loose stones about fifteen feet high, which the - explorers did not have time to open. For a distance of twenty leagues - and covering an area of ten leagues wide along the Casas Grandes and - Janos Rivers, according to García Condé, are ruins resembling small - mounds, from which jars, pottery in various forms, painted with white, - blue and scarlet colors, corn-grinders (metates), and stone-axes have - been taken. If this region was ever occupied by the Aztecs, even - temporarily, this latter class of remains might more properly be - attributed to them, than the Casas Grandes. Innumerable fragments of - pottery, superior to that now manufactured by the Mexicans, are strewn - everywhere in the neighborhood of the Casas Grandes. The decoration is - in black, red or brown, on a white or reddish ground. Several graceful - and highly artistic vases have been collected about the ruins, and - stone metates, nicely hewn, have been recovered in perfect condition. - On the summit of the highest mountain, ten miles south-west of the - ruins, stands an ancient fortress of stone, the walls of which are - said by the writer in the <cite>Album Mexicano</cite> to have been from - eighteen to twenty feet thick. The fort, which is attributed to the - occupants of the Casas Grandes, was two or three stories, and in the - centre had a high mound for the purposes of observation. Clavigero, who - describes the fort and all of the ruins from hearsay,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> falls into the - error of supposing the Casas to have also been constructed of stone. A - short distance from the point where the 111° (meridian) of longitude - crosses the Gila River, in Southern Arizona, in the valley occupied - farther westward by the Pima villages, stands the most famous ruin of - all the Western remains. The Casa Grande, otherwise named the Casa de - Montezuma, has attracted the attention of and furnished a fruitful - subject for most writers on Mexican antiquity, the majority of whom, - however, have contributed nothing to our knowledge of the history or - uses of the edifice. Of describers at second-hand, Mr. Bancroft has - cited thirty-four authors, according to our reckoning, and to this - number the reader must add that author’s account and ours. This fact - is an admonition to us to confine ourselves to the briefest possible - statement of facts, for certainly the thirty-sixth repetition of - the accounts furnished by two or three original explorers would be - altogether inexcusable, were it not for the inseparable relation of the - Gila Casas to the remains to be described farther on. Mr. Bancroft has - treated the bibliography of the subject in his usually comprehensive - manner,<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> and it only remains for us to refer the reader to the - original descriptions. The first of these was written by Padre Mange, - the secretary of Padre Kino, on the latter’s tour of visitation to - the missions of the region in 1697.<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> Lieutenant C. M. Bernal, of - the same expedition, adds also a description.<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> Padre Sedelmair, - who visited the ruin in 1744, copies literally Mange’s description - in his account of the Casas.<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> Father Font, who, in company with - Father Garcés, made an expedition conducted by Captain Anza to the - Gila and the missions farther north, left a diary—now preserved in - the original, in the archives at Guadalajara—from which Mr. Bartlett - translated and published an extensive description<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> of the Casas.<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> - Of later writers, only four wrote from personal observation, namely, - Emory<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> and Johnston,<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> of General Kearney’s Military Expedition - to California in 1846; Bartlett<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> in 1852, and Ross Browne in - 1863.<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> These are the only original sources of information on the - Casa Grande of the Gila, of which Bartlett’s account may be said to - be the best. However, Bancroft has contributed much to facilitate the - study of the subject by his addition of a full literary apparatus.</p> - - <p>From all of these we draw the facts without further citation. Two and - a half miles south of the Gila, on a slightly elevated plateau, stands - the remains of the Casa Grande surrounded with a growth of mesquite - trees. The ascent from the river bottom is so slight and gradual that - its former inhabitants had constructed acequias between the river and - the buildings. Mr. Bartlett found three edifices within a space of - one hundred and fifty yards. The larger one only was in a fair state - of preservation. Its four outer walls and most of the inner ones were - standing. Three storeys were plainly marked by the ends of the beams - remaining in the walls or by the cavities which they once occupied. No - doubt the building was one story, at least, higher than this indicated, - as the upper walls have crumbled away considerably and filled the first - story with disintegrated adobe and a mass of rubbish. The central - portion or tower furthermore rises eight or ten feet higher than the - outer walls, and may have formed another story above the main building. - At their base, the walls are between four or five feet in thickness, - rising perpendicular on the inside, but on the outside tapering towards - the top in a curved line.</p> - - <p>The material of the walls consists of blocks of adobe, prepared as in - the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, in position on the walls, probably - in boxes two feet high and four feet long; after the mud had dried - sufficiently, the box was moved further along the walls and refilled. - Some difference of opinion has existed as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>to the color of the mud - employed, though all admit it to be that of the surrounding valley. - Mr. Bancroft gives some attention to this point, and observes that - Bernal pronounced it “white clay,” and that according to Johnston it - is also white with an admixture of lime from the vicinity. Mr. Hutton, - a civil engineer who had thoroughly examined them, reported to Mr. - Simpson that the surrounding earth was of a reddish color, but the - admixture of pebbles with the mud gave the Casa a whitish appearance in - certain reflections. Mr. Bancroft seeks by this argument to identify - this building with Castañeda’s Chichilticale, which is described as - having been built of red earth.<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> The outer sides of the walls were - finished with a plaster similar to that which composed the blocks, - but the inner side was covered with hard finish of such fine quality - that when visited they still retained their polish after centuries of - exposure. It is estimated that the edifice must have stood a hundred - years at least prior to its discovery by the Spaniards. The inner walls - are slightly thinner than the outer ones, and divide the building - into five apartments, as shown in Mr. Bartlett’s ground plan. The - building measures fifty feet in length by forty in width. - <span class="figright2 illowp28"> - <img class="pl3" src="images/i_281.jpg" alt="" /> - <span class="xxsmall bold smcap0">Ground Plan.</span> - </span> - The three central rooms indicated are each about eight by fourteen feet, while - those at each end of the edifice are ten by about thirty-two feet. The - doorways indicated in the plan are three feet wide by five feet high, - except that in the western façade, which is only two feet wide and - seven or eight feet high. The main part of the edifice was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>probably - thirty feet high, while the tower rose still ten feet higher. Padre - Kino found a floor in an adjoining ruin still perfect, the supporting - timbers of which were round and about five inches in diameter, while - the floor proper was formed by placing cross-sticks on the joist and - covering them with a layer of adobe. Mr. Browne observed the marks of - a blunt axe still plainly visible in the timbers of cedar or sabine - which had been thus employed, while their charred ends furnish the - only clue to the cause of the ruin of the edifice, a fact suggestive - of the ravages of the savage Apaches. No stairways or other means of - ascent were discovered, and it is inferred that ladders were employed - upon the outside as among the modern Pueblos. Near the main building, - to the south-west, Mr. Bartlett discovered another Casa in ruins, - and with difficulty traced its ground plan; while a third was so - completely decayed as to leave no certain outline of its form. To the - north-west about two hundred yards, was a circular embankment eighty - or one hundred yards in circumference, which Mr. Bartlett supposes to - have been used as a stock inclosure. A few yards farther north Mr. - Johnston observed a terrace, two hundred by three hundred feet and - five feet high, and having a summit platform seventy-two feet square, - from which an excellent view of the valley is afforded. This monument - is unlike any other found among the New Mexican remains. The entire - valley is strewn with heaps of rubbish and ruined adobe edifices, which - indicate that once the whole region was thickly populated by this - remarkable people. Mr. Bartlett found broken metates (corn-grinders), - and innumerable fragments of pottery painted tastefully with red, - white, lead color, and black. The figures were geometrical, and many - of the vessels had been decorated on the inside—a practice not in - vogue with the modern peoples of the Gila Valley. The finish was also - far superior to that of modern pottery. The Casa Grande, when last - observed by Mr. Browne, was fast going to pieces, the moisture having - undermined some parts of the outer walls, which were only kept erect by - their great thickness. In 1873, Mr. Bancroft learned that the edifice - was still standing, but it is evident that it must soon share the fate - of its fallen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> neighbors. It is certain that this Pueblo civilization - spread itself over a large tract of country north of the Gila Valley - in the basin of the Rio Salado or Salinas, the principal tributary of - the Gila. Numerous buildings similar to those previously described, - have been noticed by different writers on the Rio Salado and its - tributaries. The ruins of large edifices surrounded by smaller ones are - described by Sedelmair (discovered in 1744) as standing between the - Gila and Salado.<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_283.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Casa Grande of the Gila Valley.</span> - (As sketched by Ross Browne in 1863.)</div> - </div> - - <p>Velarde has also cited the remains of similar structures at the - junction of Salado and Verde and of the Salado and Gila.<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> We cannot - refer to all of the remains reported in this region, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>especially - since most of them are indescribable and shapeless heaps of ruins. - One edifice, however, was observed by Mr. Bartlett, two hundred feet - in length by sixty or eighty feet in width; and from the accumulation - of debris, it is estimated that the edifice must have been three or - four stories in height. This was but one of several similar heaps - of ruins observed in the immediate vicinity. This locality, distant - thirty-five miles from the river’s mouth, was evidently at one time - the site of a populous city. The remains of numerous works, probably - of a public character, such as irrigating canals—one of which is now - more than twenty feet wide and four feet deep and several miles long, - in the construction of which it was necessary to cut down the bank - of the plateau—occur in considerable numbers. The whole region is - strewn with fragments of broken pottery of fine workmanship.<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> M. - Leroux, in 1854, discovered on the Rio Verde ruins of stone houses and - regular fortifications which did not appear to have been occupied for - centuries. The walls were of solid masonry of rectangular form, usually - from twenty to thirty paces in length, and the style of architecture - similar to that of the Casa Grande of the Gila. Still there was - sufficient resemblance to the Pueblos of the Moquis to indicate a - transition from the southern to the northern style of Pueblo dwelling. - The sudden change in the material employed—that from adobe to stone in - large blocks, well hewn—is rather remarkable. The ruins are found with - more or less continuity between Fort McDowell and Prescott.<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> Mr. - Bancroft, after citing the above, expresses regret at his inability - to secure information in the possession of officers in the Arizona - service.<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p> - - <p>Lieutenant Whipple describes extensive ruins on the small streams - forming the head-waters of the Rio Verde. Both stone and adobe - structures were numerous, and the walls usually were found to be about - five feet thick.<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> Emory has described some <span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>Pueblo buildings - of singular structure on the upper Gila and its tributaries; most - interesting of these is one with a labyrinthine plan of inner circular - walls. The region also abounds in rock inscriptions of a rude though no - doubt conventional character.<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> It is quite natural to suppose that - remains of this ancient people would have been found extensively on - the greatest river of the region—the Colorado. Mr. Bancroft passes the - subject with the statement that “no relics of antiquity are reported by - reliable authorities,” and fitly explains that it is unlikely, in view - of the peculiarity of the region, that none will ever be found in the - immediate vicinity of the river.<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> Whipple and his associates state - that “upon the lower part of the Rio Colorado no traces of permanent - dwellings have been discovered.”<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a></p> - - <p>Since the publication of Mr. Bancroft’s fourth volume, the public - has been made acquainted with the details of Major J. W. Powell’s - exploration of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado.<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> The descent of the - river was accomplished by the Major and his companions in the summer - of 1869, amid dangers so appalling and privations so distressing, - that we need not hesitate in pronouncing it an exhibition of heroism - having few parallels in the history of exploration. The Major has since - repeated his perilous journey of which we have enjoyed the pleasure - of a verbal description in part from the explorer himself. Groups - of ruins were discovered in the gloomy depths of the Grand Cañon at - three different points. In referring to them we will reverse the order - in which they were discovered. A hundred or more miles (for we are - unable to estimate the distance from the account) above the Virgen - River, where the granite walls rise perpendicularly from the water’s - edge thousands of feet, the cañon widened somewhat and a considerable - group of ruined buildings were discovered on a terrace of trap. There - had evidently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> been quite a village in that solitary spot, shut in - by hundreds of miles of granite walls either up or down the river’s - course. Mealing stones and fragments of broken pottery were scattered - about the ruins, and so many beautiful flint chips that the discoverers - conjectured that it might have been the home of an ancient arrow-maker. - Major Powell found on a natural shelf in the rock, back of the ruin, - a globular basket, badly broken, and so decayed that when taken up it - fell to pieces.<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> Some distance farther up the river, the grim walls - of more than a mile in height parted to admit the clear waters of a - stream named by the explorers “Bright Angel River.” In a little gulch - above the creek the foundations of two or three Pueblo houses were - discovered. They were built of irregular cut stones, laid in mortar. - An old, deeply-worn mealing stone and a great quantity of pottery were - found, and old trails were observed worn into the rock.<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p> - - <p>It cannot fail, however, to excite the wonder of the reader to learn - that Major Powell found ruined pueblos hundreds of miles <span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>farther up - that dismal, almost subterranean river. Not far below the foot of the - Cataract Cañon, and a considerable distance above Escalante River, in - Southern Utah, the explorers discovered on a wall two hundred feet - above the river, but removed from the water by a narrow plain, an old - stone house of good masonry. The stones were laid in mortar with much - regularity. It had been a three-story building, the first of which - still remained in good condition, the second being much broken, and - but little being left of the third. Flint chips, beautiful arrow-heads - and broken pottery abounded in the vicinity. The faces of the cliffs - were also covered with etchings. Fifteen miles farther down the river - another group was discovered, the principal building of which was in - the shape of an L, with five rooms on the ground floor; one in the - angle and two in each wing. In the centre of the angle there was a deep - excavation, doubtless an underground chamber for religious services, - known as an Estufa. Major Powell considers these remains the work of a - branch of the people now occupying the province of Tusayan in northern - Arizona. These Moqui peoples will be noticed farther on. In the - neighborhood of the last-named ruin, the Major found a tall, pyramidal - work of nature, formed by smooth rock-mounds, rising one above another. - On climbing this he observed that this natural eminence had been used - as an outlook by the people of the Pueblo. A stairway cut in the rock - by human hands and an old ladder resting against a perpendicular rock - were discovered.<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a></p> - - <p>The Colorado Chiquito and its tributaries flows through the very heart - of the Pueblo country. One hundred miles above its junction with the - Rio Colorado, Whipple, Sitgreaves and others, found numerous ruins, - crowning nearly every prominent point in the valley. The pottery of - the region is unlike that usually met with, in that it is ornamented - with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>impressions and raised work, instead of being painted.<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> Forty - miles farther up the river colossal ruins were discovered standing on - the summit of a sandstone bluff. The walls, such as remained standing, - were ten feet thick, while the building measured 360 feet in length by - 120 in width.<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> With the exception of the remains of stone-houses, - at the junction of the Rio Puerco with the Colorado Chiquito, the - only aboriginal remains reported are pottery, scattered arrow-heads - and numerous rock inscriptions. The next tributary of the Colorado - Chiquito—the Zuñi River—is celebrated because of its ancient and modern - Pueblo structures. For fifty miles from the mouth of the Zuñi, the - antiquarian who could, might read the history of this ancient people, - spread out upon the imperishable cliffs—the parchment of Nature’s - children. Within eight miles of the inhabited Pueblo towns, numerous - ruins are encountered.<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> Here, within a few miles, the almost - mythical “seven cities of Cibola,” described by Coronado in 1540, and - by Marco de Niça the year previous, are demonstrated to have been - situated.<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> Zuñi itself is the Granada of the devoted and romantic - conquerors. In the centre of a plain upon a commanding eminence, stands - the inhabited Pueblo of Zuñi. Its frontage is upon the river of the - same name, while but a short distance in the background, the mesa - terminates in tall cliffs of metamorphic rock several hundred feet - high. The town is built in blocks, with terrace-shaped houses, usually - three stories high, in which the lower stories do service as the - platform for those immediately following them. Access is obtained by - means of ladders reaching to the roof or terrace, formed upon the first - story of each of the houses. The town is very compactly built, many - of the streets passing under the upper stories of houses. The whole - is divided into four squares, and the houses in each are continuously - joined <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>together. The building material employed is stone, plastered - with mud.<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> A little more than two miles south-east of Zuñi, the - ancient ruined Pueblo of the same name is situated on an elevated - mesa of a mile in width, the precipitous descent from which, upon all - sides, measures a thousand feet. The ruins of old Zuñi are surrounded - with a growth of cedars, and cover several acres of ground. The walls, - constructed of small sandstone blocks laid in mud-mortar, are only - eighteen inches thick and are sadly dilapidated from age, only twelve - feet marking their highest point of present elevation. Still, there - is a deeper mystery about this antiquated ruin, for beneath the walls - now standing, others are found of a more ancient city, whose walls - were six feet thick, which perished either of age or by the hand of - the destroyer, before the present was begun. The ascent to the ruin - is a winding and difficult path, guarded with stone battlements at - different points. At a sacred spring near Zuñi, Whipple found vases - standing inverted upon an adobe wall. “Many of these were white, - well-proportioned, and of elegant forms. Upon their inner and outward - surfaces they were curiously painted to represent frogs, tadpoles, - tortoises, butterflies, and rattlesnakes.” The tufted snakes on one - of the vases are pronounced almost unique in America.<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> Twelve - miles above Zuñi, at Ojo del Pescado, four or five ruined towns are - found, but so badly decayed as to furnish little clue to their plan. - Two of them, however, are constructed elliptically around a spring, - and present a circumference of about 800 to 1000 feet. Two-thirds of a - mile down the river, ruined pueblos in a fair state of preservation, - with two stories standing, are described as covering an area of - 150 by 200 yards. At the time of Möllhausen’s visit, the roofs and - fire-places were in quite good condition.<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>A square estufa, still - under roof, and numerous rock inscriptions, were observed. In this - instance we are furnished with abundant evidence that the destruction - of this people never was a wholesale one, but that gradually they are - succumbing to their unpropitious surroundings—a land which is fast - becoming a howling wilderness, with its scourging sands and roaming - savage Bedouin—the Apaches. One more locality in this region merits - attention. Eighteen miles south-east of the sources of the Zuñi River, - stands a sandstone rock three hundred feet high, which at a distance - resembles a Moorish fortress. The Spaniards named it El Moro. It is - also known as “Inscription Rock,” because of the Spanish and Indian - inscriptions which cover its smooth face. Simpson has copied some of - them, which is quite fortunate, since later explorers have found many - of them almost effaced. The ruins of two buildings are found on the - summit, which is reached by a difficult path. The large group is in - the form of a rectangle, measuring 307 by 206 feet. The walls, faced - with sandstone blocks, remain standing to the height of six and eight - feet. The other group is separated from the first by a deep ravine, - and is found upon the very brink of the outer precipice. A circular - estufa thirty-one feet in diameter was also noticed. Cedar timbers - were found in the walls, and broken pottery in abundance.<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> About - one hundred miles in a north north-easterly direction from Zuñi, in - longitude 108° and latitude 36°, the most remarkable of the pueblo - ruins are situated. These are on the north bank of the Chaco River, - a tributary of the Rio San Juan, a stream the affluents of which are - noted for a greater number of pueblo and cliff-dwellers’ ruins than - are found elsewhere. Lieutenant Simpson has described the ruins of the - Chaco, eleven in number, occurring within a distance of twenty-five - miles. The first of these met with in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>coming from the south is called - at present (we presume in the absence of the knowledge of the true - name) the Pueblo Pintado. The most remarkable feature of this great - structure is the beauty and precision of the masonry. The fine, hard - gray sandstone blocks are quite uniformly three inches in thickness and - are laid without mortar, always breaking joints. The crevices between - the ends of the blocks are filled with very thin pieces of stone, not - over a quarter of an inch thick. The walls of the pueblo now standing, - are at their greatest height, thirty feet, and furnish evidence from - the marks of the floor-timbers that the building was three stories. The - walls are between two and three feet thick at the base, though this is - diminished with each succeeding story by a jog of a few inches, upon - which the flooring timbers rest. These are from six to eleven inches in - diameter, always of uniform size in the same room. On these beams small - round sticks are laid transversely, and these in turn covered with thin - cedar strips, lying transversely of the round sticks. In some rooms the - chinks in the floor were filled with small stones and the whole covered - with a layer of mortar. One room, however, had a floor of smooth cedar - boards, seven inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick. The - edges and ends were squarely cut, and their smooth surfaces indicate - that they were polished by being rubbed with flat stones. The size of - these ruins may be better understood when we state that five buildings - measured in circumference respectively 872, 700, 1700, 1300 and 1300 - feet; while the number of rooms, still well-defined on the ground - floor of each, is 72, 99, 112, 124 and 139. Some of these buildings - undoubtedly had as high as a thousand rooms, while the smallest of them - probably contained half that number. The smallest apartments are five - feet square, while the largest are eight by fourteen feet. The ground - plan of the buildings of this valley have three tiers of rooms, while - one building, the Pueblo Bonito, has four tiers of apartments. The - usual form of the buildings corresponds to three sides of a rectangle, - with the fourth (one of the long sides of the figure) left unbuilt - (except that in some cases it was inclosed by a semicircular stone - wall), thus affording a partially enclosed court of large dimensions.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> - The exterior walls are in all cases perpendicular, thus differing from - the pueblos farther south. The terracing in the Chaco structures is - upon the inside (court side) of the buildings.</p> - - <p>In some of the buildings, however, the angles of the quadrangle are - rounded, and in one instance—that of the Peñasca Blanco—the structure - is elliptical. From the nature of the plan of any of these buildings - it is evident that many of the apartments on the ground floor were - dark, and were probably used for granaries and store-rooms. There are - no doors whatever in the outer walls, and no windows except in the - upper stories. Windows and doors opening into the courts are, on the - contrary, numerous in all the stories but the first. The doors are - quite small, in many cases not exceeding two and a half feet square. - The lintels of the doors and windows are in most cases stone slabs, but - in some instances are small round timbers tied together with withes. A - remarkable feature of the construction is the presence of the Yucatan - arch formed of overlapping stones, illustrations of which may be seen - in our next chapter. Dr. Hammond, a companion of Lieutenant Simpson, - has minutely described a room of very perfect finish.<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> Each edifice - was provided with the sacred estufa, and some of the houses had as - many as seven, circular in form, excavated several feet deep in the - earth and enclosed with circular walls. One in the Pueblo Bonito was - of remarkable size, having been sixty feet in diameter, extending - twelve feet below the surface and rising two or three stories high. - Lieutenant Simpson found in close proximity to one of the ruins an - excavation in the cliff which had been enclosed with a front wall of - well-laid stone and mortar, thus associating one of the simplest of - the cave-dwellings to which we shall refer presently, with one of the - most extensive and perfect of the Pueblo buildings; a fact of no little - value in identifying the architects of both as one and the same.<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> - This introduces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> us to another class of ruins, which, with a couple of - exceptions, were not discovered prior to the summer of 1874. We refer - to the cliff-dwellings, the most remarkable habitations ever occupied - by man. The descriptions of them seem more suitable to form parts of - the most romantic works of fiction than of sober and scientific memoirs - from the pens of government explorers. One hundred miles westward from - the ruins of the Chaco lies the Chelly Valley or Cañon. The Chelly is - one of the tributaries of the Rio San Juan from the south, having its - source in the Navajo country. The Chelly Cañon is described as from - one hundred and fifty to nine hundred feet wide, with perpendicular - sides between three hundred and five hundred feet high. Simpson in 1849 - found several caves built up in front with stone and mortar in a side - cañon. About four miles from its foot or mouth he observed on a shelf - fifty feet high, accessible only by ladders, a stone ruin, the plan of - which resembles that of the Chaco Valley pueblos, except that it was - constructed on a considerably smaller scale. Three miles further up the - cañon a double ruin of an extraordinary nature was discovered. At the - base of the cañon stood an ancient pueblo in ruins, but with parts of - the first and second stories still erect. Fifty feet in a perpendicular - line, above and immediately back of the first edifice, in a shelf, or - in the mouth of a cavern in the cañon’s walls, stood another building - constructed of sandstone and mortar, and measuring one hundred and - forty-five by forty-five feet, with walls eighteen feet high still - standing. Broken pottery was plentiful, as around all the ruins we have - described. The building was lighted by square windows and provided with - a circular estufa.<a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></p> - - <p>The most surprising results in all the history of archæological - exploration in this country were obtained in September, 1874, by a - party connected with the United States Geological and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>Geographical - Survey Corps. This party was composed of only three persons, Mr. W. - H. Jackson and Mr. Ingersoll with their guide, Captain John Moss, a - resident of La Plata, who possessed both a knowledge of the country and - an acquaintance with the language of the Indians. In the south-western - corner of Colorado, the cañons of two of the tributaries of the San - Juan were examined, namely, the valleys of the Rivers Mancos and - McElmo.<a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> The former stream rises among the western foothills of the - Sierra La Plata, and flows south-westerly through fertile valleys to - a great table-land known as the “Mesa Verde,” thence to the San Juan - near the crossing of the boundary lines of the four territories. In - the upper valley of the Mancos, between the mountains and the mesa, - groups of undistinguishable ruins were discovered in great numbers. - An examination of the shapeless heaps revealed foundations composed - of great square blocks of adobe. The great multitude of these heaps - of masonry overgrown with pines indicates a general and unsparing - destruction of the houses of the people who once inhabited the valley, - at the hands of their enemies. The cañon through the Mesa Verde is - quite uniformly two hundred yards wide, with perpendicular walls of - grayish cretaceous sandstone ranging from six hundred to one thousand - feet in height. Numbers of the mounds of ruined adobe were met with at - each advance into the cañon, and upon promontories jutting out towards - the stream, remains of stone walls were seen as high as fifty feet - from the river’s bed. Every step revealed great quantities of broken - pottery, and with this statement we will let the subject of these - fragmentary relics of the by-gone civilization rest for the present.</p> - - <p>One of the first cliff houses discovered by the explorers is a most - interesting structure, the position of which, over six hundred feet - from the bottom of the cañon in a niche of the wall, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>furnishes a - significant commentary on the straits to which this sorely-pressed - people were driven by their enemies. Five hundred feet of the ascent - to this aërial dwelling was comparatively easy, but a hundred feet - of almost perpendicular wall confronted the party, up which they - could never have climbed but for the fact that they found a series of - steps cut in the face of the rock leading up to the ledge upon which - the house was built.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_295.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-House in the Cañon of the Mancos.</div> - </div> - - <p>This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, with a a - vertical space between it and the overhanging rock of fifteen feet. - The house occupied only half this space, the remainder having been - used as an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade resting - on abutments, built partly upon the sloping face of the precipice - below. The house was but twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the - walls did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain whether it - ever had any other roof. The ground plan showed a front room of six - by nine feet in dimensions, in the rear of which were two smaller - rooms, each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> measuring five by seven feet. The left-hand room projected - along the cliff, beyond the front room, in the form of an L. The rock - of the cliff served as the rear wall of the house. The cedar beams - upon which the upper floor had rested had nearly all disappeared. - The door opening on the esplanade was but twenty by thirty inches in - size, while a window in the same story was but twelve inches square. - A window in the upper story, which commands an extended view down the - cañon, corresponded in dimensions and position with the door below. - The lintels of the window were small straight cedar sticks laid close - together, upon which the stones rested. Opposite this window was - another and smaller one, opening into a semicircular cistern, formed by - a wall inclosing the angle formed by the side wall of the house against - the rock, and holding about two and a half hogsheads. The bottom of the - reservoir was reached by descending on a series of cedar pegs about - one foot apart, and leading downward from the window. The workmanship - of the structure was of a superior order; the perpendiculars were - true ones and the angles carefully squared. The mortar used was of - a grayish white color, very compact and adhesive. Some little taste - was evinced by the occupants of this human swallow’s nest. The front - rooms were plastered smoothly with a thin layer of firm adobe cement, - colored a deep maroon, while a white band, eight inches wide, had been - painted around the room at both floor and ceiling. An examination of - the immediate vicinity revealed the ruins of half a dozen similar - dwellings in the ledges of the cliffs, some of them occupying positions - the inaccessibility of which must ever be a wonder, when considered as - places of residence for human beings. Half-way down the cañon, one of - Mr. Jackson’s party discovered a rather remarkable watch-tower, which, - because of the accumulations of débris, he was not able to accurately - measure, though approximate figures were given. Since his visit, the - tower has been thoroughly examined by Mr. W. H. Holmes, to whose work - in this field we will refer on a future page. Mr. Holmes’ measurements - and ground-plan are, therefore, substituted for those of Mr. Jackson.</p> - - <p>The diameter of the outer wall is forty-three feet, that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> of the inner, - twenty-five feet. The outer wall is still standing to the height of - twelve feet at one point, and is in a fair state of preservation, - with a thickness of twenty-one inches, and has the stones dressed to - the curve. The ring-shaped space between the inner and outer wall is - estimated to have contained ten compartments, two of which at present - have complete walls. No door or window was observed in the outer wall, - and it is supposed that access was obtained by means of a ladder. Two - nearly rectangular openings were found connecting the outer apartments - with the central part of the tower, which no doubt was used as an - estufa.<a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a> Mr. Jackson, after leaving the tower which Mr. Holmes has - so fully described (of which the above is but a condensed account), saw - similar towers on a somewhat <span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>smaller scale. His next discovery in the - face of the vertical rock, which here ran up from the bottom of the - cañon and at a height of from fifty to one hundred feet, were a number - of nest-like habitations, one of which is figured in the cut.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_297.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Ground Plan of Tower in the Mancos Cañon.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp79"> - <img src="images/i_298.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-Dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.</div> - </div> - - <p>The cliff-house in this case was reached by its occupants from the - top of the cañon. The walls are pronounced as firm as the rock upon - which they were built. The stones were very regular in size, and the - chinking-in of small chips of stone rendered the surface of the wall - remarkably smooth and well finished. The dwelling measured fifteen - feet in length, five feet in width, and six feet in height. A short - distance below this little dwelling, five or six cave-like crevices - were found walled up in front with very perfect walls, rendered smooth - by chinking. Three miles farther down the cañon, the party discovered - at heights ranging from six hundred and eight hundred feet above their - heads, some curious and unique little dwellings sandwiched in among - the crevices of the horizontal strata of the rock of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> which the bluff - was composed. Access to the summit of the bluff, a thousand feet - high, was obtained by a circuitous path through a side cañon, and the - houses themselves could only be reached at the utmost peril—of being - precipitated to the bottom of the dizzy abyss—by crawling along a - ledge twenty inches wide and only high enough for a man in a creeping - position. This led to the wider shelf on which the houses rested. The - perfection of the finish was especially noticeable in one of these - houses, which was but fifteen feet long and seven feet high, with a - side wall running back in a semicircular sweep. In every instance the - party found the elevated cliff-houses situated on the western side of - the cañon with their outlook toward the east, while the buildings at - the bottom of the cañon were indiscriminately built on both sides of - the river.</p> - - <div class="figright illowp48"> - <img src="images/i_299.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-Dwelling of the Mancos Cañon.</div> - </div> - - <p>A circular watch-tower, which may be said to serve as a fair type of - others met with at irregular intervals, is shown in the cut (p. 300). - The tower remained standing to a height of twenty feet. Its diameter - measured twelve feet and the thickness of the walls sixteen inches, - the stones being of uniform size and smoothly dressed to the curve of - the circle. A rectangular structure, divided into two apartments, each - about fifteen feet square, once joined the tower, but now is in ruins, - all but the foundation. It is supposed that this edifice was built over - a large subterranean keep or place of defence. The exploring party here - emerged from the cañon, and could discern, as they glanced down the - valley of the Rio Mancos, which now turned towards the west, mounds of - shapeless ruins at short distances from one another as far as the eye - could reach.</p> - - <p>Bearing around the Mesa to the west, the party encamped upon the - site of the most extensive mass of ruins yet found in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> United States - territory, “known as the Aztec Springs.” As Mr. Jackson’s description - is but partial, we defer the treatment of this locality until we take - up the explorations of Mr. Holmes, already mentioned. Four miles - distant from “Aztec Springs,” the party reached a river-bed, dry during - most of the year, and known as the McElmo, which, when it flows at all, - empties into the San Juan farther to the west. On the <i>mesa</i>, - above this river-bed, a tower resembling that first met in the Mancos - was observed, but of much greater size, having a diameter of fifty - feet. Adjoining the tower were the ruins of large subdivided buildings - resembling the community dwellings of the Moquis and the old ruins of - the Chaco. This group of ruins was very extensive and complicated, - literally occupying all the available space in the vicinity.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_300.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Watch-Tower of the Cañon of the Mancos.</div> - </div> - - <p>Half a dozen miles down the cañon of the McElmo, several of the little - nest-like dwellings peculiar to the Mancos were seen perched forty or - fifty feet above the valley. A couple of miles beyond these, the tower - shown in the cut (p. 301) was discovered standing on the summit of a - great block of sandstone forty feet high, and detached from the bluff - back of it.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp69"> - <img src="images/i_301.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Square Tower on the McElmo.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>The building which surmounts this rocky pedestal is square and about - fifteen feet high at present. Windows open toward the north and east, - the directions from which the enemies of this people, according to - tradition, came down upon them. A wall at the base of the rock is - mostly in ruins and covered with débris from the building above. - Immediately beyond this point the boundary line into Utah was crossed, - and two or three miles distant the party came upon a very interesting - group, a historic spot in the career of this ancient race. In the - centre of the widening valley stands a solitary butte of dark-red - sandstone, upon a perfectly smooth floor of the same, dipping gently - towards the centre of the valley. This butte or <i>cristone</i> is - about one hundred feet high and three hundred feet in length, of - irregular form. All around the rock are remains of stone walls which - indicate an extensive structure and complicated system of walls and - towers. At the back of the rock two remains attract special attention. - One wall forming the corner of a building near the base of the rock, - seems to have served as an approach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> to the larger house up in the - side of the butte. This structure is about eighteen feet in length and - twelve feet in height, nearly reaching to the top of the rock. Part - of the walls have fallen, but those standing show a finish surpassing - those of any structure previously discovered in the region. In front is - a single aperture eighteen by twenty-four inches. On top of the rock - are remains of masonry, but too badly ruined to indicate their original - form. All the crevices and irregularities in the faces of the butte had - been smoothly walled up; it is supposed, to make its ascent impossible. - In the vicinity a tower with a rounded corner and twelve feet in - diameter by twenty feet high stood in a dry creek bed.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cliff House in the Cañon of the McElmo.</div> - </div> - - <p>We remarked that this was a historic locality, as certainly it was if - the legend obtained by Captain Moss from an old man among the Moquis is - reliable. Mr. Ingersoll has rendered it in the <cite>New York Tribune</cite> - for November 3d, 1874, as follows: “Formerly, the aborigines inhabited - all this country we had been over as far west as the head-waters of - the San Juan, as far north as the Rio Dolores, west some distance into - Utah, and south and south-west throughout Arizona and on down into - Mexico. They had lived there from time immemorial—since the earth was - a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> small island, which augmented as its inhabitants multiplied. They - cultivated the valley, fashioned whatever utensils and tools they - needed very neatly and handsomely out of clay and wood and stone, not - knowing any of the useful metals; built their homes and kept their - flocks and herds in the fertile river-bottoms, and worshipped the - sun. They were an eminently peaceful and prosperous people, living - by agriculture rather than by the chase. About a thousand years ago, - however, they were visited by savage strangers from the North, whom - they treated hospitably. Soon these visits became more frequent and - annoying. Then their troublesome neighbors—ancestors of the present - Utes—began to forage upon them, and, at last, to massacre them and - devastate their farms; so, to save their lives at least, they built - houses high upon the cliffs where they could store food and hide away - till the raiders left. But one summer the invaders did not go back to - their mountains as the people expected, but brought their families with - them and settled down. So, driven from their homes and lands, starving - in their little niches on the high cliffs, they could only steal away - during the night, and wander across the cheerless uplands. To one who - has traveled these steppes, such a flight seems terrible, and the - mind hesitates to picture the suffering of the sad fugitives. At the - <i>Cristone</i> they halted and probably found friends, for the rocks - and caves are full of the nests of these human wrens and swallows. Here - they collected, erected stone fortifications and watch-towers, dug - reservoirs in the rocks to hold a supply of water, which in all cases - is precarious in this latitude, and once more stood at bay. Their foes - came, and for one long month fought and were beaten back, and returned - day after day to the attack as merciless and inevitable as the tide. - Meanwhile, the families of the defenders were evacuating and moving - south, and bravely did their protectors shield them till they were all - safely a hundred miles away. The besiegers were beaten back and went - away. But the narrative tells us that the hollows of the rocks were - filled to the brim with the mingled blood of conquerors and conquered, - and red veins of it ran down into the cañon. It was such a victory as - they could not afford to gain again, and they were glad,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> when the long - fight was over, to follow their wives and little ones to the south. - There, in the deserts of Arizona, on well-nigh unapproachable isolated - bluffs, they built new towns, and their few descendants, the Moquis, - live in them to this day, preserving more carefully and purely the - history and veneration of their forefathers than their skill or wisdom. - It was from one of their old men that this traditional sketch was - obtained.” In a side cañon, a tower eighteen feet high was seen perched - on a huge block of sandstone which had fallen from the top of the - <i>mesa</i> and lodged on a projecting shelf of rock, midway from top - or bottom. Eight or ten miles westward of the McElmo, Mr. Jackson and - his party discovered on a stream known as the Hovenweep, the ruins of - a city. Mr. Jackson’s description is as follows: “The stream referred - to sweeps the foot of a rocky sandstone ledge, some forty or fifty feet - in height, upon which is built the highest and better-preserved portion - of the settlement. Its semicircular sweep conforms to the ledge, each - little house of the outer circle being built close upon its edge. Below - the level of these upper houses some ten or twelve feet, and within - the semicircular sweep, are seven distinctly marked depressions, each - separated from the other by rocky débris, the lower or first series - probably of small community houses. Upon either flank, and founded - upon rocks, are buildings similar in size and in other respects to - the large ones on the line above. As paced off,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> the upper or convex - surface measured one hundred yards in length. Each little apartment - is small and narrow, averaging six feet in width and eight feet in - length, the walls being eighteen inches in thickness. The stones of - which the entire group is built are dressed to nearly uniform size and - laid in mortar. A peculiar feature here is in the round corners, one at - least appearing upon nearly every little house. They are turned with - considerable care and skill, being true curves solidly bound together.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Ruins of the Hovenweep.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp65"> - <img src="images/i_306.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Niche Stairway of Chelly Cañon</div> - </div> - - <p>Here the labors of Mr. Jackson’s party ended for the year 1874, but - the work was again resumed in July of the following year with even - richer results. Two parties were put in the field by the Government - Surveying Corps, one headed by Mr. Jackson and the other by Mr. W. H. - Holmes, geologists of the San Juan division of the survey for 1875. - I am indebted to Prof. Hayden, United States geologist-in-charge, - for the memoirs prepared by these gentlemen, with the accompanying - illustrations.<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> The reader has already become acquainted with the - general character of the remains of the cliff-dwellers, and it will - not be necessary to repeat the descriptions of buildings or ruins - similar to those already described in these pages. We shall therefore - cite only the more remarkable ruins discovered by the above-named - explorers. Mr. Jackson was accompanied on his second tour, by Mr. E. - A. Barber, naturalist and correspondent of the <cite>New York Herald</cite>, - with Harry Lee as guide and interpreter. The party resumed their labors - in the arid, waterless region around the Hovenweep, and in fact the - same barren characteristics are peculiar to the whole basin of the - San Juan. The whole region is rapidly drying up and fast becoming a - desert. Down the cañon from the pueblo of the Hovenweep, broken towers - and rock shelters were passed in rapid succession. Seven miles distant - from their starting-point, they found on the western side of the valley - three elevated benches ranging one above another in the face of a - jutting promontory, each of which contained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>houses (see illustration, - <a href="#i_307">page 307</a>). The first bench was reached by climbing over a sloping - mass of débris to a height of one hundred feet from the base of the - cliff, while the upper benches were only accessible by means of a niche - stairway similar to the one shown in the figure.</p> - - <div class="figright illowp56" id="i_307"> - <img src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cliff-House of the Hovenweep.</div> - </div> - - <p>Ruins and masses of charcoal were found at the base of the rock. - Numerous adobe foundations, probably of wooden buildings, always - circular in form and ranging from fifteen to twenty-five feet in - diameter, were met with a short distance down the cañon.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> Near the - junction of the Hovenweep and McElmo cañons an inscription covers sixty - feet of the face of a large rock. The figures are those of men, goats, - lizards, and hieroglyphic signs. As the party proceeded in the cañon - they met rock shelters and enclosures, the latter on the top of the - mesa in which slabs of stone three by five feet in size were set on - end. Mr. Jackson reports that a party connected with the survey corps - discovered near the head of the Hovenweep, on a ledge three hundred - feet long by fifty feet wide, one-third of the distance from the top - of the cañon, some forty houses crowded along the shelf all in a row. - On the San Juan west of the mouth of the Montezuma Cañon, upon a bench - fifty feet high, Mr. Jackson found a quadrangular structure of peculiar - design, as shown in the cut on <a href="#i_308">page 308</a>.</p> - - <p>“We see that it is arranged very nearly at right angles to the river, - its greatest depth on the left, where it runs back one hundred and - twenty feet; the front sweeps back in a diagonal line, so that the - right-hand side is only thirty-two feet in depth. The back wall is - one hundred and fifty-eight feet long, and at right angles to the two - sides. In the centre of the building, looking out upon the river, is - an open space seventy-five feet wide, and averaging forty feet in - depth, its depressed centre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> divided nearly equally by a ridge running - through it at right angles to the river. We judged it to have been an - open court, because there was not the least vestige of a wall in front, - or on the ridge through the centre, while upon the other three sides - they were perfectly distinct; although it is difficult to explain why - it should have been hollowed out in the manner shown in the plan. Back - of this court is a series of seven apartments of equal size, springing - in a perfect arch from the heavy wall facing the court, leaving a - semicircular space in the centre, forty-five feet across its greatest - diameter. Each one is fifteen feet in length, and the same in width - across its centre, the walls somewhat irregular in thickness, but - averaging twenty inches, compact, and well laid. On the left are three - rooms extending across the whole width of the building, each averaging - forty-five by forty feet square; on the right only one was discernible. - Back of the circle, our impression was that the walls diverged in the - manner shown in the plan, although there is so much confusion resulting - from the heaping up of the débris that much must be left to conjecture. - There is also a slight shadow of doubt in regard to the wall facing the - river on the right; it is barely possible that it extended somewhat - farther out, although<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> there is here a steep inclination to the - brink of the bluff, and that it has become entirely obliterated by - its foundations giving way. The remains of the wall above, however, - led us to believe that it had been originally built in the way it is - shown in the plan. Extreme massiveness is indicated throughout the - whole structure by the amount of débris about the line of the walls, - forming long rounded mounds four to five feet high, with the stone-work - cropping out, twenty to twenty-four inches in thickness.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_308"> - <img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">RUINS UPON THE RIO SAN JUAN</div> - </div> - - <div class="figright illowp52"> - <img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Rock-Shelters of the San Juan Cañon.</div> - </div> - - <p>In the face of the bluff immediately under this ruin and upon - a recessed bench three hundred feet long was a row of little - rock-shelters, with just enough room on the ledge in front of them - to admit of a promenade the entire length of the shelf. All down the - valley of the San Juan, rock shelters and dwellings similar to the - group shown in the cut, were met with.</p> - - <p>In this instance the houses were situated sixty feet above the trail - without any visible means of access. If ladders were used, they were - made of timber taller than any of the trees now growing in the valley. - Twelve miles below the Montezuma the party discovered really one of - the most picturesque and wonderful of all the cliff-dwellings. On the - opposite side of the river, where the bluff was two hundred feet high, - near the top of the cliff, they observed a deeply receding cave with - an opening nearly circular “two hundred feet in diameter, divided - equally between the two kinds of rocks, reaching, within a few feet, - the top of the bluff above and the level of the valley below. It runs - back in a semicircular sweep to a depth of one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> hundred feet; the - top is a perfect half dome, and the lower half only less so from the - accumulation of débris and the thick brushy foliage, the cool dampness - of its shadowed interior, where the sun never touches, favoring a - luxuriant growth. A stratum of harder rock across the central line of - the cave has left a bench running around its entire half circle, upon - which is built the row of buildings which caught our attention half a - mile away.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_310.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="center xsmall">Row of 11 Rooms, one story in height, from 4 to 10 - feet in width, by 130 feet.</div> - <div class="caption"><span class="xsmall">HORIZONTAL SECTION</span> - of the<br /> - GREAT ECHO CAVE<br /> - on the<br /> - <span class="xsmall">RIO SAN JUAN</span></div> - </div> - - <p>“It will be seen that the houses occupy the left-hand or eastern half - of the cave, for the reason, probably, that the ledge was wider on - that side, and the wall back of it receded in such a manner as to give - considerable additional room for the second floor, or for the upper - part of the one-story rooms. It is about fifty feet from the outer edge - in to the first building, a small structure sixteen feet long, three - feet wide at the outer end, and four at the opposite end; the walls, - standing only four feet on the highest remaining corner, were nearly - all tumbled in. Then came an open space eleven feet wide and nine deep, - that served probably as a sort of workshop. Four holes were drilled - into the smooth rock floor, about six feet equidistantly apart, each - from six to ten inches deep and five in diameter, as perfectly round - as though drilled by machinery. We can reasonably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> - assume that these - people were familiar with the art of weaving, and that it was here - they worked at the loom, the drilled holes supporting its posts. At - <i>b</i>, in this open space, are a number of grooves worn into the - rock in various places, caused by the artificers of the little town - in shaping and polishing their stone implements. The main building - comes next, occupying the widest portion of the ledge, which gives an - average width of ten feet inside; it is forty-eight feet long outside, - and twelve high, divided inside into three rooms, the first two - thirteen and a half feet each in length, and the third sixteen feet, - divided into two stories, the lower and upper five feet in height. The - joist holes did not penetrate through the walls, being inserted about - six inches, half the thickness. The beams rested upon the sloping - back-wall, which receded far enough to make the upper rooms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> about - square. Window-like apertures afforded communication between each room, - all through the second story, excepting that which opened out to the - back of the cave. There was also one window in each lower room, about - twelve inches square, looking out toward the open country, and in the - upper rooms several small apertures not more than three inches wide - were pierced through the wall, hardly more than peep-holes. The walls - of the large building continued back in an unbroken line one hundred - and thirty feet farther, with an average height of eight feet, and - divided into eleven apartments, with communicating apertures through - all. The first room was nine and a half feet wide, the others dwindling - down gradually to only four feet in width at the other extremity. - The rooms were of unequal length, the following being their inside - measurements, commencing from the outer end, viz.: 12½, 9½, 8, 7½, - 9, 10, 8, 7, 7, 8, 31 feet; the ledge then runs along, gradually - narrowing, fifty feet farther, where another wall occurs across it, - after which it soon merges into the smooth wall of the cave. The first - of these rooms had an aperture leading outward large enough to crawl - through; the wall around it had been broken away so that its exact size - could not be determined; all the others, of which there were about two - to each room, were mere peep-holes, about three inches in diameter, and - generally pierced through the wall at a downward angle.” The apartments - were well plastered, and in one or two places even the delicate lines - on the thumbs and fingers of the plasterers had been plainly retained. - At one point an entire hand had left its impress in the cement.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Great Echo Cave.</div> - </div> - - <p>All these marks indicated that the hands of these people were much - smaller than those of the explorers, and it is supposed that they were - those of women and children. A circular hollow place, all begrimed - and blackened by smoke, seemed to indicate the locality of a common - kitchen. The surroundings of this little community of that ancient - people indicated that they were well-to-do, and were probably the lords - of the neighboring country. From their home in this elevated gallery, - under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> nature’s arching roof of rock, they were in a position to give - defiance to their enemies and enjoy the pursuit of their pastoral - occupations. This unique residence was named by the explorers the - Casa del Eco. Over the plateau westward, the remains of this ancient - people were numerous and of the same general character as already - described. The party after reaching the Cañon of the Chelly (the stream - flowing, as already stated, into the San Juan from the south) found - several circular caves averaging about one hundred feet in diameter and - containing the ruins of old houses.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_313.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Village in the Valley of the Rio Chelly.</div> - </div> - - <p>About five miles southward from the San Juan, and in a valley of the - Chelly, a cave-village of considerable extent was discovered, perched - upon a recessed bench about seventy feet above the valley, and overhung - by a solid wall of massive sandstone, extending up over two hundred - feet farther. Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> Jackson describes it in detail as follows: “The - left-hand side of the bench supporting the buildings sweeps back in a - sharp curve about eighty feet under the bluff, and then gradually comes - to the front again until, on the extreme right hand, the buildings are - built upon a mass of débris, but partially protected overhead. The - total length over the solidly built portion of the town is five hundred - and forty-five feet, with a greater width in no place of more than - forty feet. There are somewhere in the neighborhood of seventy-five - rooms upon the ground-plan, with some uncertainty existing as to many - of the subdivisions on the right; but in the cave-built portion every - apartment was distinctly marked. Midway in the town is a circular - room of heavily and solidly built masonry, that was probably meant - for an estufa or council-hall; that is, if we can reasonably assume - any similarity in the methods of building or worship to those of the - pueblos of New Mexico. Starting from this estufa is a narrow passage - running back of the line of houses on the left to a two-story group, - where it ends abruptly, further access being had through the back - row of rooms, or over the roofs of the lower front row, probably the - latter, for it is likely that these roofs served as a platform from - which to enter the rooms back of it. At the extreme end a still higher - ledge occurs, with the overhanging wall coming down close over it, its - outer edge enclosed by a wall, and a little store-room in its farther - corner; it was reserved, probably, as an out-door working-room. All - the buildings of this half are of one story, with the exception of one - group, the residence probably of the chief or of some other important - family in the community. The rooms just back of it are the store-rooms - of the family, where the corn and squashes were put away for the - winter’s consumption. Near these store-rooms, there are two half-round - enclosures of stone-work, that are very likely the remains of small - reservoirs or springs. The rock back of them is dug out beneath, and - had, even in the dry season, when we were there, a damp appearance, as - though water was not far removed, and might easily be coaxed to the - surface. The front line of wall of this left side of the town is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> built - upon a steep angle of smooth rock, with the interior of the apartments - filled up with earth so as to make their floors level, bringing them a - little below the passage-way. In two or three instances the front wall - has given way, precipitating all but the back wall to the bottom of the - cliffs. Holes have been drilled into the rock in a few places beneath - the walls, evidently to assist in retaining them in their places. - The whole front of this portion of the town is without an aperture, - save very small windows, and is perfectly inaccessible, both from the - solidity of the wall and the precipitous nature of the foundation-rock - beneath it. Admittance was probably gained from near the circular - building in the centre, by ladders or any other well-guarded approach - over the rocks.”</p> - - <p>Two miles down the Cañon of the Chelly, below the mouth of the fertile - Cañon Bonito Chiquito, the house figured on <a href="#Page_306">page 306</a> was found with its - niched stairway cut in the face of the rock. The house is two-storied, - twenty feet in height, the lower story of which is eighteen by ten feet - square, divided into two rooms. A natural reservoir of water was found - in the rock only twenty rods distant. Eight miles up the Chelly they - came to the cave Pueblo, seen by Simpson and mentioned on <a href="#Page_293">page 293</a>. - From this point it was but forty miles to the inhabited Moquis town - Tegua. The explorers after visiting that interesting place returned - northward again to the San Juan, reaching Epsom Creek, a tributary of - the same from the north, a short distance from the mouth of the Chelly - Cañon. Among a number of remains found in the Cañon of Epsom Creek, - one in particular is of interest; this was the remnant of a square - tower, of most perfect masonry, built upon a point of rock entirely - inaccessible to the explorers.</p> - - <div class="figleft illowp52"> - <img src="images/i_316.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Elevated Tower on Epsom Creek.</div> - </div> - - <p>A few miles farther up the Epsom Valley, the ruins of quite a town - were discovered. “It lay upon both sides of a small, dry ravine, some - twenty or thirty rods back from the bed of the creek, and consisted - of a main rectangular mass sixty by one hundred feet, occupying quite - an elevation, dominating all the others. Just below it and close - upon the edge of the ravine, was a round tower, twenty-five feet in - diameter; and seventy-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> below that, and also close to the ravine, - was a square building, twenty-feet across, nearly obscured by a - thicket of piñon-trees, growing about it. On the opposite bank were - two small round towers, each fifteen feet in diameter, with two oblong - structures between, twelve by fifteen feet square; at right angles to - these four, which were arranged in a straight line, another square - building occurred, the same size as the one just opposite on the other - bank.” The surroundings of this ancient village are described as truly - picturesque and the valley fertile, contrasting considerably with - the Chelly Cañon. The exploring party followed the Epsom to a point - thirty miles above the San Juan, and in the head cañons between it and - the Montezuma found themselves in the midst of ruins which mark the - former presence of a dense population. No ruins were found near the - Sierra Abajo nor in the great basin lying between it and the Sierra - La Sal. In the deep cañon of the Montezuma (fifteen hundred feet - deep), cliff-dwellings and other remains were found in great numbers. - Cave-shelters, with the orifice of the oval and circular crevices - in the rocks walled up with neat masonry and accessible by means of - niche-steps for the hands and feet, leading up the perpendicular cliff - to the little nest-like houses above, were especially numerous. In one - of these a skeleton was found, but examination proved it to be that of - a Navajo, and quite certainly not that of one of the ancient residents. - At different points midway down the cañon, narrow promontories jut out - into the valley a hundred yards or more, ranging from twenty to one - hundred feet in height. Within a distance of sixteen miles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> eighteen - of these were observed, covered with ruins of massive stone-built - structures. They were rectangular in form, ranging from one hundred - by two hundred feet, down to thirty by forty feet in size. We cannot - devote further attention to the vast number of ruins found by Mr. - Jackson and party in the Montezuma Valley, except to note the curious - little house shown in the cut.</p> - - <div class="figright illowp54"> - <img src="images/i_317.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Dwelling in the Montezuma Valley.</div> - </div> - - <p>Among a colony of these cave-dwellings, occurring at the first bend - of the West Montezuma, a dozen miles above its junction with the - east fork, this one commands attention as much for the neatness and - perfection of its masonry as for the snug little cave in which its - architect lodged it. A block of sandstone resting on the edge of the - mesa bench fifty feet above the valley, had a deep oval hole worn in it - by the winds and sands. This was occupied by the little house, ten feet - long, six feet high and five feet deep; a space, however, was reserved - at one end to serve as a platform from which to enter.</p> - - <p>In addition to the explorations of Mr. Jackson and party, Mr. W. H. - Holmes of the Geological and Geographical Survey, was also assigned - the duty of examining ancient remains in the valley of the Upper San - Juan, during the summer of 1875.<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>Mr. Holmes and party examined - an area of nearly six thousand square miles, chiefly in Colorado on - the San Juan and its tributaries. Most of the ruins met with were of - the same general character and description as those examined by Mr. - Jackson, and to repeat in detail the majority of descriptions contained - in Mr. Holmes’ memoir, would be to weary the reader with repetitions - without affording additional advantage. However, a few remarkable ruins - described by Mr. Holmes command our attention. The first of these which - may be pronounced unique in this section of the country, and quite - unlike anything met with thus far in the exploration, is situated on - the Rio La Plata, about twenty-five miles above its junction with - the San Juan. The remains of an extensive village with structures of - various forms, are scattered upon a terrace some twenty feet above - the river-bed. The distribution of the works viewed in connection - with plans upon which they were constructed are suggestive of the - remains of the mound-builders of the Ohio valley. The forms are chiefly - rectangular and circular, one or two seem to have been elliptical while - a number have consisted of irregular groups of apartments. All now - lie in ruins with their outlines marked by ridges of débris composed - of earth, water-worn pebbles, and small fragments of sandstone. The - walls of the main structure are still prominently defined, while those - of a circular enclosure, used probably as an estufa, are standing to - the height of four feet. Three hundred feet directly north of this - enclosure is a truncated rectangular mound nine feet high, measuring - fifty by eighty feet. In one of the angles of the east end are the - remains of what may have been a tower rising above the platform of the - mound. One hundred feet north of this mound is a rectangular enclosure - measuring sixty by one hundred feet. Its wall ranges from four to six - feet in height. The ruins of a wall extending between the mound and the - enclosure, indicate that they were once connected. A system of works - joined these to a range of low hills, lying to the north. Southward - from the large central circle are earthworks and ruins covering an - area of fifteen thousand square feet. A large number of small circles - and mounds occupy the southern extremity of the terrace. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> is - impossible to account for the sudden change in the plan of works so - contiguous to those of a well-marked pueblo origin. On the San Juan - River, thirty-five miles below the mouth of the La Plata and ten miles - above the Mancos, Mr. Holmes observed an interesting combination of - cave-shelters and towers united in a system for giving signals upon the - approach of the enemy. In the face of a vertical bluff thirty-five feet - high and about half way from the trail below, caves had been quarried - or weathered in considerable numbers in the shales which constitute one - of the strata in the bluff. A hard platform of rock formed the floor, - and afforded sufficient protection for a narrow platform in front of - these openings. Immediately above these caves upon the summit of the - bluffs, a system of ruined circular towers, enclosed by semicircular - walls with the open side of the semicircle facing the precipice, was - observed. The caves were accessible from the valley below only by means - of ladders, and the towers in turn only by ladders from the caves - through the open side of their semicircular enclosures. The walls of - these enclosures presented no openings to the plateau above, and it is - inferred that the towers which they enclosed served as outlooks from - which the sentinel could signal the people who were engaged in tilling - the valley below to flee to their cave-shelters at the approach of the - enemy, and when too closely pressed by an enemy upon the plateau the - sentinel himself could make his retreat by means of his ladder to the - caves beneath.</p> - - <p>The most remarkable cliff-dwellings, discovered by Mr. Holmes, are - shown in the cut.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp87"> - <img src="images/i_320.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Cave-Fortresses of the Rio Mancos.</div> - </div> - - <p>These extraordinary fortresses, lodged in caves eight hundred feet - above the level of the valley, are situated in the cañon of the Mancos, - a few miles from its mouth. The first five hundred feet of the ascent - from the level of the stream, is over a rough cliff-broken slope, the - remainder of massive sandstone, full of niches and caves. The upper - house is situated in a deep cavern with overhanging roof about one - hundred feet from the cliff’s top. The front wall of the house is - built upon the very edge of the giddy precipice. The larger house is - lodged in a niche or cave thirty feet below. The lower house was easily - accessible. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> wall was built flush with the precipice and remained - standing to a height of fourteen feet at the highest point, though - other portions had crumbled away considerably. The house occupied the - entire floor of the niche, which measures sixty feet long by fifteen - feet wide. Mr. Holmes described these structures as follows; of the - first he says:</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p> - - <p>“The arrangement of the apartments is quite complicated and curious, - and will be more readily understood by a reference to the ground-plan - (figure 1). The precipice line or front edge of the niche-floor, - extends from <i>a</i> to <i>b</i>. From this the broken cliffs and - slopes reach down to the trail and river, as shown in the accompanying - profile (figure 3). The line <i>b c d</i> represents the deepest part - of the recess, against which the walls are built. To the right of - <i>b</i>, the shelf ceases, and the vertical face of rock is unbroken. - At the left, beyond <i>a</i>, the edge is not so abrupt, and the cliffs - below are so broken that one can ascend with ease. Above, the roof - comes forward and curves upward, as seen in the profile.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp61"> - <img src="images/i_321.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><i>FIG. 1. FIG. 3. FIG. 2.</i></div> - </div> - - <p>“The most striking feature of this structure is the <em>round-room</em>, - which occurs about the middle of the ruin and inside of a large - rectangular apartment. * * * Its walls are not high and not entirely - regular, and the inside is curiously fashioned with offsets and - box-like projections. It is plastered smoothly, and bears considerable - evidence of having been used, although I observed no traces of fire. - The entrance to this chamber is rather extraordinary, and further - attests the peculiar importance attached to it by the builders, and - their evident desire to secure it from all possibility of intrusion. A - walled and covered passage-way, <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, of solid masonry, - ten feet of which is still intact, leads from an outer chamber through - the small intervening apartments into the circular one. It is possible - that this originally extended to the outer wall, and was entered from - the outside. If so, the person desiring to visit the estufa would have - to enter an aperture about twenty-two inches high by thirty wide, - and crawl, in the most abject manner possible, through a tube-like - passage-way nearly twenty-feet in length. My first impression was that - this peculiarly-constructed doorway was a precaution against enemies, - and that it was probably the only means of entrance to the interior - of the house; but I am now inclined to think this hardly probable, - and conclude that it was rather designed to render a sacred chamber - as free as possible from profane intrusion. The apartments <i>l</i>, - <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, do not require any especial description, - as they are quite plain and almost empty.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> The partition walls have - never been built up to the ceiling of the niche, and the inmates, in - passing from one apartment to another, have climbed over. The row of - apertures indicated in the main front wall are about five feet from - the floor, and were doubtless entered for the insertion of beams, - although there is no evidence that a second floor has at any time - existed. In that part of the ruin about the covered passage-way, the - walls are complicated, and the plan can hardly be made out, while the - curved wall enclosing the apartment <i>e</i> is totally overthrown. - * * * * The rock-face between this ruin and the one above is smooth - and vertical, but by passing along the ledge a few yards to the left - a sloping face was found, up which a stairway of small niches had - been cut; by means of these, an active person, unincumbered, could - ascend with safety. On reaching the top, one finds himself in the very - doorway of the upper house (<i>a</i>, figure 2) without standing-room - outside of the wall, and one can imagine that an enemy would stand but - little chance of reaching and entering such a fortress if defended, - even by women and children alone. The position of this ruin is one of - unparalleled security, both from enemies and from the elements. The - almost vertical cliff descends abruptly from the front wall, and the - immense arched roof of solid stone projects forward fifteen or twenty - feet beyond the house (see section, figure 3). At the right the ledge - ceases, and at the left stops short against a massive vertical wall. - The niche-stairway affords the only possible means of approach.</p> - - <p>“The house occupies the entire floor of the niche, which is about one - hundred and twenty feet long by ten in depth at the deepest part. The - front wall to the right and left of the doorway is quite low, portions - having doubtless fallen off. The higher wall <i>f g</i> is about thirty - feet long, and from ten to twelve feet high, while a very low rude wall - extends along the more inaccessible part of the ledge, and terminates - at the extreme right in a small enclosure, as seen in the plan at - <i>c</i>.</p> - - <p>“In the first apartment entered, there were evidences of fire, the - walls and ceiling being blackened with smoke. In the second, a member - of the party, by digging in the rubbish,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> obtained a quantity of beans, - and in the third a number of grains of corn; hence the names given. - There are two small windows in the front wall, and doorways communicate - between rooms separated by high partitions.</p> - - <p>“The walls of these houses are built in the usual manner, and average - about a foot in thickness.</p> - - <p>“The upper house seems to be in a rather unfinished state, looking as - if stone and mortar had run short. And when one considers that these - materials must have been brought from far below by means of ropes, or - carried in small quantities up the dangerous stairway, the only wonder - is that it was ever brought to its present degree of finish.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_324.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Triple-Walled Tower on the McElmo.</div> - </div> - - <p>The ruins of a triple-walled tower with fourteen sectional apartments - between the outer and second walls were examined near the McElmo. One - of these sectional apartments was still standing to the height of - twelve feet.</p> - - <p>We have already referred to the group of ruins at Aztec Springs near - the divide between the McElmo and the lower Mancos tributaries. “These - ruins,” says Mr. Holmes, “form the most imposing pile of masonry yet - found in Colorado. The whole group covers an area of about four hundred - and eighty thousand square feet, and has an average depth of from - three to four feet.” The accompanying plan, with the measurements and - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>dimensions indicated upon it, precludes the necessity of a detailed - description.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp60"> - <img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="xsmall">RUINS</span> - at<br /> - AZTEC SPRING<br /> - <span class="xxsmall">SOUTH WEST COLORADO<br /> - <i>W. H. Holmes</i></span></div> - </div> - - <p>The walls are twenty-six inches thick, and in some cases are built - double. The whole resembles in plan one of the ruined pueblos of the - Chaco, with the addition that it was designed to be an impregnable - fortress.</p> - - <p>The plate from Mr. Jackson’s memoir shows specimens of pottery - collected during his explorations among the cliff-dwellings. The pieces - <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are of modern make, and were obtained among the - Moquis of Tegua. The ware and finish of both these vessels are far - inferior as compared with the ancient fragments.</p> - - <p>We have quoted on a previous page Mr. Ingersoll’s rendering of the - romantic legend which tells in few words the sad history of the ancient - architects of these aërial abodes. We have observed that, according to - this account, the remnant of this people who escaped the destruction - visited upon the cliff-dwellers by the warlike Utes fled to the - South—to the deserts of Arizona—and built the present Moqui towns. We - have already stated that Mr. Jackson’s party found it necessary to - travel forty miles due southward from the ruins of the Chaco Cañon in - order to reach Tegua, the nearest of the Moqui settlements.</p> - - <p>It may be a matter of some interest to the reader, after having studied - the cliff architecture, to be introduced into one of the habitations - now occupied by the descendants of that remarkable people. Lieutenant - Ives, who visited the Moqui towns in 1858, has furnished an interesting - account of their general characteristics, from which we take condensed - extracts: “As the sun went down,” says Lieutenant Ives, “and the - confused glare and mirage disappeared, I discovered with the spy-glass - two of the Moqui towns eight or ten miles distant, upon the edge of a - high bluff overhanging the opposite side of the valley. They were built - close to the edge of the precipice. The outlines of the closely-packed - structures looked in the distance like the towers and battlements of a - castle, and their commanding position enhanced the picturesque effect.” - “The face of the bluff, on the summit of which the town was perched, - was cut up and irregular. We were led through a passage that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> wound - among some low hillocks of sand and rock that extended half-way to the - top. It did not seem possible, while ascending through the sand-hills, - that a spring could be found in such a dry-looking place; but presently - a crowd was seen collecting upon a mound before a small plateau, in - the centre of which was a circular reservoir fifty feet in diameter, - lined with masonry and filled with pure cold water. The basin was fed - by a pipe connecting with some source of supply upon the summit of the - mesa. Continuing to ascend, we came to another reservoir, smaller, but - of more elaborate construction and finish. From this the guide said - they got their drinking water,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> the other reservoir being intended for - animals. Between the two the face of the bluff had been ingeniously - converted into terraces. These were faced with neat masonry, and - contained gardens, each surrounded with a raised edge so as to retain - water upon the surface. Pipes from the reservoir permitted them at any - time to be irrigated. Peach trees were growing upon the terraces and in - the hollow below. A long flight of stone steps with sharp turns that - could be easily defended was built into the face of the precipice, - and led from the upper reservoir to the foot of the town. The scene, - rendered animated by the throngs of Indians in their gayly-colored - dresses, was one of the most remarkable I had ever witnessed.” “Without - giving us time to admire the scene, the Indians led us to a ladder - planted against the centre of the front face of the pueblo. The town is - nearly square and surrounded by a stone wall fifteen feet high, the top - of which forms a landing extending around the whole. Flights of stone - steps led from the first to a second landing, upon which the doors of - the houses open. Mounting the stairway opposite to the ladder, the - chief crossed to the nearest door and ushered us into a low apartment, - from which two or three others opened towards the interior of the - dwelling.” “The room was fifteen feet by ten; the walls were made of - adobes; the partitions of substantial beams, the floor laid with clay. - In one corner were a fireplace and a chimney. Everything was clean and tidy. - <span class="figright2 illowp35"> - <img src="images/i_327a.jpg" alt="" /> - </span> - Skins, bows and arrows, quivers, antlers, blankets, articles of - clothing and ornament, were hanging from the walls or arranged upon - shelves. Vases, flat dishes, and gourds filled with meal or water, - were standing along on one side of the room. At the other end was a - trough divided into compartments, in each of which was a sloping stone - slab two or three feet square, for grinding corn upon. In a recess of - an inner room was piled a goodly store of corn in the ear. I noticed, - among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell-shaped end - like a clarionet and a pair of painted drum-sticks tipped with gaudy feathers.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_327b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cliff and Moqui Pottery.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>“We learned that there were seven towns; that the name of that which - we were visiting was Mooshahneh. A second smaller town was half a mile - distant; two miles distant was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> third. * * * Five or six miles to the - north-east a bluff was pointed out as the location of three others; and - we were informed that the last of the seven, Oraybe, was still further - distant on the trail towards the great river.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_329.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Moqui (Wolpi), one of the Seven Pueblos.</span> - (From a photo taken by the U. S. exploring party in 1875.)</div> - </div> - - <p>“Each pueblo is built around a rectangular court, in which we suppose - are the springs that furnish the supply to the reservoirs. The exterior - walls, which are of stone, have no openings,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> and would have to be - scaled or battered down before access could be gained to the interior. - The successive stories are set back one behind the other. The lower - ones are reached through trap-doors from the first landing. The houses - are three rooms deep, and open upon the interior court. The arrangement - is as strong and compact as well could be devised, but as the court is - common and the landings are separated by no partitions, it involves a - certain community of residence.”</p> - - <p>In describing the gardens of Oraybe, distant eight or nine miles, he remarks:</p> - - <p>“At the foot [of the bluff] was a reservoir and a broad road winding - up the steep ascent. On either side the bluffs were cut into terraces, - and laid out into gardens similar to those seen at Mooshahneh, and - like them irrigated from an upper reservoir. The whole reflected great - credit upon Moqui ingenuity and skill in the department of engineering. - The walls of the terraces and reservoirs were of partly-dressed - stone, well and strongly built, and the irrigating pipes conveniently - arranged. The little gardens were neatly laid out. * * * The walls of - the terraces and the gardens themselves are kept in good order and - preservation. The stone and earth for construction and repairs they - carry in blankets upon their shoulders from the valley below.”<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> - - <p>Mr. Bancroft has furnished the reader descriptions of several of the - New Mexican group of pueblos, which he has extracted from the reports - of various travelers. We do not consider it necessary to repeat - accounts so generally accessible.<a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> The New Mexican group, situated - on the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries, is the most numerous - in inhabited pueblos, but as they differ little if at all from those - of the Moquis, further treatment of them is unnecessary. The pueblos - which are and have been inhabited during the nineteenth century number - about twenty, some of which are well known to have been occupied by - the ancestors of their present inhabitants when first visited by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>the - Spaniards. The best specimen of inhabited pueblos is that of Taos, - situated on one of the northern forks of the river which gives it its - name. There are two large houses, each between three and four hundred - feet long by one hundred and fifty wide, situated on opposite sides of - a small creek, and tradition states that formerly they were connected - by a bridge. They are five and six stories high.</p> - - <p>Besides the inhabited towns there are a number now unoccupied and fast - going to decay. The names of these are given with slight variations - by different writers; the following, however, are generally agreed - upon: Pecos, Quivira, Valverda, San Lázaro, San Marcos, San Cristóbal, - Socorro, Senacu, Abó, Quarra, Rita, Poblazon, old San Filipe, and old - Zuñi.<a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> The most important of all these ruins is Pecos, one of the - sacred cities of the pueblos. Here the everlasting fire dedicated to - their god Montezuma was kept burning from time immemorial down to the - abandonment of the town, which occurred some time during the second - quarter of the present century. The reader will remember, however, that - the culture-god of the Pueblos and the Aztec monarch are in no sense - to be associated with each other, since it is quite certain that they - were not confounded in the mythology of the worshippers of the deity. - Whether the Pueblos, Cliff-dwellers, etc., were ever in any way related - to the Aztecs or any Nahua people is difficult to determine. Certainly - there is no architectural nor traditional evidence that they were. - When the Spaniards under Coronado traversed the region in 1540 <span class="allsmcap">A. - D.</span>, no reports of inter-communication between the two peoples seem - to have been current. Father Escalante, who in 1776 visited many of the - pueblos, and mentions many ruins not since located, as well as many - inhabited towns now in ruins, found nothing to really substantiate the - “Aztec theory.”<a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> On the contrary, substantial arguments can <span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>be - presented for the intimate relationship of the Nahuas and some of the - Pueblos.</p> - - <p>In the tenth chapter of this work will be found the basis of linguistic - affinities between the Nahua and Moqui languages, though none is - claimed between the Nahua and New Mexican Pueblos. Mr. Becker, in his - memoir addressed to the <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite> at Luxembourg, - refers to Camergo’s account of the migration of the Teo-Chichimecs, - the allies of the Toltecs, and to his statement that they came from - <i>Amaquetepic</i> (“the mountains of the Amaques”), and expresses the - belief that the words Amaques and Moquis are identical. Mr. Becker - considers the “A” prefix of the former to be an abbreviation of the - Nahua “atl” water, and Amaqui would mean the Maqui or Moqui living by - the water, just as Acolhuas means Culhuas near the water and Anahuac, - the Nahua land on the water. The tradition of the Moquis distinctly - states that they formerly lived on the river at the north-east - of their present home. The reader will remember that the Quichés - called the Nahuas <i>Yaqui</i>, the name of a river of Sinaloa and - Sonora where marked traces of the Nahua language are found, and the - supposed locality of the first Toltec station. Is it not possible that - <i>Yaqui</i> is a dialectic modification of Maqui or Moqui? It has been - observed in the pages of this chapter that in more than one instance - ruined pueblos were composed of either red adobe or had been painted, a - circumstance which had won for them such a designation as “Red-house” - or “Pueblo-pintado,” etc. Furthermore, the red glare of the desert - north of the Moqui settlements has received the name of the “Painted - desert.” The fact that Hue hue Tlapalan signifies “old red land” is - suggestive that this locality may have been the mysterious rendezvous - of the Toltecs. The Moquis like the Nahuas are sun-worshippers, though - the ceremonial of both people differ considerably.</p> - - <p>Besides the mound-works observed on the upper San Juan by Mr. Holmes - associated with the work of the Cliff-dwellers, recent exploration has - shown that combinations of mound and pueblo features of architecture - exist in Utah. Dr. C. C. Parry found in a mound on the St. Clara River - in Southern Utah very fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> specimens of Pueblo pottery, and other - articles which clearly identify its architects with the people of the - cliffs or with the village builders at the South.<a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> The recent - exploration of several mounds in southern Utah by Dr. Edward Palmer - fully confirms this conclusion. In Kane County, Utah, the same explorer - discovered among a number of articles of apparent Moqui make in a - cave-shelter, a shovel of horn having a blade fourteen inches long by - five inches wide. Among the articles was a pair of shoes made of the - fibre of the <i>Yucca</i>, which in style, shape, manner of braiding, - etc., closely resemble shoes made of the leaves of the <i>Typa</i> - found by Prof. F. W. Putnam in a cave in Kentucky.<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></p> - - <p>The mound examined by Mr. Barrand on the west fork of the Little Sioux - of Dakota, and found to contain a large interior circular chamber, - probably was the work of the ancestors of this western branch of the - mound-building people.<a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> The circular chamber was much like an - estufa.</p> - - <p>The many-sided culture-hero of the Pueblos, Montezuma, is the centre of - a group of the most poetic myths found in Ancient American Mythology. - The Pueblos believed in a supreme being, a good spirit, so exalted - and worthy of reverence that his name was considered too sacred to - mention, as, with the ancient Hebrews, Jehovah’s was the “unmentionable - name.” Nevertheless Montezuma was the equal of this great spirit, and - was often considered identical with the sun. The variety of aspects - in which Montezuma is presented to us is due to the fact that each - tribe of Pueblos had its particular legends concerning his birth and - achievements. Many places in New Mexico claim the honor of his nativity - at a period long before those village builders were acquainted with the - arts of architecture, which have since given them their distinguishing - name. In fact, this culture-god was none other than the genius who - introduced the knowledge of building among them.<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> Some traditions,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> - however, make him the ancestor and even the creator of the race; - others, its prophet, leader and lawgiver. Mr. Bancroft says, “Under - restrictions, we may fairly regard him as the Melchizedek, the Moses, - and the Messiah of these Pueblo-desert wanderers from an Egypt that - history is ignorant of, and whose name even tradition whispers not. He - taught his people how to build cities with tall houses, to construct - <i>Estufas</i>, or semi-sacred sweat-houses, and to kindle and guard - the sacred fire.” It has been aptly remarked by Mr. Tyler, that - Montezuma was the great “somebody” of the tribe to whom the qualities - and achievements of every other were attributed.</p> - - <p>Fremont gives an account of the birth of the hero, in which his mother - is declared to have been a woman of exquisite beauty, admired and - sought for by all men. She was the recipient of rich presents of corn - and skins from her admirers, yet she refused the hands of all her - suitors. A famine soon occurred, and great distress followed. Now the - fastidious beauty showed herself to be a lady of charitable spirit - and tender heart. She opened her granaries, in which all her presents - had been stored, and out of their abundance relieved the wants of - the poor. The offerings of love were made to perform their mission a - second time. At last, when the pure and plenteous rains again brought - fertility to the earth, the summer shower fell upon the Pueblo goddess, - and she gave birth to a son, the immortal Montezuma. The intelligent - chief of the Papagoes, whose people occupy the territory between the - Santa Cruz River and the Gulf of California, related a legend of the - origin and offices of Montezuma, which, while it surprises the reader - with its close resemblances to some leading points in the Hebrew and - Chaldean genesis and deluge accounts, still is conspicuous for its - inconsistencies, and in its closing statements for the absence of any - knowledge of time or order.<a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span></p> - - <p>In substance it is as follows: The Great Spirit, having made all - things—sky, earth, and the living creatures which inhabit it—descended - into the earth for the purpose of creating man also. Digging in the - earth, he found clay, such as a potter uses; this he carried back with - him to his celestial abode, and dropped it again from the sky into the - pit from which he had dug it. Instantly Montezuma, the genius of life, - sprang from the pit, and became a partner in the creation of other men. - The Apaches were the next formed, and were so wild that they severally - ran away as fast as created. Those were golden days which followed the - birth of the race; the sun was very much nearer the earth than now, - and his grateful presence rendered clothing useless. A common language - between all men, shared even by beasts, was one of the strongest - possible bonds of peace.</p> - - <p>But at last this paradisiacal age was ended by a great deluge in - which all men and living creatures perished. Only Montezuma and his - friend, the coyote—a prairie-wolf—escaped. This wonderful animal, with - semi-divine attributes, plays a remarkable part in the religion of many - of the Pacific tribes, and furnishes us a parallel in our Occidental - mythology with the half-human, half-brute combinations of Greco-Roman - mythology. The coyote, gifted with prophetic powers, had foretold the - approach of this great calamity, and Montezuma, heeding the warning, - had built him a boat, which he kept in readiness on the summit of Santa - Rosa. His sagacious friend, the coyote, also escaped in an ark made - from a gigantic cane which grew by a river’s side; having gnawed it - down and crawled into it, he stopped up the ends with gum, and escaped. - When the waters subsided, the two met again on dry ground. Montezuma - then employed the coyote on several wearisome excursions in order to - discover the extent of the land, which developed the fact that upon the - east and south and west the water yet remained. Only on the north was - there land.</p> - - <p>The Great Spirit and Montezuma again created men and animals, and the - former committed to his partner in the work the duties of governing - the new race. These were, however, neglected by Montezuma, who became - puffed up with pride, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> permitted all manner of wickedness to - prevail. The Great Spirit remonstrated with him, even descending - to the earth for the purpose of moving his faithless and haughty - vicegerent to restore order, but with no avail. Then, returning to - his abode in heaven, he pushed the sun back to a remote part of the - sky as a punishment on the race. At this, Montezuma became enraged, - collected the tribes around him, and set about the construction of a - house which should reach heaven. The builders had already completed - several apartments, lined with gold and silver and precious stones, - and progressed to a point which encouraged all to believe that their - defiant purpose would be accomplished, when the Great Spirit smote it - to the earth amid the crash of his thunder. Here the account becomes - very confused—a great leap is made from Montezuma the culture-hero to - Montezuma the emperor, and the two become confounded.</p> - - <p>The legend states that upon the defeat of his rebellious scheme, - Montezuma still hardened his heart, and caused the sacred images to - be dragged through the streets for the derision of the villagers; the - temples were desecrated, and defiance to the Supreme declared. As a - punishment, the Great Spirit caused an insect to fly toward the east to - an unknown land, to bring the Spaniards, who utterly destroyed him.</p> - - <p>The post-diluvian part of this story presents the hero in quite another - light than that generally accepted by most of the Pueblo tribes, in - which he is represented as having been the very model of goodness and - beneficence—the founder of their cities, of which Acoma was the first - and Pecos the second. Before taking his departure from his people, - he prophesied that they should suffer from drought and from the - oppressions of a strange nation, but promised them to return as their - deliverer. He then planted a tree upside down, and bade them preserve - the sacred fire notwithstanding their misfortunes, until the tree fell, - at which time he would return with a white race, who would destroy all - their enemies and bring back the fertile showers.</p> - - <p>It is said that this tree fell from its place as the American army - entered Santa Fé, in 1846. In the cramped, subterranean estufa, the - Pueblo fed the sacred fire burning in the basin of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> small altar. It - was a warrior’s vigil, for by turns their heroes descended into its - suffocating atmosphere, thick with smoke, and charged with carbonic - acid, to wait often for two successive days and nights without - refreshment, often even until death relieved the guard.<a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></p> - - <p>For generations these strange architects and faithful priests have - waited for the return of their god—looked for him to come with the sun, - and descend by the column of smoke which rose from the sacred fire. As - of old the Israelitish watcher upon Mount Seir replied to the inquiry, - “What of the night?” “The morning cometh,” so the Pueblo sentinel - mounts the house-top at Pecos, and gazes wistfully into the east for - the golden appearance, for the rapturous vision of his redeemer, for - Montezuma’s return; and, though no ray of light meets his watching eye, - his never-failing faith, with cruel deception, replies, “The morning - cometh.”<a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a></p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <blockquote> - <p><span class="smcap">Explorations among the Pueblos.</span>—In the summer of 1879 - the Smithsonian Institution undertook a thorough and extensive - examination of the Pueblo civilization of New Mexico and Arizona. - Major Powell sent an expedition to New Mexico in charge of Mr. - James Stevenson, and a large collection illustrative of the - manners and customs of the Pueblos was made. Mr. F. H. Cushing was - especially fortunate in obtaining minute information concerning - their traditions, rites, and ceremonies. The work of investigation - is still in progress, and at this writing (September, 1881) an - expedition is in the field. A full report will ultimately be - published. During the latter half of the year 1880 Mr. Baudelier, - the eminent Mexican scholar, visited Taos, and prepared a paper - on that interesting locality for the Archæological Institute of - America, under whose patronage his exploration was conducted. - During a residence of two months in the Pueblo of Cochití, occupied - by a branch of the Queres tribe, Mr. Baudelier made a thorough - study of the institutions of that interesting people. See Second - <cite>Ann. Report of Arch. Inst. of Amer.</cite></p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VIII</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center">ANCIENT AMERICAN CIVILIZATION AND SUPPOSED OLD WORLD - ANALOGIES—ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE AND HIEROGLYPHICS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Analogies, Real and Fancied—<span class="smcap">Maya Architecture</span>—The - American Pyramid—The Palace of Palenque—The French Roof at - Palenque—The Trefoil Arch—Yucatanic Architecture—Uxmal—The - Casa de Monjas—Kabah—Casa Grande of Zayi—<span class="smcap">Quiché - Architecture</span>—Copan—Circus of Copan—Description by - Fuentes—Utatlan—<span class="smcap">Nahua Architecture</span>—Remains in - Oajaca—Mitla—Grecques at Mitla—Remains in the State of - Vera Cruz—Cholula—Pyramid of Xochicalco—The Temple of - Mexico—Teotihuacan—Los Edificios of Quemeda—Maya and Nahua - Architecture Compared—Old World Analogies—<span class="smcap">Sculpture</span>—Of - the Mounds—At Palenque—At Uxmal—At Chichen-Itza—On the Isla - Mujeres—Of the Nahuas—Ancient American Art and its Old World - Analogies—Egyptian Tau at Palenqué—Serpent Sculpture—Nahua - Symbolism probably Asiatic—<span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>—Maya MSS. - and Books—Landa’s Alphabet—The Attempts at the Interpretation - of Maya MSS. by Bollaert, Charencey, and Rosny—Rosny’s - Classification of the Hieroglyphics—Hopes that a Key has been - Discovered—The Mexican Picture-writing—Aztec Migration Maps.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">WITHOUT pretending to furnish an exhaustive treatment of the subject - proposed for this chapter, we desire to make observations on some - phases of the development of American civilization in the Pre-Historic - period. One of the most natural fruits of the study of the arts and - customs of any people, is a disposition on the part of the investigator - to institute a comparison with corresponding features of civilization - in all parts of the world. Unfortunately this disposition has led many - writers on America into wild and fanciful speculations, which tend only - to deceive the reader and add nothing to true investigation. In a few - instances pronounced old world analogies have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> been proven to exist in - ancient American institutions and arts, but their number bears a small - ratio to the multitude of fancied analogies which never existed, except - in the imaginations of their discoverers. To discuss the subject in - hand without transcending the limits of the period which is treated in - previous chapters, namely, the Primitive period—that which antedates - the era of the annals of those ancient peoples, is a somewhat difficult - task, since the question of dates is a very uncertain one in the - absence of any sufficient key to the hieroglyphic and picture records. - The customs and political organization, together with the Aztec - civilization, have been often treated, and by none better than our own - Prescott and Bancroft. The repetition of their labors here would be - highly superfluous. We shall, however, ask the attention of the reader - to some considerations upon the following divisions of the subject:</p> - - <p>1. <span class="smcap">Architecture.</span> 2. <span class="smcap">Sculpture</span> and - <span class="smcap">Hieroglyphics</span>. 3. <span class="smcap">Chronological</span> and <span class="smcap">Astronomical - Knowledge</span>. 4. <span class="smcap">Religious Analogies.</span></p> - - <p><i>Architecture.</i>—The works of the Mound-builders and Pueblos have - already been described and their transitional forms or stages noted. - To seek for parallelisms or analogies between the Mound-builders and - the people of Asia because mounds are common to both continents, or - to seek to identify them with the people of Northern Europe because - the shell-heaps of our sea-board resemble those of Denmark, would - certainly be an unjustifiable use of the imagination, in anything - like a serious discussion of the question. We have no disposition - to speculate on this subject, since such speculation cannot furnish - any satisfactory results. Certain resemblances between American and - Hindoo-mounds have been supposed to exist, but the resemblance, if - any, proves nothing.<a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> That more fruitful and wonderful field of - ancient architecture in Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, furnishes - abundant opportunity for the discussion of our subject. Detailed - descriptions of the remains found in different localities <span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>have been - given by travelers, artists and authors, the latter availing themselves - of several accounts and instituting comparisons between the statements - of different explorers. Such works, savoring somewhat of the critical, - cannot be underrated, since their development of the true facts has - contributed largely to our knowledge of the subject. It has been - generally the rule for writers to undertake the description of remains - in a particular locality and treat them in detail, thus presenting to - the mind a pleasant picture of the whole, together with the relation - of parts. This is certainly a satisfactory plan to many readers, - but it seems to us that such a course is unnecessary, after it has - been once pursued by the explorer. By repetitions nothing is gained, - unless the work of classification (by which certain architectural - forms and methods are woven into a style and their variations noted) - receives attention. In preceding chapters we have treated of the Maya, - the Quiché, and the Nahua peoples, and in this, it is our purpose - to briefly note the main features of their styles of architecture, - sculpture, etc., as indicated in the divisions above laid down.</p> - - <p><i>Maya Architecture</i> furnishes evidence of growth, and may be - classified into the Chiapan or ancient and the Yucatanic or modified - styles. The Chiapan or ancient style is exhibited in the imposing - remains of Palenque, with which the reader is supposed to be already - familiar, from the descriptions of several explorers.<a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> Palenque - is situated in the Usumacinta River region in Chiapas, on a small - stream sometimes called the Otolum, a tributary of the Tulija, which - is itself a branch of the Usumacinta. The ruins are situated in a - small valley of the foothills, from which rise the high table-lands - of the interior. They are known as the Palace, with a pyramidal base - measuring two hundred and sixty by three hundred and ten feet and forty - feet high; Temple of the three Tablets; Temple of the Beau Relief; - Temple of the Cross, and Temple of the Sun. The <span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>most conspicuous - feature of the architecture employed, and seen in most of the Central - American structures, is the massive pyramidal foundation. The sides of - the pyramid of the Palenque palace are faced with regular blocks of - hewn stone, with extensive flights of stairs, upon the east and north - leading to its summit.<a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> Mr. Bancroft has analyzed the structure - of the American pyramid in a philosophical way, and no doubt has in - part explained its object. “I think,” he remarks, “that perhaps with - a view to raise this place or temple above the waters of the stream, - four thick walls, possibly more, were built up perpendicularly from the - ground to the desired height; then, after the completion of the walls, - to strengthen them, or during the progress of the work to facilitate - the raising of the stones, the interior was filled with earth, and the - exterior graded with the same material, the whole being subsequently - faced with hewn stone.”<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp63"> - <img src="images/i_341.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Mode of Constructing Pyramid.</div> - </div> - - <p>In the above cut Mr. Bancroft illustrates his opinion. Stephens - and Waldeck, who excavated from the summit downwards, imply that - the interior D is of earth. Twenty years later Charnay found a - perpendicular wall on the eastern side, quite contrary to the - observations of all previous travelers. Mr. Bancroft accounts for this - on the supposition that the stone facing, loosened by the growth of - trees which covered it, had fallen from B to F, and that the earth - which filled the sides at E E had been washed away by the rain and left - the perpendicular wall <span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>exposed at B. Such a supposition we consider to - be perfectly probable in view of the rapid dilapidation of the ruins - since Dupaix’s visit in 1806. The ancient model thus established in - the construction of this, perhaps oldest of existing American cities, - may have determined the style of many similar edifices. A plan of the - palace has been furnished by several authors.<a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> The accompanying - restoration from Armin’s <cite>Das Heutige Mexiko</cite>, employed by - Mr. Bancroft, may serve to give an idea of the proportions of the - structure. The edifice occupies the entire summit platform of the - pyramid except a narrow passage-way around the edge, and measures 228 - feet by 182, and about 30 feet in height. The doorways, of which there - are forty in the outer wall, are wider than the piers intervening - between them, and were constructed originally with flat wooden lintels, - all of which have disappeared. The main architectural features will <span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span>be - observed in the accompanying plate from Waldeck. The lower right-hand - figure shows the angle of the foundations of one of the interior - buildings and the manner in which the stones were laid. The left-hand - figure affords a sectional view of the eastern stairway descending - from the principal corridor into the grand court. It will be observed - that the height of the steps considerably exceeds their width. Waldeck - illustrates this singular disproportion by a diagram in which a native - is represented as sitting upon the stairway. The perpendicular face of - a step is shown to be considerably higher than the Indian’s knee, and - must have measured two feet. The upper left-hand figures represent the - forms of niches, which are of frequent occurrence. The T shaped niche - is the representative of a numerous class so resembling the Egyptian - <i>tau</i> or cross as to excite no little interest in its origin. - M. Waldeck found the marks of lamp-black upon the tops of some of - them, and supposes them to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> held torches which illuminated the - corridors; others, which extend through the walls, may have served for - the purposes of ventilation; while others perhaps contained idols.<a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> - The right-hand upper figures represent the highly artistic double - cornices employed. Nothing of a definite nature is known of the style - of roof with which the palace was covered, since every vestige of it - has disappeared. Castañeda represents it as sloping and plastered, - while Dupaix refers to it as consisting of large stone flags, carefully - joined together.<a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_342.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Palace Restored.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_343.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Architectural Features at Palenque.</div> - </div> - - <p>The neighboring buildings, such as the Temple of the Three Tablets, - the Temple of the Cross, and the Temple of the Sun, each have - well-preserved roofs of masonry, which are quite remarkable. The first - of these stands upon its lofty pyramidal base, measuring one hundred - and ten feet on the slope, with continuous steps on all sides. The - temple, which is thirty-five feet high, is crowned with a sloping - ornamental roof of great beauty. Stephens illustrated the temple in - several views, subsequently copied by Bancroft.<a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> The roof is - divided into three parts; the lower section recedes from the cornice - with a gentle slope, and resembles the corresponding section of a - French or Mansard roof. The stucco decorations of this lower section, - which is also painted, add considerably to the general effect. Five - solid square projections with perpendicular faces suggestive of the - attic windows of a modern French roof are found on this section, - corresponding to the several doors of the temple immediately below. The - second section, which slopes back at a more acute angle, is of solid - masonry. The crowning section seems to have been purely ornamental, - consisting of a line of pillars of stone and mortar, eighteen inches - high and twelve inches apart, surmounted by a layer of flat stones - with projecting sides. The Temple of the Cross and Temple of the Sun - both have roof-structures which may be described as resembling a - lattice-work of stone.</p> - - <p>The most interesting feature of Palenque architecture is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span>the arch, of - which there are two styles, if one of them may be classed as an arch - at all; of this we have doubts. The style to which we allude is that - which has been designated as the Yucatan arch. A section of the double - corridor of the palace furnishes an example as shown in the cut from - Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p> - - <div class="figleft illowp55"> - <img src="images/i_345.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Section of Palace Corridor.</div> - </div> - - <p>This so-called arch is nothing more than the approach of two walls - toward each other in straight lines, nearly forming an acute angle at - the top. These inclining walls are constructed of overlapping stones, - with a small surface of exposed ceiling, produced by a lintel-like - covering. The principal doorway, which is eighteen feet high, is - constructed in the form of a trefoil arch, while niches or depressions - of the same trefoil form are ranged along the inclined face of the - gallery on each side of the entrance. This arch is suggestive of the - Moorish pattern, though the latter probably is the more modern. The - accompanying cut—a photographic reduction from Waldeck—will convey a - clear idea of its form.</p> - - <p>The tower situated in the southern court is considered by Waldeck as - the crowning work of all. The frontispiece is a photographic reduction - from Waldeck’s drawing, and no doubt indicates the true number of its - stories, as well as the remarkable growth of vegetation upon its roof. - The descent of the little roots and tendrils of the trees above in - quest of nourishment, furnish a striking illustration of the luxuriant - vegetable growth which pervades the region. The very air is laden with - life, though the remains of man’s handicraft and power are but the - lifeless monuments of his vanished glory. The gentle evening breeze - which plays upon the tendrils stretching themselves down the tower’s - wall, produces a soft melodious sound, resembling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> that of the Æolian - harp, and gives rise to the apprehension in the minds of the natives - that the place is enchanted.<a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp81" id="i_346"> - <img src="images/i_346.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Trefoil Arch, Palenque.</div> - </div> - - <p>The second division of Maya architecture, namely, the Yucatan or - modified style, presents some variations from the ancient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>or Chiapan. - Probably the most remarkable group of ruins in that richest of American - architectural fields—Yucatan—is situated at Uxmal, in Lat. 20° 27′ 30″, - thirty-five miles south of Merida. The reader is of course acquainted - with the detail of the survey of this remarkable city of antiquity - through the work of Stephens and Catherwood.<a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> These indefatigable - explorers examined about forty ruined cities, nearly all of which were - previously unknown to others than the natives, and many of them were - unknown at Merida, the capital of the country. While these travelers - are pre-eminently the explorers of Yucatan, there are others whose - services have been of great value in the same field.<a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p> - - <p>Mr. Bancroft has divided the architectural remains in Yucatan into - four groups, classifying them geographically. We do not consider - it necessary to follow such a course, nor enter into the detailed - description of any group, but will content ourselves by simply noting - any variations from the Palenque models. At Uxmal our attention is at - once arrested by the irregular pyramidal base of the building known - as the Casa del Gobernador. The base of the pyramid is a figure of an - irregular rectangular form. The northern and eastern sides of the base - are equal, and measure about six hundred feet each; the southern and - western are, however, irregular. As all the angles are right angles, - and two contiguous sides are equal, it will be understood that the - figure of the base would have been a square, but for the irregularity - of the remaining two sides. These irregularities fall within the - figure of the square. The pyramid is terraced, the first promenade - when observed being but three feet from the ground. The second terrace - rises from <span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span>this to a height of twenty feet, and supports a platform - with sides 545 feet in length. A trifle west of the centre of this - platform rises the third terrace, nineteen feet high, and supporting - the summit platform, measuring about 100 by 360 feet, with an - elevation above the ground of upwards of forty feet.<a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> The pyramid - is composed of fragments of limestone thrown together, but with the - terraces substantially faced with walls of regular and smoothly-hewn - limestone-blocks, laid in mortar <span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span>which has become intensely hard. - The corners of the pyramid differ from those usually met with in that - they are rounded. The terrace walls incline slightly toward the centre - of the pyramid. The second platform was reached by a long inclined - plain on the south side one hundred feet wide. A regular stairway with - thirty-five steps, and one hundred and thirty feet wide, furnished the - means of ascent from the second platform to the summit. The crowning - feature of the structure is the Casa del Gobernador, a characteristic - Yucatan building, measuring three hundred and twenty-two feet long - but only thirty-nine feet wide. The Casa is surrounded by a promenade - thirty feet wide, and in its interior contains two parallel rows of - apartments (a plan of which is given by Mr. Stephens).<a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> A sectional - view of the Casa resembles the sectional view of the palace corridors - at Palenque, except that in the arches conspicuous in the latter, the - irregularities produced by the square overlapping stones (which are - filled up to an even surface by mortar and plastering), are avoided in - Yucatan, by the overlapping stones of the arch being dressed carefully - to the angle of inclination of the wall or ceiling, thus presenting - a smooth surface. The roof is formed by filling in the space between - the tops of the arches and between the arches and the outer walls with - stone, up to the desired level; after which a perfectly flat covering - of well-cut stones is laid over the whole, having a neat though small - projecting cornice, as will be observed in the accompanying cut from - Bancroft’s work. The rear wall is about nine feet thick and perfectly - solid. The comparative modernness of the building may be realized when - we state that Mr. Stephens found the top of each doorway supported - by a heavy beam of zapote-wood. One of these, which was elaborately - and beautifully carved, and measuring ten feet long and ten by twenty - inches wide, he brought to New York, where, unfortunately, it was - destroyed by fire with the remainder of his collection. It is presumed - that the zapote-wood was prized for its rarity, as it is not found at - present <span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span>near Uxmal. Inside of and above the doors of the Casa were - stone rings, which occur frequently in Yucatec structures, and are - supposed to have supported curtains for closing the doorways. Stephens - presents in a cut (<a href="#i_346">page 346</a>) a view of the imposing and elegant front - looking toward the south.<a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_348.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Casa del Gobernador, Uxmal.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_350.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Section of Casa del Gobernador.</div> - </div> - - <p>Of the several Uxmal edifices, one especially demands attention as - representing the highest state of ancient architecture and sculpture - in America. This is known as the Casa de Monjas, or Nunnery, and is - situated nearly three hundred yards north of the Casa del Gobernador, - on a pyramid with three terraces, and measuring three hundred and - fifty feet square at its base. On the summit platform, only nineteen - feet above the level of the ground, stand four of the characteristic - Yucatan buildings upon four sides of a nearly square court. The - northern building does not stand quite parallel to the building on the - opposite side of the court. The plan from Stephens will present clearly - the arrangement of the apartments, in which it will be observed that - of the eighty-eight rooms contained in the Casa de Monjas, not more - than two apartments open into each other, except in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>one instance, - which occurs in the eastern front.<a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> The court formed by these long - narrow edifices measures 258 by 214 feet, and according to M. Waldeck - was paved with 43,660 blocks of stone six inches square. In the centre - stood the fragments of a rude column similar to others observed in the - Casa del Gobernador.<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp87" id="i_351"> - <img src="images/i_351.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Ground Plan of the Nunnery.</div> - </div> - - <p>A cut of one of the beautifully sculptured façades of the Casa <span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>de - Monjas will be found on a future page. Near the Casa de Monjas stands - the pyramid and edifice generally known as the Casa del Adivino or - Prophet’s house, and named by M. Waldeck the Pyramid de Kingsborough. - The pyramid rises to a height of 80 feet from a base of 155 by 235 - feet. The corners are rounded, and the sides, which are carefully faced - with cubical blocks of stone, rise so steep that the ascent and descent - by the grand stairway on the eastern face is giddy and dangerous. The - stairway measuring one hundred and two feet on the slope is inclined at - an angle of eighty degrees.<a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></p> - - <p>About a dozen miles south-eastward from Uxmal are the remains of the - ancient city known as Kabah, where ruins quite similar and nearly - as extensive as those already described are found. However, new - architectural features here meet the observer. In one instance the - structure which surmounts a terraced pyramid is square, instead of - long and narrow as at Uxmal. The inner rooms of the edifice have - floors two feet higher than the floors of the outer rooms, and are - entered by two stone steps. In one instance these were cut from a - single block with the lower step in the form of a scroll. At Kabah - we meet with an entirely new feature in Maya architecture, and the - reader’s acquaintance with the terraced casas, of the New Mexican - region, will supply the lack of an illustration at this point. In the - style of building referred to, the pyramid instead of serving as a - foundation for the building, serves as a central support around which - the house with its receding stories, one above another, is built. The - first story of the building referred to is built upon the ground, with - the perpendicular sides of a mound for its rear wall. Just above, - on a level with the roof of the first story on the platform of the - first terrace of the mound, stands the second story, with the roof - of the first serving as a promenade in front of it, while the third - story rests upon the second platform of the mound. The platforms or - roofs of the first and second stories are reached by means of a stone - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>stairway supported upon a half arch. The first story is accessible - from the ground by doorways. The interior apartments are constructed - on the model of the Yucatec arch. Here, however, lintels of stone are - met with, supported in the centre by rude stone columns surmounted by - square capitals. These buildings are of large proportions, equalling - any we have thus far described. The decorations of the edifices were - considered by Mr. Stephens equal to those of any known era, even when - tried by the severest rules of art.<a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> At Zayi, one of the finest - illustrations of this style of architecture is to be seen in what is - known as the Casa Grande. The dimensions of the Casa Grande are as - follows: lower story, 120 by 265 feet; the second story, 60 by 220 - feet; and the third, resting on the summit platform of the mound, 18 - by 150 feet; a stairway thirty-two feet wide furnishes a means of - ascent to the third story on the front, while a narrow stairway leads - to the second story at the rear. Round columns both in doorways and - the façade constitute the chief variation from the styles already - observed. An “elephant trunk” ornament protruding from the cornice - (also found on Casa del Gobernador and the Casa de Monjas at Uxmal) is - a marked feature of decoration. It is unnecessary for us to say that - its presence has given rise to much speculation as to its origin. M. - Waldeck has given the figure the name which we have applied to it, and - perhaps with some reason.<a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a></p> - - <p>At Labná ruins of a curious and extraordinary nature exist, though far - gone in decay. The accompanying cut, employed in Stephens’, Baldwin’s - and Bancroft’s works, will serve to show the extravagant decoration - lavished upon the cornices of the edifices. At Chichen-Itza, the - so-called “Nunnery” is supported by a solid mass of masonry, with - perpendicular walls. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>The dimensions of this base are one hundred and - twelve by one hundred and sixty feet and forty-two feet high. This was - crowned by a building having two receding stories. The great pyramid - of Chichen is celebrated for the solid stone balustrade which guards - its northern stairway of ninety steps, forty-four feet wide. These - balustrades terminate in colossal serpent heads, ten feet long.<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> - Both at Chichen and at Mayapan circular structures are met with and - are figured by Stephens.<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> The same author has described the - rectangular watch-towers of Tuloom, which rise majestically amid the - extensive ruins of the ancient city of the same name, situated upon the - eastern coast in latitude 20° 10´. At Tuloom, Mr. Stephens (its only - describer), found the first walled city in Yucatan. He believes it to - have been occupied long after the conquest, and probably was one of the - cities whose many towers met the gaze of the wondering Spaniards, who - beheld them as they coasted along the shore.<a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp63"> - <img src="images/i_354.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Corner at Labná.</div> - </div> - - <p><i>Quiché Architecture.</i>—The propriety of classifying the great - ruins of Honduras and Guatemala as Quiché in their origin and style, - may be questioned by some of our readers. It must be admitted that - great contrasts in style are found in this region, which was occupied - by the powerful kingdom of the Quichés and Cakchiquels, at the time - of the conquest. However, it is probable that the ancient Quichés - (who, as we have already seen, at an early day developed a religion - and literature), were the authors of the more ancient cities, like - Copan and Quirigua. The Quiché-Cakchiquels of more modern times were - quite another people, whose institutions, language, and no doubt their - architecture, had been largely influenced by Nahua people from the - Mexican plateau. Utatlan, the magnificent capital of this modern and - mixed people, was in the height of its glory just before the blighting - power of the conquerors laid it in ruins. As ours is not an attempt at - the history of discovery, we omit entirely that interesting feature - in the treatment of antiquities, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>and call attention at once to the - features conspicuous in Quiché architecture. The ancient city known as - Copan, on the eastern bank of a river of the same name, in latitude - 14° 45´ and longitude 90° 52´ in Honduras, and four leagues from the - Guatemala line, is interesting in furnishing material for study in this - department. It is probably the most ancient city on the continent. - Copan no doubt could successfully contend with Palenque for the palm of - antiquity. It is again to the indefatigable Stephens and the skillful - Catherwood that we are most indebted for our knowledge of these - ruins.<a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> The period of the abandonment of Copan is a question with - reference to which we possess too few data to render an intelligent - decision concerning it. Following the example of Stephens and Bancroft, - we first introduce the account of Fuentes contained in Juarros.<a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> - “In the year 1700, the great circus of Copan still remained entire. - This was a circular space, surrounded by stone pyramids about <span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>six - yards high and very well constructed; at the base of these pyramids - were figures, both male and female, of very excellent sculpture, which - then retained the colors they had been enameled with; and what was - not less remarkable, the whole of them were habited in the Castilian - costume. In the middle of this area, elevated above a flight of steps, - was the place of sacrifice. The same author (Fuentes) relates that, - a short distance from the circus, there was a portal constructed of - stone, on the columns of which were the figures of men, likewise - represented in Spanish habits, with hose, ruff round the neck, sword, - cap, and short cloak. On entering the gateway there are two fine - stone pyramids, moderately large and lofty, from which is suspended - a hammock that contains two human figures, one of each sex, clothed - in the Indian style. Astonishment is forcibly excited in viewing this - structure, because, large as it is, there is no appearance of the - component parts being joined together; and although entirely of stone - and of an enormous weight, it may be put in motion by the slightest - impulse of the hand. Not far from this hammock is the cave of Tibulca; - this appears like a temple of great size hollowed out of the base of a - hill, and adorned with columns having bases, pedestals, capitals and - crowns, all accurately adjusted according to architectural principles; - at the sides are numerous windows faced with stone exquisitely wrought. - All these circumstances lead to a belief that there must have been some - intercourse between the inhabitants of the old and new world at very - remote periods.” The swinging stone hammock is probably a work of the - fancy rather than that of the artist’s hand, though the padre at Gualan - told Stephens that he had seen it, and an Indian remembered to have - heard his grandfather speak of it. None of these remarkable remains - have been identified with certainty, though it is not improbable - that they might be discovered if the heavy growth of vegetation were - removed by a conflagration and explorers to extend their observations - farther from the banks of the Rio Copan. According to Stephens’ survey, - a wall encloses a rectangular area measuring about nine hundred by - sixteen hundred feet. The principal group of buildings is designated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> - as the temple. It is built of heavy blocks of cut stone, with walls - of about twenty-five feet in thickness, and when examined they were - between sixty and ninety feet high on the river’s bank. The temple - measured six hundred and twenty-four feet north and south by eight - hundred and nine feet east and west. The general feature of the ruin - is that of an immense pyramidal terrace, with a platform elevated - about seventy feet above the ground. The river side of the terrace - is perpendicular, while the remaining sides are sloping; viewing the - ruin from this general platform seventy feet high, depressions such - as amphitheatre-like courts descend from it in some instances thirty - or forty feet, or about half way to the level of the ground, while - above the level of the general platform pyramidal structures rise to - a considerable height, in one instance one hundred and twenty-two - feet. It is difficult to conceive of what might have been the nature - of the superstructure, if any surmounted the general platform. It is - probable that for the purposes of assembly the amphitheatres with their - sloping sides may have answered every purpose, while the pyramids - may have been surmounted by temples now in ruins. Of the sculptured - columns of this locality we will speak farther on. Utatlan, the former - capital of the modern Quiché kingdom, would naturally be selected as - a point at which to seek for remains of the newer Quiché styles of - architecture. The conquerors, however, left little that can serve - as the basis for architectural study. The city was surrounded by a - deep ravine or barranca, which can be crossed at only one point, and - there long lines of stone fortifications still guard the passage. A - fortress, called El Resguardo, is among these works. It rises one - hundred and twenty feet high in the form of a terraced pyramid, with - a stone wall plastered with cement enclosing its summit platform, - on which a circular tower provided with a stairway was built. Only - fragmentary walls of the Quiché palaces remain; their dimensions were - eleven hundred by twenty-two hundred feet, and nothing but their cement - covered floors have survived the vandalism of the conquerors and the - architects of the modern town; the latter having carried away the upper - portions for building purposes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> A pyramidal structure near by, known - as El Sacrificatorio, presents no architectural contrasts to pyramids - already described. Its stairway, composed of nineteen steps each eight - inches broad and seventeen inches high, is characteristically Central - American.<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> In the province of Vera Paz, especially in the Rabinal - Valley, Brasseur de Bourbourg observed numbers of tumuli, resembling - those of the Mississippi Valley both in material and structure. These - were especially prevalent in the neighborhood of the villages, and - sometimes were associated with pyramidal structures equal in finish - to any we have described. The name <i>cakhay</i>, “red houses,” is - generally applied to these tumuli.<a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p> - - <p><i>Nahua Architecture.</i>—It would be quite impossible for us to - devote that space to this subject which the number of remains would - justify, and the presentation of the typal features of the architecture - of that interesting family of nations will be all that we shall here - attempt; of geographical and detailed treatments there are several - on the different departments of the subject.<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> In the pages which - follow we will select a few examples of Nahua architecture in order to - illustrate our subject, but we would state that many equally important - works, though perhaps presenting no new features, have been purposely - passed by unnoticed. In a preceding chapter we referred to those - intermediate nations which occupied the transition position between - the Mayas and Nahuas. The Miztecs, Zapotecs and others, were probably - a mixed people, related in different degrees to both of the great - families on the north and south of them. Oajaca and Guerrero were the - homes of these peoples, where they developed their own civilization - and styles of art in channels distinct from those of their neighbors. - The isthmus of Tehuantepec presents some interesting remains, chief - among <span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>which we may cite two stone pyramids situated three leagues west - of the city of Tehuantepec. One of these measures fifty-five by one - hundred and twenty feet at the base and thirty by sixty-six feet on the - summit. A grand stairway composed of forty steps and thirty feet in - width leads up the western slope. The summit is also made accessible by - smaller stairways on the north and south sides. The lower of the four - terraces composing the structure, is perpendicular; the others have - inclined walls. On the face of the second terrace were four ranges of - flat stones, one above another, extending entirely around the pyramid - and furnishing a series of shelves, devoted no doubt to some sacred - or sacrificial use. The whole structure was plastered with a cement, - colored brilliantly by red ochre. The adjoining pyramid presents an - architectural novelty in its gracefully curved sides. Castañeda has - sketched and Dupaix described it. The height of the pyramid is over - fifty feet while its general dimensions are about the same as those of - its neighbor. In close proximity to the pyramids, altar-like structures - were observed, one of which was composed of eight circular stones, - like mill-stones, placed one above another. The base measured ten and - a half feet, but the summit only four and a half feet; the height - measures twelve feet.<a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> Numerous earthen tumuli resembling those of - the Mississippi Valley were observed by the German traveler Müller, - scattered over the region, especially to the south-east.<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> The most - important group of ruins in Oajoca is that at Mitla, situated about - thirty miles south-east of the capital of the State. This is probably - the finest group of remains north of the isthmus of Tehauntepec. - Still they are not purely Nahua in their style, being, according to - tradition, the work of the Zapotecs. This group has been described - several times by explorers, whose accounts have differed considerably - in value. The most important of these are the descriptions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>and - drawings by Dupaix and Castañeda, made in 1806, and the description and - valuable photographs by Charnay, the latest explorer of this group, - whose work was performed in 1859.<a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a></p> - - <p>The mitla ruins are distributed into four groups of buildings - (generally called palaces or temples) and two pyramids. The principal - edifice is described as follows: three low oblong mounds only six or - eight feet high but surmounted by stone buildings, enclose a court. - The court measures 130 by 120 feet. The eastern and western buildings - are in a fallen and ruined condition. The northern building, however, - presents a singular example of ancient grandeur. The southern portion - measures 36 by 130 feet, and the northern 61 feet square. The edifice - is about eighteen feet high, having walls varying from four to nine - feet in thickness. The accompanying cut, a photographic reduction of - Charnay’s photograph, gives a correct idea of the western façade of the - northern building.<a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></p> - - <p>The walls of this edifice are constructed in a somewhat novel manner, - their interior portions being nothing more than clay intermixed with - stones, thus furnishing a poor substitute for the cement and stone - filling in the inner parts of Yucatanic walls. However, the exterior - facing of the walls is of hewn stone blocks <span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>cut in different forms - and sizes, and so set in relation to each other as to present examples - of perhaps the finest variety of grecques found in any structure in - the world.<a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> Two layers of large stone blocks form the base of the - palace, from which rises buttresses and a framework of stone, filled - in with panels of mosaic, in patterns as described. We pronounce these - grecque patterns mosaics, because of the manner of their structure. - They are not of the nature of sculpture, since each pattern, with all - its regularity, is composed of small brick-shaped blocks of stone built - into the wall, mosaic-like, thus forming the graceful patterns shown in - the cut. No trace of mortar has been found at Mitla. The inner surface - of the wall in the northern building was smoothly plastered without any - ornament. Six round stone columns standing in line occupy the centre - of the apartment, and no doubt supported a roof of wood or stone, but - more probably of the former.<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> The cut in Baldwin’s work, copied by - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span>Bancroft showing the interior of the apartment and the six columns, - conveys an incorrect impression as to the form of the columns and the - character of the walls, as is proven by Charnay’s photograph.<a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> - The façades of the inner court of the northern wing of the palace - are finished with mosaics of great beauty. Four or five feet of the - wall is plain at the bottom except that the plastering was evidently - frescoed in various colors. The remainder of the wall is decorated with - bands of mosaic grecques, as shown in the cut, which is a fac-simile - of Charnay’s photograph engraven for Mr. Bancroft’s work. We should - not fail to note the use of immense stones in the base, framework - and lintels of the southern wing of the building. One of these is - of granite, sixteen or nineteen feet long, with the pattern of the - adjacent grecques sculptured on its face. None of the other buildings - at Mitla present any architectural contrasts to the one already - described, and require no special attention. Under a temple on the - south-west side of the one we have just referred to, is a subterranean - gallery, constructed in the form of a cross. The opening is at the - base of the mound upon which the temple stands. The arms of the cross - pointing toward the East, North and West, are each twelve feet long, - five and a half feet wide, and six and a half feet high. The southern - arm is, however, about twenty feet long, and not more than four feet - high throughout most of its length. Near the centre of the cross (which - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>lies directly under the centre of the temple above) a flight of four - steps descends in the southern arm of the cross to a lower level, so - that the southern arm of the passage is somewhat lower than the others. - The entire subterranean chamber was roofed with large flat stones - reaching from side to side. The walls, besides being painted red, were - ornamented with panels of mosaic, but of a ruder style than that of the - superstructure, which is suggestive of an earlier period in the growth - of the art. A circular pillar resting on a square base, and called by - the natives “the pillar of death,” because of the belief entertained - among them that whoever embraced it would immediately die, supports - the large flagstone which covers the intersection of the galleries. An - immense fortification over a mile in circumference and with stone walls - six feet thick and eighteen feet high crowns the summit of a hill, - which stands three-fourths of a league south-west of Mitla. The place - was inaccessible except on the side toward the village where the wall - was double. Castañeda has delineated and Bancroft copied the plan of - this fortress.<a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_362.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Western Façade of the Palace at Mitla.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figleft illowp36"> - <img src="images/i_363.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Grecques of an Interior Room at Mitla.</span></div> - </div> - - <p>Passing into the state of Vera Cruz, the attention of the observer - is arrested by great numbers of mounds of all the varieties peculiar - to the Mississippi Valley. Excavations have yielded pottery of burnt - clay, idols, and flint and stone weapons, as well as implements of - agriculture, but no trace of iron or copper is recorded. As the Nahuas - are said by Duran and Sahagun to have landed on the Gulf coast not far - north of this region, and to have traversed it in their wanderings - southward, and since the tradition derives them from Florida, it is not - improbable that here we see the continuation of the works of the lower - Mississippi.<a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a></p> - - <p>Of several interesting specimens of ancient architecture in the state - of Vera Cruz we have selected a few examples. At Puente <span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span>Nacional the - remarkable pyramid shown in the cut is situated. It was described by - J. M. Esteva in the <cite>Museo Mexicano</cite> in 1843. The pyramid is - six stories high, and the eastern side is faced by a grand stairway - in the form of a cross. Mr. Bancroft has described it, employing the - accompanying cut. At Centla, twenty-five or thirty miles north of - Cordova, a series of remarkable fortifications were discovered in - 1821, which have been most thoroughly described by Sr. Sartorius, who - visited the locality in 1833, but whose account was not published until - 1869.<a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp60"> - <img src="images/i_365.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Pyramid near Puente Nacional.</div> - </div> - - <p>The most notable fortification is situated at a narrow pass between - two ravines, with perpendicular walls several hundred feet deep. The - distance between the precipices at this point is only twenty-eight - feet. The defensive works consist of several pyramidal structures built - of stone and mortar. The largest of these has three terraces rising - from the rear until they approach a perpendicular wall, fronting a - narrow passage-way only three feet wide. This perpendicular wall is - surmounted with parapets and loop-holes for defence. A pyramid on the - opposite side of the passage-way, the platform of which is reached by - a single flight of steps, is possessed of the same defensive features, - with the addition of a ditch at its front eleven feet wide excavated - in the solid rock to a depth of five and a half feet. The object <span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>of - the fortress seems to have been the protection of an oval-shaped tract - of fertile land containing about four hundred acres, lying between - the barrancas. At the opposite end of the oval tract, the precipices - approach so closely to each other as to leave a narrow passage of only - three feet in width, which also is guarded by stone walls. Of numerous - pyramids in the region, the one figured in the cut (from Bancroft’s - work) is pronounced by Sr. Sartorius as typical of all of them.<a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_366.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Type of Pyramids at Centla.</div> - </div> - - <p>Half a league below the town of Huatusco, Dupaix discovered a - remarkable pyramid crowning a hill on a slope of which was also a group - of ruins called the Pueblo Viejo. This structure known as El Castillo, - measures sixty-six feet in height, though there is some uncertainty - as to the size of the base.<a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> Dupaix’s text states it to be two - hundred and twenty-one feet square, but Mr. Bancroft calls attention - to the fact that Castañeda’s drawing makes it about seventy-five feet - square. The pyramid in three terraces measures thirty-seven feet - high. The superstructure is in three stories, with a single doorway - in the lowest. This seems to have been the only opening through the - walls of the castle, which were eight feet thick; we presume, however, - only at their base, as their exterior shows a sloping rather than a - perpendicular surface. The lowest story forms a single apartment with - three pillars in the centre supporting the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span>beams of the floor above. - Portions of the beams were visible when Dupaix visited the locality. - The walls of the castle are of rubble made of stone and mortar, as - in the Yucatan structures, having stone facings. The exterior of the - castle proper was coated with polished plaster and ornamented with - panels containing regular rows of round stones embedded in the coating. - Some unimportant fragments of sculpture in stone and terra-cotta were - found in the ruin. El Castillo is of special interest because of the - well-preserved condition of its superstructure. About one hundred and - fifty or sixty miles north-west of the city of Vera Cruz, the German - artist Nebel found a group of ruins known as those of <i>Tusapan</i>, - buried in a dense forest at the foot of the Cordillera. The only - structure which remains standing closely resembles the pyramid above - described, except that the walls of the pyramid are not terraced, and - the tower surmounting the pyramid is built with a single story. The - only opening in the tower is the doorway at the head of the stairway. - The interior contains a single apartment twelve feet square. The - ceiling is said to have been arched or pointed, but Herr Nebel has - failed to furnish definite information as to whether the arch was of - overlapping stones or not, an oversight of an unpardonable character, - since it would be of greatest interest to know whether the Maya arch - existed so far north. The pyramid is described as thirty feet square, - and built of irregular blocks of limestone, which was probably covered - with a coat of the plastering generally employed and so polished in - its appearance.<a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> One remaining structure in the State of Vera - Cruz merits special attention, namely, the pyramid of Papantla. This - pyramid, known as El Tajin, “the thunderbolt,” is situated in a dense - forest near the modern town of Papantla, which lies about forty miles - east of Tusapan. There is a wide divergence of expression as to - the dimensions of the pyramid. Herr Nebel, however, makes the base - something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> over ninety feet square and the height fifty-four feet. The - pyramid is seven stories high and apparently solid, except the topmost - story which contained interior departments. This crowning structure is - now sadly dilapidated. Dupaix’s statement, copied by Humboldt, that the - material of the pyramid is porphyry, cut in immense blocks, appears to - be an error, since later exploration has revealed the fact that the - pyramid was constructed of regularly cut blocks of sandstone laid in - mortar, and coated with a hard, smooth cement, three inches thick. A - stairway on the eastern front is divided as well as being guarded by - solid stone balustrades.<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></p> - - <p>For Nahua monuments of the purest type we naturally turn to Anahuac - the home of Toltec and Aztec art during its most advanced period of - development. But alas! the hand of the conqueror and the zeal of the - fanatic have robbed irretrievably the antiquarian and the student - of the history of architecture and art, of the best and noblest - remains of that strangely interesting civilization. Our attention - is naturally directed to the architecture of that ancient religious - centre—Cholula—the origin of which, together with that of its great - pyramid, we have described in a previous chapter. We have already - seen that the prime object for erecting the immense pile, according - to Duran, was the worship of the sun, and not to afford a refuge from - a deluge as has been generally supposed. The pyramid of Cholula is - situated in the eastern portion of a village to which it has given its - name, and is reached by a ride of about ten miles westward from the - city of Puebla de los Angelos. The magnificent temple upon its summit - dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, fell a prey to the destroying vengeance - of Cortez, who no doubt was enraged at the stubborn resistance <span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span>with - which he was met by the devoted natives, in a hard-fought battle at - the foot and upon the slopes of the pyramid. Of the large number of - descriptions, either made from personal observation or written from a - comparison of accounts, none surpass that of Humboldt, which was the - result of a careful survey, performed in 1803. Humboldt’s drawing, - however, was a restoration and not a picture of the condition of - the shrub-grown hill as he saw it.<a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> The pyramid, according to - Humboldt, measures at the base six hundred and thirty-nine metres or - a trifle more than fourteen hundred and twenty-eight feet square; in - other words, about forty-four acres. The base is shown by Humboldt to - be more than twice as large as that of Cheops. Humboldt and Dupaix - give its height as fifty-four metres or one hundred and seventy-seven - feet; Mayer says it is two hundred and four feet; Tylor, two hundred - and five feet, and Heller<a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a> states that its summit platform covers - an area of 13,285 square feet. Its height is somewhat greater than - that of the pyramid of Mycerinus. Humboldt compares it to a mass of - brick, covering a square four times as large as the Place Vendôme and - twice the height of the Louvre. He considers it of the same type as - the temple of Jupiter Bélus—the pyramids of Meïdoùn Dahchoùr, and the - group of Sakharah in Egypt. This great monument was constructed in four - equal terraces of small sun-dried bricks, laid in a mortar which has - been pronounced by some a mixture of clay with fragments of stones and - pottery, by others a cement intermixed with small pieces of porphyry - and limestone. Herr Heller discovered that the entire structure had - been covered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>with a coating of cement composed of lime, sand and - mortar.<a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> The present appearance of the pyramid is sufficient to - induce the opinion that it was originally a natural eminence faced up - with adobes in terraces, in accordance with the architectural idea, but - its position in the centre of a plain, together with the revelations - as to its contents, disclosed by the construction of the Pueblo road - through one corner of its base, furnish partial if not conclusive - proof that it was entirely of artificial construction. The excavation - revealed the perfect regularity with which the bricks were laid in - the interior, and brought to light a tomb containing two skeletons, - two basalt figures, a collection of pottery and other articles not - described. Humboldt has fully described this chamber, which was - constructed with stone walls supported by cypress timbers. No doorway - could be found opening into the tomb.</p> - - <p>At Xochicalco, the “hill” or “castle of flowers,” situated seventy-five - miles south-west from the city of Mexico and distant from Cuernavaca - fifteen miles in nearly the same direction, are found the most - remarkable specimens of ancient Mexican architecture north of the - isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most important descriptions of the ruins - are by Alzate y Ramirez,<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> Humboldt,<a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> Dupaix and Castañeda,<a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> - Nebel,<a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> and one prepared by the authority of the Mexican - government.<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span></p> - - <p>These ruins are both beneath and upon a natural hill of oval form - measuring about two miles in circumference and from three hundred to - four hundred feet in height, authorities differing considerably on - this point. At the foot of the hill on its northern side, are the - entrances of two tunnels, one of which extends to a point eighty-two - feet from the edge of the hill, where it terminates abruptly. The - second tunnel penetrates the solid limestone of the hill in the form - of a square gallery nine and a half feet high and broad, extending - inward for several hundred feet and branching into several auxiliary - galleries, which terminate in some instances abruptly. The floors are - paved with small blocks of stone, to a thickness of a foot and a half; - masonry in some places support the sides, and all the interior surface - shows traces of red paint upon the polished cement coating with which - it was finished. The principal gallery, after turning a right angle - toward the left and extending some hundred feet in a straight line, - enlarges into a subterranean chamber eighty feet long by about sixty - feet in width. Two circular columns of living rock were left in making - the excavation as supports for the roof. The most singular feature - connected with the chamber is the perfectly circular excavation found - at its south-east angle, or that corner of the room diagonally opposite - to the corner at which the passage-way enters it. This circular - apartment is only about six feet in diameter, and while it is no deeper - than the adjoining chamber, rises above its ceiling in a dome-shaped - roof, lined with stones hewn in curved blocks. The curve of this - dome-like ceiling corresponds with that of a well-proportioned Gothic - arch. At the apex of the dome, a round hole ten inches in diameter - extends vertically upwards; some suppose to the pyramid above, but a - moment’s calculation suffices to show that in view of the considerable - diameter of the hill and the comparatively short distance from the - chamber to its exterior slope, such is impossible. The exterior of the - hill presents a most wonderful display of masonry. Its entire circuit - is compassed with five terraces of well-laid stone and mortar, faced - with perpendicular walls. Each terrace of masonry is about seventy - feet in height, and is constructed in an irregular line,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> forming - sharp angles, like the bastions of a fortress; each wall supporting - the terraces rises above the level of their respective platforms in - parapets, evidently for defence. The pavements of the platforms are - of stone and inclined slightly toward the south-west, with a view to - draining off the rainfall. Dupaix is the only explorer who mentions - the means of ascent, which he describes as a roadway eight feet wide, - leading to the summit. The summit platform measures 285 by 328 feet, - and is surrounded by a wall which is perpendicular on the inside, and - on the outside conforms to the slope of the terrace wall of which it - is an extension. This parapet, built of stones without mortar, rises - five and a half feet above the plaza, and is two feet and nine inches - thick, we presume at its top, since the outer slope of the terrace - would make a difference between the top and bottom. Near the centre of - the plaza stands the base of a pyramid which presents some remarkable - architectural contrasts from anything we have thus far described. Its - sides face the cardinal points,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> and measure sixty-five feet from east - to west, and fifty-eight feet from north to south. One of the façades, - the northern, according to Nebel, and the western, according to the - Mexican Government Survey in the <cite>Revista</cite>, is cut in two in the - centre by an opening twenty feet wide, where it is supposed a stairway - formerly led to the superstructure. The cut from Nebel, and reproduced - by Mr. Bancroft, shows the façade to the left of the opening, as the - observer faces the pyramid.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp83"> - <img src="images/i_372.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Pyramid at Xochicalco.</div> - </div> - - <p>The great granite or porphyritic stones which constitute the facing - of the pyramid, some of them eleven feet in length and three feet in - height, must have been brought to the summit of the hill at the expense - of great labor, especially since they must have been transported from a - considerable distance, no such material being found within a circuit of - many leagues. The stones were laid without mortar, and so nicely that - it is said the joints are scarcely perceptible. Fragments of a ruined - superstructure surmount the pyramid. The foundation walls of the second - story were two feet and three inches from the edge of the cornice below - it, except on the west where the space was four and a half feet wide. - In 1755, so say the inhabitants of the vicinity, the structure was yet - complete, having five receding stories like the first, and probably - reaching a height of sixty-five feet. On its crowning summit, on the - eastern side, stood a large throne-like block of stone, ornamented - with elaborate sculptures. The second story foundations indicate the - position of three doorways at the head of the grand stairway, and the - account in the <cite>Revista</cite> describes an apartment twenty-two feet - square observable at the summit of the first story, but now filled with - fragments of stone. Mr. Bancroft suggests that from this apartment - there may have been some means of communication with the subterranean - galleries already described. The colossal sculpture on the face of the - pyramid will receive our attention on a future page.<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span></p> - - <p>The general description given above, together with the reported - character of the superstructure of this magnificent monument, calls to - mind the main features of the great teocalli dedicated to the bloody - god Huitzilopochtli in the Aztec capital called Tenochtitlan or Mexico. - This blood-stained temple upon whose altars smoked the hearts of - countless human victims, is supposed to have occupied the site of the - cathedral fronting the Plaza Mayor of the modern city of Mexico. Not a - vestige of that terraced pyramid has survived the destructive hand of - fanaticism and the transforming work of man and nature which have been - going on ever since upon the old site of the capital of the Montezumas. - It is said to have been built in five stories, with flights of steps - affording access to the summit; but each flight was so constructed with - reference to the platform at its top, as to require almost a complete - circuit of the building before the next flight could be reached. It was - necessary, therefore, in order to reach the summit platform, to pass - four times around the pyramid. It is supposed that this was intended - to display to better advantage the solemn processions of the priests - as their long train mounted gradually the sides of the edifice. The - specialist is already familiar with the descriptions by Bernal Diaz, - whose particular extravagance of statement renders his work altogether - unreliable. Also with the accounts by Torquemada, Gomera, Cortez and - Clavigero. The reader has no doubt acquainted himself with the main - facts in the writings of the graceful and imaginative Prescott, whose - seeming romance, <cite>The History of the Conquest of Mexico</cite>, has been - proven by recent and reliable investigation to have approached much - nearer to fact than to fiction. Mr. Tylor, after careful exploration, - has expressed in his “Anahuac” his surprise and satisfaction at what - he considers to be the proof of Mr. Prescott’s general correctness - of statement as to the extent of the Aztec capital and the probable - character of its edifices.<a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a></p> - - <p>For a description of the palaces of Mexico and Chapultepec, the - museums, mansions of the nobles, the pavements and aqueducts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> of that - buried city, we refer the reader who has not access to the sources, to - the admirable account by Prescott, especially since it more properly - belongs to the province of history (now that all traces of them have - disappeared) than to that of archæology.<a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></p> - - <p>Of many interesting localities where architectural remains still - exist, we select one more in the Central region, to illustrate our - subject. The ancient religious city of the early Nahuas, Teotihuacan, - with its famous pyramids—the traditional origin of which we have - already noted<a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a>—deserves our attention. The city of the gods has - had many describers, from the illustrious Humboldt to the observant - and philosophical Mr. Tylor. The most complete description, however, - is that given in the report of a scientific commission appointed - by the Mexican government in 1864, containing accurate plans and - views.<a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> Sr. Antonio Garcia y Cubas, a member of the commission, - subsequently published a most interesting memoir on the pyramids of - Teotihuacan, entitled <cite>Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo entre las - Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas</cite> (Mexico, 1871). The analogies - between Teotihuacan and Egyptian pyramids receive the greater share of - attention, though some valuable facts not mentioned in the report of - the commission are here made known. Mr. Bancroft has reproduced the - main features of the report of the Mexican Commission and compared it - with previous researches, thus presenting the reader with probably the - best critical version of the exploration of Teotihuacan, to be found - in any language.<a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> The cut reduced from Almaraz for Mr. Bancroft’s - work shows the plan of the Teotihuacan monuments on a scale of about - twenty-five hundred and fifty feet to an inch.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp39"> - <img src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Plan of Teotihuacan.</div> - </div> - - <p>The pyramid marked A in the plan is known as Metztli Itzacual, which - is interpreted “House of the Moon.” It measures 156 metres or 512 - feet from east to west by 130 metres or 426 feet from north to south. - According to Almarez, its height is 42 metres or 137 feet, but Sr. - Garcia y Cubas, who took his measurement on the opposite side of the - pyramid from that measured by Almaraz, says that it is 46 metres or - 150 feet high. The summit platform, according to Garcia y Cubas, is - six metres or nineteen and a half feet square; quite a discrepancy - is here observable between the estimated area given by Beaufoy and - copied by Mr. Bancroft as thirty-six by sixty feet, and this actual - measurement. The sides of the pyramid nearly face the cardinal points. - The eastern slope is 31° 30′, while the southern is somewhat steeper, - being 36°. The slope on the east seems to have been unbroken except - by a zigzag roadway, leading to the summit. The remaining sides - are plainly marked by the remains of three terraces, one of which - is still about three feet wide. Humboldt and Tylor both speak of - remains of stairways of which no mention is made by the Government - Commission. Most observers have described the pyramids as faced with - hewn stone, but the commissioners on the contrary found them coated - with successive layers of different conglomerates as follows: “1st, - small stones from eight to twelve inches in diameter, with mud forming - a layer of about thirty-two inches; 2d, fragments of volcanic tufa, - as large as a man’s fist, also in mud, to the thickness of sixteen - inches; 3d, small grains of tetzontli (a porous volcanic rock) of - the size of peas, with mud, twenty-eight inches thick; 4th, a very - thin and smooth coat of pure lime mortar.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> These layers are repeated - in the same order nine times and are parallel to the slopes of the - pyramid, which would make the thickness of the superficial facing - about sixty feet.”<a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> On the southern slope, sixty-nine feet from - the base, according to Almarez, a gallery large enough to admit a - man crawling on hands and knees, extends inward on an incline, a - distance of twenty-five feet, and terminates in two square wells or - chambers, each five feet square, and one of them fifteen feet deep. - Mr. Löwenstern, according to Mr. Bancroft, states that “the gallery - is a hundred and fifty-seven feet long, increasing in height to over - six feet and a half, as it penetrates the pyramid; that the well is - over six feet square, extending apparently down to the base and up to - the summit; and that other cross galleries are blocked up by débris!” - It is probable that these remarkable galleries never existed, except - in Mr. Löwenstern’s imagination, since Sr. Almarez in the report of - the official survey pronounces the tunnel already described as simply - excavations by treasure-hunters. The pyramid B of the plan, situated - five hundred and seventy-five yards south of the House of the Moon, is - called Tonatiuh Itzacual, or “House of the Sun.” This pyramid requires - no description, except to give its dimensions, since in all other - respects it is precisely similar <span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span>to the House of the Moon. The House - of the Sun, according to the measurement of Sr. Garcia y Cubas, which - is the most recent, is at the base 232 metres or 761 feet by 220 metres - or 722 feet. Its height is 66 metres or 216 feet, while the summit - platform measures 18 by 32 metres or 59 by 105 feet. Both this pyramid - and the preceding have each a small mound on one of their sides near - their base. In the latter instance this mound seems connected with - an avenue of mounds just west of it. An embankment marked <i>a</i>, - <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, one hundred and thirty feet wide on the - summit and twenty feet high, widening out at the extremities into - platforms, extends around three sides of the “House of the Sun.” Across - the Rio San Juan, and at the distance of twelve hundred and fifty yards - southward of the “House of the Sun,” stands the Texcalpa or “citadel.” - This is a quadrangular enclosure, measuring on its exterior twelve - hundred and forty-six by thirteen hundred and thirty-eight feet. The - embankments are of enormous strength, being two hundred and sixty-two - feet thick by thirty-three feet high, except on the western side, - which is but sixteen feet high. The enclosure is divided unequally by - a wall as strong as that upon the sides. On the centre of this wall - stands a pyramid ninety-two feet high. At its base are two small mounds - besides one in the western enclosure, while fourteen others averaging - twenty feet in height are arranged with regularity upon the summit of - the enclosing wall. An avenue two hundred and fifty feet wide formed - by mounds and measuring two hundred and fifty rods in length, extends - from a point south of the “House of the Moon” to the river, as is shown - from C to D, in the plan. The avenue is cut up into compartments by six - cross embankments, a rather strange feature for which no explanation - has been afforded. These mounds are mostly conical, built of fragments - of stone and clay, and some of them reach a height of thirty feet. The - native traditions call it Micaotli, which may indicate that they were - designed for the purposes of sepulture. Almaraz, who excavated one of - the multitude of mounds or <i>tlalteles</i> in the vicinity, found four - walls meeting at right angles, though a little inclined and forming - a small square. Connected with this were steps, at the top of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> which - four other walls enclosed a little room, supposed to have been a tomb. - The natives describe the discovery of a stone box in one of the mounds - containing a skull, with about such a collection of trinkets as is - commonly met with in the stone graves of Tennessee. Mayer describes a - massive stone column, ten feet long and four feet square, cut from a - single block. This resembles the elaborate capitol of a column resting - on a base with scarcely a shaft intervening. It is called the fainting - stone by the natives, who believe that whoever sits on it is sure to - faint instantly.</p> - - <p>One additional group of ruins, as yet unclassified with any of the - types we have described, merits our attention. This group is known - as Los Edificios of Quemada, situated in southern Zacatecas north of - the Central plateau and probably the home of the Chichimecs.<a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> Mr. - Bancroft has attempted to reconstruct the unsatisfactory accounts of - the several explorers of Quemada, but with little success. We therefore - decline adding another comparative failure to the list of literature - on these ruins. Some general observations, however, may not be out of - place. The Cerro de los Edificios is a natural eminence about half a - mile long and between one hundred and two hundred yards wide, except at - its southern extremity where it increases to a width of five hundred - yards. The authorities differ as to its height, one saying from two - to three hundred feet, and another eight to nine hundred feet above - the plain. Ancient roads well paved radiate in various directions from - the hill, some of them <span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span>extending a distance of five or six miles. The - northern brow of the hill, where the descent is not so precipitous - as at the other points, is guarded by a stone wall, as are all other - points where the precipitous sides do not offer a sufficient barrier - to an intruder from without. The surface of the hill is quite uneven, - and these irregularities have been formed into terraces supported by - stone walls. Foundations have thus been secured for a multitude of - structures, some of them perfectly pyramidal and others consisting - of quadrangular enclosures or squares, terraced and having steps - descending to the court within, where pyramidal structures of stone are - found. On the eastern terrace of the Cerro, a round pillar, eighteen - feet high and nineteen feet in circumference, stands in proximity to a - wall of as great height as the pillar. Traces of nine similar pillars - are visible, and the probability is that they formed part of a balcony - or perhaps a portico. Adjoining this wall is an enclosure measuring 138 - by 100 feet, in which are eleven pillars in line, each seventeen feet - in circumference and as high as an adjacent wall, namely eighteen feet. - The distance from the wall is twenty-three feet, and the presumption is - that the pillars supported a roof. There are no doorways, properly so - called, since the doorways are large quadrangular openings extending to - the full height of the halls. No windows were discovered anywhere. The - material is gray porphyry from hills across an intervening valley, and - the mortar is reddish clay, mixed with straw, and is of poor quality. - Sculpture, hieroglyphics, pottery, human remains, idols, arrow-heads, - and obsidian fragments are totally wanting, thus presenting a strange - contrast with all other Mexican ruins. Nevertheless, the massiveness - of the fortifications, the height and great thickness of the walls, - none of which are less than eight feet thick and in one instance over - twenty, the extensive system of paved roads, besides great elevated - stone causeways running through the city, the size of the enclosed - squares, one of which contains six acres, all indicate that this - might have been the capital city of a powerful people, a people whose - architectural affinities with all others that we are acquainted with - are very few, and whose contrasts are numerous. Certainly the type and - execution of the masonry, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> massive, is more primitive than found - elsewhere in Mexico. We do not mean that it is more ancient, for such - cannot be true, but inferior to that in other parts of Mexico and the - Central American region. The arch of overlapping stones is entirely - wanting, and but for the round columns without either base or capitol, - the steps toward advancement in the art would only be those common to - that generally vigorous and warlike period which, in the history of - every people, has preceded a higher civilization. Mr. Bancroft has - published Burghes’ plan of Quemada but to little purpose, since the - descriptive matter available does not contain a reference to more than - one-fourth of the many structures indicated.</p> - - <p>In the course of the chapter, we have indicated the principal - resemblances and contrasts between the various styles treated. The - pyramidal structure we have found employed by both Mayas and Nahuas, - with certain modifications and with such resemblances as would seem to - indicate that both peoples had been originally, or at an early day, - near neighbors, and that the younger people, at least the more recent - in their occupancy of Mexico and Central America, the Nahuas, may - have copied the pyramid in its perfected form from the Mayas. We have - noted some difference between the ancient and modern Maya styles. In - the ancient or Chiapan, the irregularities in the face of the pyramid - caused by constructing it of tiers of rectangular stones were filled - with mortar, and an even surface produced. In the modern or Yucatec - style the blocks of stone-facing are bevelled to the angle of the - slope. Furthermore, in some instances the corners of the pyramids - were rounded. At Palenque the superstructures were of only one story, - while Yucatec structures were often formed of three receding stories. - Of the Copan ruins little can be said intelligently, except that the - pyramid combined with the terrace is all-pervading, but still is not - unlike the Palenque style in its main features. The Nahua architecture - offers a great variety of styles, but at the same time the pyramidal - structure is the fundamental feature of all kinds of structures. Mitla - offers an exception to this rule, but there are doubts as to whether - Mitla may be classified as a Nahua<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> ruin at all. The early writers - devoted much of their attention to seeming old world resemblances in - ancient American architecture, but their speculations in most cases - were puerile and trivial. Mr. Stephens, with the experience which - the careful study and observation of old world monuments afforded - him, strongly denies that any such analogies are to be found among - the Maya groups.<a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> M. Viollet-le-Duc considers the monuments of - Mexico, especially those of Maya origin, to have been influenced by - white and yellow races, the former of the Aryan from the north-east, - the latter the Turanian from the north-west. He seems to find some - analogy between ancient Japanese temples (and quotes a description - from Charlevoix, <cite>Histoire du Japan</cite>, ed. 1754, tom. i, chap. - x, p. 171) and those of ancient America. He thinks that the style of - architecture at Uxmal indicates clearly that the first structures - were of wood and resembled the style prevalent in Japan. However, the - wooden structures more properly originated with the white races, while - the use of stucco is characteristic of the Turanian or Yellow races - of the north-west. He thinks it certain that Mitla and Palenque were - influenced by a white race.<a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> Señor Garcia y Cubas has attempted - to prove in a careful argument that the pyramids of Teotihuacan were - built for the same purposes as were the pyramids of Egypt. He considers - the analogy established in eleven particulars, as follows: the site - chosen is the same; the structures are oriented with slight variation, - the line through the centres of the pyramids is in the astronomical - meridian; the construction in grades and steps is the same; in both - cases the larger pyramids are dedicated to the sun; the Nile has a - “valley of the dead,” as in Teotihuacan there is a “street of the - dead;” some monuments of each class have the nature of fortifications; - the smaller mounds are of the same nature and for the same purpose; - both pyramids have a small mound joined to one of their faces; the - openings discovered in the Pyramid of the Moon are also found in - some Egyptian pyramids; the interior arrangement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> of the pyramids is - analogous.<a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> Mr. Delafield by a less systematic argument advocates - the same theory. However, his capability to discern analogies is not - confined to a single structure, since in the pyramid of Cholula and - the teocalli of the city of Mexico he finds a counterpart to the - temple of Belus at Babylon, as described by Herodotus. The walls - around the hill at Xochicalco explain the use of similar embankments - at Circleville and Marietta in Ohio, while the order of the apartments - at Mitla bears a striking analogy to the arrangements of apartments - in the temples of upper Egypt. This and much more Mr. Delafield has - been able to discover, but unfortunately only with certainty to - his own mind.<a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> Löwenstern is equally certain that the American - monuments were not constructed by a nation analogous to that which - built the pyramids of Egypt.<a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> Ranking, on the other hand, finds - that Teotihuacan was named after the illustrious dead buried beneath - its pyramids, as was the custom in Egypt, but in this instance the - name is analogous to that of Thiautcan or Khan, the name of the grand - Khan of the Monguls and Tartars who occupied the throne of China at - the time of Sir John Mandeville’s visit to Pekin in the fourteenth - century; and as at Teotihuacan and among the Monguls the sun and moon - were worshipped, so, according to Ranking, those American monuments - are attributable to Mongul architects.<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> It would be easy for us to - continue the citation of these fancied analogies, but it is no doubt - already apparent to the reader that they are generally of too trivial a - character to serve the ends of science, and we therefore dismiss their - further consideration.<a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp58"> - <img src="images/i_384.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.</span> - Fig. 1.</div> - </div> - - <p><i>Sculpture and Hieroglyphics.</i>—The mound sculpture, as has been - observed in the cuts illustrating a previous chapter of this work, - though comparatively rude in most cases, still, in a few instances, - is quite remarkable as affording true representations of animals - and possibly of the human face. Considerable progress in the art of - ornamentation in terra-cotta is displayed on many of the vases and - burial urns exhumed from the mounds. Many of the lines, figures and - borders traced in relief and sometimes in taglio on those vessels - indicate not only that a sense of the beautiful was present, but that - it had been cultivated to a considerable extent. The same remarks apply - to the pottery of the Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers. At Palenque, however, - the student of art meets with no mean attempts at delineating the - human form—in fact, the success obtained in this difficult field alone - characterized the work of the Palenque artists. It is presumed that - nearly all of the piers separating the doorways in the eastern wall of - the palace were ornamented with stucco bas-reliefs. Two out of six of - the best preserved are shown in the following cuts. The most remarkable - feature of the first (Fig. 1, reduced from Waldeck for Bancroft’s - work) is the cranial type, deformed to a shocking degree, probably by - artificial pressure, so generally employed by the ancient American - races. Possibly it is but a caricature.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp64"> - <img src="images/i_385.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stucco Bas-relief in the Palace.</span> - Fig. 2.</div> - </div> - - <p>Fig. 2 (a photographic reduction from Waldeck) presents us with a - subject which has called forth no little discussion. The “elephant’s - trunk” which protrudes from the elaborate head-dress of the priest has - been thought to indicate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span> an Asiatic influence.<a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> We have already - referred to the frequent occurrence of the “elephant trunk” ornament in - Yucatan. The hieroglyphic signs at the top and on the faces of these - reliefs no doubt hold locked up in their mysterious symbols the history - of the scene.</p> - - <p>In all of these reliefs the flattened cranial type is present, and - no doubt represents the ideal of beauty among those ancient people. - The stuccoes appear to have been moulded upon the undercoating of - cement after it had become hard. The brush of the painter was then - employed in its final embellishment.<a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> Adjacent to the eastern - stairway leading downward into the main court of the palace are great - stone slabs, forming a surface on each side of the steps fifty feet - long by eleven feet high. Waldeck, Stephens and Bancroft furnish - views of gigantic human figures sculptured in low relief upon these - surfaces. Both the attitudes and expressions portrayed indicate that - the groups represented are either captives or possibly victims for - sacrifice.<a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> On the opposite side of the court, and on the stone - face of the balustrade of a stairway, two figures, male and female, are - sculptured, which, according to Waldeck, are of the Caucasian type. The - same artist has shown the beautiful grecques which adorn the panels of - the cornice.<a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> Waldeck and Bancroft have figured a remarkable stone - tablet of elliptical form, in which a princely personage is represented - as sitting cross-legged on a chair formed of a double-headed animal, - pronounced by Stephens to resemble a leopard. Catherword’s plate, in - Morelet’s <cite>Travels</cite>, shows an ornament suspended from the neck of - the chief figure resembling an effigy of the sun, while in Waldeck’s - drawing the Egyptian <span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span>Tau is graven upon the ornament.<a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> The - accompanying cut shows Waldeck’s drawing (employed by Mr. Bancroft).</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp84"> - <img src="images/i_387.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Tablet in the Palace.</div> - </div> - - <p>Four hundred yards south of the palace stands the ruins of a pyramid - and temple, which, at the time of Dupaix’s and of Waldeck’s visits - were in a good state of preservation, but quite dilapidated when seen - by Charnay. The temple faces the east, and on the western wall of its - inner apartment, itself facing the eastern light, is found (or rather - was, for it has now entirely disappeared) the most beautiful specimen - of stucco relief in America. M. Waldeck, with the critical insight - of an experienced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> artist, declares it “worthy to be compared to the - most beautiful works of the age of Augustus.” He therefore named the - temple the Beau Relief. The above cut is a reduction from Waldeck’s - drawing used in Mr. Bancroft’s work, and is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> accurate. However, - the peculiar beauty of Waldeck’s drawing is such that it must be seen - in order to be fully appreciated.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp73"> - <img src="images/i_388.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Beau Relief in Stucco.</div> - </div> - - <p>It is scarcely necessary for us to call the reader’s attention to the - details of this picture, in which correctness of design and graceful - outlines predominate to such an extent that we may safely pronounce - the beautiful youth who sits enthroned on his elaborate and artistic - throne, the American Apollo. In the original drawing the grace of the - arms and wrists is truly matchless, and the chest muscles are displayed - in the most perfect manner. The embroidered girdle and folded drapery - of the figure, as well as the drapery around the leopards’ necks, are - arranged with taste. The head-dress is not unlike a Roman helmet in - form, with the addition of numerous plumes. The sandals of the feet are - secured by a cord and rosette, while ornaments on the animals’ ankles - seem secured by leather straps. The engraving does not do justice to - the face-like ornament suspended by the string of pearls upon the - youth’s breast. In the original drawing it is quite beautiful, and of a - female cast.<a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a></p> - - <p>The next subject of interest to the student of sculpture is found in - the Temple of the Cross, in the inmost sanctuary of all, and is known - as the Tablet of the Cross. Three stones cover most of the surface of - the rear wall of the sanctum sanctorum, and present an area six feet - four inches high by ten feet eight inches wide. The central of the - three stones bears the celebrated sculpture of the cross which has - excited so much interest and comment, to say nothing of speculation - as to its origin. The cut is a photographic reduction from Waldeck’s - drawing. A priest and priestess appear to be offering an infant to an - ugly bird which stands perched upon the cross. The infant’s face is - completely hid by a fantastic mask or cap. The expression of pain on - the faces of the officiating personages is very marked. The symmetry - of proportion employed in the sculpture is conceded by all observers. - The two lateral stones (the left-hand one being shown in our cut) are - covered with hieroglyphics, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span>which begin at the left-hand upper corner - with a large capital letter. Some one had removed the central stone - from its position prior to Waldeck’s visit, and conveyed it to a point - in the forest not far distant. Stephens also found it in the same - locality. By referring to the hieroglyphic tablet at the left of the - cross<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> it will be observed that just below the large initial letter or - word is a threefold hieroglyphic, while seven others in the same column - are double. This would indicate, we should think, that the characters - were read from the top downwards, though it is possible that the lines - were read horizontally, each line beginning with a capital as in - poetry.<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_390"> - <img src="images/i_390.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Tablet of the Cross.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figright illowp31"> - <img src="images/i_391.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Palenque Statue.</div> - </div> - - <p>On either side of the doorway opening to the inner sanctuary of the - Cross, were originally two male figures sculptured in low-relief on - stone; one of them, which appears to represent an aged royal person, - is beautifully clad in a leopard’s skin, while the opposite figure, - designed probably to represent youthful manhood, is arrayed in what - may be an elaborate military dress and plumed crest of magnificent - character. He wears what appears to be a cuirass about his shoulders - and chest. These tablets were removed to the village of Santo Domingo - years ago and set up in a modern house, where they were offered to - M. Waldeck on the sole condition that he should marry one of the - proprietresses, though he at the time was more than sixty-four years of - age. Stephens could have obtained them by purchasing the house in which - they had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span>been placed, but did not.<a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> On the slope of the pyramid of - the Cross, M. Waldeck found two statues just alike, one of which was - unfortunately broken; the other, subsequently sketched by Catherwood, - is shown in the cut, a photographic reduction from Waldeck. These - statues were ten and a half feet high, though two and a half feet of - their length, not shown in the cut, formed a tenon by which they were - embedded in the floor of the pyramidal surface, where Waldeck supposes - they stood supporting a platform about twenty feet square, in front of - the central doorway. These are the only statues ever found at Palenque; - but it is doubted whether they can be technically called statues, since - the back is of rough stone, and unsculptured. They probably rested - against a wall and served as supports for an upper roof or floor, as - indicated by Waldeck. The head-dress has been pronounced Egyptian by - all who have seen it.<a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a></p> - - <p>In the temple of the Sun, in a position precisely corresponding to - that occupied by the tablet of the cross, stands a somewhat similar - tablet cut in low-relief on three slabs covering an area of eight by - nine feet. The figure of the cross in this instance is displaced by - a hideous face or mask supposed to represent the sun, supported by a - framework resting on the shoulders of crouching men. The priest and - priestess occupy the same positions as occupied by them in the tablet - of the cross. Each is in the act of presenting a child with masked face - to the sun, and each is standing upon the back of a kneeling slave. - The lateral tablets are covered with columns or rows of hieroglyphics, - as in the tablet of the cross.<a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> The stuccoed roofs and piers of - both the temples—Cross and Sun—may be truly pronounced works of art - of a high order. On the former, Stephens observed busts and heads - approaching the Greek models in symmetry of contour and perfectness - of proportion. M. Waldeck has preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> in his magnificent drawings - some of these figures, which are certainly sufficient to prove - beyond controversy, that the ancient Palenqueans were a cultivated - and artistic people. In passing to Uxmal the transition is from - delineations of the human figure to the elegant and superabundant - exterior ornamentation of edifices, and from stucco to stone as the - material employed. The human figure, however, when it is represented, - is in statuary of a high order. The artists of Uxmal did not improve - upon the Palenque models so much in the design as in the execution - of their subjects. Uxmal statuary approximates more closely to what - properly may be called statuary, being cut more nearly “in the round” - and having less unfinished back surface than the Palenque statue. The - elegant square panels of grecques and frets which compose the cornice - of the Casa del Gobernador, delineated in the works of Stephens, - Baldwin and Bancroft, are a marvel of beauty, which must excite the - admiration of the most indifferent student of this subject. The - ornamentation of this great cornice, equal to one-third the height of - the building, is cut on blocks of stone and inserted in the wall with - the utmost precision, so that every line matches, and the graceful - arabesques and bas-reliefs, which sometimes cover several blocks with a - single figure, are unbroken by apparent joints. The grandest specimens - of American ornamental sculpture are, however, to be seen on the inner - fronts of the four buildings of the Casa de Monjas, a plan of which is - given on <a href="#i_351">page 351</a> of this work. It will be remembered that these fronts - face the court around which the buildings were constructed. The court - front of the eastern building is probably one of the most tasteful and - interesting specimens of sculpture to be met with in America.<a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> M. - Waldeck considers that it presents an appearance of grandeur of which - it would be difficult to give an idea, while Stephens considers its - chasteness of design a great relief from the gorgeous masses of other - façades. The cornice over the central doorway and the corners of the - eastern court <span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span>façade are ornamented with ugly masks and “elephant - trunks” protruding from them, as in the Governor’s home.<a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> If the - preceding façade is the most generally admired of those at Uxmal, “the - most magnificent and beautiful front in America” is that of the Serpent - Temple, or western court façade of the Nunnery, as is shown in the - accompanying engraving, which is a photographic reduction of Waldeck’s - drawing employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_394.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Western Court Façade—Casa de Monjas.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figright illowp14"> - <img src="images/i_395a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Sun Symbol.</span></p></div> - </div> - - <p>The marked feature of the sculpture is the formation of square panels - by the intertwined bodies of two huge stone serpents with monster - heads, surmounted by plumes and enclosing between the jaws of each a - human face. A head and tail as shown above occupy opposite extremes of - the front. This may be a representation of the plumed serpent of the - Central American mythology. The stone lattice-work (a feature of Uxmal - sculpture) underlying the serpents and covering the panels <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>formed - by their folds, is more complicated and beautiful than any other in - America. At regular intervals large grecques or arabesques, with their - connecting bars lengthened to the width of the entire sculptured - portion of the façade, are distributed. Several panels are ornamented - with life-sized human figures, while each panel contains a human - face, some of which are as beautiful as the Greek models. The upper - cornice is ornamented, as are all the other cornices of the Nunnery, - with what are supposed to be Sun symbols, one of which is shown in the - cut, reduced photographically from Waldeck’s drawing. The appended - “feathers” are almost Assyrian in their type, while the double triangle - within the circle is certainly an ancient symbol in the old world.</p> - - <div class="figright illowp18"> - <img src="images/i_395b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">“Elephant Trunk.”</div> - </div> - - <p>The “elephant trunks” and rude masks employed as ornaments above - the doorways of the other fronts, are also numerous here. Since - M. Waldeck’s visit portions of this wonderful example of ancient - decorative art have fallen.<a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> The northern building of the court - offers no sculptured contrasts with the other buildings, except that - above the upper cornice, thirteen turrets, each seventeen feet high - and ten feet wide, are distributed at regular intervals, and are - also covered with sculpture resembling the grecques of the Serpent - temple. Most of the sculptures at Uxmal were probably painted, as - traces of various colors were observed in sheltered localities. The - rich sculptures of the prophet’s house were painted blue, red, yellow - and white, according to M. Waldeck. The Mayas no doubt employed the - brush freely, and in some instances with skill. In the gymnasium at - Chichen-Itza, Stephens grew enthusiastic <span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span>over the exceedingly fine - series of paintings in bright colors, which cover the walls of one - of the chambers. Many of the pictures have been destroyed by the - falling of the plaster upon which they were painted. In this series of - pictures, battles, processions, houses, trees and a variety of objects - are represented—blue, red, yellow and green are the colors employed, - though the human figures are painted reddish brown.<a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> At Chichen, as - elsewhere, the favorite subject for the Maya sculpture was the serpent. - A colossal serpent balustrade is one of the wonders of this interesting - place.</p> - - <p>Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon, during the last quarter of the year 1875, - made an extensive exploration of Chichen-Itza. The reports of his - discoveries seem at first well-nigh fabulous, though their authenticity - is so well attested as to leave no room for doubt. Mr. Stephen - Salisbury, Jr., of Worcester, Massachusetts, has in several memoirs - of intense interest and unusual scientific value, communicated the - progress and results of Dr. Le Plongeon’s exploration in Yucatan to - the American Antiquarian Society. Mr. Salisbury has also presented - the explorer’s original memoirs, accompanied by photographs made at - Chichen-Itza and on the Islands of Cozumel and Mugeres. These valuable - documents have reached the public in Mr. Salisbury’s publications - entitled, (1.) <cite>The Mayas, the Sources of their History</cite> - (Worcester, 1877, with heliotype reproductions of the photos); (2.) - <cite>Maya Archæology</cite> (Worcester, 1879, with heliotype reproductions - of photos and drawings).<a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> In these pages we are impressed with - the fact that the darkness which has so long enveloped the antiquity - of Yucatan is soon to be displaced by the noon-day of scientific - investigation. Still we cannot refrain from expressing the regret that - Dr. Le Plongeon’s enthusiasm is so apparent in his reports. A judicial - frame of mind, as well as the calmness which accompanies it, are - requisites both for scientific<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> work and the inspiration of confidence - in the reader. Notwithstanding this, our views have been most happily - expressed by the committee of the American Antiquarian Society, to - whom was entrusted the publication of Dr. Le Plongeon’s memoirs. Their - statement is as follows: “The successes of Du Chaillu, Schliemann, and - of Stanley, are remarkable instances of triumphant results in cases - where enthusiasm had been supposed to lack the guidance of wisdom. - If earnest men are willing to take the risks of personal research in - hazardous regions, or exercise their ingenuity and their scholarship in - attempting to solve historical or archæological problems, we may accept - thankfully the information they give, without first demanding in all - cases unquestionable evidence or absolute demonstration.”</p> - - <p>Dr. Le Plongeon says of the columns at Chichen, “the base is formed by - the head of Cukulcan, the shaft by the body of the serpent, with its - feathers beautifully carved to the very chapter. On the chapters of - the columns that support the portico, at the entrance of the castle - in Chichen-Itza, may be seen the carved figures of long bearded men, - with upraised hands, in the act of worshipping sacred trees. They - forcibly recall to mind the same worship in Assyria.” In consequence - of the successful interpretation of certain hieroglyphic inscriptions - at Chichen, the explorer and his wife (who accompanied him in his - perilous enterprise), learned that the statue of Chaac Mol, or Balam, - (the tiger king), the greatest of the Itza monarchs, had been buried - below the surface of the ground at a certain point, distant four - hundred yards from the palace. The first result of excavation in - the locality indicated was the discovery of a sculptured tiger of - colossal size, having a human head, which, unfortunately, was broken - off. Several slabs bearing sculptures of tigers and birds of prey in - relief were unearthed. A pedestal supporting the sculptured tiger - apparently had once occupied the spot, and its destruction had left a - mound of débris. Seven metres below the surface of this mound a rough - stone urn containing a little dust was secured, and upon it an earthen - cover. This was near the head of the statue of Chaac Mol, which was - next<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> disclosed. The statue is of a white calcareous stone, one metre - fifty-five centimetres long, one metre fifteen centimetres in height, - and eighty centimetres wide, and weighed fifty kilos. The statue - represents the reclining figure of a man, who is naked except that he - is adorned with a head-dress, with bracelets, garters of feathers, - and sandals similar to those found upon the mummies of the ancient - Guanchies of the Canary Islands.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp74" id="i_398"> - <img src="images/i_398.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.</div> - </div> - - <p>The statue of Chaac Mol was seized by Mexican officials and sent to the - capital. Our friend, the Rev. John W. Butler, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> the city of Mexico, - writes to us (letter received October 10, 1878) concerning the statue: - “It is just as represented. It may be seen in the National Museum, - just opposite its exact duplicate, which was found under the Plaza of - the city of Mexico, some years ago. What is the meaning of this? The - tribe whose king (or god) it was, must have <em>migrated southward</em>, - for the one excavated in Mexico shows <em>greater age</em> than the one - from Yucatan.” In reply we would say that the evidences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> are sufficient - that the Maya civilization once extended farther north than the city of - Mexico, but the conquests of the Nahuas drove that ancient people no - doubt to abandon their northern territory and to confine themselves to - their lands farther south.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp72"> - <img src="images/i_399.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Sculptured Slab found at Chichen-Itza.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter5 illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_400.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Statue of Chaac Mol.</div> - </div> - - <p>Dr. Le Plongeon, in speaking of the historical value of the statue, - says Chaac Mol was one of the three brothers whom tradition declares - were the co-rulers of Yucatan at a very ancient period. Chaac Mol and - his beautiful queen Kinich-Kakmó were the powerful sovereigns of the - kingdom of Chichen-Itza. Aac, one of the brothers, becoming enamored of - his sister-in-law Kinich-Kakmó, slew Chaac Mol that he might make her - his wife. The funeral-chamber, the mural paintings, the statues, and - the monument of the murdered king found by the explorer, were memorials - of the sad event which the faithful queen caused to be executed by the - artisans and artists of the royal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> city. Dr. Le Plongeon remarks: “In - the funeral-chamber, the terrible altercation between Aac and Chaac - Mol, which had its termination in the murder of the latter by his - brother, is represented by large figures, three-fourths life size. - There Aac is painted holding three spears in his hands, typical of the - three wounds he inflicted on the back of his brother. These wounds are - indicated on the statue of the dying tiger (symbol of Chaac Mol) by two - holes near the lumbar region, and one under the left scapula, proving - that the blow was aimed at the heart from behind. The two wounds are - also marked by two holes near each other in the lumbar region, on the - <i>bas-relief</i> of the tiger eating a human heart that adorned the - Chaac Mol mausoleum (see sculptured slab on <a href="#i_398">page 398</a>).”<a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a></p> - - <p>Mr. Stephen Salisbury, Jr., in his <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, has - reproduced one of Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon’s tracings of a mural - painting in the funeral-chamber of the Chaac Mol monument at - Chichen-Itza. Through the courtesy of Mr. Salisbury we have been - permitted to copy it for this work. The Doctor interprets it as - representing the queen Kinich-Kakmó when a child consulting an - <em>H-Men</em>, one of the Maya wise men or astrologers, in order to know - her destiny. The prediction is based upon the lines produced by fire on - the shell of an armadillo or turtle, and is expressed in the colors of - the elaborate scroll proceeding from the throat of the <em>H-Men</em>. - Referring to his tracings of mural paintings at Chichen-Itza, Dr. Le - Plongeon says “they represent war scenes with javelins flying in all - directions, warriors fighting, shouting, assuming all sorts of athletic - positions, scenes from domestic life, marriage ceremonies, temples - with complete domes, proving that the Itza architects were acquainted - with the circular arch, but made use of the triangular probably - because it was the custom and style of architecture of the time and - country.”<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> Besides the sculptures of long-bearded men seen by the - explorer at Chichen-Itza mentioned on a preceding <span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>page, were tall - figures of people with small heads, thick lips, and curly short hair or - wool, regarded as negroes. “We always see them as standard or parasol - bearers, but never engaged in actual warfare.”<a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> He pronounces the - features of the long-bearded men pictured on the walls of the queen’s - chambers to be Assyrian in their type. On the Isla Mugeres (in the - latter part of the year 1876), Dr. Le Plongeon exhumed portions of a - female figure in terra-cotta, which indicate an advanced state of art - among the ancient Mayas. The fragments of the statue, consisting of - the head and feet, were probably attached to the front of a brasero or - incense-burner used at the shrine of the Maya Venus, located on the - southern extremity of the island. It was immediately in front of this - shrine, visited by Cordova in 1516,<a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> that the remains of the statue - were found buried in the sand. The expression of the face is cruel and - savage, the nostrils are perforated and also the pupils of the eyes. - The teeth are filed as those of the statue Chaac Mol are said to be. - The head is surmounted by a head-dress eight inches high. The fragments - of this statue are now in the possession of Mr. Salisbury.<a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_402.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mural Painting from Chaac Mol Monument - Chichen-Itza.</span>—(From a copy by Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon.)</div> - </div> - - <div class="figright illowp50"> - <img src="images/i_403.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span></p> - - <p>Through the courtesy of the owner we are enabled to present a - photographic reduction of the relics in the preceding cut.</p> - - <div class="figleft illowp48"> - <img src="images/i_404.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Cara Gigantesca.</div> - </div> - - <p>At Izamel, the burial-place of the culture-hero Zamna, a remarkable - example of aboriginal sculpture is found upon the side of a mound now - enclosed in a private court-yard. This specimen of art, known as the - Cara gigantesca, or gigantic face, measures seven feet in width and - seven feet eight inches in height. “The features were first rudely - formed by small rough stones, fixed in the side of the mound by means - of mortar, and afterwards perfected with a stucco so hard that it has - successfully resisted for centuries the action of air and water.” - The accompanying cut from Mr. Bancroft’s work will show the type of - features.</p> - - <p>The subject of Maya sculpture is almost a limitless one, but we trust - that the above-cited examples may give the reader a comprehensive - acquaintance with the existing types. The sculpture of Copan is no - less remarkable than its architecture. In fact, every object bore the - skillful marks of the graver’s chisel. The great number of sculptured - obelisks, pillars and idols have been the wonder of every reader of Mr. - Stephens’ description. Since his work is so generally known, we refrain - from presenting more than one example of Copan art. In the accompanying - cut employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work the elaborateness of the sculpture - will be observed, and may well be pronounced a marvel of aboriginal art.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp31"> - <img src="images/i_405.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Copan Statue.</div> - </div> - - <p>But for the perfectly horizontal position of the eyes, the aspect of - some of the faces represented by Stephens would strike us as having - a Mongolian cast. The magnificently sculptured hieroglyphics which - cover the sides and backs of these huge idols, no doubt could tell - the sealed story of Copan’s greatness and the attributes of its many - gods, were the key once discovered. Everything is covered with these - significant symbols, differing slightly from those at Palenque; but who - will read them? In the court of the temple, a solid block of stone six - feet square and four feet high, resting on four globular stones was - sketched by Catherwood, and pronounced an altar by Stephens. Sixteen - figures in profile, with turbaned heads, breast-plates, and each - seated cross-legged on hieroglyphic-like cushions, are sculptured in - low-relief, four figures being on each side of the block. The top of - the altar is covered with thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics, shown - in a cut on a future page. Besides numbers of masks, effigies and rows - of death’s heads at Copan,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> there are sculptures of the face which we - may believe to have been portraits. The Copan sculpture is generally - admitted to be of a high order, and Stephens thinks it unsurpassed in - Egypt. The receding forehead of most of the portraits have excited - general interest, and are believed to be delineations of the priestly - or aristocratic type. No weapons are sculptured at Copan, but on the - contrary altars abound in considerable numbers, especially in front - of the sculptured obelisks or idols. The presumption is therefore - strong that this was a religious centre, unmolested by any enemy, and - undisturbed by the alarm of war.<a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a></p> - - <div class="figleft illowp45"> - <img src="images/i_406.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Figure from Monte Alban.</div> - </div> - - <p><i>Nahua Sculpture.</i>—The Nahua sculpture is not of as high an order - nor of as frequent occurrence as that of the Mayas. At Monte Alban in - Oajaca, in a gallery within a mound, Castañeda sketched the sculptured - profile shown in the accompanying cut, employed in Mr. Bancroft’s work. - It is cut upon the face of a granite block about three feet square, and - is interesting because of the Chinese-like queue which hangs from the - figure’s head. At Mitla the grecques and arabesques which cover the - façades of the several edifices are not sculptured, except in cases - where large stones serve as lintels over doorways. On them the running - borders are sculptured in low-relief, while the remainder of the - profuse ornamentation is of the nature of mosaic work, being built into - the wall.</p> - - <p>Several minor objects of sculpture found in the States of Oajaca and - Vera Cruz might be cited, but their interest for the reader would be - too insignificant to justify a description.<a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> One <span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span>of the principal - objects of this class and much superior to any of the others is a - grotesque fountain cut in the living rock at Tusapan. The statue is - that of a woman in a kneeling posture, and measures nineteen feet in - height. The waters of a neighboring spring formerly ran into a basin - formed among the plumes of the female’s head-dress, from which it - found its way through the entire length of the figure, and flowed - forth from beneath her skirts.<a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> At Panuco the traditional point - of the arrival of the Nahuas, several rude limestone statues were - found, some of which have been figured in the <cite>Journal of the - London Geographical Society</cite>, by Mr. Vetch, one of which is copied - by Mr. Bancroft.<a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> The marked features of these statues is the - elaborateness of the style of head-dress worn. We cannot see that they - are far removed in their style from similar statues dug from mounds - in the Mississippi Valley. In the State of Puebla, at various points, - especially at Tepexe el Viejo, at Tepeaca, and at Quanhquelchula, - minor sculptures of animals, birds, reptiles, monsters, etc., were - observed by Dupaix.<a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> Rattlesnakes were found plentiful both in - sculptures and in a state of nature. At Cuernavaca, in the State of - Mexico, numerous boulder-sculptures, finely executed in low-relief, - exist. Dupaix has figured and Bancroft copied one in particular, - showing a beautiful coat-of-arms, sculptured on the smooth face of a - huge boulder. A circle of arrows and Maltese cross which compose them, - are all symbolical of power.<a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a> Similar coats-of-arms were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span>observed - in the State of Puebla. Probably the most remarkable sculpture found - in the country occupied by the Nahuas, is that upon the walls of the - pyramid of Xochicalco, illustrated on a preceding page.<a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> Most of - the sculptures are of colossal dragons’ heads, which occur at each of - the corners. Human figures, seated cross-legged and holding something - like the Assyrian sun symbol in the left are found on the frieze, - though some observers have considered this figure to be that of a - curved cross-hilted sword, a weapon never employed by the Nahuas. - The elaborate head-dresses and strings of enormous pearls worn by - the seated figures bear a striking resemblance to the stuccoes of - Palenque. At Xochimilco on the western shore of Lake Chalco, Dupaix - found several interesting specimens of ancient sculpture.<a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> The - most celebrated article of Aztec sculpture, unquestionably, is the - calendar-stone, which, together with the so-called sacrificial stone - and the idol Teoyaomiqui, was in December, 1790, dug up in the Plaza - Mayor, in the city of Mexico, on the supposed site of the great - teocalli, destroyed by the conquerors. The calendar-stone, now built - into the wall of the cathedral, where it can be seen by all passers-by, - is a rectangular block of porphyry, thirteen feet one inch square and - three feet three inches thick, and of the enormous estimated weight of - twenty-four tons. The sculptured portion of the block, on the exposed - face, is contained in a circle, eleven feet one inch and four-fifths - of an inch in diameter. The regularity and geometrical precision with - which the figures are executed called forth enthusiastic admiration - from Humboldt, and has been the source of equal wonderment to many - later observers. Our cut is a reproduction of Charnay’s photograph, - by means of the photo-engraving process, and may be relied upon as - absolutely correct. Prescott considers that the original weight of the - block before it was mutilated must have been nearly fifty tons; and - as no similar stone is found within a radius of twenty-five miles of - Mexico, that it must have been brought from the mountains beyond Lake - Chalco.<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> Some remarks upon the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span>Aztec calendar will be found in - the following chapter. The sacrificial stone is a cylindrical block of - porphyry, nine feet ten inches in diameter and three feet seven inches - thick, and is now lying in the courtyard of the University of Mexico. - If the reader will imagine the border of the calendar-stone outside of - the eight triangular points removed entirely, will substitute a concave - basin in the place of the central face or sun, also instead of all the - calendar signs intervening between the face and the circle, upon which - the base of the four principal triangular figures rest, will imagine - the existence of several concentric <span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>circles not unlike strings of - beads, he will have a general idea of the top of the stone. We should - not omit to state that a groove or channel leads from the central - basin to the outer circumference. The use of the stone is a matter of - controversy, Humboldt considering it the gladiatorial stone, Gama a - calendar-stone, and Tylor that it was an altar on which animals were - sacrificed. Fifteen groups of two human figures, each dressed in the - insignia of royalty, are sculptured around its circumference. Bancroft, - as well as several others, give cuts of the stone and sculptures. - The horrid monster Teoyaomiqui—goddess of death—is sculptured in - high-relief on a block of porphyry ten feet high and six feet wide - and thick. Probably no mythology nor all the mythologies of the world - besides could produce so hideous and unsightly a combination of - reptile, human and infernal forms, as make up the three sides of this - idol.<a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> Mr. Bancroft first figured the beautiful earthen burial - vase dug up in the Plaza Tlatelulco and sketched by Col. Mayer. It is - twenty-two inches high and fifteen and a half inches in diameter; a - closely fitting lid most chastely sculptured covered it, as will be - seen in the accompanying cut.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_409.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Aztec Calendar Stone in its Present Condition.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figleft illowp36"> - <img src="images/i_410.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Burial Urn from Mexico.</div> - </div> - - <p>Among the elegant sculptures upon one of its sides is a comely face - surmounted by a crown, from each side of which project wings of - the same character as were employed to symbolize the sun among the - Assyrians.<a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> The original is pronounced one of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span>finest relics - preserved in the Mexican Museum. M. Waldeck has figured many beautiful - examples of Mexican ceramic art preserved in the above collection as - well as in others. The finest specimens of ancient terra-cotta work of - which we have any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span> knowledge are shown in the cut, photographically - reduced from Waldeck’s plate.<a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p> - - <p>No description can convey any idea of their beauty. The upper left-hand - vase, it will be observed, is supported on three feet, each perforated - by a perfect Maltese Cross. The central lower vase, of remarkable - symmetry, is distinguished by the perfect <i lang="la">crux ansata</i> which - adorns its side. The lower right and left hand figures are different - views of a swinging lamp. These vases cannot but command the admiration - of all who see them. M. Waldeck has delineated with remarkable artistic - skill three specimens of Mexican mosaic work now in the Christy - collection in London. One of these beautiful relics is shown in the - cut, reduced from Waldeck’s colored plate for Mr. Bancroft’s work.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp83" id="i_411"> - <img src="images/i_411.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Vases from Waldeck.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp82"> - <img src="images/i_412.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Mosaic Knife—Christy Collection.</div> - </div> - - <p>However, the cut conveys but a faint idea of its beauty, especially - of the handle. The blade is of semi-translucent chalcedony from the - volcanic regions of Mexico, while the handle is a most artistic mosaic - of bright green turquoise, malachite, and white and red shells. The - blade is of a light straw-colored tint, and is mortised in the handle, - which is wrapped nearest to the blade with what appears to be a golden - braid. Mr. Bancroft remarks “it is certainly most extraordinary to - find a people still in the stone age, as is proved by the blade, able - to execute so perfect a piece of work as the handle exhibits.”<a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> - Among the few <span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span>relics recovered at Tula, the ancient Toltec capital - Tollan, the column shown in the cut (from Mr. Bancroft’s work) is very - interesting, both for its sculpture and for the exhibition it affords - of the manner in which the Toltecs formed their columns, namely, by - fastening the sections together by means of circular tenons. The - largest block measures four feet long by two and a half in diameter.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp63"> - <img src="images/i_413.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">A Column from Tula.</div> - </div> - - <p>Our National Museum at Washington contains numerous fine specimens of - Mexican terra-cotta ware, some of which have been figured recently - in Dr. Charles Rau’s “Archæological Collection of the U. S. National - Museum.”<a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> Two large vases in particular demand attention. These - were brought to the United States by General Alfred Gibbs at the close - of the Mexican war, and are shown in the cut.</p> - - <p>The upper vase, which is thirteen and a half inches high, is very - elaborately wrought, being surrounded with ten female figures in - relief, each alternate figure bearing a child on the left arm. It is - noticeable that the head-dresses of the figures holding the children - are more elaborate than those of the remaining figures. The second or - lower vase, Dr. Rau considers equal to many Etruscan or Greek vases - in gracefulness of outline. “The vessel may be compared to a pitcher - with two handles, standing opposite each other, and with two mouths - projecting between them.” Among the terra-cotta images of Mexican - origin in the National Museum the two shown in the cut are of interest. - The left-hand figure is that of a woman pressing her hands upon her - ears. The face represents an aged <span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span>individual. The Museum possesses - almost an exact duplicate of this image. The right-hand figure is - much smaller and is hollow, enclosing a clay ball, and was probably - used as a rattle. It is scarcely necessary for us to remark that the - seeming analogies between the Maya (Central American) sculpture and - that of Egypt have often been noted. Juarros, in speaking of Palenque - art, says: “The hieroglyphics, symbols and emblems which have been - discovered in the temples, bear so strong a resemblance to those of - the Egyptians, as to encourage the supposition that a colony of that - nation may have founded the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> city of Palenque or Culhuacan.”<a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> - Giordan found, as he thought, the most striking analogies between the - Central American remains, as well as those of Mexico, and those of - the Egyptians. The idols and monuments he considers of the same form - in both countries, while the hieroglyphics of Palenque do not differ - from those of ancient Thebes.<a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> Señor Melgar, in a communication - to the Mexican Geographical Society, has called attention to the - frequent occurrence of the (Τ) <i>tau</i> at Palenque, and has more - studiously advocated the early relationship of the Palenqueans to - Egypt than any other reliable writer.<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> He cites Dupaix’s <cite>Third - Expedition</cite>, page 77 and plates 26 and 27, where in the first figure - is a goddess with a necklace supporting a <i>tau</i> like medallion to - which the explorer adds the remark that such is “the symbol in Egypt - of reproduction or abundance.” In the second plate he finds an altar - dedicated expressly to the <i>tau</i>. He considers that the cultus - of this, the symbol of the active principle in nature, prevailed in - Mexico in many places. Señor Melgar also refers to two idols found - south of the city of Mexico, “in one of which two symbols were united, - namely, the Cosmogonic egg, symbolical of creation, and two faces, - symbols of the generative principle. The other symbolized creation - in the bursting forth of an egg. These symbols are not found in the - Aztec mythology, but belong to the Indian, Egyptian, Greek, Persian, - Japanese and other cosmogonies.” This, the Señor considers proof that - these peoples were the primitive colonists of that region, and seeks - to sustain his views by references to the Dharma Sastra of Manou and - the Zend Avesta. The reader has no doubt been surprised at the frequent - occurrence of the [Τ]-shaped niches in the Palenque palace, and has - observed the same symbol employed on some of the hieroglyphics of - the Tablet of the Cross. The Egyptian tau, one of the members of the - <i lang="la">Crux ansata</i>, is certainly present at Palenque, but whether it - was derived from any one of the Mediterranean peoples who <span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span>employed it, - cannot be ascertained. Among the Egyptians it signified “life,” as is - shown by the best Egyptologists.<a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> The tau was usually surmounted - by a roundlet, though such was not always the case. On a stele from - Korasabad, an eagle-headed man is depicted as holding the oval in one - hand and the cross in the other.<a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> M. Mariette recently, while - exploring the ancient temple of Denderah, discovered the sacred symbol - in a niche of the holy of holies. It is probable that this emblem was - the central object of interest in these inner precincts of the temple, - as it was preserved with scrupulous care as the hidden wisdom.<a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> - Macrobius tells us that the <i lang="la">crux ansata</i> was the hieroglyphic - sign of Osiris or the Sun,<a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> but other writers inform us that it - was an ancient symbol of majesty and divinity, and so employed in - a modified form in the hands of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.<a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a> The - associations of the tau in Central America are such as to lead us to - believe that it may have had a significance analogous to that which - it possessed on the shores of the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the - Ganges. The Palenque Cross tablet is a most singular work of American - antiquity, and though Mr. Stephens attempted to prove that no analogy - exists between it and Egyptian sculptures, still Mr. Bancroft has - shown that the former was unfortunate in his selection of Egyptian - specimens for the purpose of comparison, since marked analogies between - the sculpture of the Vocal Memnon of Thebes and the top of the fallen - obelisk at Carnac and the Palenque Tablets exist.<a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp84"> - <img src="images/i_414a.jpg" alt="" /> - </div> - <div class="figcenter illowp75"> - <img src="images/i_414b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Mexican Vases in the National Museum.</div> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_415.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Statuettes in the National Museum.</div> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span></p> - - <p>It has been argued that the Egyptian and Palenque sculpture resemble - each other in that both are generally in profile; but the trivialness - of the reasoning will be at once apparent. On the contrary, Mr. - Bancroft remarks, “Sculpture in Egypt is for the most part in intaglio, - in America it is usually in relief.” Notwithstanding the oft-repeated - assertion that a resemblance between Egyptian and Maya hieroglyphics - exist, no one of the Egyptologists so successful in their chosen field - have been able to decipher the Maya writing. It is not improbable - that the Palenque and Copan civilization received its first impulse - from some of the peoples of the southern or eastern shores of the - Mediterranean, but from which it would be impossible to say even if we - were certain that such was the case. Whatever of a foreign character - it may have had at first has been mostly lost in the independent - development of new and original characteristics, the natural outgrowth - of new wants and new conditions, arising through the lapse of many - centuries. The latter remark we think may be applied with even more - certainty to the Nahua civilization as displayed in its sculpture. - All through Mexico the favorite subject for the Toltec or Aztec - sculptor was the serpent, generally the rattlesnake. Mr. Bancroft in - his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span>fourth volume has given numerous examples of this fact. Serpent - sculpture was also common among the Mayas, but to a less extent, and - it is not improbable that the symbol entered into their art through - the Quichés—a mixed people composed of Mayas and Nahuas. We have - already observed the same disposition to sculpture the rattlesnake - among the Mound-builders. In the great serpent upwards of a thousand - feet in length on Brush Creek, Adams County, Ohio, we find a striking - analogy to the tendency of Mexican art. Furthermore, the great serpent - grasps in its jaws (if they may be so called) an immense oval figure - of precisely the shape of an egg, and “the combined figure is regarded - as a symbolical illustration of the Oriental cosmological idea of the - serpent and the egg.” We have seen in the remarks of Señor Melgar that - two examples of the egg possessing precisely the same significance - which is attached to it in Eastern Asia were found near the City of - Mexico. The part which the serpent symbol plays in the south and east - Asiatic sculpture and mythology is probably well known to the reader; - and if not, a perusal of Maurace’s <cite>Indian Antiquities</cite> or Moor’s - <cite>Hindu Pantheon</cite> will satisfy him that it occupied a place equally - important among Nahuas and Hindoos. The great serpent in Ohio may be a - connecting link between the art of both Mexicans and Asiatics. In the - course of independent development which the Nahuas underwent during - thousands of years, the cosmological symbol of the egg may have been - lost and supplanted by that of the serpent alone, the emblem of the - life principle in both America and Asia. However, we may safely close - these speculations with the conclusion that though the Mayas and Nahuas - were probably descendants of foreign stock, their civilization, so far - as we are able to judge from their arts, was indigenous—developed upon - our soil, and offering but few analogies to any other.</p> - - <p><i>Hieroglyphics.</i>—No well authenticated Mound-builder hieroglyphics - have as yet come to light. The Grave Creek Mound tablet we believe is - now shown unquestionably to be an archæological fraud. The Cincinnati - tablet figured in our first chapter seems to bear some symbolic signs - upon its face, but no resemblance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span> can be traced between them and any - other known hieroglyphic signs. The Davenport tablet if genuine is - of great interest in that it abounds in hieroglyphics, some of which - are not unlike some of the signs employed by the Aztecs; besides, the - element of picture-writing so common to that people plays a prominent - part on both sides of that mysterious stone. Col. Charles Whittlesey, - in the second chapter of his <cite>Report to the Centennial Commission - of Ohio</cite> (already cited), has figured and described rock sculpture - near Barnesville, Newark, Independence, Amherst and Wellsville, most of - which are of the lowest grade of savage art, and we think can only be - attributed to the red Indian.</p> - - <p>Mr. W. H. Holmes has furnished specimens of picture-writing of a - rude character found engraven in the rocks of the cañon of the Rio - Mancos and San Juan, but there is no evidence that they are or are not - the work of the Cliff-dwellers whose works abound upon neighboring - rocks.<a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> We have already called attention to the tablets of - hieroglyphics at Palenque, Copan and in Yucatan, a specimen of which is - shown in a cut on <a href="#i_390">page 390</a>. The accompanying cut, employed by Stevens, - Baldwin and Bancroft, show the thirty-six squares of hieroglyphics - engraven upon the top of a Copan altar.</p> - - <p>In addition to these stone and stucco records, the Mayas had books, - which Bishop Landa describes as written on a large leaf doubled in - folds and enclosed between two boards which they ornamented; they wrote - on both sides of the paper, in columns accommodated to the folds; - the paper they made from the roots of trees, and coated it with a - white varnish on which one could write well. These books were called - <i>Analtees</i>, a word which, according to Villagutierre, signifies - the same as history.<a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> Bishop Landa confesses to having burned - a great number of the Maya books because they contained nothing in - which were not superstitions and falsities of the devil.<a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> Bancroft - has quoted from Peter Martyr a description of these books, which - conveys the additional <span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span>information that they were written on many - leaves joined together but folded so that when opened two pages are - presented to view.<a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> Three of the Maya manuscripts are known to - have escaped the vandalism of the early Fathers. These are, first, the - Mexican MS. No. 2 of the Imperial Library at Paris, called by Rosny - the <cite>Codex Peresianus</cite>, which has been photographed by order of - the French government, but we believe is still unedited. The second, - the <cite>Dresden Codex</cite>, in the Royal Library at Dresden, a complete - copy of which was published by Lord Kingsborough. It is a Maya, and not - an Aztec MS., as is proven by its marked resemblance to the tablets - of Palenque and Copan, a fact pointed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span>out by Mr. Stephens, though at - the date of his exploration everything was pronounced Aztec.<a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> The - third, the <cite>Manuscript Troano</cite>, found by Brasseur de Bourbourg at - Madrid in 1865 in the possession of Señor Tro y Ortolano, from whom - it derives its name, is a Maya MS. of unknown origin and history. The - French government and the Commission Scientifique du Mexique reproduced - it in fac-simile by means of chromo-lithography, and Brasseur, with - the expenditure of great labor, attempted to translate part of it, - which he has published; but in a subsequent work he confesses that - he began his reading at the wrong end of the manuscript, which, as - Mr. Bancroft humorously remarks, was a “trifling error perhaps in the - opinion of the enthusiastic Abbé, but a somewhat serious one as it - appears to scientific men.”<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> Mr. Bancroft has reproduced a page - of the MS. Troano in his work, and accompanied it with a condensed - account from the Abbé’s description as follows: “The original is - written on a strip of maguey paper about fourteen feet long and nine - inches wide, the surface of which is covered with a whitish varnish, - on which the figures are painted in black, red, blue and brown. It is - folded fan-like in thirty-five folds, presenting when shut much the - appearance of a modern large octavo volume. The hieroglyphics cover - both sides of the paper, and the writing is consequently divided into - seventy pages, each about five by nine inches, having been apparently - executed after the paper was folded, so that the folding does not - interfere with the written matter. * * * The regular lines of written - characters are uniformly in black, while the pictorial portions, of - what may perhaps be considered representative signs, are in red and - brown, chiefly the former, and the blue appears for the most part as - a background in some of the pages.”<a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> Notwithstanding the bigoted - spirit exhibited by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span>Bishop Landa in his destruction of the native Maya - books in the presence of their sorrowful and helpless owners, he did - one act of service for the antiquarian, which will ever entitle him to - the gratitude of every student of ancient American civilization. That - act was the record which he made of the Maya hieroglyphic alphabet. The - Bishop has left us scarcely two and a half octavo pages (of his work as - edited by Brasseur de Bourbourg) upon this important subject, yet it is - the only known key to the mysteries of Palenque, Copan and the numerous - inscriptions found in Yucatan. His explanation of the manner in which - letters are combined into words is not clear, and though Mr. Bancroft - has translated it literally and introduced parenthetic explanations, - still the sense is not very apparent. Brasseur de Bourbourg in his - French translation has not succeeded much better, and complains of - Landa’s style as being untranslatable. One important fact, however, - is deducible from the Bishop’s remarks and example, namely, that the - Maya letters were formed into words in much the same order as in the - English and other languages which read from the left to the right.<a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> - Landa’s alphabet is given in the accompanying cut which is an exact - photographic reproduction of the original.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_421.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Hieroglyphics on the Copan Altar.</div> - </div> - - <p>Landa adds nothing after this table except the remark: “Of the letters - which here fail, this language is wanting and has others added of - ours, for other things of which they have need, and already they do - not use these characters of theirs, especially <span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span>the young people who - have learned ours.”<a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> Landa has left us other hieroglyphic signs, - relating to the Maya months and days, which will be given in the - next chapter. Many of the hieroglyphics in his alphabet are plainly - recognizable in the three Maya MSS. which we have named, though it is - quite certain that other signs, which are wanting in his list, are - found not only in the MSS. but also among the inscriptions of the - several localities we have already described. Besides the attempts - made by Brasseur de Bourbourg to decipher the Maya writing, three - Américanistes in particular have bestowed labor upon the subject. These - are Mr. Wm. Bollaert,<a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> M. Hyacinthe de Charencey,<a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> and M. Leon - de Rosny,<a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> the latter of whom is the honorable president of the - Société Américaine de France.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp83"> - <img src="images/i_424.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Landa’s Alphabet.</div> - </div> - - <p>By means of Landa’s key, Mr. Bollaert obtained encouraging results - from hieroglyphics figured in Stephens’ works. In that author’s - <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, page 292, is seen a sculptured figure with - hieroglyphics represented on the upper part of the door called Akatzeeb - at Chichen-Itza. This tablet is examined by Mr. Bollaert with the - following result: “The figure (male) is nude; the cap is like those on - the figures at Kabab, and has an ornament round the neck; the large - crucible-form before him contains fire, in which some small animal - is being burnt or sacrificed. Comparing the hieroglyphs on either - side of the figure with the Maya key, I get the following words: - <i>Ahau</i>, ‘king’; <i>oc</i>, ‘leg’; <i>Muluc</i>, ‘to unite’; - <i>ik</i>, ‘courage’; <i>cib</i>, ‘copal’; <i>eznab</i>, ‘magician’; - <i>no</i>, ‘frog’; which may mean that the magician has in the crucible - a frog to be sacrificed, in which copal as incense is used. The two - lines of hieroglyphs give something like the following: Kings must - die—they have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span>courage, and after death are united to those who went - before them. The king is with his fathers; the chief and his family - burn copal and mourn for his death.”<a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> On the tablet of the cross - at Palenque, Mr. Bollaert found in squares <i>eznab</i>, “magician”; - <i>dz</i>, “a hand”; the “aspiration sign” ⋃; and a part - of <i>zip</i>, “tree.” Among the hieroglyphs he traced <i>ahau</i>, - “king”; <i>zip</i>, “tree”; <i>akbal</i>, “a plant”; <i>pax</i>, - “a musical instrument.” Mr. Bollaert has attempted to read several - other inscriptions with no more satisfactory results.<a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> One or - two of the same scholar’s attempts with the <cite>Dresden Codex</cite> - yield the following: <em>We come to thy presence to implore. The young - female implores before the deity, she weeps but has courage.</em> In - a group representing a king and a young female, he reads: <em>She has - made a vow about the king to the magician, the king is happy.</em> - Again: <em>The sacred bird chel is sacrificed, there is weeping; the - bride weeps for the bird, she makes a vow or prays for the king, she - offers a tortoise, a great feast is given.</em><a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> M. de Charencey - translates the hieroglyph found just above the child which is being - offered to the bird on the tablet of the cross at Palenque, by the - word <i>Hunabku</i>, “the only holy one.” He also finds the name of - <i>Kukulcan</i> and <i>eznab</i>, “magician,” the name of a month.<a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> - M. de Rosny in his able essay on the decipherment of the hieratic - writings of Central America has undertaken the solution of this - interesting and perplexing problem in a scientific manner, and we have - the fullest confidence that his system constructed on Landa’s key - will open to us the books and inscriptions of the Mayas. But two of - the four parts which constitute the work have been published, still - we think sufficient data has been placed at the hands of scholars - by M. de Rosny to justify the opinion that if the remainder of his - essay should never appear, the work of interpreting some of the Maya - writings might be carried on with reasonable certainty. Landa’s key - contains seventy-one signs (twenty for the days, eighteen for the - months, and thirty-three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span> in the alphabet.) M. de Rosny, by a careful - examination of all the hieratic texts of the Mayas which are known, - has discovered more than seven hundred different signs. Of this number - he has deciphered and classified four hundred and thirty-nine as - follows: Alphabetic signs, including Landa’s (of which all the others - are but varieties), two hundred and sixty-two; signs of the days, one - hundred and fifty-nine; and the eighteen signs of the months given by - Landa. All these signs are classified in a double folio plate (Pl. - XIII) which we believe deserves to be regarded as the larger portion - of the much-sought-for Maya Rosetta stone. Considerable difference of - opinion has existed as to the direction in which the hieroglyphics - should be read. Brasseur held the view that the proper order was from - right to left, and that the beginning of a book was where our books - end. This mistake brought down the ridicule of scholars upon the Abbé’s - head, when it was discovered that he had begun at the wrong end to - translate the <cite>Troano MS.</cite> Mr. Bollaert says, “I have read from - the bottom upwards and from right to left.”<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> Dr. Brinton<a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> has - suggested some such order as the following arrangement of the word - <em>marvellous</em>:</p> - - <div class="center"> - o ll m<br /> - u e a<br /> - s v r</div> - - <p>M. de Rosny has shown that the statement of Landa and the fact that the - human faces shown in the hieroglyphs look toward the left, indicate - that the signs should be read from left to right.<a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> In rare cases - this order is reversed, as is seen on a couple of leaves of the - <cite>Codex Peresianus</cite>. There are, no doubt, numerous instances in - which the signs are arranged in perpendicular columns, and the order in - which such columns are to be read is not the same in all manuscripts. - In the Maya inscriptions and manuscripts, the “illustrations” or - pictorial figures are interwoven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span> with the alphabetic signs forming - an important part of the writing. In many cases a page of MS. (as - shown in Rosny’s plates) is divided into sections or squares, in which - the hieroglyphics are inseparably connected with grotesque figures - which accompany them and form a part of the writing. M. de Rosny has - undertaken the classification and interpretation of all these figures - which are found in the existing Maya MSS. This doubtless will prove - an important auxiliary to the table of signs already alluded to. We - may reasonably expect that since M. de Rosny has shown the extensive - character of the Maya phonetic and symbolic alphabet, he will furnish - us examples of its application in the practical interpretation of - the hieroglyphics, in the latter part of his work. Recently Dr. Ph. - Valentini has pronounced the Landa alphabet a Spanish fabrication, of - later date than the conquest. See <cite>Proceedings of Amer. Antiquarian - Soc.</cite> for April, 1880.</p> - - <p>We do not deem it necessary to assure the reader that while the Aztec - picture-writing was not as far advanced in the scale of graphic - development as the system employed by the Mayas, still it was an - accurate means of communication and of recording events. The “scribes” - of the Mexicans were an educated class of men, who with strictest - accuracy painted in hieroglyphic symbols the record of national, - historic and traditional affairs, as well as the tribute rolls, the - calendar with its feast days, the stated services of the gods, the - genealogical tables of noble and royal personages, and even the - customs of the humble classes. No doubt many educated persons who did - not belong to the priestly and lettered class, were acquainted with - the system employed, and many others understood it sufficiently to - recognize calendar and feast signs. The Aztec books were painted mostly - on cotton cloth, prepared skins and maguey paper, and when not rolled - were folded fan-like and bound with thin wooden covers, like the Maya - books. The priests who accompanied the conquerors and immediately - followed them, mistook the pictured figures painted in these books to - be representations of heathen deities, and consequently inaugurated a - system of wholesale destruction of all the picture-writing. Las Casas - informs us that they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span> actuated by the fear that in matters of - religion the existence of these books would be injurious. The infamous - crime committed against the cause of knowledge and the irreparable - injury done to the natives, their successors, and to students of - history for all time, by the destruction of those valuable MSS., must - ever remain an unerasable blot upon the name of the early church in - Mexico, and must be ranked with the worst deeds of Goths and Vandals. - Juan de Zumárraga, the chief of these sacrilegious destroyers who - committed the annals of the Mexican States publicly to the flames - in his tour of the principal cities of the country, will ever be - remembered with proper contempt. Fortunately, many of the MSS. were - hidden by their owners and have since come to light; the greater - number of these, however, were tribute rolls, which, down to the last - century, played an important part in the Mexican courts of justice. - Prescott informs us that “until late in the last century, there was - a professor in the University of Mexico especially devoted to the - study of the national picture-writing. But as this was with a view to - legal proceedings, his information probably was limited to deciphering - titles.” In the course of time the priests became acquainted with the - harmless nature of the hieroglyphics, through their use by the natives - in their making confessions and in recording the Lord’s prayer. Many - documents written since the conquest were provided by their authors - with a Spanish translation or with an explanation in Aztec written - with Spanish letters. Many of these are in existence, and with a few - authentic documents, written previous to the conquest, are preserved - in public and private libraries of Europe and this country, the finest - collection of which is that of the National Museum of the University - of Mexico. The reader is no doubt already familiar with the splendid - fac-similes of several Mexican MSS. published in Lord Kingsborough’s - work. Mr. Bancroft has concisely narrated the events and vicissitudes - which have attended the transmission of some of these documents through - the hands of successive owners to their present depositories.<a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span>Several writers on hieroglyphic systems, and the above author among - them, have classified the progressive steps of picture-writing into - <em>representative</em>, <em>symbolic</em>, and <em>phonetic</em>. Of these, - the first is by far the simplest, and has invariably preceded the - others in the development of the graphic art. It was natural for the - savage to represent an object by a picture, in which that object was - surrounded with certain conditions; at first the entire object was - pictured, but subsequently only a portion of the object, as in the - case of a bird, the head or foot or wing in the more advanced stages - of art, would be substituted for the object itself. In symbolic - picture-writing, we find an attempt at representing abstract ideas and - actions. Some quality or attribute of a person is portrayed by means of - the representative process, by symbols which would naturally seem to - suggest the distinguishing characteristic of the person or occasion. A - certain Aztec festival might be symbolized by the conventional calendar - sign, an altar, a flint knife held by a human hand, and a smoking human - heart. Phonetic picture-writing is, of course, dependent upon the - sounds of the language for which it is designed. Its province is to - represent those sounds by pictures of objects in whose names the sounds - occur. Words, syllables and elementary sounds which are represented - by alphabets, are thus gradually evolved in the progression which - follows. Mr. Bancroft, by a most ingenious example, has illustrated - this principle as applied to our own language. “According to this - system,” he says, “the <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand.png" alt="hand pointing up" /> signifies successively - the word ‘hand,’ the syllable ‘hand’ in handsome, the sound ‘ha’ in - happy, the aspiration ‘h’ in head, and finally, by simplifying its - form or writing it rapidly, the <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand.png" alt="hand pointing up" /> - becomes <img class="iglyph-a" src="images/hand2.png" alt="hand outline" /> and then the ‘h’ of the alphabet.”<a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> The - Aztecs never reached the last stage of phonetic development, namely, - the alphabet. They, however, employed the system in the syllabic - formation of words to a very considerable extent. The priests soon - found the natives applying their art of writing to the record of the - standard expressions employed in teaching the new faith. Amen was - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span>expressed by the sign of water, <i>atl</i> associated with a maguey - plant, <i>metl</i> which united gave the word <i>atl-metl</i>, or after - the ever present Aztec termination <i>tl</i> is stricken off, we have - <i>a-me</i>, an approximation to our word Amen. Mr. Bancroft gives also - the following example of the manner in which the name Teocaltitlan was - expressed by this syllabic-phonetic writing: “It is written in one of - the manuscripts of the Boturini collection by a pictured pair of lips, - <i>tentli</i>, for the syllable <i>te</i>; footsteps, symbolic of a - road, <i>otli</i> for <i>o</i>; a house, <i>calli</i> for <i>cal</i>; - and teeth, <i>tlantli</i> for <i>tlanti</i>, being a common connective - syllable.” We think the reader will find a clearer illustration in the - word Chapultepec, which literally means “hill of the grasshopper.” - By reference to the Aztec migration map which has been published by - several authors<a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a> (the most correct copy accessible to the general - reader is that by Bancroft).<a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> A hill surmounted by a grasshopper - will be observed among the figures. The same representation in - different form will be seen in Boturini’s picture-map of the migration. - Chapultepec is well known as the royal hill, a short distance west of - the city of Mexico, celebrated as the country residence of Montezuma. - Numerous similar examples might be selected from the migration maps - of this combination of the three methods employed. Proper names were - always expressed in a similar manner. An example of the representative - and symbolic stages of the picture-writing of the Aztecs has been given - by Mr. Bancroft from the <cite>Codex Mendoza</cite> in Kingsborough.<a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> We - here reproduce the plate used in the <cite>Native Races</cite>. It describes - four steps or periods in the education of children; each period is - supposed to refer to a particular year. In the upper left-hand group - we see a father (fig. 3) punishing his son by holding him over the - fumes of burning chile (fig. 5); in the right-hand group the mother - threatens her daughter with similar punishment. In the second group - (figs. 12–13), a father punishes his son by exposing him <span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span>bound hand - and foot on the damp ground. A bad boy twelve years of age, according - to Aztec custom was always punished in this way, and his punishment - lasted during an entire day. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span> disobedient girl of the same age was - obliged to rise in the night and sweep the whole house, as is shown - in the right-hand group, or, as no tear is seen in her eye, she may - be learning. At the age of eight years children were only shown the - instrument of punishment; at ten they were pricked with maguey thorns, - or if still unruly, were whipped. The above groups show the methods - employed during the eleventh and twelfth years, after which age a child - was supposed to be pretty well disciplined. In the third group a father - directs his boys (fig. 21) how to transport wood, both upon the back - and in the canoe, while the mother teaches the daughter (fig. 23) to - make tortillas and use the mealing stone and other utensils (figs. 25, - 26, 28); the tortillas are also represented (fig. 27). In the fourth - group the son learns the use of the fish-net and the daughter that of - the loom. The allowance of tortillas apportioned to the children at the - ages represented are shown in figs. 2, 8, 11, 16, 20, 24, 30 and 34. - The remaining figures are not representative, but symbolic. The small - circles (figs. 1, 10, 19, 29) are numerals indicating that the child - was successively eleven, twelve, thirteen and fourteen years of age. A - circle or dot was always used for a unit. The comma-like figure issuing - from the mouth of the parent is the symbol of speech. The tears in the - children’s eyes need no explanation. The singular figure (17) above - the girl in the second group is said to be symbolical of night, and to - indicate that the sweeping was required in the night.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp69"> - <img src="images/i_432.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">Education of Children according to the Codex Mendoza.</div> - </div> - - <p>For most interesting specimens of Aztec picture-writing as well as - their supposed explanation, we refer the reader to the Gemelli Carreri - and Boturini Migration maps in the Atlas of Garcia y Cubas, or in the - second volume of Mr. Bancroft’s work, which are the only places where - they are to be found correctly reproduced. Mr. Delafield sought to - find an analogy between the Aztec and Egyptian hieroglyphic systems - on no other ground than that both were representative, symbolic and - phonetic, a most wonderful discovery indeed.<a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> Notwithstanding this - fact, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>and many similar efforts, no marked analogy between the Aztec - picture-writing and the hieroglyphic systems of any other peoples has - yet been pointed out.<a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a></p> - - <hr class="tb" /> - - <blockquote> - <p><span class="smcap">Map of Yucatan.</span>—We have found it impossible in this - chapter to convey any adequate idea of the number and extent of the - ruins scattered over Central America and Mexico. Only by reference - to an accurately prepared map, having distinctness and detail, can - a proper understanding of this interesting field be reached. Maps - of Northern and Central Mexico alone, meeting the requirements, - have for some time been accessible, but a reliable map of Yucatan - and of neighboring States has long been a desideratum. This great - want has recently been supplied by the publication in New York of - a rare specimen of cartography, bearing the title, <cite>Mapa de la - Peninsula de Yucatan, compilado por Joaquin Hübbe y Andres Azuar - Perez y revisado y aumentado con datos importantes por C. Hermann - Berendt</cite>, 1878—size, 28 × 36 inches. Stephens, in his work on - <cite>Yucatan</cite>, indicated the sites of many remains discovered by - him; but Señor Perez has for the first time brought before us a - view of the whole field, including Yucatan and Campeachy, together - with the greater part of Tabasco and Belize, and portions of - Guatemala and Chiapas, showing, by means of appropriate symbols, - the great number of known ruins. The map has met with merited - approval from the American Antiquarian Society, and has been - reproduced in <cite>Dr. A. Petermann’s Mittheilungen aus Justus - Perthes Geographische Anstalt, Gotha, Band 25</cite>, No. VI, 1879.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_IX"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IX</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subhead">CHRONOLOGY, CALENDAR SYSTEMS AND RELIGIOUS ANALOGIES.</div> - - <div class="subhead">No Mound-builder Chronology known—Maya Calendar—Landa on the - Calendar—Maya Days—Maya Months—The Katun—The Ahau Katun or - Great Cycle—The Maya System Adjusted to our Chronology—The - Adjustment by Perez—Intercalary Days—The Nahua Calendar—The - Sources—Divisions of Mexican Calendar—The Aztec Year—The - Nemontemi—Aztec Months—Aztec Days—Nahua Ritual Calendar—Mexican - Calendar Stone—Sources of Interpretation—History of the - Stone—Interpretation of the Stone—Date of the Origin of - the Calendar Stone—Date of the Nahua Migration—Analogies - with the Nahua Calendar—Religious Analogies—Jewish - Analogies—Deluge Traditions—Supposed Parallels in Jewish - and Mexican History—Analogies of Doctrine—Analogies - of Ceremonial Law—Yucatanic Trinity Myth—Mexican and - Asiatic Analogies—Buddhism in the New World—Scandinavian - Analogies—Mexican and Greek Analogies—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s - Comparisons.</div> - - <p><i>Chronology and Calendar Systems.</i>—No tablet or relic of - Mound-builder origin has yet been discovered, which can be said to - give any clue to the system of chronology employed by that people. - Several supposed calendar stones have been found, such, for instance, - as the Cincinnati Tablet referred to in Chapter I, and the Tablet - from Mississippi in the possession of Wm. Marshall Anderson, Esq., - of Circleville, Ohio. However, their character is only a matter of - conjecture, since no progress whatever has been made toward evolving - any system from them. Farther south, on the soil where a higher - civilization flourished, we meet with two calendar systems, which, - while they have several points of resemblance, are quite distinct from - each other.</p> - - <p>The first of these, the Maya, is probably the most ancient. Bishop - Landa is our chief authority in this field, though Don Juan Pio - Perez, a more recent writer, also familiar with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span> Maya language, - has furnished us some material.<a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> Bishop Landa informs us that the - Mayas had a year of 365 days and 6 hours divided into months (a month - being called a <i>U</i>) in two ways, first into months of thirty days - each, and second, into eighteen months of twenty days each. As the - Bishop makes no explanation of the former statement, we are unable - to determine whether the months of thirty days each were employed in - Yucatan prior to the conquest, or not, but we are rather inclined to - the opinion that they were not.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp84" id="i_436"> - <img src="images/i_436.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Maya Days.</div> - </div> - - <p>The month of twenty days was called the <i>Uinal-Hun-ekeh</i>, and - might commence on any of the days represented by the hieroglyphics in - the left-hand column of the table of days. These months were eighteen - in number, thus making a year of 360 days. The Mayas, however, - corrected the error by adding five intercalary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span> days and six hours to - the 360 days; and once every four years, Landa informs us, they counted - 366 days a year. The five supplementary days were considered unlucky, - and were known as the “nameless days” because they were never called - by any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span> particular designation. The accompanying cut is a photographic - reproduction of Landa’s plate, and shows accurately the Maya days in - their proper order.<a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> - (<a href="#i_436">Page 436</a>.)</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp74" id="i_437"> - <img src="images/i_437.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Maya Months.</div> - </div> - - <p>Though the intercalary days were “nameless” and characterized as - the “bed or chamber of the year,” “the mother of the year,” “bed of - creation,” “travail of the year,” “lying days,” or “bad days,” etc., - still five of the above twenty were reckoned for them in regular order.</p> - - <p>The year began on a day corresponding to our 16th of July—“a date,” as - Mr. Bancroft observes, “which varies only forty-four hours from the - time when the sun passes the zenith—an approximation as accurate as - could be expected from observation made without instruments.”<a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a></p> - - <p>The Maya months as figured in Landa’s work are shown in the - accompanying photo-engraving. (<a href="#i_437">Page 437</a>.)</p> - - <p>The translation of the names of the days and months is somewhat - uncertain. The following equivalents are the same as those given by - Señor Perez, except in a few instances where Brasseur and Rosny have - made corrections.</p> - - <div class="center small">TRANSLATION OF THE DAYS.</div> - - <ol class="small"> - <li><i>Kan</i>, “string of twisted hemp” (yellow).</li> - <li><i>Chicchan</i>, signification unknown.</li> - <li><i>Cimi</i>, preterit of <i>cimil</i>, to kill = “dead.”</li> - <li><i>Manik</i>, “wind that passes” (??)</li> - <li><i>Lamat</i>, signification unknown.</li> - <li><i>Muluc</i>, “reunion” (??)</li> - <li><i>Oc</i>, “that which may be held in the palm of the hand.”</li> - <li><i>Chuen</i>, “board” (??)</li> - <li><i>Eb</i>, “ladder.”</li> - <li><i>Ben</i>, “to distribute with economy” (??)</li> - <li><i>Ix</i>, “fish-skin” (Rosny), “witch, witchcraft” (Brasseur), “roughness” (Perez).</li> - <li><i>Men</i>, “builder.”</li> - <li><i>Cib</i>, “gum copal.”</li> - <li><i>Caban</i>, “heaped up” (Brasseur).</li> - <li><i>Ezanab</i>, “flint” (Brasseur).</li> - <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span><i>Cauac</i>, signification unknown.</li> - <li><i>Ahau</i>, “king, or period of twenty-four years.”</li> - <li><i>Ymix</i>, signification unknown. “Corn” (??)</li> - <li><i>Ik</i>, “wind,” “spirit,” according to Rosny, one of the symbols of Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl.</li> - <li><i>Akbal</i>, “approach of night” (Brasseur).</li> - </ol> - - <div class="center small">TRANSLATION OF THE MONTHS.</div> - - <ol class="small"> - <li><i>Pop</i>, “mat of cane.”</li> - <li><i>Uo</i>, “frog.”</li> - <li><i>Zip</i>, “a tree” (Perez), “fault, error” (Brasseur).</li> - <li><i>Tzoz</i>, “a bat.”</li> - <li><i>Tzec</i>, signification unknown.</li> - <li><i>Xul</i>, “end or conclusion.”</li> - <li><i>Yaxkin</i>, signification unknown. “Summer” (??)</li> - <li><i>Mol</i>, “to re-unite, to recover.”</li> - <li><i>Chen</i>, “a well.”</li> - <li><i>Yax</i>, “first,” or <i>Yaax</i>, “blue.”</li> - <li><i>Zac</i>, “white.”</li> - <li><i>Ceh</i>, “a deer.”</li> - <li><i>Mac</i>, “a lid or cover.”</li> - <li><i>Kankin</i>, “yellow sun,” “because in this month of April the atmosphere - is charged with smoke,” owing to the work of clearing the soil.</li> - <li><i>Muan</i>, “cloudy weather” (Brasseur).</li> - <li><i>Pax</i>, “musical instrument.”</li> - <li><i>Kayab</i>, “singing.”</li> - <li><i>Cumhu</i>, “thunder-clap,” “detonation.”<a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a></li></ol> - - <p>Though these translations may seem uninteresting by themselves, they - are of great value when taken in connection with Landa’s alphabet and - M. de Rosny’s interpretations. They must ever be important factors in - attempts to translate the inscriptions and codices.</p> - - <p>Another division of time among the Mayas of a complicated character - was the Katun or Cycle of 52 years. The Katun was composed of four - periods (indictions or weeks) of 13 years each, enumerated by a system - of reckoning kept simultaneously with the current reckoning of days, - months and years. The mode of computing the Katunes was, according to - Landa and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span> - Perez, briefly as follows:<a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> The year was divided into twenty-eight - periods of thirteen days each. These periods for convenience have - been called weeks, and the number of days of which each is composed - may have been suggested by the number of days embraced in the moon’s - <em>increase</em>, and <em>decrease</em>, twenty-six days constituting - about the actual time in which the moon is seen above the horizon - during each lunation.<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> The weeks were divided off by counting - thirteen days from the beginning of the list of days shown on <a href="#i_436">page - 436</a>, Kan constituting the first day of the first week and according to - usage applying its name to the weeks. The week was consequently called - by the name of the day on which it began. Caban being the fourteenth - day of the current month, became the first day of another week; but - as not enough days remain to complete it, the enumeration is begun - again and continued down to Muluc, the sixth day of the next month. - Oc, the seventh day, then becomes the starting point for another week, - which assumes its name, and thus the computation is carried on <i>ad - infinitum</i>. A numeral preceded each day designating its position in - the week. The people of Yucatan painted a small circle in which they - placed the four hieroglyphics of the initial days which constitute - the left-hand column of signs given on <a href="#i_436">page 436</a>. Kan was placed in - the east, Muluc in the north, Ix in the west and Cauac in the south. - These signs were termed the “carriers of the years” because no month or - year could begin on any of the twenty days, but on one of these. Since - twenty days constitute a current month, it is apparent that every month - in a given year must begin with the same day. However, the introduction - of the five intercalary days at the end of the year, changed the - initial day on which the months of the different years began. In - reckoning the Katun it is further observed that the numeral which - indicates the day of the week (of thirteen days) which falls upon the - first of a given month, varies. Supposing the month to begin on Kan and - the numeral of the first day to be 1, the numerals indicative <span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span>of the - days of the week (composed of thirteen days) falling on Kan throughout - the eighteen months, would be, 8, 9, 3, 10, 4, 11, 5, 12, 6, 13, 7, 1, - 8, 2, 9, 3.</p> - - <p>The Katun year consisted, as we have seen, of twenty-eight weeks of - thirteen days each, and <em>one additional day</em>, making in all 365 - days. If the year commenced with number one of the week, the additional - day (the 365th) caused it to end on the same number. The ensuing year - would then begin with number two, and so on through the thirteen - numbers of the week, as follows: 1. Kan, 2. Muluc, 3. Ix, 4. Cauac, - 5. Kan, 6. Muluc, 7. Ix, 8. Cauac, 9. Kan, 10. Muluc, 11. Ix, 12. - Cauac, 13. Kan, thus completing an indiction or week of years. The same - combination of names and numerals can only occur after the lapse of the - Katun or cycle comprising four of these indictions or fifty-two years. - Not only the years of the week, but also the indictions themselves were - named by the four initial symbols. The first indiction of each Katun - being named Kan, the second Muluc, the third Ix, and the fourth Cauac. - The completion of a Katun or fifty-two years was celebrated with feasts - and rejoicings as an event of great moment. A monument was reared as a - memorial of the event. It is not impossible that the great number of - pillars, observed by Stephens at Chichen-Itza were of this character, - serving as landmarks to Maya chronology.<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a></p> - - <p>A third division of time employed by the Mayas was the great cycle of - 312 years, composed, according to Señor Perez,<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a> of thirteen periods - of time, each embracing twenty-four years. Each of these thirteen - periods was called an Ahau Katun, and was divided into two parts. - The first part, embracing twenty years, was enclosed in a square and - called <i>Amaytum lamayte</i>, or <i>lamaytum</i>; and the other part - of four years, which formed as it were a pedestal for the first, was - called <i>Chek oc Katun</i>, or <i>lath oc Katun</i>, meaning “stool” - or “pedestal.” He affirms that the latter were intercalated, therefore - believed to be unfortunate as were the five supplementary days of the - year. This may account <span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">442</span>for their not being reckoned with the Ahau - Katun by any other writer. Just here lies the discrepancy which has - created most of the confusion in the investigation of this subject. - However, if we accept the statement of Señor Perez, that the Ahau Katun - embraced twenty-four years instead of the testimony of every other - writer that it included but twenty years, we shall have moderately - fair sailing until we split upon the rock of his inaccuracies as to - dates. He tells us that these periods took their name from Ahau, the - second of those years that began in Cauac, and from the order of the - numerals accompanying those days would succeed each other according - to the numbers 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2. The Indians - established the number 13 Ahau as the first, because some great event - happened in that year. If the 13 Ahau Katun began on a second day of - the year, it must have been the year which began on 12 Cauac, and the - 12th of the indiction. The next or the 11 Ahau would commence in the - year 10 Cauac, which combination in its rotation would happen after a - lapse of twenty-four years. The third or 9 Ahau would begin in 8 Cauac - twenty-four years later, in illustration of which we follow out the - rotation of the four names of the years, Kan, Muluc, Ix and Cauac, - through the indictions of thirteen years each, until we have noted the - numerals accompanying them during twenty-four years. Our starting point - will be the commencement of the second Ahau Katun on the second day of - 10 Cauac.</p> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya calendar"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Year of 13 Year Indiction.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Name of Year.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Year of Period of 24 Years.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt2 bl2 br"><i>Year of 13 Year Indiction.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl2"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Name of Year.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="bl2 bb"> </th> - <th class="bl bb"> </th> - <th class="tdlh bt bl br bb"><i>Year of Period of 24 Years.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>9</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>13</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>14</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>15</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>16</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>13</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>17</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>18</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>19</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>4</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>20</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>4</div></td> - <td class="bl">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>21</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>6</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>5</div></td> - <td class="bl">Kan</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>22</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>6</div></td> - <td class="bl">Muluc</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>23</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl2"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="bl">Ix</td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>24</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb"> </td> - <td class="bl bb"> </td> - <td class="bl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl2 bb"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="bl bb">Cauac</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb br"><div>1st of a new period.</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span></p> - - <p>As above stated the new Ahau Katun begins in the year 8 Cauac, and as - it invariably began on the second day of the year, that day would be - 9 Ahau, as Ahau is the next letter in the alphabet after Cauac. An - extension of the table will show that the next period will begin in 6 - Cauac on 7 Ahau, and so on in the order of the numerals given above. - Thirteen Ahau Katunes, as previously stated, constituted a great cycle - of three hundred and twelve years. Sr. Perez states that according to - all sources of information, confirmed by the testimony of Don Cosme de - Burgos, one of the conquerors and a writer (but whose observations have - been lost), the year 1392 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> corresponded to the Maya year - 7 Cauac, and as the second day of that year was the beginning of an era - of twenty-four years, it must have been 8 Ahau Katun. By dividing off - the time between that date and the beginning of the present century - into periods of twenty-four years each, and extending a table of the - rotation of the four names of the years, the reader will observe - that 13 Ahau will fall in the year 1800; 11 Ahau in 1824; 9 Ahau in - 1848; 7 Ahau in 1872, and 5 Ahau in 1896, three hundred and twelve - years intervening before this, and any similar combination of Ahau - Katunes either have occurred or can be repeated. This would be highly - satisfactory if Sr. Perez could be relied upon in this particular, - which is doubtful. We are sorry to say that he is certainly chargeable - with inaccuracies, which impair the value of his whole system. Most - conspicuous of these is one pointed out by Mr. Bancroft, to which we - refer the reader below. Señor Perez sets about the verification of his - system by citing the death of a notable personage named Ahpula. He - states that Ahpula died in the sixth year of 13 Ahau, when the first - day of the year was 4 Kan, on the day 9 Imix, the eighteenth of the - month Zip. It is seen that 13 Ahau is the second day of the year 12 - Cauac which falls in the year 1488, also that the year 1493 is the - sixth from the beginning of 13 Ahau, and that its first day is 4 Kan, - which is the title of the year. The day is the eighteenth of the month - Zip, corresponding to the eleventh of September. The statement is also - made that this date fell on 9 Imix. This is tested as follows:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span> The - first month of that year commenced on 4 Kan, which combination names - the year. The number (of the week of thirteen days) is found by adding - seven to the number of the first day of each month successively. The - number of the first day of the first month, Pop, in this case being 4, - the number of the first day of the second month (Uo) would be 4 + 7 = - 11, and that of the first day of the third month (Zip) would be 11 + 7 - = 18, but as the week consists of but thirteen days, that number must - be substracted, leaving 5 Kan as the first day of Zip. If Zip begins on - the twenty-fifth of August, the day 9 Imix will be found to correspond - both with the eighteenth of Zip and the eleventh of September, if the - Katun week of thirteen days is counted off regularly, beginning with 5 - Kan. Sr. Perez is correct enough in his calculations, but unfortunately - his system of twenty-four years to the Ahau Katun or his informant - as to the correspondence of the Ahau Katunes with our chronology (no - doubt the latter) is incorrect, since the Maya manuscript furnished - and translated by Perez and published in the works of Stephens and - Landa, states explicitly that Ahpula died in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1536, - instead of 1493 (incorrectly printed 1403 in Bancroft’s work), a - date which is irreconcilable with the system of twenty-four years to - the Ahau, reckoned from 1392 as a starting point. Neither will the - statement of Landa that the year 1541 corresponded with the beginning - of 11 Ahau relieve the difficulty, but rather increases it, since it - will neither harmonize with the date of Ahpula’s death given in the - MS. nor with the system by Perez. Furthermore, while Landa gives the - same succession of numerals for the recurrence of the Ahaus, he states - that they embraced but twenty years each, thus making it impossible - for the combinations of names and numerals to correspond to the order - which he lays down for their succession. Landa is no doubt incorrect - in his statement. Sr. Perez is at least consistent in his adaptation - of the length of the Ahau Katun to the order of numerals given by - Landa and others. Recently, M. Delaporte, a member of the Société - Américaine de France, has, by a series of extended calculations, - vindicated the correctness of the statement of Sr. Perez,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span> that the - Ahau Katun embraced twenty-four years. M. de Rosny agrees with M. - Delaporte in his conclusions. The fault of Perez, probably, lies in - his adaptation of the Ahaus to our chronology, and in carelessness. - Amidst these discrepancies it is impossible to fix accurately the - dates of the Maya history, though they can be approximated.<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> Señor - Perez cites Boturini as stating that the day introduced every four - years to compensate for the annual loss of six hours, was observed by - counting the symbol for the three hundred and sixty-fifth day twice, - as the Romans did with their bissextile days, thus leaving the order - undisturbed.<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></p> - - <p><i>The Nahua Calendar</i> system closely resembles that of the Mayas, a - fact which adds to the abundant proof that both civilizations had grown - up under nearly the same influences, and that they had largely affected - each other. If the trifling differences of a few writers concerning - some of the details of the Aztec calendar be overlooked, and the best - authorities (together with a little exercise of judgment) be followed, - the system becomes comparatively simple. Sahagun, Leon y Gama, - Humboldt, Veytia, Galatin, McCulloch, Müller, Bancroft, Chavero, and - Prof. Valentini, are the authorities to whom we refer the reader.<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span></p> - - <p><i>The Mexican Calendar</i> contains divisions as follows: The age, - called <i>huehuetiliztli</i>, embraced two cycles of fifty-two years - each, thus equalizing one hundred and four years. The cycle of - fifty-two years was named <i>xiuhmolpilli</i>, <i>xiuhmolpia</i>, - and <i>xiuhtlalpilli</i>, signifying the “binding up of the years” - and consisted of four periods of thirteen years each. These periods - or indictions were called “knots,” while the single years were - called <i>xihuitl</i> or “new grass,” because anciently, before the - invention of the calendar, the Nahuas were only able to distinguish the - revolution of the years by the annual appearance of fresh vegetation - and new grass. The age was but little used, the cycle being the common - measure for long periods. The years in a given cycle were designated - as among the Mayas, by means of the consecutive rotation of four - signs, each accompanied with a numeral. The signs were <i>tochtli</i>, - “rabbit”; <i>acatl</i>, “cane”; <i>tecpatl</i>, “flint,” and - <i>calli</i>, “house.” The following table illustrates the rotation - occurring in one cycle:</p> - - <table class="xsmall mt2 mb2" summary="Mexican calendar"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">1st Tlalpilli.</th> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">2d Tlalpilli.</th> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl">3d Tlalpilli.</th> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap bt2 bl br">4th Tlalpilli.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb"><i>Names of Years.</i></th> - <th class="bt bl bb br"><i>Names of Years Translated.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">1. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ce Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">1. House.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">2. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Ome Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">2. Rabbit</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">3. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Yey Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">3. Cane.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">4. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Nahui Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">4. Flint.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">5. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Macuilli Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">5. House.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">6. House</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicoace Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">6. Rabbit.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">7. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chicome Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">7. Cane.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">8. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico y Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">8. Flint.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">9. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Chico Nahui Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">9. House.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">10. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">10. Rabbit.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">11. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli occe Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">11. Cane.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. House.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">12. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omome Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">12. Flint.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Tochtli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Rabbit.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Acatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Cane.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Tecpatl</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">13. Flint.</td> - <td class="tdlh bl bb">Matlactli omey Calli</td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">13. House.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span></p> - - <p>As in the Maya rotation of years no confusion could occur, so with the - Mexican, as the same combination could be made only once in fifty-two - years. The cycles themselves were distinguished by numbers. Confusion - is liable to arise in studying the early writers, since the Toltecs - and Aztecs began their reckoning on different signs, the former on - Tecpatl, and the latter on Tochtli. The year consisted of eighteen - months of twenty days each, to which were added five days called - <i>nemontemi</i> or “unlucky days.” Every superstition seemed to centre - in the <i>nemontemi</i>, for no business of importance nor enterprise - of the most insignificant character would be undertaken upon these - days. Both the names of the months and the particular month which - served to begin the year, as well as the date of the first day of the - year, have been fruitful subjects of controversy between authors. Mr. - Bancroft has tabulated the names given by twenty-one writers, and shown - the disagreements existing between them.<a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> The dates for the first - day of the year range between the ninth of January and the tenth of - April. Gama, Humboldt and Gallatin, by careful calculations, have shown - that the first year of a Nahua cycle commenced on the thirty-first day - of December, old style, or on the ninth day of January, new style, with - the month Titill and the day Cipactli.<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a></p> - - <p>The names and order of the months, together with their etymologies, - as adopted by Mr. Bancroft, are as follows: 1. Titill, meaning “our - mother,” according to Boturini, or “fire,” according to Cabrera; 2. - Itzcalli, translated “regeneration” by Boturini, “skill” by the Codex - Vaticanus, and the “sprouting of the grass” by Veytia; 3. Atlcahualco, - meaning the “abating of the waters.” Another name (Quahuillehua) - applied to this month signified “burning of the mountains,” referring - to the forests; 4. Tlacaxipehualiztli, is translated “the flaying of - the people.” Another name applied to this month, Cohuailhuitl, means - the “feast of the snake”; 5. Tozoztontli is rendered “small fast” - or “penance”; 6. Hueytozoztli, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span>means “great fast” or “penance”; 7. - Toxcatl, a “necklace”; 8. Etzalqualiztli, “bean stew” or “maize gruel”; - 9. Tecuilhuitzintli, “small feast of the Lord”; 10. Hueytecuilhuitl, - “great feast of the Lord”; 11. Miccailhuitzintli, translated “small - feast of the dead”; 12. Hueymiccailhuitl, “great feast of the - dead”; 13. Ochpaniztli, “cleaning of the streets”; 14. Teotleco, - “arrival of the gods.” The names Pachtli, “moss hanging from trees,” - and Pachtontli, “humiliation,” were often applied to this month; - 15. Hueypachtli, “great feast of humiliation,” sometimes called - Tepeilhuitl, “feast of the mountains”; 16. Quecholli, “peacock”; 17. - Panquetzuliztli, “the raising of flags and banners”; 18. Atemoztli, - means the “drying up of the waters.”</p> - - <p>The month, consisting of twenty days, was divided into four weeks - of five days each. Mr. Bancroft states that each of the weeks began - with one of the four signs—Tochtli, Calli, Tecpatl or Acatl, used - to designate the years; but his own engraving of the Aztec month, - and the order of the days on the Calendar-Stone, contradict this - statement.<a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> The following are the days in their proper order, with - their translations affixed: 1. Cipactli, “sea-animal,” “sword-fish,” - or “serpent with harpoons.” 2. Ehacatl, “wind.” 3. Calli, “house.” 4. - Cuetzpalin, “lizard.” 5. Coatl, “snake.” 6. Miquiztli, “death.” 7. - Mazatl, “deer.” 8. Tochtli, “rabbit.” 9. Atl, “water.” 10. Itzcuintli, - “dog.” 11. Ozomatli, “monkey.” 12. Mollinalli, “brushwood” or “tangled - grass.” 13. Acatl, “cane.” 14. Ocelotl, “tiger.” 15. Quanhtli, “eagle.” - 16. Cozcaquauhtli, “vulture.” 17. Ollin, “movement.” 18. Tecpatl, - “flint.” 19. Quahuitl, “rain.” 20. Xochitl, “flower.”</p> - - <p>The day was divided into sixteen hours.<a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> Sahagun and several - authors state that the loss of six hours in each Aztec year was - counterbalanced by the addition of a day every four years. Gama - demonstrates this to be a mistake, and states that they added twelve - and a half days at the close of every cycle of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span>fifty-two years. Mr. - Bancroft cites this fact, and states the time added to have been - thirteen days.<a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a></p> - - <p>The Nahuas had also a ritual calendar, for the purpose of reckoning - their religious feasts, which was altogether different from the civil - system, except that it employed the twenty days, the year of 365 - days, and at the end of a cycle added the thirteen days to compensate - for the time lost during that period.<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> The year consisted of two - parts, the first composed of twenty weeks of thirteen days each (for - there were no months in the ritual year) making 260 altogether. This - portion of the year was called <i>Meztli pohualli</i> or the “lunar - computation,” from the fact that half of the time during which the - moon is visible is thirteen days. The smaller part, composed of 105 - days reckoned by a continuation of the periods of thirteen days, was - called <i>Toualpohualli</i> or “solar computation.”<a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> The days were - numbered from one up to thirteen, the fourteenth day of the first solar - month being counted the first of another lunar week, and thus the - reckoning continued. However, it will be observed that the same number - would fall twice on one name in the course of a year; accordingly - accompanying signs were provided for the regular names of days. The - duplication could not occur if the second division embraced 104 days - instead of 105.</p> - - <p>The distinguishing signs were nine in number, called <i>quecholli</i>, - “lords of the night.” They were as follows: Tletl, “fire”; Tecpatl, - “flint”; Xochitl, “flower”; Centeotl, “goddess of maize”; Miquiztli, - “death”; Atl, “water”; Tlazolteotl, “goddess of love”; Tepeyollotli, “a - mountain deity”; Quiahuitl, “rain,” the god Tlaloc. The lords of the - night, though reckoned from the first of the year, were not mentioned - except in connection with the 105 days of the second division.</p> - - <p>The reader will more clearly understand the relation of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span>two - systems to each other by constructing a table of four parallel columns. - In the left-hand column place the months of one year, numbering the - days of each month in order, but beginning on the ninth day of January. - In the second column place the names of the Mexican months, numbering - the days of each month from one to twenty in regular order. In the - third column place the <em>names</em> of the Mexican days, twenty in - number, repeating them in their regular rotation throughout the year, - but in addition prefix to the names such numerals as will fall opposite - to each in the process of dividing them off into thirteens. These - divisions into thirteens represent the ritual weeks. Acatl being the - 13th day of the month will end the first week of the year, and Ocelotl - being the 14th day of the month will constitute the 1st day of the - second week. In the fourth column place the nine signs of the “lords - of the night” in regular order. Divide the year into periods of nines, - and it will be found that the same combination of days of the month - (twenty days), of days of the week (thirteen days), and the “lords of - the night,” will not recur for a considerable period.</p> - - <p>The most remarkable embodiment of this complex system is found in the - symbols and concentric zones graven upon the face of the Calendar - Stone, described in the last chapter. The interpretation of its - mysterious disk was partly accomplished by the learned antiquarian Leon - y Gama; Gallatin, and after him Bancroft presented those investigations - to the public. In 1875 (Nov.), Don Alfredo Chevero, of the Liceo - Hidalgo of Mexico, published his <cite>Calendario Azteca</cite>, in which - it was shown that many of Gama’s interpretations would have to be - abandoned. It was proven that the “Calendar Stone” was a sun-disk or - stone of sacrifice, and that Gama had pursued his investigations with - a mistaken view of its character. Chevero’s account of the history of - the stone is full and satisfactory, Duran being the authority cited. An - interpretation of some of the concentric zones, two in particular, is - attempted with a result somewhat different from that obtained by any - other investigator. Recently, Prof. Ph. Valentini, by the light of his - extensive researches into Nahua literature, has compelled the sun-disk - to give up its secrets. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span> illustration on the preceding page is a - reproduction of a pen-and-ink drawing made by the Professor from the - most recent and correct photograph which has been made of the Calendar - Stone. It was kindly furnished for this work. The same conclusion - concerning the character of the stone was reached independently by - both Chevero and Valentini. The latter’s account of the stone and - its history is drawn from Tezozomoc, and though agreeing in the main - facts with Duran’s account as rendered by Chevero, bears the evidence - upon its face of independent research.<a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> The originality of Prof. - Valentini is vindicated in his masterly interpretation of all the zones - of the Calendar Stone. Whether the interpretation will ever give way to - some other is a question of the future, though it is probable that it - will not.</p> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100"> - <img src="images/i_451.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smcap">The Mexican Calendar Stone.</div> - </div> - - <p>We are indebted to Professor Valentini for a communication on the - History of the Calendar Stone, condensed from his unpublished MS. - <cite>Description and Interpretation of the Mexican Calendar Stone</cite>. - An extract from the communication is as follows: “King Axayacatl of - Mexico, 1466–1480, the builder of the large pyramid, at the approach - of the last year of the national cycle (1479), ordered the altar - standing on the platform of the pyramid to be covered with a stone - disk, the surface of which was to be sculptured with the image of the - Sun-god, and, as the text says, ‘to be surrounded by all the national - deities’ (see Alvaro de Tezozomoc, 1598, <cite>Chronica Mexicana</cite>, - Ternaux-Compans, vol. i, chap. xlvii, pp. 249 <i>et seq.</i>). A large - slab, carried for the purpose from the quarries of Cuyoacan, when - rolled over the bridge of Xoloc, crushed this structure, fell to the - bottom of the lake and remained there. Another slab was broken and a - new bridge built, and 50,000 Indians succeeded in transporting the - slab to the foot of the pyramid, where the sculptor accomplished his - task to the satisfaction of the king. The cyclical festival of the sun - (1479) was celebrated, and on the disk which now had been inserted - into the surface of the sacrificial altar, thousands of captives were - slaughtered. The king is said to have overworked <span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span>himself, slaying one - hundred of the victims, and feasting upon their flesh and blood—that - very soon after he died in consequence of these exertions. In the year - 1512, Montezuma II, for reasons unknown, expressed the wish to replace - the altar cover, which his father had consecrated, by a new and still - larger one. The people, horrified and out of patience with the bloody - proceedings connected with these consecration festivals of sacrificial - disks, contrived to let the slab, brought expressly for the purpose, - fall into the lake again, pretending as an excuse, that the stone - had spoken and said that it was to go back to the quarry. Montezuma, - superstitious as he was, took the accident for a bad augury, desisted - from his plan, and left the stone in its place. We may thus infer that - it was <em>our</em> disk on which, in the year 1520, those Spaniards - of Cortes’ troops which were made captives had been immolated, and - the screams and cries of whom reached the ears of their comrades, and - as Bernal Diaz narrates, ‘filled their hearts with the most awful - forebodings.’ Cortez demolished the pyramid, and with its débris filled - the canals of the city. The disk was preserved, for we know from Duran, - who wrote a <cite>Historia de la N. España</cite>, 1588, that he and many of - his fellow-citizens had often been standing before this disk admiring - it, until the Archbishop Montufar, scandalized by the existence of such - a barbarous relic, caused it to be buried in the immediate neighborhood - of the Metropolitan cathedral in the year 1551. This procedure was - forgotten; so much so, that when this disk was disinterred in the year - 1790, even Gama the archæologist and its later interpreter, had not the - remotest idea what purpose it could have served, for the manuscript - chronicles of Duran and Tezozomoc still slumbered in the dust of the - archives. The viceroy, Reviellagigedo, ordered the disk to be fitted - into the outer wall of one of the towers of the cathedral. There it is - to this day.”</p> - - <p>We now ask your attention to the stone itself. The central circle - contains the face of the Sun-god bedecked with ornaments, earrings, - and jeweled lip. In the next zone we observe four large parallelograms - containing hieroglyphic signs: Nahui Ocelotl, Nahui Ehecatl, Nahui - Quahuitl and Nahui Atl. Between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span> upper and lower enclosures on both - sides of the central disk are circular figures containing hieroglyphics - resembling claws, said to represent two ancient astrologers, man and - wife, who, according to the early writers, invented the calendar. - These four signs are identical with the days on which, according to - the traditions, the world was destroyed at four different times. - These destructions mark four ages represented by the signs of the day - on which they occurred. These ages were also called suns. The first - destruction occurred in Ce Acatl, and is represented by the sign - Nahui Ocelotl, or 4 Tigre, seen in the upper right-hand tablet. The - small figure above and towards the left is the sign for 1. Tecpatl, a - feast-day kept by the Aztecs in memory of the first destruction. The - second tablet bears the symbol for Ehecatl or Wind, in memory of the - destruction of the world by hurricane, which occurred in the year Ce - Tecpatl or Nahui (4) Ehecatl. Between the tablet and the triangular - figure to the right is a sculpture in which a broken wall with - towers appears. The sign 1. Calli is associated with it, indicating - a ritualistic feast-day kept on that sign. The third tablet bears - the symbol of the rain-god Tlaloc, in memory of the destruction of - the world from frequent rains. The last tablet represents the fourth - destruction by a flood on Nahui Atl in the year Ce Calli.</p> - - <p>The faces of Cox-Cox, the Mexican Noah, and his wife are delineated in - the picture. The symbol for water is seen immediately below the faces. - Between the two lower tablets, two small quadrilateral enclosures will - be observed, each containing five round points, supposed to mean 10 - Ollin (the sun being called <i>ollin tonatiuh</i>). Below the lower - tablets and almost in contact with the next concentric circle are the - hieroglyphics 1. Quiahuitl and 2. Ozomatli. The first, namely 10 Ollin, - corresponds with our twenty-second of September in the first year of - a cycle, and its hieroglyphic on this astronomical disk represents - the autumnal equinox. At the extreme top of the Calendar Stone is a - central figure, well known to be the hieroglyphic for 13 Acatl. This - fact known, the interpretation of the two remaining symbols is easy. - In the year 13 Acatl, the day 1. Quiahuitl would correspond to our - twenty-second of March,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span> and represent the vernal equinox. In the same - year 2. Ozomatli would correspond with our twenty-second of June, or - summer solstice. Thus it is that the stone speaks and testifies to - the astronomical knowledge of the Aztecs, the accuracy of which casts - into the shade the imperfect Julian Calendar in use by Europeans at - the time of the conquest. In the next zone, encircling that which - contains the tablets of the cosmological ages, are twenty enclosures, - containing the symbols of the twenty days. The triangular pointer - which extends upwards from the crest of the sun-face indicates the - dividing line between the first and last days of the month. Cipactli, - whose hieroglyphic stands at the left of the pointer is unquestionably - distinguished as the first day of the month. The second symbol to the - left is that of the second day Ehecatl, wind, the third Calli, house, - the fourth Cuetzpalin, lizard, the fifth snake, and so on to the end - of the list. In the next zone we find a succession of small squares, - each enclosing five round points. The circle is divided into four parts - by four large triangular pointers or gnomons. In each division of the - zone are ten squares containing five points each, or in the four, - we have 200 points. Gama states that the space for sixty additional - points is occupied by the feet or curves of the large indices. By - experiment it is found that the mean of the space occupied by the - feet of the pointers is equal to the width of one and a half of the - square enclosures. Eight times this space gives us twelve squares with - sixty points. Thus we have the ritualistic division or lunar reckoning - (Metzli pohualli) of 260 days. In the next zone the symbols of the - remaining 105 days or solar reckoning of the ritualistic year is found. - Eight pointers divide the circle; the six upper divisions of which - contain each ten figures resembling a grain of maize, while the two - lower divisions have but five figures in each. This gives us seventy - figures. Under each limb of the pointers is space for one and a half of - the figures, giving twenty-four more or ninety-four in all. The space - of ten additional figures is occupied by the helm-plumes of the heads - which are figured at the lower margin of the stone. This gives us 104 - figures, or one less than the required number. It will be remembered - that the five intercalary days<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span> called the nemontemi, or unlucky - days, though reckoned in regular order at the close of each year, - were considered separate and apart from it. The artist who executed - the Calendar Stone has carried out this custom in placing the figures - of the nemontemi between the tablets of the two last destructions of - nature, where they will be found by themselves. It will be observed - that four of the signs correspond to those wanting under the lower - pointer and the adjacent plumes, with this further departure from the - general plan of the design, that the central figure or maize grain - corresponds to the space between the limbs of the great pointer below. - Here, then, we have the missing symbol, and are able to find the 105 - hieroglyphics of days for the lesser division of the year. The two - zones consequently represent the complete year of 365 days.</p> - - <p>The most conspicuous of the remaining zones is the outer, and last of - all. The attention is asked to one of the twenty-four quadrangular - figures composing it. The Mexican Codices in the Kingsborough - collection furnish similar symbols for the cycle of 52 years.<a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> The - ancient Mexicans had a superstition that in the last night of the 52d - year of their cycle the sun would destroy the world. Consequently, at - every recurrence of the eventful night, all fires were extinguished, - the people clothed themselves in mourning, and forming a long - procession, repaired to a neighboring mountain, where at midnight a - priest sacrificed a man in their presence. A second priest placed a - round block of dry wood over the ghastly wound from which the heart - had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span>been torn; while a third, kneeling over the corpse, rested a hard - shaft or stick upon the block, revolving it between his two hands - with pressure until the friction produced fire. This was considered - a promise from the god that the destruction of the world would be - postponed until another cycle had elapsed.<a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> A moment’s observation - will disclose the fire symbol in the hieroglyphics for the cycle - as delineated on the stone; the perpendicular shaft with handles, - surrounded by flames and smoke, rising from a hole below. In the same - zone, above, we have two groups of pleats or bow-like figures, which - are clearly proven to be the symbol for the binding of two 52-year - cycles into an age.<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a></p> - - <p>The zone immediately within the one we have been considering, contains - the symbols of the rain-god Tlaloc. No writer has as yet given a - satisfactory explanation of the plumed head at the bottom of the stone. - It will be readily seen that the two serpent heads, plumed, and with - extended jaws, armed above and below with great fangs, enclose two - human faces. These are but the heads of the serpents whose bodies - constitute the outer zone of the disk and terminate in the triangular - points above.</p> - - <p>If the reader will but turn to our cut of the serpent temple at Uxmal - (p. 394), the same symbol of Cukulcan or Quetzalcoatl, the feathered - serpent, will be seen. Dr. Le Plongeon, in his recent researches, is - convinced that Uxmal was built, or more properly rebuilt, by Nahua - invaders, who afterwards became amalgamated with the Mayas.<a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a> Most - of the Mexican historians represent Quetzalcoatl as the founder of - the Nahua civilization. Torquemada states that he was their leader - when they first arrived in Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> If the “Feathered Serpent” - was the founder <span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span>of their institutions, it was not inappropriate for - the Aztec artist to place the hero’s face at the bottom of the stone, - and represent the symbols of the cycles as huge scales upon his body, - since the influence of the civilization which he established had been - felt throughout their entire history. To return to Prof. Valentini’s - investigations, it will be observed that there are twenty-four of the - cycle symbols, two of which are nearly hidden under the helm-plumes. - The product of 24 and 52 gives us a period of 1248 years. But what have - we to do with this result? The triangular-shaped figures which point to - the central tablet cut at the top of the stone, indicate that we must - make a calculation, and it remains for us to interpret that symbol. It - is recognizable as the sign Acatl accompanied by the number thirteen; a - year which, according to the authentic tables of reduction, corresponds - to the year 1479 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; a date which is confirmed as being the - year in which the Calendar Stone was finished and set up in the great - pyramid of Mexico by the statement of the native writer Tezozomoc, - that its author, King Axayacatl, became ill from his exertions at the - tragic celebrations of the completion of the temple and lived scarcely - a year, at the same time fixing the date of his death in 1480. If we - subtract 1248 years from the known date 1479 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, we have - the year 231 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; a date which no doubt marks the beginning - of the national era of the Nahuas, and probably designates the year of - their arrival in Mexico by the ports of Tampico, Xicalanco and Bacalar. - Thus it is that the uncertainty of the traditions relating to the - obscure events of early Nahua history is removed, and we are enabled to - settle upon the third century of our era as the period when the great - migration took place. We will say more than Professor Valentini or his - predecessor; we believe this to be the date of the migration from Hue - hue Tlapalan, the country of the Mound-builders of the Mississippi - valley, and we further think we are sustained in this view both by the - early writers and by the condition of the mounds and shell-heaps of the - United States. At first thought, it would seem that the year 231 might - be the date in which the astrologers assembled in Hue hue Tlapalan for - the correction of the calendar (a fact to which we have previously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span> - referred), but it is distinctly stated that the assembly convened in - the year 1 Tecpatl; a date which, according to the received reduction - tables, corresponds to the year 29 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span></p> - - <p>Humboldt by an elaborate discussion has satisfactorily shown the - relative likeness of the Nahua Calendar to that of Asia. He cites the - fact that the Chinese, Japanese, Calmouks, Mongols, Mantchoux and - other hordes of Tartars have cycles of sixty years duration, divided - into five brief periods of twelve years each. The method of citing - a date by means of signs and numbers is quite similar with Asiatics - and Mexicans.<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> He further shows satisfactorily that the majority - of the names of the twenty days employed by the Aztecs are those of - a zodiac used since the most remote antiquity among the peoples of - Eastern Asia.<a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> Cabrera thinks he finds analogies between the - Mexican and Egyptian calendars. Adopting the view of several writers - (Acosta, Clavigero and others) that the Mexican year began on the 26th - of February, he finds the date to correspond to the beginning of the - Egyptian year. He also observes that both peoples intercalated five - days at the close of their year.<a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> M. Jomard, quoted by Delafield, - denies that the Egyptians intercalated, but believes sufficient - analogies exist to prove a common origin for the Theban and Mexican - calendars;<a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> his argument, however, is worthless, as are many others - of a similar character.</p> - - <p><i>Religious Analogies.</i>—In contrast with the obscure subject of the - calendar requiring such close attention, we present to the reader a few - of the analogies supposed to exist between Mexican and other religious - systems. The majority of our references will be made more with a - view to satisfying curiosity than for the establishment of a theory. - Argument from analogy is at best unscientific—it proves nothing. It - is a matter of surprise how much has been written to establish the - theory that the Mexicans <span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span>were descendants of the Jews both in race - and religion. Mr. Bancroft has collected many of Lord Kingsborough’s - arguments in proof of the theory to which he devoted his fortune and - sacrificed his life. We have done a similar work with a somewhat - different arrangement, and call the attention of the reader to some of - the fanciful and we must add mirth-provoking analogies to which the - great Americanist attached so much importance. “The Mexicans spoke - of their god as the <em>invisible and incorporeal Unity</em>, and they - furthermore believed man to be created in his image.”<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> He states - further that the doctrine of the trinity was also held by them.<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a> He - considers that Eden and the temptation were portrayed by the American - artists. “The Toltecs had paintings of a garden with a single tree - standing in the midst, one especially drawn on coarse paper of the - Aloe, round the root of which tree is entwined a serpent, whose head - appearing above the foliage displays the features and countenance of a - woman. * * * Torquemada admits the existence of this tradition amongst - them, and agrees with the Indian historians who affirm this was the - first woman in the world who had children, and from whom all mankind - are descended.”<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a></p> - - <p>Lord Kingsborough is no doubt warranted in holding that the Nahuas - were of old world origin at a very remote period prior to their having - developed any special tribal characteristics, because of their singular - and we think certain knowledge of the Mosaic deluge; but he is not - justified in claiming for them any particular relationship to the - Jewish or any Shemitic people.<a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p> - - <p>In a preceding chapter we have given the deluge tradition from - Ixtlilxochitl, who states that the waters rose <em>fifteen cubits</em> - (caxtolmoletltli) above the highest mountains, and that a few escaped - in a close chest (toptlipetlacali), and after men had multiplied, they - erected a very high <i>zacuali</i> or tower, in order to take refuge - in it should the world be again destroyed. He further states that then - their speech was confused, so that they could not understand each - other, and that they dispersed to different parts of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> - Whether the native historian of Tezcuco who gives us this account, - so remarkable for its similarity to the Mosaic, was influenced by - Spanish priests and warped from the truth, we are not prepared to - affirm at this distant day, since such an assumption would strike the - very keystone from the arch upon which all historical evidence rests. - Much of the aversion to the view that the Mexican deluge legends - are authentic and of old world origin, has been generated by the - unscientific and presumptuous style of most of its advocates. Lord - Kingsborough himself is ever ready to catch at a straw, and out of - customs the most remote to evolve an analogy. Nevertheless, we are - not at liberty to reject the Mexican deluge legend as a fable without - assuming the burden of proof.<a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> Remarkable parallels (?) in the - history of both Jews and Mexicans are thought to be discovered by - the sanguine Kingsborough. Of a number, two or three specimens will - suffice. Hue hue Tlapalan is claimed to have been situated on the - Californian coast since the Gulf of California until a late period was - called the <i>red river</i> or <i>gulf</i>, a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span>name they brought with - them.<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> Again: “As the Israelites were conducted from Egypt by Moses - and Aaron who were accompanied by their sister Miriam, so the Aztecs - departed from Aztlan under the guidance of Huitziton and Tecpalzin, the - former of whom is named by Acosta and Herrera, Mixi, attended likewise - by their sister Quilaztli, or as she is otherwise named Chimalman or - Malinatli, both of which names have some resemblance to Miriam as Mixi - has to Moses.”<a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> “The destruction of the rebellious Kohra (Gen. - xvi) is repeated after the arrival of the Mexicans at Tulan, who, - enchanted with the land, were unwilling to go further in search of - their promised land. They murmured at Huitzilopochtli, and suffered a - dreadful punishment at his hands that night by the death of every one - who had rebelled against his will.”<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a></p> - - <p>Lord Kingsborough discovers in a Mexican painting in the Bodleian - library, a symbol resembling the jaw-bone of an ass, from the side - of which water flows forth. This, of course, commemorated the story - of Sampson.<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> Among the conspicuous doctrines held by both Jews - and Mexicans, we note that the latter believed their children to be - the gift of Tezcatlipoca as the former ascribed them to the favor - of Jehovah.<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> The doctrine of sin and atonement was held by - the Mexicans. Confession and sacrifice of atonement were common, - for “half the offerings represented in the Mexican paintings were - trespass-offerings, or sacrifices for the commission of sins.”<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> - “The Mexicans, like the Jews, were accustomed to do penance by sitting - on the ground, in which posture their priests are often represented - in the Mexican paintings.”<a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a> “The Mexicans were as punctilious - about washings and ablutions as the Jews.”<a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a> Baptism was considered - the means of regeneration in Yucatan,<a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> and was practised by the - Mexicans as a religious ceremony.<a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> Both peoples had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span>devils and the - leprosy,<a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> both considered women who died in child-bed as worthy - of honor as soldiers who fall in battle.<a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> The doctrine of hell, - according to the most orthodox theology, was held by the Mexicans.<a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a> - Both Jews and Mexicans believed in the resurrection of the body and the - immortality of the soul.<a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> The latter people sprinkled the face of - a corpse with water as a baptism after death.<a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> Numerous analogies - are found to exist between the Mosaic and the religious code of the - Mexicans, as in profanity, sabbath-keeping, disobedience to parents, - the smiting of a servant to death, and in the punishment by stoning of - persons guilty of fornication and adultery.<a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> Kingsborough maintains - that circumcision was performed on the eighth day, declaring it to - have “prevailed thousands of leagues along the coast of the Atlantic, - amongst nations very remote from each other, and who spoke very - different languages.”<a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> Both peoples had a mutual disgust for swine - flesh, and refused to eat the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span>blood of any animal.<a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a> The latter - statement is altogether unwarranted in fact. The ceremonial of both - peoples have many features in common. As the Jews killed the paschal - lamb in the evening, so the Mexicans offered up their sacrifices at - night.<a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a> The Jews in Mexico substituted llamas for sheep in their - sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Both Jews and Mexicans worshipped toward the east, or - toward their chief temples, and both called the <em>south</em> by the - designation of “right-hand of the world.”<a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a> Both burned incense - toward the four corners of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a> As David leaped and danced - before the ark of the Lord, so did the Mexican monarchs before their - idols.<a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a> Both peoples had an ark, and Duran states that in the ark - of the Aztecs which figured so prominently in their migration, was - the image of their invisible god.<a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a> Numerous analogies relating - to astrology, omens, witchcraft, dreams, etc., are recorded.<a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a> - References to prophecy are not wanting: Quetzalcoatl predicted the - destruction of the temple of Cholula, furnishing a parallel to Christ’s - prophecy of the destruction of the temple.<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> In the Mexican - mythology, by means of an active imagination, he finds an allusion to - the “stone which was carved without hands.”<a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a> A tiger represented - in the Bologna MS. he supposes to be the lion of the tribe of Juda—the - Jews of the New World having metamorphosed it into a tiger.<a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a> - Kingsborough supposes that the crosses found in Mexico may have been - carried there by Irish monks, “especially,” he adds, “as M. de Humboldt - informs us that the first Spanish monks and missionaries gravely - discussed the question of whether Quetzalcoatl was an Irishman.”<a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> - The fanaticism of the eminent Americanist, however, reaches its - culmination in his supposed discovery of analogies to Christ in Mexican - mythology. The story of the virgin, the annunciation, and the identity - of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span>Christ and Quetzalcoatl, are clearly discernible to his practised - eye.<a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> Christ stilled the tempest, and, like Quetzalcoatl, was god - of the air.<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> In Yucatan, in the priestly fable of Bacab, he finds a - complete and true account of the trinity.<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> It is hardly necessary - for us to remark that these ingenious comparisons, tinged with a - coloring of fanaticism and yet so full of interest, are useless to the - cause of science and prove nothing. With the single exception of the - remarkable tradition of the deluge and its literal correspondence in - detail to the Mosaic account, we must dismiss the multitude of supposed - analogies between Mexican and Hebrew traditions, customs and religion, - which Kingsborough and others have discovered, as either imaginary or - accidental.<a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a></p> - - <p>The hypothesis that the Nahua religion may have received some of its - characteristics from India is altogether plausible and not without - support in resemblances. The cosmological conception of the egg and - serpent is found, as previously stated, on Brush Creek, in Adams - County, Ohio. It certainly comes to us from Asiatic India. Serpent - worship, not only among the people of the mounds but especially of - Mexico, is the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span>most patent fact revealed to us in ancient American - sculpture. “Humboldt thinks he sees in the snake cut in pieces, the - famous serpent Kaliya or Kalinaga, conquered by Vishnu, when he took - the form of Krishna, and in the Mexican Toua-tiuh, the Hindu Krushna, - sung of in the Bhagavata-Purana.”<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> Count Stolberg and Tschudi have - both made arguments in favor of this view.<a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> Humboldt characterizes - Quetzalcoatl as the Buddha of the Mexicans, the founder of the monastic - establishments resembling those of Thibet and Western Asia.<a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a> He - further considers the flood of which they speak, identical with that - of which traditions are preserved by the Hindoos, the Chinese, and the - Shemitic peoples.</p> - - <p>Advocates of Scandinavian analogies in religion are not wanting. - Although Viollet-le-Duc finds parallels existing between the - Brahmanistic ideas of divinity and passages of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, - still he is of the opinion that the strongest resemblances have been - found to exist between the religious customs of the Scandinavians and - those recorded in the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> Humboldt remarks, “we have - fixed the special attention of our readers upon this Votan or Wodan, - an American who appears of the same family with the Wods or Odins of - the Goths and of the peoples of Celtic origin. Since, according to the - learned researches of Sir William Jones, Odin and Buddha are probably - the same person, it is curious to see the names of <i>Bondvar</i>, - <i>Wodansdag</i> and <i>Votan</i> designating in India, Scandinavia, - and in Mexico, the day of a brief period.”<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a></p> - - <p>Lafitau, in his <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages</cite>, is as enthusiastic in - his advocacy of the theory that the ancient Americans derived their - religion from the Greeks, as Kingsborough is certain that it was of - Jewish origin. He devotes his fourth chapter, and furnishes numerous - illustrations, in support of his view.<a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> Our limited space precludes - the possibility of presenting in full the analogies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span> discovered - by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg between the Mexican deities and - those of Greece and Egypt. If we hesitate sometimes in accepting his - conclusions, we cannot but wonder at his erudition and his zeal in - research. He calls attention to the fact that the cult of Pan and - Hermes were identical in Greece, and refers to Maia, a personification - of the earth, and the mother of the Hermes having been the consort - of Zeus or Pan himself. So in Mexico he finds Pan in the person of - <i>Cipactoual</i>, who, under the name of <i>Cuextecatl</i>, has - for his consort <i>Maia</i> or <i>Maiaoel</i>. This god was adored - in all parts of Mexico and Central America, and at <i>Panuco</i> or - <i>Panco</i>, literally <i>Panopolis</i>, the Spaniards found upon - their entrance into Mexico, superb temples and images of Pan.<a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> - The names of both Pan and Maia enter extensively into the Maya - vocabulary, <i>Maia</i> being the same as <i>Maya</i>, the principal - name of the peninsula, and <i>pan</i>, making Mayapan, the ancient - capital. In the Nahua language <i>pan</i> or <i>pani</i> signifies - “equality to that which is above,” and <i>Pantecatl</i> was the - progenitor of all beings. The Abbé has little difficulty in proving - the identity of Zamna, Hunab-ku and other Maya deities, with the - gods of Greece.<a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> In the name of the Egyptian god Horus, he finds - the significance of hurricane, or in the dialects of the Antilles, - <i>huracan</i> or <i>urogan</i>, the god Hurakan of the Quichés. Also - in the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol which Salvolini found equivalent - to the phonetic K, namely, the singular reptile <i>Uraeus</i>, which - resembles a serpent in an erect position with an enlarged body, and - employed extensively as a decoration in hair of the Egyptian deities - and the Pharaohs; he sees the emblem of Quetzalcoatl (Ketzalcohuatl) - the feathered-serpent, called Gukumatz in Quiché, and Kukulcan in - Maya. The same symbol is represented on the Egyptian monuments with - a feather rising from the serpent’s crest.<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> It would be easy to - pursue these ingenious comparisons through a number of pages, but we - question their value in throwing any light on the subject in hand. The - reader will find them <span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span>scattered in profusion through the voluminous - writings of the learned Abbé. It is sufficient to say that most of the - seeming analogies between the new and old world religions cannot be - other than accidental, since it is probable that the aborigines entered - our continent at a very remote antiquity, long before the religions - with which theirs have been so persistently compared, took on their - distinctive features. If after they were separated from the rest of - the world by seas and mountains, the Americans developed religious - systems presenting analogies to those of other lands, it furnishes - us but another proof of the common parentage and brotherhood of the - race, of the universal outgoing of the human mind after the deity, and - the sameness of mental operations and processes under the same given - conditions.<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a></p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_X"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER X</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc bold">LANGUAGE AND ITS RELATION TO NORTH AMERICAN MIGRATIONS.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Diversity of Languages in America—Causes of Diversity—Richness of - American Languages—Polysynthesis—Grimm’s Law—The Maya-Quiché - Languages—Stability of the Maya—Oldest American Language—The - Maya compared to the Greek, the Hebrew, the North European, - the Basque, West African, and the Quichua Languages—Epitome - of Maya Grammar—The Mizteco-Zapotec Languages—The Nahua or - Aztec—The Classic Tongue—Ancient and Modern Nahua—Epitome - of Aztec Grammar—Geographical Extension of the Aztec—In - the South—In the North-west—Buschmann’s Researches—Sonora - Family—Opata-Tarahumar-Pima Family—Moqui and Aztec - Elements—Aztec in the Shoshone and in the Languages of Oregon - and the Columbian Region—Line of Aztec Elements—The Nahua - probably the Language of the Mound-builders—The Otomi—Supposed - Chinese Analogies—Japanese Analogies—Geographical Names.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">LANGUAGE in aboriginal America may be pronounced a mystery of mysteries - and a Babel of Babels. Mr. Bancroft has catalogued nearly six hundred - distinct languages, existing between northern Alaska and the Isthmus - of Panama. Many of these, however, scarcely deserve to be called more - than dialects; while each has its individuality, it is true that all - have certain characteristics in common, a fact which by some has been - considered sufficient ground for belief in the unity of the American - race, a hypothesis which is by no means tenable. The geographical - division and intermixture of languages, for instance, in California, - is without a parallel elsewhere in the world. By the accidents - attendant upon savage life, resulting from ceaseless hostilities and - the frequent inroads of tribes upon their neighbors, a nation has often - been scattered in fragments, and its refugees, separated into small - bands, have taken up their residence in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span> midst of other tribes at - localities far removed from their central home. In a generation or - two a modification of the parent speech has been brought about by the - surrounding influences, all of which vary in the several localities in - which the refugees have found their new homes. New tribes thus formed, - soon become unintelligible to their brothers, who have developed a - dialect under different influences from theirs. When we consider that - for thousands of years this wholesale division and subdivision of - tribes and languages has been going on, as the result of ceaseless - hostilities, we can easily account for the multitude of languages - and dialects on the one hand, and the existence of a thread of unity - or similarity on the other, said to run through them all. Supposing - the continent to have received its population from several different - quarters, the natural expectation would be that in the course of time - this process of general intermixture would result in developing in - each language much that was common to the others—hence the foundation - for the hypothesis of their unity of origin. In the study of American - languages it has often been a matter of surprise that their structure - and expressiveness indicates a degree of perfection far in advance of - the civilization out of which they had sprung. This superiority, we - think, can be accounted for on the principle, first, that the evolution - of languages on this continent has been more active and constant - here than elsewhere, though unfortunately not always operating under - favorable conditions; and second, that in the frequent catastrophes - which have resulted from inter-tribal warfare, even in language, the - law of the survival of the fittest is apparent, in the preservation - of those etymological forms and principles of structure which are - most useful. We by no means agree with the eminent philologist Dr. - W. Farrar, F.R.S., chaplain to the Queen, and others who, taking - but a partial and second-hand view of American languages, pronounce - their elaborateness a childish excess, and their vaunted wealth a - concealment of their poverty.<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> An examination of the poems of - Nezahualcoyotl, king of Tezcuco, recorded by Ixtlilxochitl, will afford - sufficient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span>proof of the expressiveness and richness of the Aztec - language.<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> The song on the “Mutability of Life” and the ode on the - tyrant Tezozomoc have often been translated and admired.<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> One of - the leading characteristics of American language, it has been said, - is “<i>agglutination</i>,” but we must add that the term employed is - not sufficiently comprehensive. “Agglutination,” says Farrar, “may be - described as that principle of linguistic structure which consists - in the mere placing of unaltered roots side by side; as when to - express ‘discipline’ the Chinese say ‘law-soldier,’ or for ‘elders’ - ‘father-mother,’ or for ‘enjoyment’ ‘luxury-play-food-clothes.’”<a id="FNanchor_704" href="#Footnote_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a></p> - - <p>The term <em>polysynthesis</em>, the synthesis of many words into - one, with a little explanation will describe the characteristic, so - prominent, to which we allude. In their polysynthesis, the syllables or - words which are compressed into one long word, no longer retain their - individual forms, but are clipped and altered so as to be scarcely - recognizable. A sentence by this process of fusion is compressed into - a single long word. Dr. Farrar cites the following example from the - Aztec: <i>achichillacachocan</i>, means “the place where people weep - because the water is red.” The component parts are: <i>atl</i> “water,” - <i>chichiltic</i> “red,” <i>tlacatl</i> “man,” <i>chorea</i> “weep,” - all of which have nearly lost their identity in the inflection and - contraction necessary in the synthesis.<a id="FNanchor_705" href="#Footnote_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a> As in the Aryan and other - families, Grimm’s system of <i>Lautverschiebung</i>—sound changing, or - shunting—better known by Prof. Max Müller’s designation as “Grimm’s - law” prevails, so there are groups or families in northern Mexico - pointed out by Buschmann to which this law is clearly applicable. - No doubt the number of relationships already established between - aboriginal languages, as the result of classification, will be greatly - augmented when, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span>if ever, the subject receives special attention.<a id="FNanchor_706" href="#Footnote_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> - Mr. Bancroft classifies the languages in his catalogue under three - great families, namely, the Tinneh, Aztec and Maya. The first, which - covers the territory around the northern extremity of the Rocky - Mountains, and sends its offshoots as far south as northern Mexico, - only concerns us incidentally in treating the ancient languages of - North America.<a id="FNanchor_707" href="#Footnote_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> The two families (and their far-reaching branches) - in which we are interested, are the Maya and the Aztec, the latter the - survivor of the speech of the Nahuas.</p> - - <p>To the Maya, or rather, the Maya-Quiché stock, no doubt belongs the - greatest antiquity assignable to any language or languages on the - continent. The mother tongue, the Maya, prevails throughout all of - Yucatan, and together with its dialects extends itself over Tabasco, - Chiapas and Guatemala, and is even present in the states of Tamaulipas - and Vera Cruz, in the Huastic and Totonac languages. Numerous - catalogues of the branches of this family have been made, but the most - recent, and we think the most complete, is one constructed in 1876 on - Señor Pimentel’s classification by the Mexican scholar, Señor Garcia y - Cubas. It is as follows: 1. Yucateco or Maya; 2. Punctunc; 3. Lacandon - or Xochinel; 4. Peten or Itzae; 5. Chañabal, Comiteco, Jocolobal; 6. - Chol or Mopan; 7. Chorti or Chorte. 8. Cakchi, Caichi, Cachi or Cakgi; - 9. Ixil, Izil; 10. Coxoh; 11. Quiché, Utlatec; 12. Zutuhil, Zutugil, - Atiteca, Zacapula; 13. Cachiquel, Cachiquil; 14. Tzotzil, Zotzil, - Tzinanteco, Cinanteco; 15. Tzendal, Zendal; 16. Mame, Mem, Zaklohpakap; - 17. Poconchi, Pocoman; 18. Atche, Atchi; 19. Huastic, and probably - 20. the Haytian, Quizqueja or Itis, with their affinities, the Cuban, - Boriguan and Jamaican languages.<a id="FNanchor_708" href="#Footnote_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span></p> - - <p>The author of the above list has compensated us for its length by - giving each of the names with its variation in orthography according - to different writers. The classification is altogether superior to any - other. The Maya is of peculiar interest to us, especially since within - the territory over which it extends are found the most celebrated - architectural remains known to Central American archæology. The - majority of the sculptured tablets which are preserved are no doubt - in the Maya or some of its dialects. What is most satisfactory to us, - is the probability that the language is spoken to-day by the mass of - the native population of Yucatan as it was anciently, for says Señor - Pimentel, “the Indians have preserved this idiom with such tenacity - that to this day they will speak no other,” and he adds that it is - necessary for the whites to address them in their own tongue in order - to communicate with them.<a id="FNanchor_709" href="#Footnote_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a></p> - - <p>Señor Orozco y Berra furnishes us evidence that little change has - taken place in the language since the earliest times, in the statement - that all the geographical names of the peninsula are Maya, which - is considered proof in his judgment that the Mayas were the first - occupants of the country.<a id="FNanchor_710" href="#Footnote_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> It is but a reasonable expectation, - therefore, that at no distant day, by the aid of Landa’s alphabet, the - inscriptions will be compelled to reveal their mysterious contents. - The Tzendal, the language in which Votan is said to have written a - history of the foundation of his city, and still spoken near the ruins - of Palenque, is said to have been the oldest of American languages, - but linguistic investigations have proven that it is an offshoot from - the Maya, the mother tongue.<a id="FNanchor_711" href="#Footnote_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a> It is probable that the Maya was - first planted at some point in the territory which it now occupies, and - gradually extended its domain until its colonies reached northern Vera - Cruz and southern Nicaragua. Whether at any time it was the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span>language - of a people inhabiting central and southern Mexico at a date anterior - to the arrival of the Nahuas, is unknown though probable. Señor Orozco - y Berra has shown by linguistic studies that probably the Mayas - occupied the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, having in their - migration passed from the Floridian peninsula to Cuba and thence to the - other Caribbean isles, and to Yucatan. He states that the Mayas possess - traditions of a northern home from which they passed by means of the - islands of the Gulf to Yucatan. Both he and Señor Pimentel agree that - the languages of the West Indies belong to the Maya family.<a id="FNanchor_712" href="#Footnote_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a></p> - - <p>The characteristics of the Maya-Quiché languages are; flexibility, - expressiveness, vigor, approximating harshness, yet on the contrary - rich and musical in sound. The Maya itself has more than once been - compared to the Greek, and even said to be derived from it. Dr. Le - Plongeon, who for four years has been exploring the ruins of Yucatan - and especially of Chichen-Itza, writes thus in connection with the - discovery of a well-sculptured bear’s head at Uxmal: “When did bears - inhabit the peninsula? Strange to say, the Maya does not furnish the - name for bear. Yet one-third of this tongue is pure Greek. Who brought - the dialect of Homer to America? Or who took to Greece that of the - Mayas? Greek is the offspring of the Sanscrit. Is Maya? Or are they - coeval? A clue for ethnologists to follow the migrations of the human - family on this old continent. Did the bearded men whose portraits - are carved on the massive pillars of the fortress at Chichen-Itza, - belong to the Mayan nations? The Maya is not devoid of words from the - Assyrian.”<a id="FNanchor_713" href="#Footnote_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> He does not hesitate to say that “the Maya, containing - words from almost every language, ancient or modern, is well worth - the attention of philologists,” a statement which might with but - little breach of propriety be made as well concerning almost any - other language. In referring to its antiquity, the writer says, “I - must <span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span>speak of that language which has survived unaltered through the - vicissitudes of the nations that spoke it thousands of years ago, and - is yet the general tongue in Yucatan—the Maya. There can be no doubt - that this is one of the most ancient languages on earth. It was used by - a people that lived at least 6000 years ago, as proved by the Katuns, - to record the history of their rulers, the dogmas of their religion, on - the walls of their palaces, on the façades of their temples.”<a id="FNanchor_714" href="#Footnote_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a> The - Mexican scholar, Señor Melgar, is convinced that he sees resemblances - between the names employed by the Chiapenecs in their calendar, and - the Hebrew, and furnishes comparative lists to sustain his hopeless - theory.<a id="FNanchor_715" href="#Footnote_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">476</span></p> - - <p>The speculations of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg are none the - less remarkable and about equally as plausible as those of Dr. Le - Plongeon or Señor Melgar. The Abbé after years of study among the - peoples of Central America, was convinced beyond a doubt that a marked - relationship existed between the Quiché-Cakchiquel and Zutugil and the - languages of the north of Europe. He considers the evidence sufficient - that peoples speaking the Germanic and Scandinavian languages migrated - to Central America and infused their idioms into the Maya.<a id="FNanchor_716" href="#Footnote_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></p> - - <p>With Mr. Bancroft we agree that no value can be attached to these - speculations, until impartial comparisons are made by scholars who - have no theories to substantiate. It is worthy of note that several - eminent scholars have observed the remarkable similarity of grammatical - structure between the Central American and certain transatlantic - languages, especially the Basque<a id="FNanchor_717" href="#Footnote_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">477</span>and some of the languages of - Western Africa.<a id="FNanchor_718" href="#Footnote_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon, after several years spent amid - the antiquities of Peru and in the study of the Quichua language, - says, “The Quichua contains many words that seem closely allied to the - dialects spoken by the nations inhabiting the regions called to-day - Central America, and the Maya tongue.” In referring to the mural - paintings at Chichen-Itza, he further remarks, “By comparing them with - those of the Quichuas, I cannot but believe that Manco’s ancestors - emigrated from Xilbalba or Mayapan, carrying with them the notions of - the northern country.”<a id="FNanchor_719" href="#Footnote_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> Interesting as these speculations are, they - must be received with allowance and viewed with doubt, until thorough - linguistic researches test their value.</p> - - <p>The most important features of Maya grammar are as follows: The letters - of the alphabet are, a b c ɔ e, ch, c<i>h</i>, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, - p, <i>p</i>, ó, pp, t, th, tz, u, x, y, <i>y</i>, z. The letter ɔ is - pronounced like the English <i>dj</i>, <i>h</i> is not aspirated, - <i>th</i> is hard, and the <i>k</i> guttural. Much of the beauty of the - pronunciation depends on the elision of certain vowels and consonants, - as for instance instead of <i>ma in kati</i> they say <i>min kati</i>, - or instead of <i>ti ca otoch</i> they would say <i>ti c otoch</i>. The - plural is distinguished from the singular by the addition of <i>ob</i> - (those). Verbs ending in <i>an</i> take <i>tac</i> in the plural. The - masculine of rational beings <span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">478</span>is denoted by the prefix <i>ab</i>, - the feminine by <i>ix</i>. The words <i>xibil</i> and <i>chupul</i>, - signifying male and female respectively, are used to express the gender - of animals. The case of nouns is determined by their position in the - sentence and their relation to the prepositions, the most frequent - of the latter being <i>ti</i>, which has various significations. - Adjectives accompanying substantives always precede them, but the - number is only expressed by the substantive. The comparative is formed - by adding <i>l</i> to the adjective, sometimes <i>il</i>, and prefixing - <i>u</i> or <i>y</i> the pronoun of the third person. The superlative - is formed by prefixing <i>hach</i> to the positive.</p> - - <p>The Maya pronouns are as follows:</p> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya pronouns"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb"><i>Personal Pronouns.</i></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb bl"><i>Possessives.</i></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bt2 bb bl"><i>Reciprocals.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td>Ten, en,</td> - <td>I</td> - <td class="bl">In, u,</td> - <td>Mine.</td> - <td class="bl">Inba,</td> - <td>Myself.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tech, ech,</td> - <td>Thou.</td> - <td class="bl">A, au,</td> - <td>Thine.</td> - <td class="bl">Aba,</td> - <td>Thyself.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lay, laylo, lo,</td> - <td>He, that.</td> - <td class="bl">U, i,</td> - <td>His, of that.</td> - <td class="bl">Uba,</td> - <td>Himself.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Toon, on,</td> - <td>We.</td> - <td class="bl">Ca,</td> - <td>Ours.</td> - <td class="bl">Caba,</td> - <td>Ourselves.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Teex, ex,</td> - <td>You.</td> - <td class="bl">Aex, auex,</td> - <td>Yours.</td> - <td class="bl">Abaex,</td> - <td>Yourselves.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Loob, ob,</td> - <td>They, those.</td> - <td class="bl">Uob, yob,</td> - <td>Of those.</td> - <td class="bl">Ubaob,</td> - <td>Themselves.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>The verb has four conjugations and that of the auxiliary <i>teni</i>, - to be, the present tense of which is the same as the personal pronouns - given in the left hand column, <i>Ten</i>, <i>Tech</i>, etc. The other - cases are as follows: Imperfect, <i>Ten cuchi</i>; Perfect, <i>Ten - hi</i>; Pluperfect, <i>Ten hi-ilicuchi</i>; Future, <i>Bin ten-ac</i>; - Future perfect, <i>Ten hi-ili coshom</i>; Imperative, <i>Ten-ac</i>; - Subjunctive present, <i>Ten-ac en</i>; Imperfect, <i>Hi ten-ac</i>.</p> - - <p>The verb <i>Nacal</i>, to ascend, of the first conjugation, is - inflected as follows:</p> - - <div class="center smcap">Present Indicative.</div> - - <p>Singular, 1st per., <i>Nacal in cah</i>; 2d per., <i>Nacal a cah</i>; - 3d per., <i>Nacal u cah</i>.</p> - - <p>Plural, 1st per., <i>Nacal ca cah</i>; 2d per., <i>Nacal a-cah-ex</i>; - 3d per., <i>Nacal-u-cah-ob</i>.</p> - - <p>The Imperfect, <i>Nacal in cah-cuchi</i>; Perfect, <i>Nac-en</i>; - Pluperfect, <i>Nacen ili cuchi</i>; Future, <i>Bin nacac-en</i>; Future - perfect, <i>Nacen ili-cuchom</i>; Imperative, <i>Nacen</i>.</p> - - <div class="center smcap mt3"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">479</span> - The Lord’s Prayer in Maya. - </div> - - <div class="translation"> - <span class="pair">Cayum<br />Our Father</span> - <span class="pair">ianeeh<br />who art</span> - <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span> - <span class="pair">càannob<br />Heaven</span> - <span class="pair">cilichthantabac<br />blessed be</span> - <span class="pair">akaba<br />Thy name;</span> - <span class="pair">tac a<br />it may come</span> - <span class="pair">ahaulil<br />Thy kingdom</span> - <span class="pair">c’<br />us</span> - <span class="pair">okol.<br />over.</span> - <span class="pair">Mencahac<br />Be done</span> - <span class="pair">a<br />Thine</span> - <span class="pair">nolah<br />will</span> - <span class="pair">uai<br />as</span> - <span class="pair">ti<br />on</span> - <span class="pair">luum<br />earth</span> - <span class="pair">bai<br />as</span> - <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span> - <span class="pair">caanè.<br />heaven.</span> - - <span class="pair">Zanzamal<br />Daily</span> - <span class="pair">uah<br />bread</span> - <span class="pair">ca<br />us</span> - <span class="pair">azotoon<br />give</span> - <span class="pair">heleae<br />to-day</span> - <span class="pair">caazaatez<br />us forgive</span> - <span class="pair">c’<br />our</span> - <span class="pair">ziipil<br />sins</span> - <span class="pair">he bik<br />as</span> - <span class="pair">c’<br />we</span> - <span class="pair">zaatzic<br />forgive</span> - - <span class="pair">uziipil<br />their sins</span> - <span class="pair">ahziipiloobtoone,<br />to sinners,</span> - <span class="pair">ma ix<br />not also</span> - <span class="pair">appatic<br />let</span> - <span class="pair">c’<br />us</span> - <span class="pair">lubul<br />fall</span> - <span class="pair">ti<br />in</span> - <span class="pair">tuntah<br />temptation</span> - <span class="pair">caatocoon<br />us deliver</span> - <span class="pair">ti<br />from</span> - <span class="pair">ob.<a id="FNanchor_720" href="#Footnote_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a><br />evil.</span> - <span class="pair"><br /></span> - </div> - - <p>In the state of Oajaca and occupying the western portion of the Isthmus - of Tehuantepec, in a position intermediate between the Maya on the - one hand and the Nahua on the other, is found the ancient family of - languages known as the Mizteco-Zapotec, the various dialects of which - are spoken to this day by the natives occupying those regions. No - tradition throws any light on the origin of this group, nor do any - affiliations in vocabulary or grammmatical structure seem to exist - between them and any other family, American or foreign. The Miztec - language is exceedingly difficult to acquire, being characterized by - words of extraordinary length. The Zapotec on the contrary, with its - several dialects, is elegant, sonorous, and <em>less</em> difficult.<a id="FNanchor_721" href="#Footnote_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a></p> - - <p>The language pre-eminent above all others in Mexico for its territorial - extent, for the refinement and civilization which it <span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">480</span>represented, and - its own inherent beauty and elegance, is known as the Nahua or Aztec, - or more modernly the Mexican. It was the language of the Toltecs and - of their advanced civilization, and after them of the seven tribes of - <i>Nahuatlacas</i>, that in the year 1196 established themselves in - the Mexican plateau. The Aztecs, one of these tribes, in the course of - events gaining the ascendency, gave their name to the language which - their conquests speedily extended over a territory four hundred leagues - in length, and in width from the Gulf to the Pacific, in the latitude - of the capital. The Aztec tongue prevailed continuously from a point - on the Gulf of California, under the twenty-sixth parallel of latitude - south-easterly to Rios Goatzacoalco and Tobasco; and southward to the - fifteenth parallel, extending along the coast of San Salvador and - appearing in the interior of Nicaragua. Its dialectical extension north - of Mexico we will consider on a future page. Twenty languages besides - the Aztec are said to have been spoken throughout Montezuma’s empire, - but the Aztec alone was recognized as the official and classic tongue. - The Chichimecs are said to have spoken a language of their own, until - the ruler Techotlalatzin commanded them to learn the Mexican.<a id="FNanchor_722" href="#Footnote_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> Mr. - Bancroft is of the opinion that the Nahua was the original language of - the Chichimecs, and consequently does not agree with Señor Pimentel - who advocates the opposite view, and, we think, sustains it.<a id="FNanchor_723" href="#Footnote_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> The - copiousness and grace of the Aztec has furnished a theme for many - Spanish writers whose praises have found an echo in the works of our - most able scholars and historians. If the Maya has been compared to the - Greek, the Aztec has often been likened to the Latin, not in structure - or vocabulary, but in its relation to ancient American civilization, - in its expressiveness, politeness, its capacity for the sublime, and - for the romantic coloring with which it is able to clothe that which is - humble and even insignificant. “It was the court language,” says Mr. - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">481</span>Bancroft, “of American civilization, the Latin of medieval and the - French of modern times.”<a id="FNanchor_724" href="#Footnote_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a></p> - - <p>The Nahua attained its highest development during the century preceding - the conquest in the schools of oratory, poetry and history, established - at Tezcuco, to which the sons of nobles were sent, as much to acquire - the purity of the idiom as the science which they taught.<a id="FNanchor_725" href="#Footnote_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> Señor - Orozco y Berra says that the difference existing between the ancient - Nahua and the modern, may be compared to that difference observed - between the Castilian of the Romance of the Cid and that of the present - day.<a id="FNanchor_726" href="#Footnote_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a></p> - - <p>The outlines of the Aztec grammar are briefly as follows: The alphabet - contains the letters a, ch, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, tl, tz, u, v, - x, y, z, but lacks our consonants b, d, f, r, g, s. No word commences - with l. The <i>a</i> is clear; <i>ch</i> before a vowel is pronounced - as in Spanish, but before a consonant or when final it differs - somewhat; <i>e</i> is clear; <i>h</i> is moderately aspirated and soft, - but strong when it precedes <i>u</i>; <i>t</i> is omitted except when - it comes between two <i>l’s</i>. The <i>tl</i> in the middle of a word - is soft as in Spanish, but at the end is pronounced <i>tle</i>, the - <i>e</i> being half mute. The pronunciation of <i>tz</i> is similar - to the Spanish <i>s</i>, but stronger. The <i>v</i> is pronounced by - the women as in Spanish and French, but by the men like <i>hu</i> in - Spanish; <i>x</i>, soft like the English <i>sh</i>, and <i>z</i> like - the Spanish <i>s</i>, but not quite so hissing.<a id="FNanchor_727" href="#Footnote_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">482</span></p> - - <p>By composition, words containing sixteen syllables are formed, - though many simple words are quite long. We have already explained - the process of polysynthesis or compounding by means of clipping the - syllables and words with a view to brevity and euphony. The following - example furnished by Pimentel and copied by Mr. Bancroft, further - illustrates the principle: <i>tlazotli</i>, esteemed or loved; - <i>maviztik</i>, honored or reverenced; <i>teopixki</i>, priest; - <i>tatli</i>, father, and <i>no</i>, mine, furnishes as a result: - <i>notlazomaviztcopixkatatzin</i>, “my esteemed father and reverend - priest.” An example of the termination <i>tzin</i>, signifying respect, - is presented in this word. Several illustrations of the same principle - are furnished by Señor Pimentel, showing that often a sentence is - compounded into a single word. Indeed a great many of the component - parts of these long words, though words in themselves, are incapable of - being used separately. In composition the verb succeeds the nominative - and is placed at the end of the sentence. The adverb precedes the verb, - as does the adjective the substantive.</p> - - <p>The Aztec is rich in terminations for the formation of the plural. - Generally no change is required for inanimate objects, as multiplicity - is expressed by means of numerals or the adverb <i>miek</i> (much), - e. g., <i>ze tetl</i>, one stone; <i>yei tetl</i>, three stones; - <i>miek tetl</i>, many stones, though often the terminations used for - the plural of persons is applied to inanimate objects, particularly - when they are connected with persons, as <i>zoquitl</i>, mud; - <i>tizoquime</i>, we are earth; however, there are exceptions to the - rule, as in the Aztec words for the heavens, the mountains and the - stars. Furthermore, the first syllable is often doubled in order to - form the plural of inanimate things. Señor Pimentel has embraced the - entire subject of the formation of the plural in six rules.</p> - - <p>1. Primitive words form their plural in <i>me tin</i> or <i>ke</i>, as - <i>ichkatl</i>, a ewe, a sheep; <i>ichkame</i>, sheep; <i>zolin</i>, a - quail; <i>zoltin</i>, quail; <i>kokoxki</i>, sick; <i>kokoxke</i>, sick - (plural).</p> - - <p>2. Derivatives form their plural as follows: the so-called - “reverentials” in <i>tzintli</i>, have the plural in <i>tzitzintin</i>; - the diminutives in <i>tontli</i> form the plural <i>totontin</i>, - and the diminutives in <i>ton</i> and <i>pil</i>, augmentatives in - <i>pol</i> and reverentials in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">483</span> <i>tzin</i> double the final syllable; - as, <i>tlakatzintli</i>, person; <i>tlakatzitzintin</i>, persons, etc.</p> - - <p>3. Words either primitive or derived into which the possessive - pronouns enter, form the plural in <i>van</i> (<i>huan</i> according - to the common orthography); as, <i>noichkavan</i>, my sheep, - <i>noichkatotonvan</i>, my little sheep.</p> - - <p>4. The words <i>tlakatl</i>, person; <i>zivatl</i>, woman; terms of - gentilitious character or expressive of office and profession, form - their plural by the omission of the final letters, as <i>Mexicatl</i>, - a Mexican; <i>Mexika</i>, Mexicans; in which case the final vowel is - accented.</p> - - <p>5. Some words form the plural by omitting the terminals and by doubling - the first syllable, while others double the first syllable without - omitting the terminal; as, <i>teotl</i>, god; <i>teteo</i>, gods; - <i>zolin</i>, quail; <i>zozoltin</i>, quails; <i>telpochtli</i> and - <i>ichpochtli</i>, double the syllable <i>po</i>.</p> - - <p>6. Some adjectives have various plurals, as <i>miek</i>, much; whose - plural is <i>miektin</i>, <i>miekintin</i> or <i>miekin</i>.</p> - - <p>In most cases the adjective and its substantive agree in number. The - only means of expressing gender is by adding the words <i>okichtli</i>, - male, and <i>zivatl</i>, female.</p> - - <p>In the absence of a regular declension the cases are formed as - follows: The genitive is indicated by the possessive pronoun or by - the juxtaposition of the words, the dative by means of verbs called - applicatives, the accusative by certain particles accompanying the verb - or by juxtaposition, the vocative by adding e to the nominative or by - the change of <i>i</i> into <i>e</i> in words ending in <i>tli</i> - or <i>li</i> and the <i>in</i> into <i>e</i> in words ending in - <i>tzin</i>.</p> - - <p>The ablative is indicated by various particles and prepositions. The - language surpasses the Italian in the number of its augmentatives - and diminutives. The former take the syllable <i>pol</i>, the latter - <i>tontli</i> and <i>ton</i>. The Aztec is richer in verbal nouns - than any other language. Those derived from active, neuter, passive, - reflective and impersonal verbs, terminate in <i>ni</i>, <i>oni</i>, - <i>ya</i>, <i>ia</i>, <i>yan</i>, <i>kan</i> or <i>ian</i>, <i>tli</i>, - <i>li</i>, <i>liztli</i>, <i>oka</i>, <i>ka</i>, <i>ki</i>, <i>k</i>, - <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>tl</i>.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">484</span></p> - - <div class="center smcap">Table of Pronouns.</div> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Table of pronouns"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap">Personals.</th> - <th colspan="2" class="smcap bl">Possessives.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td><i>Nevatl</i>, <i>neva</i>, <i>ne</i>,</td> - <td>I.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>No</i>,</td> - <td>Mine.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Tevatl</i>, <i>teva</i>, <i>te</i>,</td> - <td>Thou.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>Mo</i>,</td> - <td>Thine.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Yevatl</i>, <i>yeva</i>, <i>ye</i>,</td> - <td>He, or somebody.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>I</i>,</td> - <td>His.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Tevantin</i>, <i>teva</i>,</td> - <td>We.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>To</i>,</td> - <td>Ours.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Amevantin</i>, <i>amevan</i>,</td> - <td>You.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>Amo</i>,</td> - <td>Yours.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Yevantin</i>, <i>yevan</i>,</td> - <td>They.</td> - <td class="bl"><i>In</i> or <i>im</i>,</td> - <td>Theirs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="bl"><i>Te</i>,</td> - <td>Of or belonging to others.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>“The possessives,” says Pimentel, “are always used in composition, and - change the final syllable of the word to which they are joined; as, - <i>teotl</i>, God, <i>noteuh</i>, my God,” etc.<a id="FNanchor_728" href="#Footnote_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a></p> - - <p>The modes of the verb are: the indicative, imperative, optative - and subjunctive. The indicative has the following tenses: present, - imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future. The subjunctive has one tense - which is translated by the imperfect.</p> - - <p>The following example of the conjugation is given from Pimentel:</p> - - <table summary="Aztec conjugation"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap">Indicative.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Present.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Ni-chiva</i>,</td> - <td>I make.</td> - <td><i>Ti-chivâ</i>,</td> - <td>We make.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Ti-chiva</i>,</td> - <td>Thou makest.</td> - <td><i>An-chivâ</i>,</td> - <td>You make.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Chiva</i>,</td> - <td>He makes.</td> - <td><i>Chivâ</i>,</td> - <td>They make.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Imperfect.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><i>Ni-chiva-ya</i>,</td> - <td>I made.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Perfect.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><i>Oni-chi-uh</i>,</td> - <td>I have made.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Pluperfect.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><i>Oni-chi-uhka</i>,</td> - <td>I had made.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc"><i>Future.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><i>Ni-chiva-z</i>,</td> - <td>I shall make.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1">Imperative.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Present</i>:</td> - <td><i>Ma xi-chiva</i>,</td> - <td colspan="2">Make thou.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Future</i>:</td> - <td><i>Ma ti-chiva-z</i>,</td> - <td colspan="2">Make thou presently.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">485</span>Optative.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Imperfect</i>:</td> - <td><i>Ma ni-chiva-ni</i>,</td> - <td colspan="2">Would that I should make.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Perfect</i>:</td> - <td><i>Ma oni-chi-uh</i>,</td> - <td colspan="2">Would that I have made.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdc smcap pt1">Subjunctive.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Imperfect</i>:</td> - <td><i>Ni-chiva-zkia</i>, or<br /><i>Ni-chiva-zkiayo</i>,</td> - <td colspan="2">That I should make.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>There is no infinitive in the conjugation, it being expressed by the - future indicative. Only verbs in <i>liztli</i> have this mode. The - passive voice, save in a few exceptional cases, is formed as follows: - <i>lo</i> is added to the present indicative of the active voice. In - the perfect tense, <i>k</i> is added to the previously affixed <i>o</i> - in the singular and <i>ke</i> in the plural. The other modes and tenses - form their passive voice by adding to the present indicative passive - their own final termination, as, for instance, we have <i>nichiva</i>, - I make, <i>nichivalo</i>, I am made, <i>onichivalok</i>, I was made, - <i>onichivaloka</i>, that I should be made, etc. The Aztec contains - only six irregular verbs.</p> - - <div class="center smcap mt3">The Lord’s Prayer in Aztec.</div> - - <div class="translation"> - <span class="pair">Totatzine<br />Our reverend Father</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />who</span> - <span class="pair">ilvikak<br />heaven in</span> - <span class="pair">timoyetztika<br />art</span> - <span class="pair">ma yektenevalo<br />be praised</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">motokatzin<br />thy name</span> - - <span class="pair">mavallauh<br />may come</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">motlatokayotzin<br />thy kingdom</span> - <span class="pair">ma chivalo<br />be done</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">tlaltikpak<br />earth above</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">motlanekilitzin<br />thy will</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - - <span class="pair">yuh<br />as</span> - <span class="pair">chivalo<br />is done</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">ilvikak.<br />heaven in.</span> - <span class="pair">In<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">totlaxkal<br />our bread</span> - <span class="pair">mo<br />every</span> - <span class="pair">moztlae<br />day</span> - <span class="pair">totech<br />to us</span> - <span class="pair">moneki<br />is necessary</span> - - <span class="pair">ma axkan<br />to-day</span> - <span class="pair">xitechmomakili,<br />give us</span> - <span class="pair">ivan<br />and</span> - <span class="pair">ma xitechmopopolvili<br />forgive us</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">totlatlakol<br />our sins</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">yuh<br />as</span> - - <span class="pair">tikintlapopolvia<br />we forgive</span> - <span class="pair">intechtlatlakalvia<br />those who us offend</span> - <span class="pair">ivan<br />and</span> - <span class="pair">makamo<br />not</span> - <span class="pair">xitechmomakavili<br />lead thou us</span> - <span class="pair">inik<br />that</span> - - <span class="pair">amo<br />not</span> - <span class="pair">ipan<br />in</span> - <span class="pair">tivetzizke<br />we fall</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">teneyeyekoltiliztli,<br />temptation,</span> - <span class="pair">zanye<br />but</span> - <span class="pair">ma xitechmomakixtili<br />deliver us</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - - <span class="pair">ivikpa<br />against</span> - <span class="pair">in<br />()</span> - <span class="pair">amo<br />not</span> - <span class="pair">kualli.<a id="FNanchor_729" href="#Footnote_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a><br />good.</span> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">486</span></p> - - <p>Language has ever been an important factor in determining the original - home and the migrations of peoples. With this view the Aztec has - received the attention of some of the best scholars of both continents. - The most prominent results merit attention. The Nahua language is - unquestionably spoken far to the south, in Guatemala, Honduras and - Nicaragua, and this fact has been persistently cited as conclusive - proof of the southern origin of the Nahuas; but even Mr. Bancroft, the - most eminent of the advocates of this hypothesis, admits that there - “it is dialectic rather than aboriginal in appearance, so that the - testimony of language is all in favor of the plateau of Anahuac having - been the primal centre of the Aztec tongue.”<a id="FNanchor_730" href="#Footnote_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a></p> - - <p>The reports of several of the adventurers into the unexplored north, - were to the effect that the aborigines whom they encountered spoke - Aztec. Father Roque of Oñate’s expedition into New Mexico at the close - of the sixteenth century, and Father Gerónimo de Zárate subsequently - at the Rio del Tizon, are authority for the most positive statements - that the Mexican was encountered. Mr. Anderson, a companion of Captain - Cook in 1778, discovered the Aztec terminal <i>l</i> <i>tl</i> or - <i>z</i> of frequent occurrence among the Nootkas of the North-west - coast. With this data and the traditions of the Aztecs, which all point - to the north as their ancient home, sufficient basis was found for a - general belief that the Mexican peoples had migrated down the coast - of California and left an unbroken linguistic line along the entire - route of their wanderings. At the beginning of the present century, the - great German philologist, Vater, sought to establish this line by his - extensive investigations, published in his <cite>Mithridates</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_731" href="#Footnote_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a> - Unfortunately for his labors, later researches have shown his - generalizations too sweeping. Wilhelm von Humboldt considered the Cora, - under the twenty-second degree of latitude <span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">487</span>on the Rio de Santiago, - to be a mixture of Aztec and some older and rougher language.<a id="FNanchor_732" href="#Footnote_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> In - 1855–59, Dr. Buschmann of Berlin issued two celebrated works,<a id="FNanchor_733" href="#Footnote_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> in - which the subject was critically examined, and as far as possible, - with the data at hand, the true proportion of Aztec elements entering - into all the languages spoken north of the Mexican plateau, was - indicated. The researches were systematically made, beginning with - the North Mexican, languages and proceeding northward in the supposed - line of the Aztec migration. In four languages of North-western Mexico - in particular, did Dr. Buschmann find the conspicuous presence of - Aztec elements. These are the Cora of Jalisco, referred to above; - the Tepehuana of northern Sinaloa, Durango and southern Chihuahua, - spoken between the twenty-third and twenty-seventh parallels, in a - crescent-shaped territory the points of which touch the Aztec on - the west, intervening between it and the Gulf of California; the - Tarahumara, spoken in the Sierra Madre, of the State of Chihuahua and - Sonora, and fourthly, the Cahita occupying the east coast of the Gulf - of California between the twenty-sixth and twenty-eighth parallels. - By a liberty in classification, Buschmann calls this group the Sonora - family, although the languages are entirely different from each other, - with the exception that they are all pervaded by the Aztec element. - This is their only bond of union. They contain about two hundred - Aztec words, and about eight hundred words derived from the Aztec in - the several idioms.<a id="FNanchor_734" href="#Footnote_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> “The Aztec <i>tl</i>, and <i>tli</i> in the - Cora, are found changed in <i>ti</i>, <i>te</i> and <i>t</i>; in the - Tepehuana into <i>de</i>, <i>re</i> and <i>sci</i>; in the Tarahumara - into <i>ki</i>, <i>ke</i>, <i>ca</i> and <i>la</i>, and in the Cahita, - into <i>ri</i>. In all four of the languages substantive endings are - dropped, first, in composition when the substantive is united with - the possessive pronoun; secondly, before an affix; thirdly, in the - Cora alone, before the ending of the plural and before affixes in the - formation of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">488</span>words.”<a id="FNanchor_735" href="#Footnote_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> North-east of the Tarahumara and reaching - to the Rio Grande is the Cnocho, and directly to the east of the - Cnocho, is the territory of the Toboso, also bounded on the north - by the Rio Grande. It is uncertain whether the Aztec was ever the - language of these large districts, though testimony is not wanting - that it was understood by both peoples.<a id="FNanchor_736" href="#Footnote_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a> In fact throughout all - northern Mexico, the Aztec was understood, and, in some instances, - entered prominently into the languages of the north-western tribes. - Grimm’s law of <i>Lautveränderung</i>, sound changing or shifting, - is as conspicuous in its application to the Aztec-Sonora family of - Buschmann as it is to the members of the Aryan family, and often far - more so. Occupying the north-western extremity of Mexico are the - Pima-Alto and Bajo, and the Opata, the principal dialect of the latter - being the Eudeve. Here again the Aztec appears both in the identity - of words and the similarity of grammatical structure. These languages - are recognized as branches of the Aztec-Sonora family, so much so - that Orozco y Berra has classified them together under the name of - the Opata-Tarahumar-Pima. He accounts for the presence of the Aztec - element upon the supposition that the language and civilization of - Mexico once extended over this region, but were subverted and displaced - by the incursions of northern peoples toward the close of the twelfth - century.<a id="FNanchor_737" href="#Footnote_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> Not only is this probable, but, on the other hand, it - would be a matter of surprise if traces of the Aztec were not found - in languages bordering upon so vast and powerful an empire as that of - Montezuma. Still this fact alone is scarcely sufficient to account for - the prominence of the Aztec element in the northern languages, while it - is almost totally wanting in others more central and southern. Crossing - into the United States territory, we first encounter the Moqui of the - pueblo towns of Arizona; to the west in south-eastern California, we - meet the Cahuillo, Chemehuevi,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">489</span> Kizh, Netela and Kechi; at the other - extreme on the east, we have the Comanche of New Mexico and Texas, - while to the north, in Utah, Nevada, Idaho and Oregon, we have the - great Shoshone and Utah families. But why group these languages in - such a wholesale manner? Is it because of inter-linguistic affinities? - No. Simply because of the Aztec element (though insignificant it is - true), which unquestionably pervades them all.<a id="FNanchor_738" href="#Footnote_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> Six of the Moqui - towns speak the language which bears their name. But, strange to say, - Harno the Seventh uses the Tequa, a language of one of the New Mexican - Pueblos. The Moqui language contains much that is Aztec, and because of - its substantive endings in <i>pe</i> and <i>be</i>, etc., is considered - by Buschmann a branch of his Shoshone-Comanche family of the Sonora - idiom.<a id="FNanchor_739" href="#Footnote_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a> Coupling this fact with the traditions of the Moquis (see - <a href="#Page_302">pages 302–304</a>) descriptive of their migrations from the North under the - pressure of the hordes of savages who deprived them of their cultivated - lands and slaughtered their families, we are at a loss to account for - this infusion of Aztec elements, except on the hypothesis that at a - remote day large numbers of Nahuas came in contact with the ancestors - of this people in their ancient home. Equally conspicuous is the Aztec - element in south-east California languages and the great Shoshone and - Utah families, which occupy the great central basin and stretch away - into Idaho and Oregon. Grimm’s law of sound-shifting is seen in their - adjective and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">490</span>substantive endings, <i>p</i>, <i>pa</i>, <i>pe</i>, - <i>pi</i>, <i>be</i>, <i>wa</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>pee</i>, <i>rp</i>, and - <i>rpe</i>. The Shoshone and Utah still retain <i>ts</i>, <i>tse</i>, - and <i>tsi</i>, all of which are but variations of the Aztec <i>tl</i>, - <i>tli</i>, according to the law above-named. Buschmann pronounces - this group the capstone of his Sonora edifice.<a id="FNanchor_740" href="#Footnote_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> In Western Oregon, - from the source to the mouth of the Willamette River, the Yamkally and - Calapooya languages preserve traces of the Aztec both in words and - terminal sounds.<a id="FNanchor_741" href="#Footnote_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> The same is even more evident concerning the - Chinook, of the lower Columbia River, in which the Aztec <i>thl</i> - and <i>tl</i> is a regular termination.<a id="FNanchor_742" href="#Footnote_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> Throughout the entire - region drained by the Columbia and its tributaries, Dr. Buschmann - found well-marked Aztec elements. The Clallum and Lummi languages of - the great Salish or Flathead family, which touches the coast opposite - Vancouver’s Island and extends into the interior, have the <i>tl</i> - termination and other phonetic resemblances to the Aztec.<a id="FNanchor_743" href="#Footnote_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a> - Furthermore, Mr. Gibbs has discovered that the cardinals employed by - the Clallam and Lummi in their system of enumeration are of a threefold - character, and, as Mr. Gallatin has shown, are similar to those of the - Mexicans and Mayas.<a id="FNanchor_744" href="#Footnote_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">491</span></p> - - <p>Whether the Aztec is represented in the language of the Nootkas - on Vancouver’s Island is uncertain. Certainly strong marks of - similarity are observable. Buschmann, while admitting the existence - of resemblances, thinks that hardly enough of them exist to warrant - relationship.<a id="FNanchor_745" href="#Footnote_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a> The inquiry naturally arises, how came this Aztec - element which, three and a half centuries <span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">492</span>after the overthrow of the - Aztec empire, we observe in faint, though unbroken lines running from - the centre of Mexico to the vicinity of Vancouver’s Island to find its - way into a multitude of languages, some of which are separated from - others by a vast region more than two thousand miles in width? How - did it come to be the only bond of union between so many languages - in all other respects so dissimilar? It has been suggested that this - wide-spread dissemination of the Aztec is owing to the trade probably - carried on between Mexico and the North. However, this is merely - conjecture and is incapable of proof. It will be observed that the - linguistic line is faintest in the central basin among the Shoshones - and Utahs, where the relationship is established mainly by the - sound-shifting of the terminals according to Grimm’s law, but in the - languages of the Columbia River and its tributaries, and especially of - the Salish or Flathead family bordering on the strait of Juan de Fuca, - the Aztec terminal is actually present and in constant use. The most - critical researches have established this as an incontestable fact. In - this connection it is worthy of note (as shown in our first chapter) - that the works of the Mound-builders abound in this region in great - numbers, extending into the interior, appearing upon the upper Missouri - and its tributaries, and continuing to the Mississippi Valley and - thence into Mexico instead of following the coast or the central basin - at the west. Whether the Nahua was the language of the Mound-builders - of the United States, we are unable to determine, but the probabilities - that it was are considerable; because (1) the people of the mounds - built structures similar to those which prevail all over Mexico, - though in a less degree of perfection; (2) they carried obsidian - from Mexico to the North Mississippi Valley, showing both regions - to have enjoyed intimate commercial relations. This is no evidence - that the Mound-builders were colonists sent out from Mexico, since it - is improbable that colonists would have penetrated into the extreme - North-west by way of the Missouri River. Furthermore we have the - valuable argument of Baron von Hellwald made at the Luxembourg session - of the Congrès International des Américanistes in favor of a migration - from north to south, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">493</span> his reply to Mr. Robert S. Robertson’s paper - on “the Mound-builders,” namely, that no evidence exists of the - Mexicans or Central Americans having worked copper mines anterior to - the conquest; hence it follows that since copper was employed by both - Mexicans and Mound-builders, it must have been carried southward by the - latter.<a id="FNanchor_746" href="#Footnote_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> (3) We have testimony of the early writers that the Nahuas - came from the North-east; Sahagun says from the direction of Florida, - which then embraced the Mississippi Valley. (4) We have the statements - of Acosta and Sahagun that the Apalaches occupying the region east of - the Mississippi extended their colonies far into Mexico. According to - Acosta the Mexicans called them Apalaches, Tlautuics or Mountaineers. - “Sahagun speaking of them says: ‘They are Nahuas and speak the Mexican - language.’ This is by no means improbable, as the Aztec is found - eastward in the present states of Tamaulipas and Coahuila, and thence - the distance to the Mississippi is not so far.”<a id="FNanchor_747" href="#Footnote_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> In their search - for the Aztec element in the North, every investigator—Buschmann - among the rest—has made a great oversight. They have expected to - find resemblances to the Aztec as it was spoken at the time of the - conquest after centuries of culture had been bestowed upon it in the - schools of Mexico and Tezcuco. It appears never to have occurred to - these scholars, that if Mexican similarities exist at the North they - are with the ancient form of the Nahua, which Orozco y Berra tells us - “differs as much from the modern Nahua or Aztec as the Spanish of the - Romance of the Cid from the Spanish of to-day,” or coming nearer home, - we may say that it probably differed as much as the Anglo-Saxon of - King Alfred and the English of the present. The linguistic researches - referred to have certainly been made over a wide chasm of time and - change, as viewed in this light, and when we consider the instability - of language in America, the wonder is that any <span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">494</span>Nahua traces exist - at the North-west at this late date.<a id="FNanchor_748" href="#Footnote_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a> This phenomenon can only - be accounted for on the supposition that, at a remote period, large - numbers of Nahua-speaking people resided for a considerable length of - time in those regions. The presence of the mounds in such numbers in - Washington and the British possessions north of it, leads to this view, - provided it can be established that the Mound-builders were Nahuas. - The fact that the line of mounds is toward the interior precludes the - expectation that the Nahua is to be found prominently present west of - the Rocky Mountains. It is plausible to consider the Moquis a branch - from the Nahuas, separating from them at an early day and establishing - themselves in Southern Oregon and Utah, whence, according to their - tradition, they were driven by the Utes. In the course of time, their - language, which contains a Nahua element, may have become changed and - lost much of its original character. To their residence, migration, and - the possible captivity of many of their number, the traces of Aztec - found in the Shoshone and Utah tongues may be due.</p> - - <p>Analogies between the Nahua and all the other languages of the world - have been assiduously sought for, and supposed affiliations advocated - by theorists, but in the present unsatisfactory state of philological - science it would be presumptuous for us to pretend that any claim for - linguistic analogies with the old world could be sustained. There is no - doubt that strong analogies are observable between the Otomi and the - Chinese. Señor Najera, to whom the former is vernacular, has appended - to his excellent grammar of the Otomi a comparative table of Chinese - and Otomi words, which while it shows strong resemblances, is not - sufficient in itself to establish relationship.<a id="FNanchor_749" href="#Footnote_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">495</span></p> - - <p>Warden has treated the grammatical resemblances, which in many respects - are striking.<a id="FNanchor_750" href="#Footnote_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> It is one of the most singular phenomena met with - in the whole range of ethnography and philology, that a monosyllabic - language should be found in the very heart of Mexico surrounded by - the most remarkable poly-syllabism in the world, touching the capital - on the south-east and extending north-west into San Luis Potosi and - over portions of Queretaro and Guanajuato. It is no doubt a language - of great antiquity, and whether Chinese in origin is not fully - determined.<a id="FNanchor_751" href="#Footnote_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> Numerous claims have been set forth that some of the - Californian languages bear a striking resemblance to the Chinese, and - that Indians and Chinese in some cases have found so much in common in - their respective languages as to be able to hold conversations with - each other. These claims have in most instances been supported by - persons having little knowledge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">496</span> of the principles of philology, and - who are scarcely aware of the difficulty of comparing two monosyllabic - languages in which the finest shade of pronunciation carries with - it the greatest significance.<a id="FNanchor_752" href="#Footnote_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a> Japanese claims have been urged - with some reason by ethnologists no less eminent than Latham, who is - confident that the “Kamskadale, Koriak, Aino-Japanese and the Korean - are the Asiatic languages most like those of America.”<a id="FNanchor_753" href="#Footnote_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a></p> - - <p>Comparisons of the Indian languages with those of the old world - have often been made, most frequently in a haphazard manner and - to little purpose. Recently, however, Herr Forchhammer of Leipzig - published a truly scientific comparison of the grammatical structure - of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Muskogee and Seminole languages, with the - Ural-Altaic tongues, in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">497</span>which he has developed many interesting points - of resemblance.<a id="FNanchor_754" href="#Footnote_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> Prof. Valentini has called attention to the fact - that Ptolemy (Geography, Asia Minor, Chapter X, Armenia Major) gives - in his list of cities belonging to the Roman province in his time - (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 140), the names of five cities situated in the region - of the historic Ararat, which have nearly their counterpart in five - proper names applied to localities in Mexico by its ancient colonists. - The cities of Armenia Major, according to Ptolemy, are: Chol, Colua, - Zuivana, Cholima, Zalissa. “The first name <i>Chol</i> is contained - in <i>Cholula</i>; the second, <i>Colua</i>, in <i>Coluacan</i>; - the third, <i>Zu vana</i>, in <i>Zuivan</i>, which is the ancient - name of the Yucatanic province of Bacalab (see Perez in Stephens’ - <cite>Yucatan</cite>, Appendix, vol. ii, <cite>Chronology of Yucatan</cite>). - <i>Cholima</i> is to-day written <i>Colima</i>, <i>Zalissa</i> is - contained in <i>Xalisco</i>, the Spanish <i>x</i> sounding in the - Nahua language like the English <i>sh</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_755" href="#Footnote_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> Generally we have - been disposed to pronounce all such coincidences accidental, as most - of them certainly are. In this case we leave the decision to the - reader. In this chapter we have noticed two prominent families of - languages, (1) the Maya-Quiché, having such transatlantic affinities - as to furnish presumptive evidence that if it did not originate from, - it was at least influenced by the West European or African languages. - (2) The great Nahua family, which linguistic researches, together - with the circumstantial evidence furnished by architectural remains, - commercial intercourse and the testimony of early writers, assign to at - least a temporary occupancy of the Columbian region on the North-west - coast. Concede this fact, and you must look elsewhere, possibly to the - opposite continent, for the early beginnings of a language so ancient - and polished.</p> - - <p>While the proof is not conclusive, yet we think it is presumptive that - both of these families, as well as some other American languages, are - of old world origin.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">498</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_XI"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER XI</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc">THE PROBABILITIES THAT AMERICA WAS PEOPLED FROM THE OLD WORLD, - CONSIDERED GEOGRAPHICALLY AND PHYSICALLY.</div> - - <div class="subhead">Legends of Atlantis—Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Theory—The Subject - Examined Scientifically—Retzius’ View—Le Plongeon’s - Observations—Identity of European and American Plant - Types—Revelations of the <i>Dolphin</i> and <i>Challenger</i> - Expeditions—The Atlantic Floor—Challenger and Dolphin - Ridges—Challenger Plateau probably once Dry Land—Identity of - European and South American Fauna—Elevation and Depression of - Coast Level of Greenland, United States, and South America—Gulf - Stream—Equatorial Current—The Trade-Winds—Accidental - Discovery of Brazil—America Probably Reached by Ancient - Navigators—The Caras—Atolls of the Pacific Ocean—A Pacific - Continent—Contiguity of the Continents at the North—Aleutian - Islands—Kuro-Suvo—Behring’s Straits—Inviting Appearance of - the American Shore—Remoteness of the Migration—Prof. Grote’s - View—Prof. Asa Gray’s Observations—Conditions Favorable to a - Migration—John H. Becker’s Observations.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">WE have observed that traditional and linguistic evidence seems to - point to a trans-Atlantic origin for some of the American peoples. In a - preceding chapter (iii), we quoted the story of the Platonic Atlantis, - as recorded in the <cite>Critias</cite>, and alluded to the advocacy by - the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg of the hypothesis that the submerged - continent of Egyptian tradition was a reality. In support of this - view, the Abbé has cited the opinions of geologists and the remarkable - traditions preserved by the Central Americans, the Mexicans, and the - Haytians, concerning the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which - submerged beneath the ocean a continent, of which the Antilles are but - its mountain summits. Attach as little importance as we may to these - ancient legends, which no doubt refer to some extraordinary cataclysm, - the memory of which was preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">499</span> for ages by periodic feasts and - religious celebrations,<a id="FNanchor_756" href="#Footnote_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a> in which the gods were besought by princes - and people for security against a similar calamity, still our minds - naturally associate them with the story of the Platonic Atlantis.<a id="FNanchor_757" href="#Footnote_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">500</span></p> - - <p>Until recently the mere expression of belief in the former existence - of an Atlantic continent has been the signal for criticism, and has - called forth the smile of pity, if not of contempt. Such, however, is - no longer true, since scientific investigation, consisting chiefly in - deep-sea soundings and the study of the fauna and flora of the opposite - shores of the Atlantic, call for the respectful attention of all who - are interested in the ancient history of this continent. Prominent - among the men of science who have expressed confidence in this - hypothesis is Prof. Andres Retzius of Stockholm, who was convinced from - a study of comparative craniology, that the primitive dolichocephalic - skulls of America, especially of the ancient Caribs of the Antilles, - were nearly related to the <i>Guanches</i> of the Canary Islands.<a id="FNanchor_758" href="#Footnote_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a></p> - - <p>Dr. Le Plongeon observed that the sandals upon the feet of the - statue of Chaacmol, discovered at Chichen-Itza, and of the statue - of a priestess found on the island of Mugeres, “are <span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">501</span>exact - representations of those found on the feet of the <i>Guanches</i>, - the early inhabitants of the Canary Islands, whose mummies are yet - occasionally met with in the caves of Teneriffe and the other isles - of the group.”<a id="FNanchor_759" href="#Footnote_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a> The great number of American plant-types in the - Miocene flora of Switzerland, led Prof. Unger to espouse the view - that a continent formerly existed in the present Atlantic ocean.<a id="FNanchor_760" href="#Footnote_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> - Professor Heer, the celebrated botanist of Zurich, for the same - reasons promulgated this hypothesis, and in his <cite>Flora Tertiaria - Helvetiæ</cite>, defines the location of the continent, which he believes - to have been as wide as Europe.<a id="FNanchor_761" href="#Footnote_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> In opposition to this view, it - is urged by Professors Oliver and Asa Gray, that the flora of America - and Europe are united by means of a former overland communication at - Behring’s Straits.<a id="FNanchor_762" href="#Footnote_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> The conformation of the ocean-bed is the next - matter of importance in examining the subject. The deep-sea soundings - taken for the submarine cable between Newfoundland and Ireland, led - to the impression that the Atlantic floor was comparatively a level, - forming but one great trough between the continents. The United States - exploring ship <cite>Dolphin</cite>, however, subsequently dispelled this - illusion, by revealing the fact that a great submarine plateau or - mountain chain which has been denominated the “Dolphin Rise,” divided - the North Atlantic into two longitudinal troughs running north and - south. This is described as a seal-shaped ridge with its tail joining - a connecting ridge at the south in 15° North Lat. and 45° West Long., - while its body widens as it runs towards the north, reaching its - maximum width under the forty-fifth parallel, and finally tapering to - a narrow isthmus at 52° North Lat. and 30° West Long., which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">502</span>connects - the ridge with the great northern submarine table-land.<a id="FNanchor_763" href="#Footnote_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a></p> - - <p>This work was prosecuted further by the German frigate <cite>Gazelle</cite>, - and by H. M. ships <cite>Lightning</cite> and <cite>Porcupine</cite>, with - confirmatory results.<a id="FNanchor_764" href="#Footnote_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a> The most thorough and satisfactory work - of this character, however, was performed during the cruise of H. M. - ship <cite>Challenger</cite>, from December 30, 1872, until May 24, 1876, - inclusive. Sir C. Wyville Thomson, the director of the expedition, in - his excellent work, <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, has contributed much exact - information relative to the contour of the sea-bed. The frontispiece - to his second volume is a chart illustrative of the relative depths of - different localities in the Atlantic ocean. Almost its entire length - from north to south, the great chain whose loftiest summits tower above - the sea in the Azores Islands, St. Paul’s Rocks, Ascension and St. - Helena Islands, is indicated by a white irregular belt representing - a depth of one thousand fathoms, but shading off into the blue, - indicative of the depths on either hand. Professor Thomson says, - “Combining our own observations with reliable data which have been - previously or subsequently acquired, we find the mean depth of the - Atlantic is a little over 2000 fathoms. An elevated ridge rising to - an average height of about 1900 fathoms below the surface, traverses - the basin of the North and South Atlantic, in a meridional direction - from Cape Farewell, probably as far south, at least, as Gough Island, - following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the old and new worlds. - A branch of this elevation strikes off to the south-westward, about the - parallel of 10° North, and connects it with the coast of South America - at Cape Orange; and another branch across the eastern trough, joining - the continent of Africa, probably about the parallel of 25° South.”<a id="FNanchor_765" href="#Footnote_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">503</span></p> - - <p>The width of the great land ridge as well as its relation to the - North Atlantic islands is indicated in the following: “One of the - most remarkable differences between the Azores and Bermuda is, that - while Bermuda springs up an isolated peak from a great depth, the - Azores seem to be simply the highest points of a great plateau-like - elevation, which extends for upwards of a thousand miles from west - to east, and appears to be continuous with a belt of shallow water - stretching to Iceland in the north and connected probably with the - ‘Dolphin Rise’ to the southward, a plateau which in fact divides the - North Atlantic longitudinally into two great valleys, an eastern and a - western.”<a id="FNanchor_766" href="#Footnote_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> A member of the <cite>Challenger</cite> staff, in a lecture - delivered in London soon after the termination of the expedition, - expressed the fullest confidence that the great submarine plateau is - the remains of the “lost Atlantis,” citing as proof the fact that the - inequalities, the mountains and valleys of its surface, could never - have been produced in accordance with any laws for the deposition of - sediment nor by submarine elevation, but, on the contrary, must have - been carved by agencies acting above the water level.<a id="FNanchor_767" href="#Footnote_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> The volcanic - character of the Azores and Philippines, together with the prevalence - of volcanic deposits found upon the entire ridge by the officers of - the <cite>Challenger</cite>, lend probability to the Egyptian and American - legends of a tremendous catastrophe in which a continent was submerged - beneath the waves.<a id="FNanchor_768" href="#Footnote_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a></p> - - <p>Sir C. Wyville Thomson found that the fauna of the coast of Brazil - brought up in his dredging machine, were similar to that of the western - coast of South Europe.<a id="FNanchor_769" href="#Footnote_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> This is of particular interest, since - at a short distance north of the Amazon an arm of the central ridge - connects the sunken plateau with the coast of South America. Mr. J. - Starke Gardner, the eminent English geologist, is of the opinion that - in the Eocene period a great extension of land existed to the west of - Cornwall. The extraordinary mingling of American, Asiatic, Australian - and African <span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">504</span>genera in all European floras of the Tertiary period leads - him to the conviction that at a remote time they were all connected. - Referring to the locations of the <cite>Dolphin</cite> and <cite>Challenger</cite> - ridges, he asserts that a great tract of land formerly existed where - the sea now is, and that Cornwall, the Scilly and Channel islands, - Ireland and Brittany are the remains of its highest summits.<a id="FNanchor_770" href="#Footnote_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> The - question at once arises, “What ground have we for believing that the - great Atlantic ridges ever occupied a higher altitude than at present?” - The answer is found in the comparison of facts with the following - theory set forth by Prof. Joseph Le Conte: “Any increase in the height - and extent of the whole amount of land on the globe must be attended - with a corresponding depression of the sea-bottoms, and therefore an - actual subsidence of the sea-level everywhere. Hence if it be true, as - is generally believed, that the continents have been, on the whole, - increasing in extent and in height, in the course of geological - history, then it is true also that the seas have been subsiding, and - that therefore the relative changes are the sum of the two.”<a id="FNanchor_771" href="#Footnote_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> It - cannot be denied that the processes of elevation and depression are now - actively going on along the eastern coast of both the Americas. The - coast of Greenland is sinking along a distance of 600 miles so markedly - that ancient buildings on low rock-islands are now submerged, and the - Greenlander has learned by experience never to build near the water’s - edge.<a id="FNanchor_772" href="#Footnote_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a> The subsidence along our Atlantic seaboard is slowly going - on, being most marked on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, while - on the other hand the elevation of the eastern coast of South America - has been accomplished by the hidden forces, volcanic or otherwise, - on a stupendous scale. “Raised beaches” have been traced 1180 miles - down the eastern shore and 2075 miles along the western, ranging from - 100 to 1300 feet above the sea, and Alexander Agassiz has recently - identified them at a height of 3000 feet above the present sea-level - by means of corals found adhering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">505</span> to the rocks.<a id="FNanchor_773" href="#Footnote_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> In view of these - facts, so familiar to any student of geology, it is not difficult to - conceive of the former existence of Atlantis where the <cite>Dolphin</cite> - and <cite>Challenger</cite> locate the mid-Atlantic ridge, described as - 1000 miles in width in the latitude of the Azores. Supposing the - existence of an Atlantic continent in the Tertiary period conceded, - we have no means at present of determining the approximate time of - its subsidence, unless we associate it with the dim and uncertain - legends of the Egyptian priests and the ancient Americans. Whether the - Atlantidæ who threatened to overthrow the earliest Greek and Egyptian - states, but who were swallowed up by the sea in the engulfment of - their island continent, were the inhabitants of the <cite>Dolphin</cite> and - <cite>Challenger</cite> ridges and the colonists of Eastern America, must for - the present at least remain in doubt, though strong probabilities point - to the conclusion that they were.<a id="FNanchor_774" href="#Footnote_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a></p> - - <p>The colonization of America by transatlantic peoples, it seems to us, - did not depend upon the existence of a land bridge at a remote period, - but could have been accomplished without the aid of the compass, either - intentionally or accidentally, through the agency of the equatorial - current and the trade-winds, two mighty forces perpetually tending - toward the shores of the new world. The return current of the Gulf - Stream which describes a semicircle in the east Atlantic washes in - its sweep the Azores, the Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, - approaching in its southern course the shores of Portugal, Morocco, and - the Sahara Desert, and finally uniting with the stronger equatorial - current which rushes up the coast of Africa, crosses the Atlantic under - the equator, and skirts the coast of South America until it reaches the - Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_775" href="#Footnote_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> The north-east trade-winds - blowing perpetually from the coast of Europe in a belt from eighteen to - twenty degrees in width (or from 1245 to 1275 miles) reach the coasts - of the American continent over an area which extends from the mouth of - the Amazon to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">506</span>the northern boundary of Florida. Through the agency - of these mild but almost unvarying forces Columbus was steadily borne - on to the accomplishment of the greatest event of modern history. The - companions of the Admiral were dismayed by the persistency with which - they were wafted beyond the bounds of the known world, and ascribed the - unceasing east wind, which they supposed offered them no hope of return - to their homes, to a device of the devil. In one of the houses on the - island of Guadaloupe Columbus on his second voyage saw the stern-post - of a vessel, supposed to have been the fragment of some ship that had - drifted across the Atlantic and been cast, together with the crew, upon - unknown shores. How often and how long this same process had operated - it is impossible to conjecture.<a id="FNanchor_776" href="#Footnote_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> The accidental discovery of Brazil - by Cabral furnishes an additional reason for believing that anciently - vessels may have reached the new world. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral was - dispatched by the Portuguese on the 9th of March 1500, with a fleet of - thirteen vessels on a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope, to Calicut. - After passing the Cape Verde Islands he bore away to the west, in - order to avoid the calms prevailing on the Guinea coast. On the 25th - of April, to his surprise he discovered what proved to be the South - American continent, at a point which he named Porto Securo.<a id="FNanchor_777" href="#Footnote_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a> When - we consider that the distance from the coast of Africa to Cape Frio, - Brazil, is but 1530 miles, and realize that twelve centuries <span class="allsmcap">B. - C.</span> the Phœnicians and probably other maritime peoples of the - Mediterranean visited Britain at the north and coasted Africa to the - south, the probabilities are strong that, through the natural agency - of the Atlantic currents and the trade-winds, some ancient mariners - reached the American coast.<a id="FNanchor_778" href="#Footnote_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">507</span></p> - - <p>Brasseur de Bourbourg, on the authority of Baron de Eckstein and his - own researches, points to the fact that the Barbarians who are alluded - to by Homer and Thucydides, are a race of ancient navigators and - pirates called <i>Cares</i> or <i>Carians</i>, who occupied the islands - of Greece and a part of the coast of the Peloponnesus, Arcanania and - Illyria, before the Pelasgi. They ruled in Phrygia and other states - of Asia Minor, antedating the Phœnicians in their sovereignty of the - sea and the Indo-European peoples in their domination of the land. - The same people extended their borders into Nubia and Libya and - became the ancestors of the nations of the Barbary States. The Abbé, - to all appearances, easily identifies them with <i>Caracars</i> or - <i>Caribs</i> of the Antilles, the <i>Caras</i> or <i>Cariari</i> of - Honduras, and even with the <i>Gurani</i> of South America. We submit - the question for the investigation of the student, rather than with - our endorsement.<a id="FNanchor_779" href="#Footnote_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a> Whether a great continent ever existed in the - Pacific Ocean since man’s appearance on the earth, or whether the great - area occupied by Oceanica and the Coral Islands of the Central Pacific - was once a continent, are questions which cannot now be determined. - It is certain, however, as Professor Dana has shown in his study of - the atolls and barriers of the Pacific, that if not a continent, at - least a great archipelago measuring 6000 miles in length by from 1000 - to 2000 miles in breadth, has subsided to a depth ranging from 3000 to - 6000 feet. Professor Dana states that two hundred islands have thus - been lost.<a id="FNanchor_780" href="#Footnote_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a> Professor Le Conte estimates the loss of land to equal - 20,000,000 square miles, and defines its boundaries by the Hawaiian - and Feejee groups, north <span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">508</span>and south, and the Paumotu group and Pelews, - east and west. He fixes the extreme subsidence at 1000 feet, since - the average height of the high islands of the Pacific at present is - not less than 9000 feet above the sea level, while some of them reach - 14000 feet.<a id="FNanchor_781" href="#Footnote_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> Professor Dana is of the opinion that this vast area - has subsided since the <i>Tertiary age</i>. Whether such is the case - or not is a matter of conjecture, but it is certain that much of it - has been accomplished within the human era. That a higher civilization - once prevailed throughout Polynesia we need only cite the remains found - on Easter Island by Captain Cook, and refer to the Appendix of Mr. - Baldwin’s work, where ruins of a high order are named as existing on - Ascension, Marshall, Gilbert, Kingsmill, Ladrones, Swallow, Strong’s, - Navigators and Hawaiian Islands. A quadrangular tower forty feet high - and several stone-lined canals are to be seen at the harbor at Strong’s - Island. On the adjoining isle of Lele, cyclopian walls forming large - enclosures are overgrown by forests. “These walls are twelve feet - thick, and within are vaults, artificial caverns, and secret passages.” - “Not more than five hundred people now inhabit these islands; their - tradition is that an ancient city formerly stood around this harbor, - mostly on Lele, occupied by a powerful people whom they called ‘Anut,’ - and who had large vessels, in which they made long voyages east and - west, ‘many moons’ being required for these voyages.”<a id="FNanchor_782" href="#Footnote_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> It is - altogether probable that not only a higher civilization once prevailed - in Polynesia, but that within the history of man, the greater extent - of land, now submerged, made the passage to America comparatively - easy. If we turn to the North Pacific, all doubts vanish in the - presence of the most favorable conditions for a migration from our - continent to the other. With Latham, we believe that if America had - first been discovered from the west, and Alaska and the north-west - coast been as well known as our Atlantic coast, North-eastern Asia - would have naturally passed for the <em>fatherland</em> of North-western - America.<a id="FNanchor_783" href="#Footnote_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> It is scarcely <span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">509</span>necessary to occupy space in pointing - out the facilities which the Aleutian Islands offer for a migration - even in inferior boats, and at all seasons of the year. The climate, - though cool, is not severe, owing to the proximity of the warm current - of the Kuro-suvo, and it only requires an inspection of the map to - convince the most conservative. Col. Barclay Kennon, formerly of the - United States North Pacific Surveying Expedition, after referring - to the conspicuousness of the volcano Petropaulski on the shores of - Kamtschatka, says: “Proceeding along this coast to Cape Kronotski, - which lies north of Petropaulski, the distance to Behring’s Island is - about one hundred and fifty miles—course east. Fifteen miles only from - it is Copper Island, and about one hundred and fifty miles south-west - of it is Attou Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian group, which - is an almost unbroken chain, connecting the American continent to the - peninsula of Alaska.”<a id="FNanchor_784" href="#Footnote_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> It is evident that the voyage from the - Asiatic to the American coast can be made as far south as the Aleutian - Islands without losing sight of land but a few hours at a time—a matter - of no consequence to the intrepid navigators found everywhere among - the aborigines upon the islands and coast.<a id="FNanchor_785" href="#Footnote_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> The Kuro-suvo or Japan - current sweeps along the Asiatic coast, bears away to the east, and - describing a semicircle, bends its course southward to the shores of - California and Mexico, until it reaches about the tenth parallel of - north latitude, when it returns to the Japanese coast.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_510">510</span></p> - - <p>This Gulf Stream of the Pacific, which nearly every season casts - wrecks of Japanese junks upon our shores, no doubt has been an - active agent in giving character to our ancient population.<a id="FNanchor_786" href="#Footnote_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> - Added to these twofold facilities for communication—of currents and - an almost continuous chain of islands—we have a third in the narrow - channel at Behring’s Straits. These straits, according to Sir John F. - Herschel, are now “only thirty miles broad where narrowest, and only - twenty-five fathoms in their greatest depth.”<a id="FNanchor_787" href="#Footnote_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> Sir Charles Lyell, - in alluding to the above fact, remarks: “Behring’s Straits happen to - agree singularly in width and depth with the Straits of Dover, the - difference in depth not being more than three or four feet.”<a id="FNanchor_788" href="#Footnote_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> With - this statement before us while standing upon the deck of a vessel - midway between Calais and Dover, with the shores of France and England - in full view, we felt, as never before, how absurd is the opinion - which has been advanced more than once, that no general migration - was likely to take place across Behring’s Straits. As well say that - no general migration was likely to take place across the Straits of - Dover; yet we learn that Britain was known to be inhabited as early - as the twelfth century <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span><a id="FNanchor_789" href="#Footnote_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> The weather at Behring’s - Straits, though cold even in summer, is not nearly as cold as the - winters of Japan.<a id="FNanchor_790" href="#Footnote_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> In winter the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">511</span>waters of the straits are frozen - over generally as late as April, furnishing a continuous connection - between the continents, while in summer the communication at present - between the aborigines inhabiting opposite shores is continuous.<a id="FNanchor_791" href="#Footnote_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a> - Frederick von Hellwald furnishes an argument for the naturalness of - a migration to the American shores the fact that, “while the Asiatic - projection near Behring’s Straits is almost a sterile rocky waste, the - opposite coast presents a much more inviting appearance, abounding - in trees and shrubs. Moreover, the climate when we pass southward of - the peninsula of Alaska, is of a genial character, the temperature - continuing nearly the same as far down as Oregon.”<a id="FNanchor_792" href="#Footnote_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a> The difference - in the two shores is owing to the fact that the cold current from the - Arctic Ocean passes southward along the Asiatic coast, while a portion - of the water of the warm current passes up the American shore.<a id="FNanchor_793" href="#Footnote_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> - It is impossible to approximate the period of the world’s history in - which the migration must have taken place. No doubt it was in a remote - age, before the old world peoples had developed their present or even - historic peculiarities and types of civilization. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">512</span>If this be true, the - futility of all old world comparisons, and the unceasing search for - analogies which has been going on since the discovery of the continent, - is at once apparent.<a id="FNanchor_794" href="#Footnote_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a></p> - - <p>Prof. Grote thinks the first migration may have taken place in the - Tertiary period in Pliocene time, and that the subsequent advent - of the ice period cutting off all communication with the old world - until recent times, produced a modification in the race, and that man - retired with the glacier on its return to the north, where we see his - descendants in the Eskimo.<a id="FNanchor_795" href="#Footnote_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> If Prof. Croll’s theory of climatic - change resulting from the maximum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit be - true, or even if the ordinary time at which the American glacial period - is supposed to have occurred be taken into consideration, we hardly - think the evidences of man’s pre-glacial residence on this continent - are sufficient on which to base a safe hypothesis.<a id="FNanchor_796" href="#Footnote_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> Of course Prof. - Grote would assign a comparatively recent migration to the civilized - nations. Whether a continuous land communication ever existed between - the continents at the Aleutian Islands<a id="FNanchor_797" href="#Footnote_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a> or at Behring’s Straits - cannot be determined, though the probabilities seem to favor the view - that they were once united.<a id="FNanchor_798" href="#Footnote_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a></p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">513</span></p> - - <p>Prof. Asa Gray has satisfactorily shown the intimate relationship - between the North American and Asiatic vegetation, while many of our - fauna are clearly of Asiatic origin.<a id="FNanchor_799" href="#Footnote_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> However, it is of little - moment in this discussion whether the land bridge ever existed; the - conditions for migration from one continent to the other are now, - and no doubt ever have been favorable, and that different peoples at - different times have availed themselves of those conditions is equally - certain. We have already alluded to the climatic conditions south of - Alaska which would naturally allure a migrating tribe down the coast - to Oregon and the Columbian region. Once there, however, a tribe of - considerable numbers and enterprise would soon be stimulated to push - farther, because of the demands for a more ample support than could be - found on the Pacific coast in the region of the Columbia and Frazier - Rivers. Still, progress to the south is practically cut off, since - the dryness and sterility of the Californian coast, the ice-capped - mountains intervening between the north and the Sacramento and San - Joaquin rivers and the desert highlands which rise with bleak and - forbidding aspect between the Sierra Nevada and the eastern Rocky - Mountains, combine in forming a barrier sufficient to turn the course - of a migration.<a id="FNanchor_800" href="#Footnote_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a> Add to this the fact that the country south - of Oregon rises over 2000 feet above the head of the waters of the - Columbia and Missouri rivers, and it is apparent that an outlet must be - sought in another direction. Nature has provided the highway. Alluding - to this fact and to the unbroken line of mounds from the north and west - down the Missouri valley, Mr. Becker remarks: “On the head of (canoe) - navigation we have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">514</span>what is known as ‘portages.’ These are depressions - in the continuous range of the Rocky Mountains of such a nature that - they fairly invite a travelling tribe to cross from the river system - of the upper Columbia, emptying into the Pacific Ocean to that of the - Missouri, on which a canoe need but be floated in order to arrive in - the far distant Gulf of Mexico. Canoes can easily be carried from - one river system to the other. Nothing like it exists in the whole - mountain range southward, until we arrive at Nicaragua Lake in Central - America.”<a id="FNanchor_801" href="#Footnote_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a> It will not require long for the matter of fact reader, - who comprehends the well-nigh insurmountable difficulties which lie in - the way of populating America in tropical or southern latitudes, and - compares with them the facilities which the proximity of the continents - and the topography of our country afford, to determine from what - quarter America received the greater part of its inhabitants.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">515</span> - <h2 id="CHAPTER_XII"><span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER XII</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc">CONCLUSION.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">THE dim uncertainty which envelopes the most ancient period of American - antiquity, like that which obscures the beginnings of Egyptian, - Assyrian and Trojan history, to say nothing of the origin of the - venerable Asiatic civilizations, renders much of the effort in this - field unsatisfactory. Still the results are of surpassing interest. A - new cosmogony, mythology and traditional history full of weird poetic - inspiration, an inspiration such as is begotten in contemplating the - struggles of nature’s children after a higher development, is added to - the fund of human knowledge. The poetry of the Quiché cosmogony must - some day find expression in verse of Miltonic grandeur. The fall of - Xibalba will no doubt afford the materials for a heroic poem which will - stand in the same relation to America that the Iliad does to Greece. - The doctrines of the benign and saintly Quetzalcoatl or Cukulcan - must be classed among the great faiths of mankind, and their author, - alone of all the great teachers of morals except Christ himself, - inculcating a <em>positive</em> morality, must be granted a precedence - of most of the great teachers of Chinese and Hindoo antiquity. It is - the custom of many Europeans to regard America as having no heroic or - legendary period, no heroes like Achilles, Æneas, Sigfried, Beowolf, - Arthur and the Cid; but who will review the romance of American - antiquity and longer entertain this view? A few years ago, writers - dated North American history from the discoveries made by Columbus - and his immediate successors. Now they go back to the Northmen for a - starting-point. May not the beginning be pushed even farther back, and - the <em>ancient history of America</em> receive the attention of the - historiographer?</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">516</span></p> - - <p>The origin of the North American population cannot be positively - settled at present, though the probabilities are that new facts will be - brought to light establishing the relationship of the ancestors of the - Nahuas with some ancient Asiatic race, as the Eskimo have clearly been - proven to belong to the Arctic race which encircles the globe near the - North pole.<a id="FNanchor_802" href="#Footnote_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> We have seen that groups of facts unquestionably point - to Northern Asia as the ancient home of a large share of the tribes of - North America, civilized and savage. The autochthonic hypothesis which - had its first great advocate in Dr. Morton, receives no support from - his mistaken argument for the unity of the American race. We think - we have shown, as did Prof. Wilson before us, that no such fact as - ethnic unity exists in America. Dr. Morton’s own measurements of crania - which we have classified, and the recent measurements of mound skulls, - disprove the argument which he sought to establish. The autochthonic - hypothesis owed much of its popularity to the support which it received - from Prof. Agassiz’s doctrine of the separate creations of races of - men, a hypothesis which has rapidly lost ground since the decease of - its eminent advocate. It is impossible to determine whether the people - of the mounds of the United States were preceded in this country by any - other people. Certainly they had intercourse with some race having a - cranial type quite different from their own, as several low-type skulls - taken from the mounds testify. If the rude weapons found in New Jersey - are as old as Dr. Abbott supposes<a id="FNanchor_803" href="#Footnote_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a>—belonging to the inter-glacial - age—the question of man’s antiquity on this continent may have to - be viewed in a different light from that in which it has hitherto - appeared. It is conjectured that this supposed inter-glacial race were - the ancestors of the Eskimo of to-day, and retired or were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">517</span>driven - to the Arctic regions, where their racial characteristics became - permanent. The traditional history of both Mayas and Nahuas seem to - indicate an old world origin. The former people clearly claim an origin - which, if their traditions are worth anything, must be assigned to some - Mediterranean country. While, on the contrary, the Nahuas persistently - state that they came from the north or north-west. It is certain that - many of their cosmological traditions closely resemble those of Central - and Western Asiatic peoples. Why should the traditions of the ancient - Americans be less reliable than those of the most ancient Egyptians, - Greeks, or Hindoos?<a id="FNanchor_804" href="#Footnote_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a></p> - - <p>Tradition, language and architectural remains furnish us the data by - which to trace the migrations of peoples. In addition to the testimony - of tradition, the languages of the Mayas and Quichés present affinities - to the west European and African languages; also to the languages - of the West Indies and the Antilles. Whether the Quiché traditions - concerning their ancient home have reference to the Atlantic coast of - the United States is uncertain, though Señor Orozco y Berra believes - their ancestors to have migrated from Florida to Cuba and thence - to Yucatan. Linguistic and architectural evidences show that the - Maya-Quiché family extended its civilization north as far as Panuco, - and south as far as Honduras.</p> - - <p>The Nahua migrations are more numerous and their accounts somewhat - obscure. It is not improbable that while few in number the Nahuas - arrived on our north-western coast, where they found a home until they - had become a tribe of considerable proportions. Crossing the watershed - between the sources of the Columbia and Missouri Rivers, a large - portion of the tribe probably found its way to the Mississippi and - Ohio Valleys, where it laid the foundations of a wide-spread empire, - and developed a civilization which reached a respectable degree of - advancement.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">518</span></p> - - <p>The remainder of the Nahuas, we think, instead of crossing the - Rocky Mountains, migrated southward into Utah, and established a - civilization the remains of which are seen in the cliff-dwellings - of the San Juan Valley and such extensive ruins as exist at Aztec - Springs. It must be conceded that this hypothesis rests on linguistic - and traditional evidence, as no affinity between the architecture - of the Cliff-dwellers and either the Mexicans or Mound-builders is - traceable. We have in a preceding chapter summarized our reasons for - considering the Mound-builders to have been Nahuas. The Olmecs, the - first Nahuas to reach Mexico, came in ships from the direction of - Florida, landed at Panuco, and journeyed southward until they came in - contact with the advanced and already old civilization of the Mayas. - The Toltecs came into Mexico by land from the North. The Chichimecs, - their former neighbors in Hue hue Tlapalan, whether Nahuas or not - originally, followed them and adopted their language. The Nahuatlaca - tribes, speaking the same language, arrived centuries afterward from - the same quarter—the North. Finally the Aztecs, the last of the Nahuas, - reached Anáhuac four centuries before the Spanish conquest. Mr. Becker - has conjectured that Aztlan (land of whiteness) was the name applied - to the southern Mississippi Valley and the region of the Gulf States; - that Hue hue Tlapalan (old red land), the ancient empire of the Nahuas, - was situated on the great plains of the west and in the region occupied - by the Cliff-dwellers and Pueblos, and further, that the “seven caves” - or “ravines,” the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, is the region of the - Colorado River, the land of cañons.</p> - - <p>At best these can be but conjectures, yet the probabilities are - that Hue hue Tlapalan bordered upon the great Mississippi Valley. - Traditional and architectural evidence lead us to this conclusion. The - linguistic argument is wanting, except the statement of the historians - that the people of the Floridian region spoke Nahua. It remains for - some one to compare the Aztec with the languages of the southern - Indians before the investigation is complete. While the probability is - pre-eminent that the ancient Americans are of old world origin and that - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">519</span> Mayas and Nahuas reached this continent from opposite directions, - it is certain that the civilization developed by each people is - indigenous—that it grew up on the soil where we find it, and was shaped - by the wants of man as influenced and modified by the conditions of - nature and physical surroundings. The most persistent investigation has - failed to disclose any marked resemblance between the architecture, - art, religion and customs of the North Americans considered as a whole - and of any old world people. It is true that occasional analogies - suggest intercourse and even relationship with particular races, as - for instance the serpent and phallus worship common to the aboriginal - Americans and the people of India. Sun-worship, so wide-spread, may - also indicate an ancient community of residence for those peoples who - practise it. The Calendar systems of Mayas and Nahuas present analogies - to the systems employed by the Persians, Egyptians and certain - Asiatic nations, and the presumption is very strong that the latter - furnished the ground-plan upon which the Nahua system was constructed. - The accuracy of the Aztec calendar must ever be a monument to their - intellectual culture, and an undeniable proof of the advanced state of - ancient Mexican civilization. The fact that Cortez found the Julian - reckoning, employed by his own and every other European nation, to be - more than ten days in error when tried by the Aztec system—a system - the almost perfect accuracy of which was proven by the adjustments - which took place under Gregory XIII in 1582 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>—excites our - wonder and admiration. How the Nahuas, whether Toltec or Aztec we know - not, were able to approximate the true length of the year within two - minutes and nine seconds, thus almost rivalling the accuracy of the - learned astronomers of the Caliph Almamon, is a mystery. The venerable - civilization of the Mayas, whose forest-grown cities and crumbling - temples hold entombed a history of vanished glory, no doubt belongs to - the remotest period of North American antiquity. It was old when the - Nahuas, then a comparatively rude people, first came in contact with - it, adopted many of its features, and engrafted upon it new life. Like - Rome, overwhelmed by the Teutons of the North, it no doubt succumbed - to the vigorous aggressions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">520</span> of the invaders, and was compelled to - resign the dominion of much of its northern territory. The powerful - empire of the Quiché-Cakchiquels was the result of the union of the - old and new races. The otherwise inviting picture of ancient American - civilization is marred by the introduction of human sacrifices which - in each instance occurred in the period of the political decadence - of the people practising it, and no doubt was the most potent factor - in the downfall of both Toltec and Aztec monarchies. Still, when we - reflect upon the Druidical horrors of the Britons at the time of the - Roman conquest, and realize that our Anglo-Saxon ancestors in the sixth - century sold their relatives and even their own children into slavery, - and were but slightly removed from the condition of cannibals if they - were not actually such, the ancient American civilization with its many - humane features and advanced culture rises up in splendor before us, in - marked contrast with our barbarous origin. Although this civilization - was indigenous and peculiar to itself, we find all of the American - tribes possessed of certain arts and traditions which seem common to - mankind in all parts of the world. The character of flint weapons and - implements are the same among all primitive peoples. The modes of - producing fire by friction and of grinding grain differ little, if - any, in America, from those employed by ancient peoples elsewhere. The - first efforts toward the development of the architectural idea all - round the globe, seem to find expression in the rude mound and then in - the more perfect pyramid. These and other considerations which have - been noted in the preceding pages, lead us to the conclusion that at a - remote period, before racial and national characteristics had been well - defined, this continent received its population from the old world, at - different times and from different quarters.</p> - - <p>The uniformity with which the human mind operates in all lands for the - accomplishment of certain ends, has in many instances resulted in the - independent development of institutions common to several peoples. This - fact, together with the probability that occasionally foreigners were - cast upon the American shores, will be sufficient to account for many - features which have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">521</span> been discovered in Mexican and Central American - architecture, art, and religion, presenting analogies with the old - world. The fact that civilizations having such analogies are developed - in isolated quarters of the globe, separated from each other by broad - seas and lofty mountains, and thus indicating a uniformity of mental - operation and a unity of mental inspiration, added to the fact that the - evidence is of a preponderating character that the American continent - received its population from the old world, leads us to the truth that - God “hath made of one blood all nations of men.”</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">523</span> - <div class="xlarge center"><b>APPENDIX.</b></div> - <hr class="short mt3" /> - <h2 id="MADISONVILLE_EXPLORATIONS" title="APPENDIX A.">A.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc">MADISONVILLE EXPLORATIONS.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">SINCE the greater part of this work was put in type, the exploration - of ancient mounds in several localities in the United States has - yielded gratifying results. Most conspicuous for rich returns, - both in pottery and human remains, are the researches which have - recently been prosecuted with such rare intelligence and vigor by - the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio, in the - aboriginal burying-grounds and among the mound-works of the Little - Miami Valley. Through the liberality of the society and the courtesy - of its secretary, Mr. Frank W. Langdon, we are enabled to present - an authorized account of the explorations. We take this opportunity - of expressing our obligations to the society, and especially to Mr. - Langdon, who has kindly prepared the following report:</p> - - <p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Notice of Some Recent Archæological Discoveries in the Little - Miami Valley.</span> <cite>By <span class="smcap">Frank W. Langdon</span>, Secretary of the - Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio.</cite></p> - - <p>The valley of the Little Miami River, in South-western Ohio, has long - been noted for the number and extent of its pre-historic earthworks, - which, distributed on either side of the river, from its confluence - with the Ohio to the well-known Fort Ancient and beyond, form an almost - continuous chain of mounds, forts, circles, and embankments, extending - for more than fifty miles, and constituting an important division of - the great earthworks system of the Mississippi Valley.</p> - - <p>Of the few publications relating more especially to the ancient works - of this series, one of the most important, perhaps, is the paper by - Dr. Charles L. Metz, entitled “The Prehistoric Monuments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">524</span> of the - Little Miami Valley,”<a id="FNanchor_805" href="#Footnote_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> accompanied by a chart showing the location - and character of more than forty of these earthworks, situated in - Columbia, Spencer and Anderson Townships of Hamilton County. The Hon. - Joseph Cox, H. B. Whetsel, Esq., Mr. Charles F. Low, and the several - other gentlemen composing the organization known as the Literary and - Scientific Society of Madisonville, have also, at various times, - given considerable attention to archæological investigations in this - vicinity, and the valuable and interesting collections of objects - of pre-historic art accumulated by these gentlemen afford abundant - evidence of the long-continued occupation of this region by a numerous - and somewhat intelligent people of whom we have no historic record.</p> - - <p>A renewed interest in the subject has been recently developed by the - discovery, near Madisonville, of one of the cemeteries of this unknown - people, and the explorations therein by the above-named society, are - perhaps among the most interesting that have ever been conducted in the - Mississippi Valley.</p> - - <p>This cemetery, which is distant about one and one-half miles south-east - from Madisonville, occupies the western extremity of an elevated - plateau overlooking the Little Miami River, and situated from eighty - to one hundred feet above the water-line. It is bounded on the south - by the river “bottom”; on the north and west by a deep ravine, through - which flows a small stream known as Whisky Run; on the east the plateau - slopes gradually up to the general level of the surrounding country, - of which it is in fact a continuation or spur, its character of an - isolated plateau being derived from its position between the eroded - river valley and the deep ravine above referred to. The precipitous - but well-wooded bluff which forms the southern limit of this plateau - extends eastward, facing the river, for perhaps half a mile, and - distributed along its edge are a number of mounds and other earthworks; - at its base are the Cincinnati and Eastern and Little Miami Railways, - the nearest station being Batavia Junction, distant about half a mile - east of the cemetery.</p> - - <p>The original forest still covers the site of the cemetery, and - measurements of some of the principal trees are recorded by Dr. Metz - in his paper before mentioned, as follows: a walnut, 15½ feet in - circumference; an oak, 12 feet; a maple, 9½ feet; an elm, 12 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">525</span>feet. The - locality has long been known to local collectors and others interested - in archæological matters, as the “Pottery Field,” so called on account - of the numerous fragments of earthenware strewn over the surface; and - it was until recently supposed to be a place where the manufacture of - pottery had been carried on by the ancient inhabitants of the valley, - the fragments found being considered the <i>debris</i>. A few scattered - human remains had also been found in the adjoining ravines, but it was - not until some time in March, 1879, that its true character and extent - as a cemetery were brought to light.</p> - - <p>It then became apparent that some concerted action would be necessary, - in order to secure the best scientific results from the discovery; and - early in April excavations were begun under the auspices of the before - mentioned organization, the proprietors of the premises, Messrs. A. - J. and Charles K. Ferris, having kindly granted to it the exclusive - privilege of making a thorough and systematic exploration of the - ground. From that time until the present (July 19, 1879) excavations - have been continued with a force varying from one to three men, - assisted by members of the society, every foot of the ground gone over - being thoroughly explored, and full notes taken as the work progressed.</p> - - <p>The following brief outline of the results, taken from the records of - the society, will but serve to convey an idea of the general features - of the discovery and of its importance to archæological science, time - and space not permitting a detailed account in the present connection.</p> - - <p>Of the four or five acres of ground over which the cemetery is believed - to extend, only a small segment of the south-western portion has been - explored. The exploration, however, has been exceedingly thorough and - comprises an extent of perhaps half an acre of ground, from which have - been exhumed in all one hundred and eighty-five skeletons. Of these, - however, but a small proportion are in a good or even tolerable state - of preservation, as with the utmost care only about forty crania could - be preserved sufficiently well for measurement. The preservation of - even this number must probably be attributed to the favorable character - of the soil, a compact gravelly drift, as the various surroundings, - position of some skeletons under large trees, etc., all indicate for - these interments a remote antiquity.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">526</span></p> - - <p>With respect to the mode of burial, this is far from being uniform. A - large majority of the skeletons are found at a depth of from two to - three feet, in a horizontal position, face upwards; but exceptions - to this rule are numerous, many interments being made in a sitting - position, and some in groups of from three to six individuals - irregularly disposed. There has been no attempt in any instance at - the construction of a stone coffin, but in one case the skeleton was - covered with a layer of small flat limestone from the adjacent stream. - The heads of those in the horizontal position are generally directed to - the east or south-east; but this rule is not constant, several being - found at right angles to these. It is worthy of note, however, that, - with scarcely an exception, those skeletons accompanied by the finer - vases, pipes and other choice relics, have their heads directed east or - south-east.</p> - - <p>During the progress of the work on April 12, a cranium, unaccompanied - by other bones, was exhumed; in searching for the rest of the - skeleton, a circular excavation, three and a half feet in diameter - and four and a half feet in depth, was made, from which were taken - bones sufficient to represent twenty-two skeletons. But two of the - crania, both evidently those of females, could be preserved; they are - remarkable for their whiteness and smooth texture as compared with the - average crania from this cemetery. A sacrum taken from this pit has - imbedded in its anterior surface, near the promontory, one of the small - triangular flints known as “war arrows,” which had passed obliquely - from above downwards, and to the right, necessarily penetrating the - abdominal walls and viscera in order to reach its final lodging place. - The bottom of the pit was paved with the common river mussel shells - (<i>unios</i>), and there appeared to have been some attempt at a - natural disposition of the bones, those of the lower extremities being - placed at the bottom, the crania at the top.</p> - - <p>Among the human remains from this cemetery are many possessing features - of surgical and anatomical interest, as, for instance, an adult male - cranium in which complete anchylosis of the atlas to the condyles - has occurred, the posterior arch remaining free. Other crania show - evidences of severe injury with subsequent repair, and among the long - bones are several showing characteristic lesions strongly indicative - of rachitis and of syphilis, a fact of considerable interest in its - relation to the geographical distribution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">527</span> of the latter disease, and - also as bearing on the theory of its introduction into Southern Europe - from America in the fifteenth century.</p> - - <p>Among the graves opened are several of children, who are usually buried - in close proximity to adults, and with them are found various ornaments - or toys of perforated shell, bone, etc., as well as small earthen - vessels.</p> - - <div class="figright2 illowp54"> - <img src="images/i_527.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap0">Bowl from Ancient Cemetery, Little Miami Valley.</span><br /> - (Collection of W. C. Rogers, Madisonville, O.)</div> - </div> - - <p>The pottery ware which accompanies the skeletons is usually situated - near the head and presents many features of special interest. It is - made of clay, finely tempered with pounded unio shells, and much care - has evidently been bestowed upon its manufacture, some pieces being - scarcely thicker than an ordinary teacup. Many specimens are in a - perfect condition, or nearly so, and they usually contain a single - unio shell when found, the shell being evidently intended for use as a - spoon. The vessels range in capacity from a third of a pint, or even - smaller, up to a gallon or more, the smaller ones, as before stated, - being usually found in the graves of children. They are symmetrical - in shape and varied in design, some being artistically ornamented - with scroll work, handles representing lizards, human heads, etc., - and are almost invariably provided with four handles. Among the - few exceptions to this latter rule is an eight-handled bowl (see - cut), in the collection of W. C. Rogers, Esq., which is a two-story - affair, apparently made by combining two distinct vessels, and then - removing the bottom of the upper one. Vessels having but two handles - occasionally occur, and others with holes in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">528</span> lieu of handles; but - these are exceptions to the general rule as above noted.</p> - - <p>The total number of vessels taken from the cemetery to date is - eighty-eight. There is good reason to believe, however, that each - interment has been originally accompanied by a vessel, the present - disparity between the number of vessels and the number of skeletons - being accounted for by the fragments thickly strewn over the surface - and intermingled with the surrounding soil, which have doubtless at one - time constituted portions of the missing burial urns. To the growth - of trees, action of frost and rooting of hogs, the destruction of so - much of this valuable ware must be attributed, and to the latter cause, - irregularities observed in the disposition of some of the skeletons are - probably due.</p> - - <p>Among the other articles of utility or ornament found in the graves - are twelve pipes, of various patterns, three of them being made from - the Minnesota Catlinite or Red Pipestone; also stone disks, axes - and chisels, flint knives and spear-heads, and many ornaments and - implements of bone, such as beads, awls, needles, perforated teeth, - etc., together with others of unknown uses. Two small cylinders of - rolled copper, about two inches in length, and two flat pieces of the - same metal an inch or more square, are among the collections, as are - also two stones bearing inscriptions as follows: one, an irregular - piece of sandstone, measuring about 3 × 2 × 1 inches, on the flat - surface of which are cut two parallel figures made of straight lines - and apparently intended to represent arrows; this specimen is now in - the writer’s collection. The other stone, which is in the collection of - E. A. Conkling, Esq., is a flattened dark-green boulder measuring about - 3½ × 2½ inches, one side of which is completely covered with a network - of lines from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch apart and crossing each other at nearly - right angles, thus forming quadrangular divisions of various sizes.</p> - - <p>An interesting feature of these excavations has been the discovery of - what may be designated as “ashpits”; being circumscribed deposits of - ashes, shells, sand, etc., from two to three feet in thickness, placed - at varying distances below the surface. A perpendicular section made - of one of these pits answers to the following description, which will - serve to convey a fair idea of them all. Diameter of pit, three feet; - the first eighteen inches consisted of leaf mold and sandy soil; then - followed nine inches of clay, burnt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">529</span> earth and charcoal; next, ashes - and charcoal, twelve inches; clay, three inches; white ashes, two - inches; sand and unio shells, six inches; pure ashes, twelve inches; - total depth, five feet two inches.</p> - - <p>Of these ashpits, more than fifty have been opened, situated in - continuous rows near the edge of the bluff. They are quite uniform in - size, measuring from three to four feet in diameter and from four to - six feet in depth, and with one or two exceptions have not been found - in any other than the above-mentioned situation. Intermingled with the - ashes are pipes, implements of bone, shell, and stone, a mastodon’s - tooth, bones of various wild animals, including birds and fishes, and - in some of them large sherds of pottery-ware indicating vessels of from - ten to twelve gallons capacity or even larger. With the exception of a - single dorsal vertebra no human remains have yet been found in these - pits, unless the ashes be so considered.</p> - - <p>From the uncharred condition of the above articles it is evident that - the ashes have been placed in the pits <em>as ashes</em>, after having - been burned elsewhere, as in no case do the relics or the walls of the - pits show any traces of the action of fire.</p> - - <p>With respect to the length of time that has elapsed since these - interments, mention has already been made of the situation of some of - the skeletons under large trees, an instance of which may be cited: On - Saturday, April 5, the ground was visited by Judge Cox and Mr. Low, - in company with Dr. Metz, and in excavating beneath an oak tree, six - feet two inches in circumference, a skeleton was discovered, its lower - extremities extending under the tree; overlying the lower extremities - of this skeleton was another, its body situated directly under the - trunk of the tree and the skull so surrounded and penetrated by roots - as to prevent its removal except in fragments. The bones of both - skeletons were much decayed and exceedingly fragile.</p> - - <p>In forming an estimate as to the probable antiquity of these - interments, the time that must necessarily have elapsed between the - abandonment of the cemetery and the springing up of the forest; the age - of the trees now present and of others that have fallen and decayed; - the advanced state of decay in which the human remains are found; the - character of the pottery-ware; and lastly, the total absence of any - evidences of communication with civilization, in the shape of glass - beads or other trinkets, must all be taken into account; and it does - not appear at all unreasonable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">530</span> to conclude that the use of this ground - as a cemetery probably antedates the discovery of America by Columbus.</p> - - <p>As regards the particular race to which this people belonged,—whether - they were identical with, or related to, the celebrated “stone-grave - people” of Tennessee,<a id="FNanchor_806" href="#Footnote_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> as some of their pottery-ware and the shape - and dimensions of their crania would seem to indicate; or whether they - were the last remnants of the once powerful nation that erected Fort - Ancient and other gigantic works in this region,—these and similar - queries remain as yet unanswered. More extended investigations and a - careful comparison of large amounts of material from this and other - localities, may be expected to assist in the solution of these obscure - but interesting problems.</p> - - <p>At the present writing excavations are still in progress, with new - developments daily, and a publication of the entire results, with full - details and illustrations, may be looked for in due season.</p> - - - <blockquote> - <p><span class="smcap">Madisonville</span>, Hamilton County, Ohio, <i>July</i> 19, 1879.</p> - - <p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—An illustrated report of the continuation of the - Madisonville exploration, so remarkable in results, will be found - in the <cite>Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History</cite>, - vol. iii, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; also a sketch by F. W. Putnam in - <cite>Harvard University Bulletin</cite> for June 1, 1881.</p> - </blockquote> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2 id="ELEPHANT_PIPE" title="APPENDIX B.">B.</h2> - </div> - - <p class="drop-cap">THE question as to whether man and the mastodon were contemporaneous in - America, has long been a matter of dispute as the reader is aware after - the perusal of our second chapter and other sources. The “elephant - <span class="figleft2 illowp58"> - <img src="images/i_530.jpg" alt="" /> - <span class="caption smcap">Elephant Pipe from Louisa Co., Iowa.</span> - </span> - pipe” figured in the accompanying cut has been the means of calling - fresh attention to the subject. Dr. R. J. Farquharson, of the Davenport - Academy of Sciences, who kindly furnished us the photo from which our - illustration is a reduction, states that six or seven years ago Mr. - Peter Mare, a farmer (whose estate was situated on both <span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">531</span>sides of the - line dividing Muscatine and Louisa Counties, Iowa) found the elephant - pipe while plowing corn on his land in Louisa County. The finder, - who had no idea of its archæological value, kept it with a number of - “Indian stones,” as he termed them, until last year (1878), when it - became the property of the Davenport Academy. Dr. Farquharson says: - “The ancient mounds were very abundant in that vicinity (Louisa Co.), - and rich in relics which are deposited on the surface of the soil (not - in excavations), as we found in exploring a number. In such a case - it is not strange that a mound having been gradually removed by long - cultivation, the relics so deposited should be reached and turned up - by the plow.” * * * “The pipe, which is of a fragile sandstone, is of - the ordinary Mound-builder’s type, and has every appearance of age and - usage. Of its genuineness I have no doubt. Together with the ‘Elephant - mound’ of Wisconsin, the elephant head of Palenque (depicted in Lord - Kingsborough’s great work), our pipe completes the series of what the - French would call ‘documents’ proving the fact of the contemporaneous - existence on this continent of man and the mastodon.”<a id="FNanchor_807" href="#Footnote_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> The above - facts, as stated by Dr. Farquharson, were substantially embodied in a - paper read by Mr. Pratt before the Davenport Academy, April 25, 1879.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2 id="CHARNAY_EXPLORATION" title="APPENDIX C.">C.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc">THE CHARNAY EXPLORATION.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">THE exploring expedition under French and American patronage, led by - M. Désiré Charnay, began its labors in Mexico, May 1st, 1880, and - continued them nearly a year. During this time a large number of ruins, - scattered over the area extending from Teotihuacan and Tollan, on the - north, and Palenque, on the south, are reported to have been examined. - How thorough the examination was, or how scientifically accurate - were the published reports, it would at present (September, 1881) be - impossible to determine. Suffice it to say that they are generally - viewed with distrust, partly on account of the disjointed, haphazard - form in which they have appeared in the <cite>North American Review</cite> - (September, 1880-June, 1881—doubtless without blame on the part of the - editor), where the splendid heliotype illustrations have been rendered - nearly valueless by the frequent omission, from the text and elsewhere, - of descriptive reference; and partly on account of the over-confident - style of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">532</span>writer. It is to be hoped that the ground for criticism - may be removed when M. Charnay shall formally publish his reports.</p> - - <p>It would be superfluous in this connection to summarize his work, since - his papers are accessible to all.</p> - - <p>It is worthy of note, however, that he reports Teotihuacan, on the - authority of several authors, to have contained twenty-seven thousand - dwellings, besides its temples, and that the heaps of ruins which - remain justify the statement. The whole area of five or six miles - in diameter was found covered with heaps of ruins. Cement roadways, - containing broken pottery, seemed to afford evidence of occupancy - in even a more ancient epoch than that in which Teotihuacan was - founded. Excavations revealed two halls of a supposed temple at the - base of one of the pyramids. One of these halls is reported to be - nearly fifty feet square, in the middle of which stood six pillars - which had served to sustain the roof. At Tula, the ancient capital of - Tollau, north-west of the city of Mexico, hitherto so fruitless of - archæological, and especially of architectural remains, M. Charnay - made remarkable discoveries of pyramids, and several Toltec houses of - immense proportions, one of which contained forty-three apartments, - besides corridors and a staircase. Sculptures were numerous, and bricks - of burnt clay, twelve inches long by five inches wide, were found to - have been used in constructing stairways.</p> - - <p>Near the village of Comalcalco, thirty-five or forty miles - north-west of San Juan Bautista, the capital of Tabasco, vast ruins - were discovered, particularly pyramids, towers, and edifices, all - forest-grown, equalling and even surpassing in proportions those at - Palenque. Upon a pyramid 115 feet high an edifice of brick and mortar - 234 feet in length was explored.</p> - - <p>At the village of Palenque, M. Charnay found the two bas-reliefs seen - by Waldeck and Stephens a half century ago, now built into the outer - wall of a church (see this work, p. 391).</p> - - <p>At the ancient city itself the explorer discovered the ruins to be - more extensive than ever heretofore supposed, and estimates that it - would require the labor of five hundred men for six months, under the - direction of a corps of topographers, simply to determine the general - plan of the city. Eight hundred and sixty-one square feet of casts of - bas-reliefs were taken. It was ascertained at Palenque, by breaking off - portions of the vesture upon the stucco reliefs, that the human body - had in all cases been first carefully modeled, and that the drapery had - subsequently been superposed. Whether this fact throws light simply - upon the process employed, or indicates a reaction or evolution in art, - is equally interesting and uncertain.</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">533</span> - <h2 id="HOUSE_ARCHITECTURE" title="APPENDIX D.">D.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="subheadc">HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PUEBLOS.</div> - - <p class="drop-cap">AMONG the unsolved problems of American archæology is that of the - use to which the extensive systems of embankments attributed to the - Mound-builders were put. The Newark (Ohio) system of works, now - covering two miles square, but formerly presenting twelve miles of - embankment, reaching at some points a height of thirty-five feet, - with sufficient width for a carriage-way on top, has been a veritable - sphinx to all inquirers. Nor does it stand alone in an architectural - aspect. Its square is precisely of the dimensions of a similar figure - found at Hopetown, in the Scioto Valley. Its circles are connected - with squares or octagons, a typical combination of features generally - prevalent in mound structures. Furthermore, its trenches are all within - the enclosures. The probability is that the clew to the solution of - the problem has come to light. The discovery of what are pronounced - to be mound-works, in connection with the Pueblo ruins of Colorado - and New Mexico and Arizona, has given us the hint. Mr. Wm. H. Holmes - in “A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western Colorado, examined - during the Summer of 1875,”<a id="FNanchor_808" href="#Footnote_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> shows us the Mound and Pueblo ruin in - close proximity. In describing a ruined village on the Rio La Plata, - he says: “North of this, about 300 feet, is a truncated rectangular - mound, 9 or 10 feet in height and 50 feet in width by 80 in length. - On the east end, near one of the angles, is a low, projecting pile - of débris that may have been a tower. There is nothing whatever to - indicate the use of this structure. Its flat top and height give it - more the appearance of one of the sacrificial mounds of the Ohio Valley - than any other observed in this part of the West. It may have been, - however, only a raised foundation, designed to support a superstructure - of wood or adobe.... South of this, and occupying the extreme southern - end of the terrace, are a number of small circles and mounds, while - an undetermined number of diminutive mounds are distributed among the - other ruins.” Mr. W. H. Jackson, in the same document (p. 29) that - contains Mr. Holmes’ report, mentions the remains of “many circular - towns” <span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">534</span>on a high plateau between the Montezuma and the Hovenweep. The - year following, the lamented scholar, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, acting on - the suggestion or originating a hypothesis of his own, announced in the - <cite>North American Review</cite> for July, 1876, what has since been called - his “Pueblo Theory.” A fuller exposition of his views were embodied - in his paper “On Houses of the American Aborigines,” published in the - <cite>Report of the Archæological Institute of America for 1879–1880</cite>. - Mr. Morgan illustrates the prevalence of communal houses among the - aborigines east of the Mississippi, citing the long houses of the - Iroquois; and west of the river the communal lodges of the Minnitares - and Mandans, and of Columbia River Indians seen by Lewis and Clark in - 1805. The writer further illustrates the communal architecture of the - aborigines by discussions relating to the joint tenement houses of the - Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona. Having thus laid his foundation, he - applies the communal idea and its expression in the Mandan and Pueblo - structures in a conjectural restoration of the mound villages. He - supposes that, as adobe would not withstand the frosts and rains of - the Ohio Valley, the Mound-builder people resorted to the structure of - wooden edifices. He says: “They might have raised these embankments - of earth, enclosing circular, rectangular, or square areas, and - constructed their long houses upon them.” Mr. Morgan would build upon - the squares and circles houses having a wooden framework, upon which - turf and grass were placed both upon roof and sides. In order that this - should be possible, the sides are supposed to have been inclined at the - same angle with the embankment, the superstructure being a continuation - of the earthern foundation so far as outline and geometrical figure - is concerned. To preserve analogy with the closed, windowless - ground-storey of New Mexico Pueblos, Mr. Morgan supposes that the - outer side or sides of the edifice were closed, presenting only blank - walls of heavy turf or gravel to view; while the walls facing within - the enclosure were windowed, and pierced with doors. The entrances to - the enclosures, he supposes, were guarded with palisades. There the - defensive feature of the Pueblo house was preserved. In his elaborate - work, the “Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines,”<a id="FNanchor_809" href="#Footnote_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> that - last touch of a vanished hand, the author has discussed at length the - development of the joint tenement house among the Mound-builders. After - illustrating the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_535">535</span>principle, as applied in the restoration of High Bank - works (Ross County, Ohio), he adds: “These embankments, therefore, - require triangular houses of the kind described, and long houses as - well, covering their entire length. But the interior plan might have - been different; for example, the passage-way might have a long exterior - wall, and the stalls or apartments on the court side, and but half as - many in number; and, instead of one continuous house, in the interior, - 450 feet in length, it might have been divided into several, separated - from each other by cross partitions. The plan of life, however, which - we are justified in ascribing to them, from known usages of Indian - tribes in a similar condition of advancement, would lead us to expect - large households formed on the basis of kin, with the practice of - communism in living in each household, whether large or small.” The - plausibility of Mr. Morgan’s hypothesis is, to say the least, striking. - However, his supposition that the Mound-builders and Pueblos were of - the same race, is not unattended with difficulties. Conspicuous among - them is the marked dissimilarity of the ceramic ornament employed by - the two peoples. Nothing is more stable than the art of a race or - age. Nothing more truly reveals the inner life of a people than its - pottery. The Mound-builders and Pueblos each had their ceramic types. - But they were wholly unlike—apparently the work of unrelated races. - Yet, community of burial, as well as community of residence, to which - may be added similarity of cranial type, are facts that declare for Mr. - Morgan’s hypothesis as to the relation of the peoples in question.<a id="FNanchor_810" href="#Footnote_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a></p> - - <hr class="chap" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_537">537</span> - <h2 id="INDEX"><span class="gespertt1">INDEX</span>.</h2> - </div> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <ul> - <li class="ifrst">A.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abbott, discoveries in New Jersey. <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">view of Eskimo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aboriginal painting of sun, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">trade, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Rau on, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aborigines, American, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Acolhuas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Agassiz on Floridian jaw-bone, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on origin of nations, <a href="#Page_158">158–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on physical life and nature, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of untenable, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ages of stone and bronze in Mississippi valley, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Age of trees on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Agglutination in languages, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alabama mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71–72</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alaska, climate of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aleutian islands, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">migration by, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alleghany Mts., boundary of Mound country, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alligator mound, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Allighewi, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Allouez, Father, on aboriginal copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Al-Mamoun, state of learning during kalifate of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Altar mounds, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Squier and Davis on, <a href="#Page_83">83–87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stratification of, <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prof. Andrews on, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alton, mounds at, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Amaquemecan, Chichimec home, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">American civilization (ancient) contrasted with that of Britons, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">“Bottom,” recent discoveries in, <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">languages, number and variety of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">instability of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">race not unique, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of old world origin, <a href="#Page_201">201–2</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anahuac, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Analogies in geographical names, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in religion, <a href="#Page_459">459–68</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of ceremonial law, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Scandanavian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Hindoo and Mexican, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Greek and Mexican, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Egyptian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anchylosis (bony) observed in mound-builder remains, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_89">89–94</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ancient forts of New York, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Col. Whittlesey on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Foster on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anderson’s, W. M., “Calendar Stone,” <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Andrews, E. B., explorations by, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Antiquity of man, chap. ii;</li> - <li class="isub2">testimony of geology, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Europe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Antiquity of mounds, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Red man, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Antipodes, St. Augustine on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aristarchus of Samos on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Apes, American group of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ararat, Mt., <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the Mexican, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arch, pueblo, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Architecture, analogies in, real and fancied, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_340">340–55</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">classification of styles, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Palenque, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Yucatan style, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Uxmal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Kabah, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Zayi, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Labná, <a href="#Page_353">354</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Quiché, <a href="#Page_355">355–59</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Nahua, <a href="#Page_359">359–83</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mitla, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Maya and Nahua compared, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Architectural progress in mound works, <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Argyll, Duke of, on Negroid type, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Art, unity of style in savage, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">high order at Palenque, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Copan, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Palenque and Egyptian compared, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Astronomical knowledge of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_94">94–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, floor of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">submerged land ridge of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">mean depths of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">sea-board, changes in level of, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">continent, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Atlantis, Platonic, tradition of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498–505</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Brasseur de Bourbourg on, <a href="#Page_498">498–500</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Legends of from <i>Popol Vuh</i> and <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Retzius on, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Unger, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Heer, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Atolls of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dana and Le Conte on, <a href="#Page_507">507–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Atoyac, Mexican river, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Autochthones, mound-builders not, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Autochthon, the American an, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Autochthonic origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Axayacatl, Mexican king, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Azores, volcanic character of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztec calendar, <a href="#Page_446">446–59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">weeks and days, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inter-calation, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ritual year, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lords of night, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lunar reckoning, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">chronology, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztec language, richness of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">extent of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the classic tongue, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ancient and modern, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">grammar, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lord’s prayer in, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">traces of north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_486">486–90</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">elements in Nootka languages, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztec picture-writing, <a href="#Page_428">428–33</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztec springs, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324–26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aztec-Sonora languages, <a href="#Page_487">487–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Aztec theory,” the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztecs, migrations of, <a href="#Page_259">259–263</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stations, <a href="#Page_260">260–61</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">southern origin of considered, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztlan, Nahua home, <a href="#Page_257">257–9</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">location of, <a href="#Page_257">257–9</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–65</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">description of by Duran, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aztlan, Wis., mound works at, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">B.</li> - - <li class="indx">Babel myths, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">tower of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cholula, <a href="#Page_235">235–37</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bacab myth, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Balam-Agab, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Balam-Quitzé, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baldwin, J. D., on mounds of North-west, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bancroft, H. H., on Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_251">251–53</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">resumé of Toltec annals by, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">observations on Cox-cox myth, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Maya chronology, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Aztec language, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baptism, Mexican, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barber, E. A., <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barrandt on Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Basque and Maya languages compared, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Farrar on, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bartlett’s exploration of Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_276">276–83</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bayou St. John, earthworks on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beard mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bearded men at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beau Relief in Stucco, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Becker, J. H., on traditions of Nahua Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, n.;</li> - <li class="isub2">on ancient home of Nahuas, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_248">248–50</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Behring’s Straits, Bancroft’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">width and depth of, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lyell and Herschel on, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hellwald on migration by, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dall, W. H., on migration <i>via</i>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Berthoud, E. L., stone implements collected by, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Big Harpeth valley works, <a href="#Page_60">60–65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Blake, J. H., collection of Peruvian skulls by, <a href="#Page_176">176–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bollaert’s interpretation of hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Books used by Mayas, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">by Aztecs, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bourbeuse River, mastodon discovered at, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brasseur de Bourbourg, estimate of by Bancroft, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, n. 1.</li> - <li class="isub1">on the Platonic Atlantis, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498–500</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Igh and Imox, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, n. 1;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Maya hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_421">421–25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on religious analogies, <a href="#Page_467">467–8</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Scandinavian and Maya languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brachycephalic crania classified, <a href="#Page_162">162–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brazil, accidental discovery of by Cabral, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brentwood, Tenn., stones graves at, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brick, sun-dried, from mounds, <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brinton, Dr., phonetic alphabet, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Buddha and Quetzalcoatl compared by, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brown, Thos., mounds of, <a href="#Page_63">63–4</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Browne, Ross, explorations by, <a href="#Page_282">282–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buckle, on learning in Spain, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buddhist missionaries in America, <a href="#Page_148">148–50</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Burial, “intrusive” in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceremony, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in stone coffins, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">vase from Mexico, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Butler, J. W., on Chaac-Mol, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buschmann’s researches on American languages, <a href="#Page_487">487–88</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Sonora family, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Aztec element in Nootka language, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">C.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cabots, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cabral, discovery of Brazil by, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cabrera on the origin of the Votanites, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Votanic document, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cahita, language of New Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Calapooya language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Calaveras Co. (Cal.) cranium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of Whitney, Wyman and others on, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Calendar systems, mound-builder, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">days, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Katun, <a href="#Page_439">439–40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ahau Katun, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">succession of, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Nahua or Mexican, its construction, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446–59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">perfection of, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">days and weeks, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inter-calation, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ritual year, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lords of night, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_408">408–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">interpreted by Gama, Chevero and Valentini, <a href="#Page_450">450–58</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">history, <a href="#Page_452">452–3</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">California, traces of antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">California languages and their affinities to Chinese, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Japanese, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Canals constructed by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_98">98–100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caras or Carians ancient navigators, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Brasseur on, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carr’s Measurements of Crania, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on low-type mound crania, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carter, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Carter, Dr. J. Van A., on stone implements, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carthaginian colonization of America, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Cara Gigantesca, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Casa del Ecó, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Gobernador (Uxmal), <a href="#Page_347">347–50</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Grande of Zayi, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">de Monjas, sculptures of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aztec station at, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of the Gila, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cataclysm, traditions of a, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cave explorations, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">dwellings, <a href="#Page_292">292–311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">village of Rio Chelley, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">shelters of San Juan, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">fortresses of Rio Mancos, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, Toltec king, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cemetery, aboriginal, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Centennial Report of Ohio Arch. Asso., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Centla, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_365">365–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cephalic index of crania, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ceremonial law, analysis of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chaac-Mol, statue of, <a href="#Page_397">397–400</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chaco Valley, ruined pueblo in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">peculiarity of architecture, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chalcas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chalco, lake, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Challenger, voyage of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">“Challenger plateau,” <a href="#Page_502">502–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chalcatzin, Toltec chief, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chamber, interior in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chanes, ancient races, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Charencey, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chelly Cañon, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cave-village of, <a href="#Page_313">313–14</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">house in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chevero, interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone by, <a href="#Page_450">450–2</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chiapan architecture, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chiapas, ancient civilization of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chichen-Itza, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_353">353–5</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397–403</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">mural paintings at, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chichilticale, “red house,” <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chichimecs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dynasty of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">language of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pimentel on, <a href="#Page_255">255–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chicomoztoc (Chichimostoc) Nahua home, <a href="#Page_256">256–7</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">identical with “seven caves,” <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, n.; <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chihuahua, Casas Grandes of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">original descriptions of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">material and dimensions of, <a href="#Page_276">276–77</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Children’s graves in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_66">66–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chimalhuacan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chinook language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, n. 3.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cholula pyramid, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">not related to a flood, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">origin according to Duran, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368–70</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Christ myth in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Christy collection, Mosaic knife from, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chinese colonization of America, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chronology, accepted faulty, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Duke of Argyll on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Maya, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">adjusted to ours, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cibola, seven cities of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cincinnati mound-works. <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Circumcision, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cists, stone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Civilization, American contrasted with that of ancient Britons, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clallam and Lummi languages, Aztec element in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clarke, Robert, on Cincinnati Tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44–6</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Morgan’s Pueblo theory, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Classification of crania, <a href="#Page_160">160–3</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of mound-works by Squier and Davis, and Foster, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of mound relics by Rau, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clavigero, views on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, n. 1.</li> - <li class="isub1">on first colonists of America, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their traditional history, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cliff-dwellings of the Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_298">298–99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">McElmo Cañon, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Hovenweep, <a href="#Page_305">305–7</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">San Juan, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">and Rock Shelters on San Juan, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">house of Chelly Cañon, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in Montezuma Cañon, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cloth from mounds, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Coast level, elevation and depression of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Coffins, stone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Columbus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stern-post of ship seen by, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Colonists, first in Mexico, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Color, variety in human races, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Darwin on origin of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Color of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pritchard on, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Colorado River, ruins in Grand Cañon of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Major Powell’s exploration, <a href="#Page_285">285–87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Colorado Chiquito, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Columbia River languages, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conant, A. J., explorations by, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on ancient canals, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conflict of science and dogmatism, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Confusion of tongues, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Connett mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conquest of Xibalba, <a href="#Page_222">222–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Copan, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ruins of, <a href="#Page_356">356–59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sculpture of, <a href="#Page_404">404–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Copper in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ancient mines of, <a href="#Page_89">89–94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">theory of Mexican supply, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">relics from Wisconsin, <a href="#i_099">99</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cora language and its relation to Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cosmogonic egg, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Coronado’s journey to New Mexico, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cox, Prof., discoveries cited, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cox-cox, Mexican Noah, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cox-cox, Bancroft’s observations on, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Crania Americana</i>, measurements of, classified, <a href="#Page_161">161–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cranial measurements, <a href="#Page_159">159–60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Crania from mounds, testimony of, <a href="#Page_105">105–6</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">River Rogue, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">measurements by Gillman, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Davenport, Farquharson’s measurements, <a href="#Page_169">169–70</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Ohio, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Kentucky, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Tennessee, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">comparison, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">compression of common, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">among Chinooks, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">among other American tribes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cranium, low type, discovered by Conant, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cremation probable, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cristone of McElmo Cañon, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cross, subterranean temple of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Tablet of, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cruciform works at Trenton, Wis., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Crux Ansata at Palenque, <a href="#Page_416">416–17</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cukulcan culture hero, <a href="#Page_230">230–31</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Culhuacan, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Culhuas (Nahuas) sometimes applied to Mayas, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Curtiss, Ed., explorations by, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">D.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dablon, Father, on aboriginal use of copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dall, W. H., on migration by Behring’s Straits, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dana, J. D., review of Dr. Koch’s discoveries, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Darwin on old world origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Davenport Academy, explorations conducted by, <a href="#Page_37">37–40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Davenport Tablet, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Davenport mound crania, <a href="#Page_169">169–70</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">elephant pipe, <a href="#ELEPHANT_PIPE">Appendix B</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Days, Maya, <a href="#Page_436">436–38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Deguignes, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Deluge myths, Mexican, <a href="#Page_262">262–3</a>, notes.</li> - <li class="isub1">Tezpi, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, n.;</li> - <li class="isub2">Analogies, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Development of American Race (see Evolution).</li> - - <li class="indx">Dickson, Dr., examination of “Mammoth Ravine” by, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Diseases of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dogmatism and science, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dolechocephalic crania classified, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Dolphin Rise,” the, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Domenech, Abbé, note on works, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, n. 4.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dowler, Dr., skeleton discovered by, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">estimate of antiquity, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Drake, account of works at Cincinnati by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Drift (modified), fossil from, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dwellings of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">E.</li> - - <li class="indx">Earth, globular form discovered, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Echevarria y Veitia on the origin of the Americans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eckstein, Baron de, on the Caras, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eden, Mexican analogies with, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Edificios de Quemada, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Education of Aztec children, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Effigy mounds of Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_33">33–36</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Ohio, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Georgia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Egypt and Teotihuacan compared, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Egyptian influence on American civilization, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Egyptian painting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Egyptian Tau at Palenque, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">El Castillo, pyramid, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elephant mound. <a href="#Page_35">35–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">“Trunk,” <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pipe, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">El Moro, ruins on, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elyria cave, Whittlesey on, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Engleman, Dr. J. G., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Enoch, H. R., discovery by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Epsom Creek, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elevated tower on, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eric the Red, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ericson, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eskimo, the first occupants of America, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Estufa (Pueblo sanctuary), <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">entrance peculiar, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Etowah valley mounds, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Europe, antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Evolution, origin of the Americans by, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of Hellwald on, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">regarded improbable by Hæckel and Darwin, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">F.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fanaticism of early writers on America, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Farquharson, Dr., reports by, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Farrar, Dr. W., on American language, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl, Gucumatz Cukulcan), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Festival of the Mexican Cycle, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Flood myths of the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, n. 1, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Pueblos, <a href="#Page_335">335–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Floors of burnt clay, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Florida, ancient home of Mayas, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Floridian jaw-bone, Agassiz and Pourtales on, <a href="#Page_112">112–13</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fontaine, Mr., on Tennessee valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Forchhammer on Indian languages, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Forest growth on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Forshey, Prof. C. G., on southern mounds, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fort Ancient, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Judges Dunlevy and Force on, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fortifications (ancient) in New York, on the Lakes, and in Butler Co., Ohio, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> - <li class="isub1">in Miami valley, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Foster’s <i>Pre-historic Races</i>, importance of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Foster, Dr. J. W., on Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">classification of mound-works by, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Indian traditions, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on age of “New Orleans skeleton,” <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fossil from drift, Jersey Co., Ill., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fremont, Montezuma legend by, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frio, Cape, distance from Africa, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fuentes, description of Copan by, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Funeral ceremony, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fusang, <a href="#Page_148">148–51</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of Neuman on, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bretschneider, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Klaproth, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">D’Eichthal, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">G.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gama, Leon y, on Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450–55</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Garcia on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gardner, J. Starke, on Dolphin and Challenger ridges, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gass, Rev. J., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gemelli Carreri, migration map of, <a href="#Page_261">261–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Geometrical knowledge of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Geographical names, analogies in, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gest, Mr. E., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Giants, race of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">destruction of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gila river, Casa Grande of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">accounts of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">view of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gillman, Henry, explorations of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on crania from River Rogue, <a href="#Page_167">167–8</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on crania from Chamber’s Island, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Goazacoalco (various spellings) river and province, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gobernador, Casa del, <a href="#Page_347">347–50</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grammar of Maya language, <a href="#Page_477">477–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx" id="Aztec_language">Aztec language, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grave Creek mound, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gravier on Northmen, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gray, Asa, on American and European flora, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Asiatic flora, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Graphic systems, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Great Serpent, mound-work, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grecques at Mitla, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Greek analogies of religion, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Greek colonization of America, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">advocates of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Greek gods in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Green County, Missouri, mound, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Greenland, subsidence of coast, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Grimm’s Law,” <a href="#Page_471">471–488</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grote, Prof. A. R., observations on Eskimo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Guatemalians, origin and flood myths of, <a href="#Page_228">228–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gucumatz, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">search for maize by, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">H.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hacavitz, mountain and deity, <a href="#Page_215">215–16</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hæckel, on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hair of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hair-cloth from mounds, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hanno’s naval expeditions, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hands, prints of ancient cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Haywood, mummies described by, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Head-flattening, history of, <a href="#Page_178">178–80</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">practiced in America, <a href="#Page_180">180–84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prof. Wilson on, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">among the Chinooks, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">among Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Headlee, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hearths (ancient) in Ohio valley, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Helena, Missouri, sun-dried bricks at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hellwald, F. von, and copper in Mexico, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Herrera on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Heroic period of American history, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx" id="Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics, from the mounds, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Mayas, <a href="#Page_420">420–28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Landa’s key to, <a href="#Page_223">223–25</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Mexican, <a href="#Page_429">429–34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hill, S. W., on ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hindoo and Mexican analogies, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hiram and Solomon’s fleet, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hitchcock, Prof. Ed., on age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hivites, ancestors of Votanites, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hoei-Shin, report on Fusang, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Holmes, W. H., explorations of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Rio de la Plata, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">mound-works reported, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">discoveries on San Juan, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_320">320–24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hooker, Sir Joseph, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hopetown works, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hosea, S. M., on sacrificial mounds, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Houses of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hovenweep, ruined city of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">niche stairway of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cliff-house of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Howland, H. R., discoveries by, in “American bottom,” <a href="#Page_43">43–4</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Huastecs, Maya nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hueman (Huematzin), Toltec astrologer and leader, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hue hue Tlapalan, ancient Nahua home, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">date of migration from, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, n., <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">location of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">not in North-west, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Huehuetan, in Chiapas. 206.</li> - - <li class="indx">Huemac, Toltec king, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hueyxalan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Humboldt, William von, on Aztec language, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Humphries and Abbott’s estimate of age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hunahpu, Quiché, hero, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exploits of, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hunab Ku (only god), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hunbatz, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hun Came, <a href="#Page_222">222–24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hunchouen, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hunhunahpu, Quiché, chief, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hurakan, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">I.</li> - - <li class="indx">Iaia, tradition of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Igh, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Imox, one of the first colonists of Chiapas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Inca-bone, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">India and Mexico, religious analogies of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Indiana mounds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Indigenous Americans, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">views of writers on, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Infant burial in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ingersoll, Mr., tradition of cliff-dwellers recorded by, <a href="#Page_302">302–4</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Intercalary days, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Interglacial race, <a href="#Page_512">512–516</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">relics from Waynesville, Ohio, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">President Orton on, <a href="#Page_126">126–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Interglacial man in New Jersey, <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Iqi-Balam, Quiché, deity, <a href="#Page_214">214–15</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Irish colonists of America, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Israel, lost tribes of in America, <a href="#Page_135">135–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of Duran on, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Thorowgood, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">L’Estrange, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Garcia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pineda, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Echevarria y Veitia and Kingsborough, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Isle Royal, copper mines on, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Henry Gillman <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, n. 1;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foster on, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aboriginal use of copper, <a href="#Page_92">92–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Issaquena County, Mississippi, mounds, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Anderson’s Calendar Stone from, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ixtlilxochetl’s <i>Relaciones</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">J.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jackson, W. H., discoveries by in the McElmo and Mancos cañons, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in the Hovenweep, <a href="#Page_305">305–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Janos river, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Japanese and American affinities, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">colonization of America, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jaredites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jaw-bone from Florida, Agassiz and Count Pourtales on, <a href="#Page_112">112–13</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jewish theory of colonization, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jewish and Mexican historical analogies, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jones, George, on Phœnician colonization of America, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">estimate of his work, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jones, Prof. Joseph, Mound explorations in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_171">171–3</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cranial measurements by, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">K.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kabah, peculiarity of architecture at, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kamucu, Quiché national song, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kennebec valley mound, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kennon, Col., on Aleutian islands, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kentucky mound crania, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kinich-Kakmó, queen of Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kingsborough’s fancied analogies, <a href="#Page_460">460–65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kitchens of the Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kitchen-middens, see <a href="#Shell_heaps"><i>Shell-heaps</i></a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Knapp, S. O., discovery of ancient copper mines by, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Koch, Dr., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_116">116–121</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">J. D. Dana on, <a href="#Page_120">120–21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Koch, valuable services of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kuro-suvo, or Japan current, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">L.</li> - - <li class="indx">Labná, architecture of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lake Superior copper mines, <a href="#Page_90">90–92</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lamnites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Landa’s Alphabet, <a href="#Page_423">423–25</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Maya days and months, <a href="#Page_436">436–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Languages (American), multiplicity of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">instability of, <a href="#Page_493">493–4</a>, n. 1.</li> - <li class="isub1">survival of the fittest, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the Maya-Quiché, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">classification of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stability of the Maya, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the oldest American, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Orozco y Berra on, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Maya-Quiché characteristics, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Le Plongeon on, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the Aztec, <a href="#Page_479">479–90</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">epitome of grammar, <a href="#Page_481">481–85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">affinities to Asiatic, <a href="#Page_495">495–96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">bearing on migrations, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lapham, Dr., survey of mound-works in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_34">34–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lascarbot on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Las Casas, on origin of Guatemalians, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on flood myth, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on creation myth, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, n.;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Christ myth, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Latham on Morton’s theories, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lautverschiebung, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leather relic from mound, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Le Conte, Prof., on changes of coast level, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Legendary period of American history, level, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leidy, Prof. Joseph, on stone implements, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">L’Estrange on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leroux, M., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Le Plongeon, Dr., explorations in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_396">396–403</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Maya language, <a href="#Page_474">474–77</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on analogies between Yucatan and Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Liberty, Ohio, works at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lief, Norse discoverer of America, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lord’s prayer in Maya, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in Aztec, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louisiana mounds, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Prof. C. G. Forshey on, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pyramidal mounds, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Low type crania from mounds, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lund, Dr., explorations by, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lyell, Sir Charles, on remains at Santos River, Brazil, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">observations on Natchez bone, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on age of Mississippi delta, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on New Orleans skeleton, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">M.</li> - - <li class="indx">McElmo Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">square tower in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">triple-walled tower of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">McGuire on antiquity of Red man, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">McKinley, William, mounds described by, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Madisonville explorations, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mahucutah, Quiché progenitor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maize, discovery of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Man, antiquity of in South America, <a href="#Page_109">109–10</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">four creations of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Man’s influence on nature, <a href="#Page_110">110–11</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">measure of antiquity, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Martius on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, n.;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Brinton on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Meigs on Santos River remains, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Man of recent origin in America, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lubbock’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foster on, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Manchester stone fort, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mancos Cañon, cliff-houses of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">watch-tower of, <a href="#Page_296">296–97</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cave-fortresses of, <a href="#Page_320">320–24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Manuscripts of Mayas, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Troano MS, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Mexicans, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mendoza Codex, <a href="#Page_431">431–33</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maps, Aztec migration, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marietta mounds, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marsh, Prof. O. C., exploration by, <a href="#Page_87">87–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mastodon discovered by Dr. Koch, <a href="#Page_116">116–18</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mayas, traditional origin of, <a href="#CHAPTER_V">chap. v.</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">earliest home, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">venerable civilization, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">architecture of, <a href="#Page_340">340–55</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sculpture, <a href="#Page_384">384–403</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">compared to Egyptian, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">calendar of, <a href="#Page_435">435–45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Katun or Cycle, <a href="#Page_439">439–40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ahau Katun, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intercalary days, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">system adjusted to our chronology, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">observations of Landa, Perez, Bancroft and Delaport on, <a href="#Page_443">443–45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maya-Quiché languages classified, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stability of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">antiquity of, <a href="#Page_474">474–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maya Grammar, <a href="#Page_477">477–79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Maya, Lord’s prayer in, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maya and Hebrew compared, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">compared to Scandinavian languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">compared to the Basque, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">to West African languages, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maya writing, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mazatepec, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mecitl (or Mixi), Aztec leader, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Meigs on mean of Indian cranium, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Melgar on two idols near Mexico, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Maya language, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Menominees, “White Indiana,” <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mexican baptism, <a href="#Page_462">462–3</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Calendar, divisions of time, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Cycle, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">festival of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">months, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">New Year, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its interpreters, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dates furnished by, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lunar reckoning, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mexican language, see <a href="#Aztec_language">Aztec language</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mexico, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sculpture from, <a href="#Page_408">408–11</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">vases from, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">vases in the United States National Museum, <a href="#Page_413">413–415</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miami Valley, aboriginal cemetery in, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miamisburgh mound, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mica, use of by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Michigan mounds, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Migration, the first to America, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">conditions favorable in North-west, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Becker on, <a href="#Page_513">513–14</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of the Quichés, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of the Tolteca, <a href="#Page_244">244–251</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_259">259–63</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Tarascos, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Migration map of Boturini, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Gemelli Carreri, <a href="#Page_261">261–63</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Gemelli interpreted by Ramirez, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Minas Geraes, caves of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mississippi delta, age of, <a href="#Page_122">122–24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">estimate by Lyell, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Dr. Dowler, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Dr. Hitchcock, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Humphries and Abbott, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mississippi mounds, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mitchell, Dr. A., explorations cited, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mitla, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_361">361–62</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mizteco-Zapotec languages, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miztecs, Mexican tribe. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mongol colonization of America, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Monjas, Casa de, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montezuma Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montezuma, culture-hero, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">legend of his birth, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">legend concerning by Papagoes chief, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Montezuma II., Mexican emperor, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">languages of his empire, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Months, Maya, <a href="#Page_437">437–39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Monosyllabism, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moqui towns, Becker on origin, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">name, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lieutenant Ives’ description of, <a href="#Page_326">326–30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pottery, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">interior of dwellings, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moqui language, Aztec traces in, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mooshahueh, Moqui town, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Morgan, L. H., Pueblo theory of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Robert Clarke on, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mormon colonisation of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bancroft on, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Morton, Dr., classification of American races by, <a href="#Page_157">157–59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">table of cranial measurements by, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, n. 1;</li> - <li class="isub2">views untenable, <a href="#Page_159">159–165</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">measurements of <i>Crania Americana</i> classified, <a href="#Page_161">161–63</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moody, J., on Rockford Tablet, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moss, Captain, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mosaics at Mitla, <a href="#Page_362">362–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mosaic knife, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mosaic deluge, Mexican analogies with, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mound-builders, geographical distribution of works, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mica mines of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">copper mines of, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">no tradition of, <a href="#Page_102">102–3</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mound-builders and Indians distinct, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">language of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</li> - <li class="isub1">diseases of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mound-works at St. Clair river, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in British Columbia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Oregon, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonhomme’s island, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Missouri valley, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Butte prairies, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 1;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Dakota, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, n. 2;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Davenport, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">heart of country, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">St. Louis and American bottom, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Ohio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Newark, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Wabash valley, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_58">58–68</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in North and South Carolina, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Mississippi, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Alabama, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Georgia, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Missouri, <a href="#Page_74">74–77</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Louisiana, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Texas, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">antiquity of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abandonment, <a href="#Page_101">101–5</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">age of vegetation on, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Vera Paz, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mound crania, condition of a measure of antiquity, <a href="#Page_105">105–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub1">typical mound skull, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mound sculptures, <a href="#Page_187">187–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mugeres Isla, statue from, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Müller, Max, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mummies from Peru, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">from Tennessee, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mural paintings at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">N.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nachan, “city of serpents,” <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nahua architecture, <a href="#Page_359">359–83</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_406">406–15</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nahua Calendar, <a href="#Page_445">445–459</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">writers on, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, n. 3.</li> - <li class="isub1">analogies with calendars of Asia and Egypt, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nahua language, see <a href="#Aztec_language">Aztec language</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">ancient and modern, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493–4</a>, n. 1.</li> - <li class="isub1">elements of in language of North-west, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">the probable language of Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">spoken in Florida, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">analogies to, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nahua nations, origin of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">predecessors of in Mexico, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">chronology of according to <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i> and <i>Popol Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">their arrival at Panuco, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">extent of territory in Mexico, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">migrations of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">southern origin considered, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nahuatlacas, seven Nahua tribes, <a href="#Page_256">256–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Najera on the Otomi and the Chinese, <a href="#Page_494">494–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nashville, Tenn., mounds near, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Natchez pelvic bone, discovered by Dr. Dickson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Lyell’s observations on, <a href="#Page_113">113–14</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, n. 4.</li> - - <li class="indx">Negroid type, ancient, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nemontemi, Aztec intercalary days, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Neolithic age in America, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nephites, colonists of America, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Newark, Ohio, works at, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">New Jersey, traces of inter-glacial man in, <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">New Madrid, Missouri, great mound near, <a href="#Page_75">75–76</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">New Orleans, ancient skeleton discovered at, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">New York, ancient forts of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nezahualcoyoth, King of Tezcuco, poems of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Niche stairway, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nootkas, Aztec traces among, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Norse discovery of America, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">North-west, antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_128">128–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nott and Gliddon on the origin of nations, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">O.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oajaca, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">languages of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Observations on places of sanctuary, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Obsidian in mounds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Occupancy of Mississippi valley by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ocean currents, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ococingo, ancient city in Chiapas, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">site of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ohio Archæological Society report, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ohio mound crania, <a href="#Page_170">170–1</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ohio mound-works, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">estimated number of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ojo del Pescado, ruins at, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oldtown art, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oldtown, Tennessee, mounds, <a href="#Page_61">61–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Olmecs, First Nahuas, <a href="#Page_232">232–4</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">destroy the giants, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">build Chohila, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Opata-Tarahumar-Pima family of languages, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ophir, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oraybe, Moqui town, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ordoñez, history of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oregon, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Origin of the Americans, Autochthonic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> - - <li class="indx">Origin of Americans reviewed, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Origin of Ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">views of Duran, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">L’Estrange, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Thorowgood, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Garcia, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Herrera, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Torquemada, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pineda, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Echevarria y Veitia, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ulloa, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Domenech, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Clavigero, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Bancroft’s summary of views cited, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views of modern authors, <a href="#Page_201">201–2</a>, notes;</li> - <li class="isub2">of old world origin, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Origin of the Nahuas, according to Sahagun, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Origin tradition of Mayas, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Quichés, <a href="#Page_211">211–12</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Orton, President Edward, on inter-glacial relics in Ohio, <a href="#Page_126">126–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Otomi language compared to Chinese, <a href="#Page_494">494–5</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oztotlan, home of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">P.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pacific Continent, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Page, J. R., explorations by, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Painted desert, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Painting practised by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palæolithic age in America, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palenque art compared with Egyptian, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palenque, centre of the earliest American civilization, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palenque, situation, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">antiquities, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">palace, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">architectural features of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tau at, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">roofs, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">arch, <a href="#Page_345">345–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">tower, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sculpture at, <a href="#Page_384">384–92</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">statue, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Panuco (Panco, Panutla or Panoaia, Pantlan) Mexican port, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Papantla, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Patton, Dr., on Indiana mounds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pecos, New Mexico Pueblo, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pentateuch, true chronology of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Peresianus Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Peruvian crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Petit Anse Island, remains from, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Foster’s observations on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Hilgard and Fontaine’s report on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Physiognomy of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Phœnician colonization of America, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">George Jones on, <a href="#Page_145">145–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Picture-writing of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_428">428–33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">specimen from <i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431–2</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pimentel on Chichimec language, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pimentel’s classification of Maya languages, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">epitome of Aztec Grammar from, <a href="#Page_482">482–83</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pineda on origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Plastered room in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Platycnemism, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Gillman’s discoveries of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Plato’s Atlantis, tradition of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Polynesia, ancient empire of, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Baldwin on, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Polysynthesis, a law of American language, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pomme-de-Terre River, Dr. Koch’s discoveries at, <a href="#Page_118">118–19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pontonchan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Popol Vuh</i> (national book of the Quichés), <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, n. 2.</li> - <li class="isub1">second division of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pottery from the cliff-houses, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Powell, Major J. W., explorations, <a href="#Page_285">285–287</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pratt, W. H., explorations by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pre-Columbian colonization, views on, <a href="#Page_141">141–154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Progress, architectural, in mound-works, <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prophecy, analogies of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ptolemy cited, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pueblo civilization, extent of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">architecture, <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">chap. vii.</a></li> - <li class="isub1">transition in style, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pueblos of New Mexico, <a href="#Page_330">330–1</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in ruins, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pueblo Pintado, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pueblos, the, and Aztecs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,</li> - <li class="isub2">and mound-builders, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">architecture and remains compared, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">creation and flood and Babel myths of, <a href="#Page_335">335–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Puente Nacional, pyramid at, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Putnam, F. W., explorations by, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">explorations in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pyramid, the American, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">structure according to Bancroft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Puento Nacional, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Centla, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of El Castillo, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Tusipan, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Papantla, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Cholula, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_370">370–73</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Mexico, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_375">375–9</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Q.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quemada, Los edificios of, <a href="#Page_379">379–81</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quiché architecture, <a href="#Page_355">355–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quiché-Cakchiquel languages, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quinames (Quinametin), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">first inhabitants of Mexico, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their destruction, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quiché poetry, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quichés reputed to be Carthaginians, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quichés, Maya nation, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">origin tradition, <a href="#Page_211">211–12</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">creation myth, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">creations of men, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">migrations, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deities of, turned to stone, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">heroic age of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quetzalcoatl, culture hero, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">traditions of, <a href="#Page_267">267–71</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">priest and God of Toltecs, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">habits, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">author of letters and Mexican calendar, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his enemy, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">departure from Tulla, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reign at Cholula, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">departure to the East, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">expectation of his return, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">origin of legends concerning him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">nationality, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">positive morality, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">discovery of maize, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quiyahuitztlan, Anahuac, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">R.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Raised Beeches,” discovered by Alexander Agassiz, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ramirez, on Aztec migration map, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rau, Charles, on Mexican copper mining, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, n. 2.</li> - <li class="isub1">on aboriginal trade, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Red Man, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">traditions, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Read, M. C., on Grave Creek Tablet cited, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Religious analogies, <a href="#Page_459">459–68</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Religion of the Quichés, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">a war of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Remains at Santos River, Brazil, Lyell and Meigs on antiquity of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reviellagigedo, viceroy to Mexico, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Report of Ohio Archæological Society, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Retzius, on Morton’s measurements, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Mexican crania, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">River Rouge mound, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">crania from, <a href="#Page_167">167–8</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">River Terraces, mound-works on, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Mr. Baldwin’s views, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Foster’s view, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rock shelters in San Juan Cañon, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">in Montezuma Cañon, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Rockford Tablet,” <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Room plastered in mound, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rosny, M. Leon de, essay by, <a href="#Page_425">425–26</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">key to hieratic writings of Mayas, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ross County (Ohio) works, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roque, Father, observations on Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Russell, G. P., explorations by, <a href="#Page_87">87–89</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">S.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sabine worship, <a href="#Page_40">40–85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sacrifices, human, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452–53</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sacrificial mounds, <a href="#Page_83">83–6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stratified according to Squier and Davis, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stratification denied by Prof. Andrews, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sacrifices, probably human, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sahagun’s account of the first Nahuas, <a href="#Page_240">240–6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salado Rio, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salinas River, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sadelmair, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salisbury, Stephen, cited, <a href="#Page_396">396–401</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salish family of languages, Aztec element in, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sanctuary, places of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sandals of Chaac-Mol, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">San Juan Cañon, cliff-dwellings of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Echo Cave in, <a href="#Page_310">310–11</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">San Miguel Valley, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_275">275–7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Savage Art, unity in style of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Scandinavian and Mexican analogies, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">discovery of America, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prof. Rafn on, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schools of Tezcuco, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sculpture, from mounds, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–92</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Uxmal, <a href="#Page_393">393–95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_398">398–403</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Copan, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Monte Alban, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Tusapan, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Mexico, <a href="#Page_409">409–10</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sculptures from the mounds, <a href="#Page_187">187–9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Seltzertown pyramidal mound, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Separate creation theory, Morton and Agassiz’s views of, <a href="#Page_157">157–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">groundless, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Sepulture, mounds of, <a href="#Page_86">86–88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Serpents,” kingdom of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Serpent Temple, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">symbol, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Serpent-work, Adams county, Ohio, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Seven Caves,” <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Shaler, Prof., on Dr. Abbott’s discoveries, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx" id="Shell_heaps">Shell-heaps on Atlantic sea-board, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–7</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">fresh-water of, <a href="#Page_107">107–9</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Florida, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Prof. Wyman on, <a href="#Page_106">106–8</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Brinton on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">examination by Paul Schumacher, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Shoshone-Comanche languages, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aztec elements in, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Signal Systems of the Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on Great Miami River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Squier and Davis on, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Skrellings, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sorcery practised upon Xibalban kings, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Spain’s state of learning in 17th century, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Squier and Davis, estimate of number of mound-works in Ohio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">classification of mound-works by, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Squier on Newark works, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stations, of Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_244">244–46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Aztec migration, according to Veytia, Tezozomoc and Clavigero, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">names interpreted by Humboldt, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, n. 3.</li> - - <li class="indx">Statuettes in National Museum, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">St. Clair River mounds, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stephens and Catherwood, explorations, <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">chap. viii.</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Steinthal, Prof., classification of languages by, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, n. 4.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stevenson, M. F., description of mounds by, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">St. Francis Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">St. Louis, mound-works at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stone Age in New Jersey, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dr. Abbott on, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stone coffins, burial in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stone graves in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Indiana, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stone implements from Bridger basin, Wyoming, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, n. 1.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stone tubes used by Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">St. Patrick in America, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stucco reliefs at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sun-dried brick, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wall of at Seltzertown, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Phillips County, Missouri, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sun, tablet of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">symbol of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sun worship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Swallow, Prof., explorations by, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Syphilis among Mound-builders, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">T.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tabasco, ancient civilization of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tablet of cross, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of sun, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tablet, Rockford, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tablets at Palenque, <a href="#Page_384">384–90</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Table Mountain, cranium from, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tamoanchan, city of Tobasco, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tarahumara, language of North Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tarascos, migrations of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“Taylor mound,” the, <a href="#Page_87">87–89</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tehuantepec, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_350">350–60</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">language of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tegua, Moqui pueblo, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Temple base near Nashville, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Temple of Mexico, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tennessee mound-works, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">explorations of Prof. Jones in, <a href="#Page_58">58–65</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Prof. Putnam, <a href="#Page_65">65–67</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tennessee mound crania, <a href="#Page_171">171–4</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tennessee Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mr. Fountain on, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Teo-Culhuacan, <a href="#Page_250">250–60</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Teotihuacan, pyramids of, <a href="#Page_375">375–79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">compared with Egypt, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Teotihuacan, sacred city of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tepanecs, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tepetla, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tepehuana, language of North Mexico, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Terra-Cotta, figure from Isla Mugeres, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Terminos, Laguna de, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Texas mounds, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tezcatlipoca, bloody god of the Nahuas, <a href="#Page_269">269–70</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sorcery of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tezcuco, schools of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tezpi, flood myth, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tezquil nation, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Theban calendar compared to the Aztec, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thomas, Dr., on Dakota mounds, <a href="#Page_31">31–2</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Gen. H. W. on same, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">low type skull cited, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, n. 5, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, on Atlantic land ridge, <a href="#Page_502">502–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thompson, Dr. J. P., on Usher’s chronology, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thorowgood on origin of ancient Americans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thorwald, Ericson, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tibiæ, flattened, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Time, Absolute and Relative, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlacamitzin, Toltec chief, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlachicatzin, city in Hue hue Tlapalan, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlahuicas, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlaloc, Aztec rain-god, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlapalans, four, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bancroft and Brasseur’s views upon, <a href="#Page_251">251–2</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlapallan de Cortes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">location of examined, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlapallanconco, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tlascatecs, Nahua tribe, republic of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tohil (Quiché deity), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tollan, Toltec capital, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toltec migration, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">migration according to Becker, <a href="#Page_248">248–50</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">according to Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_244">244–46</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">account examined, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toltec flood myth, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toltecs, origin according to Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">southern origin considered, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">outlines of history, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annals, Bancroft’s resumé of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tomlinson’s report on Grave Creek mound, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tongues, confusion of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Totonacs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Totzapan, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tower of Mancos Cañon, <a href="#Page_297">297–300</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">McElmo, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Chichen, Mayapan and Tuloom, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toxpan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trade-winds, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">agents in the discovery of America, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tradition (Indian) valueless, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Dr. Foster on, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">of Nahua Mound-builders, Becker on, <a href="#Page_102">102–3</a>, n.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tradition and History and their scope, <a href="#Page_109">109–10</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tradition of uncertain value, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trinity myth in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Troano MS, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tula (Tulha or Tulan), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">sculptured column from, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tulan, <a href="#Page_215">215–16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">four in number, <a href="#Page_217">217–18</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tulancingo (Tollancingo), Mexican city, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tulan-Zuiva, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tumuli of Vera Paz, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tusapan, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Typical mound skull, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tzendal, language of Chiapas, dialect of the Maya, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tzendel, a Maya dialect, the oldest American language, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">U.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Uraeus</i>, Egyptian symbol, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ural-Altaic languages compared to Indian tongues, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Usher, Bishop, chronology of faulty, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Usumacinta Valley, the seat of most ancient American civilization, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Utah languages, <a href="#Page_489">489–90</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Utatlan, Quiché city, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">antiquities of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Utes, the enemies of the cliff-dwellers, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Uxmal, architectural remains, <a href="#Page_347">347–52</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">arches and roofs, <a href="#Page_349">349–50</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Façades at, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">Le Plongeon’s observations on, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">V.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valentini, Dr. Ph., interpretation of Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_453">453–59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on analogies in geographical names, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vancouver’s Island, Aztec termination used, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elements in, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vases from Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">burial from Mexico, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">after Waldeck, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from National Museum, <a href="#i_411">414–15</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vater, on the Aztec language, <a href="#Page_480">480–90</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vega, Bishop Nuñez de la, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vegetation, age of on mounds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">relation between American and Asiatic, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vera Paz, mounds of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Verda Rio, antiquities of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Verrezano, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vespucius, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Voc, mythical personage, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Votan (culture hero), tradition of cited, <a href="#Page_133">133–9</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">document written by, <a href="#Page_206">206–10</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vucub-Cakix, Xilbalban monarch, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vucab-Came, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vukub-Hunapu, Quiché chief, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">W.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wabash Valley, mounds in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, n. 2.</li> - - <li class="indx">Watch-tower of the Mancos, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Waterbury Mine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Waynesville, Ohio, inter-glacial relics from, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Welsh discovery of America, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Whipple, Lieut., explorations by, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">“White-man’s land,” <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Whittlesey, Col., on Shelter Caves, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - <li class="isub1">on ancient copper mines, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wilson, Dr. Daniel, cranial measurements tabulated, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">observations by, on Morton’s theory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, n. 2;</li> - <li class="isub2">examinations of Peruvian crania by, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on head-flattening, <a href="#Page_180">180–2</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">on Cincinnati Tablet, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wisconsin mound-works, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">effigy and animal mounds of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Worship of sun, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Writing, systems of, see <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wyman, Jeffries, on shell-heaps of Florida, <a href="#Page_155">155–8</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">X.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xalisco, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xan, Quiché messenger, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xbalanque, Quiché hero, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xelhua, builder of Cholula, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xibalba, kingdom of Votanites, tradition of fall, <a href="#Page_220">220–26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">date of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fall of, a theme for poetry, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">hatred of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xicalancas, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">origin of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xicalanco, Mexican city, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xmucane, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xochicalco, pyramid of, <a href="#Page_370">370–3</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xochimilcos, Nahua tribe, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xpiyacoc, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Xquiq, Xibalban princess, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Y.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yamkally language, traces of Aztec in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yaqui, Mexican tribe, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yazoo Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yellowstone, mounds of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yond Mountain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yucatan, origin of population, <a href="#Page_229">229–30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Greek gods in, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Yztachnexucha, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Z.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zacotlan, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zamna, Maya culture hero, <a href="#Page_229">229–30</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zapotecs, Mexican nation, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">antiquities of, <a href="#Page_360">360–64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zárate, on the Aztec, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zayi, Casa Grande of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zipacua, Xibalban warrior, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ziuhcohuatl, Toltec station, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zumárraga, destruction of Aztec MS. by, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zuñi, description of, <a href="#Page_288">288–89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Valley, Pueblos of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zutugil, language, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> - </ul> - - <div class="center mt10">THE END.</div> - - <div class="footnotes"> - <div class="footheader">FOOTNOTES:</div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Las Casas: <i>Historia de Indias</i>, lib. I, cap. 40, - tom. I, MS. Irving: <i>Columbus</i>, vol. I, p. 158 (N. Y., 1851 ed.). - Navarrete: <i>Coleccion de los viajes</i>, tom. I, p. 176. Grynaeus: - <i>Novus Orbis</i>, p. 66, Basil, 1555, fol. Herrera: <i>Historia - General</i>, Dec. I, lib. I, cap’s ii et vi, Madrid, 1730. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Rafn: <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, p. 45, note. Rafn: - <i>Op. cit.</i>, pp. xxx–xxxiii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Rafn: <cite>Historia Thorfinni Karlsefnii</cite> (in Ant. - Am.), pp. 149, 181; also, De Costa: <cite>Pre-Columbian Discovery of - America</cite>, pp. xxxii, xxxiii, 21, 41, 57, 58, 69, 70, 73, 74, - 110; Gravier: <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands au X<sup>e</sup> - Siècle</cite>, p. 83. Paris, 1874, 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Prof. Jos. Leidy, in <cite>Hayden’s 6th Ann. Report of - the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories</cite> (1872), pp. - 652–3, describes the stone implements found in the Bridger basin in - southern Wyoming. He remarks, “The question arises, who made the stone - implements and when, and why should they occur in such great numbers in - the particular localities indicated. My friend, Dr. J. Van A. Carter, - residing at Fort Bridger, and well acquainted with the language, - history, manners, and customs of the neighboring tribes of Indians, - informs me that they know nothing about them. He reports that the - Shoshones look upon them as the gift of God to their ancestors. They - were no doubt made long ago, some probably at a comparatively late - date, that is to say, just prior to communication of the Indians with - the whites, but others probably date centuries back.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> It would be foreign to the object of this work to enter - upon a discussion of the antiquity of man in Europe. Were we to follow - the example of several writers on the antiquities of America, we might - present a resumé of the splendid achievements of science in determining - the approximate age of man, as an inhabitant of different portions of - the old world, but such condensed accounts at best are unsatisfactory - and often detrimental to science because of their very slenderness. The - evidences of man’s antiquity being far more remote than the generally - accepted historic period, antedating its beginning by several thousand - years, no doubt exist. The discoveries in the Liége caverns, in the - caves of Languedoc and in the cave of Engihoul in Belgium; in the - Neanderthal and Engis caves; at Abbeville and Amians; the valley of the - Somme; the basin of the Seine; of the Thames; and of the lake dwellers - of Switzerland, as well as the shell-heaps of Denmark, point to an - antiquity which half a century ago it would have been heresy to have - dreamed of. We have but to refer to the admirable work of Sir Charles - Lyell: <cite>The Antiquity of Man</cite> (Phil., 1863), and to the well-known - works of Lubbock, Tylor, Vogt, and others. A good treatment of the - subject in brief will be found in Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the - U. S.</cite> (1873), and a pointed and popular reference to it in Bryant’s - <cite>History of the U. S.</cite>, vol. I. N. Y., 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <cite>Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in the U. S.</cite>, - by Col. Charles Whittlesey. A memoir of 20 pp. Perhaps the chief - importance of the above-cited cave discoveries is derived from the - eminence of the antiquarian who cites them, rather than in their real - value to science. In the case of the Elyria cave—examined by Dr. E. - W. Hubbard, Prof. J. Brainerd, and the author of the memoir—“the - grindstone grit,” resting on shale, formed a grotto of considerable - size. Four feet of the floor of the cave, consisting of charcoal, ashes - and bones of the wolf, bear, deer, rabbit, squirrels, fishes, snakes - and birds (“all of which existed in this region when it became known - to the whites”), was removed and three human skeletons discovered. The - author states that the three had been crushed by a large slab of the - overhanging sandstone falling on them, but fails to state how much of - the overlying material consisted of this sandstone slab. He remarks: - “Judging from the appearance of the bones, and the depth of the - accumulations over them, two thousand years may have elapsed since the - human skeletons were laid on the floor of this cave.” The Louisville - cave discovery is no more satisfactory than the above. It is scarcely - necessary to remark that all the evidences are of a comparatively - recent interment, and much less than two thousand years would have been - sufficient to produce the conditions described. See also discoveries - at High Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., cited by Col. Whittlesey, p. 10, - and more fully treated by Dr. McGuire in the “<cite>Proceedings of the - Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</cite>,” vol. xii, p. 398, May, 1839, in which - the latter claims to find traces of the Red man 5470 years ago. It is - not probable that Dr. McGuire’s <em>traces</em> are those of the Indians, - nor is it certain that they were left by human beings at all, since the - pine tree (found at a considerable depth and worn as he supposes by the - feet of Indians) was as liable to have been worn by the feet of animals - as of men. See also Dr. Abbott, <cite>The Stone Age in New Jersey</cite>, - Smithsonian Report, 1874, p. 246 <i>et seq.</i> See this work, pp. 127–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi - Valley</cite>, Washington, 1848, 4to, 1st vol. of Smithsonian - Contributions; <cite>Dr. J. A. Lapham: Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, - Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1855. More recently—<cite>The - Upper Mississippi</cite>, by <cite>George Gale</cite>, Chicago, 1868; <cite>The - Mississippi Valley</cite>, by <cite>Dr. J. W. Foster</cite>, Chicago, 1869, 8vo, - and his <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, Chicago, 1873, 8vo. We - might add a list of names scarcely less eminent, of authors who have - written upon special fields and examined particular works. A reliable - bibliography of literature on the Mound-builders is a desideratum which - we trust some enterprising Americanist may soon supply. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Described by Dr. Wm. Blanding in a letter to Dr. Morton, - of Philadelphia. Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, p. - 148, and <cite>Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, p. 105. Foster: p. 151. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Squier: <cite>Antiquities of Western New York</cite>, vol. ii, - Smithsonian Contributions, 1851. See an interesting account of the - <cite>Antiquities of Orleans County, New York</cite>, by F. H. Cushing, in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874, p. 375. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man in U. S.</cite>, p. 12; also, <cite>Ancient - Earth Forts of the Cuyahoga Valley, Ohio</cite>, by <cite>Col. Charles - Whittlesey</cite>, Cleveland, O., 1871, pp. 40 and plates. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, p. 145. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1873, p. 364 <i>et - seq.</i>, from which we draw the above. <cite>The Proceedings of the - American Ass. for the Adv. of Science</cite> for 1875. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See Mr. Gillman’s in <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the - Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology</cite>, p. - 12 <i>et seq.</i>, Cambridge, 1873, and <cite>Am. Jour. of Arts and - Sciences</cite>, 3d ser., vol. vii, pp. 1–9, Jan., 1874. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 151. “There - is a large mound, three hundred feet high and three hundred yards - in diameter at the base, at the southern end of the prairie, about - twenty-five miles from Olympia; and scattered over the prairie for a - distance of fifteen miles are many smaller mounds, not more than four - feet high and twenty or thirty in diameter. * * * A few days ago one - of the engineers of the Northern Pacific Railroad opened one of them - and found the remains of pottery; and a more thorough examination of - others revealed other curious relics, evidently the work of human - hands; in fact, in every mound that has yet been opened there is some - relic of a long-forgotten race discovered.” In quoting the above, Dr. - Foster remarks that the great mound was no doubt a natural eminence - artificially rounded off. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> <cite>Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition during the - Years 1838–42.</cite> Phila., 1844. Tom. IV, p. 334. “We soon reached the - Butte prairies (on Columbia River) which were extensive, and covered - with <i>tumuli</i> or small mounds, at regular distances asunder. As - far as I could learn there is no tradition among the natives relative - to them. They are conical mounds thirty feet in diameter, about six to - seven feet high above the level, and many thousands in number. Being - anxious to ascertain if they contained any relics, I subsequently - visited these prairies, and opened three of the mounds, <em>but found - nothing</em> in them but a pavement of round stones.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> <cite>Baldwin</cite> (<cite>Ancient America</cite>, pp. 31–2) - remarks: “Lewis and Clark reported seeing them on the Missouri River a - thousand miles above its junction with the Mississippi River; but this - report has not been satisfactorily verified.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> See Mr. A. Barrandt in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1870, - for an account of discoveries on Clark’s Creek in Dakota; on the - Bighorn River; on the Yellowstone; on the Morean and the banks of the - Great Cheyenne. See Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 153–4. - The proof is conclusive that the head-waters of the Missouri was one - of their ancient seats. The same gentleman (Mr. Barrandt) describes - a remarkable mound in Lincoln County, Dakota, situated eighty-five - miles north-west of Sioux City, on the west fork of the Little Sioux - of Dakota or Turkey Creek. The mound is known as the “Hay Stack.” - Its dimensions are 327 feet in length at the base on the north-west - side, and 290 on the south-east side, and 120 feet wide. It slopes - at an angle of about 50°, is from thirty-four to forty feet in - height, the north-east end being the higher. To the summit, which is - from twenty-eight to thirty-three feet wide, there is a well-beaten - path. The remarkable feature of the mound is the fact that part of - the north-east side is walled up with soft sandstone and limestone, - brought a distance of at least three miles from an ancient quarry. The - remainder of the surface is pronounced to be of calcined clay. The - mound contained a large interior circular chamber, in which the bones - of animals, thirty-six pieces of pottery, and a mass of charcoal and - ashes were found.—<cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, pp. 413 <i>et - seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Since this is a contested point, both as to the presence - of the works of the Mound-builders in the North-west and as to their - great antiquity, I subjoin a portion of a report on these mounds - made by Gen. H. W. Thomas, U. S. A., to Dr. Thomas of the Surveying - Expedition, in the <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological - Survey</cite> under Dr. Hayden in 1872, pp. 656–7: - - <blockquote> - <p>“‘Lewis and Clarke reported seeing Indian mounds 1000 miles above - the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri, but this report - is not verified.’ So says Mr. John D. Baldwin, A. M., in his work - entitled ‘Ancient America.’</p> - - <p>“I now and here propose to contribute my mite toward the - verification of the statement of Lewis and Clarke.</p> - - <p>“The few men whom duty or wild inclination have from time to - time brought into this, for the most part, uninhabited region of - treeless prairie, have all known of the existence of thousands of - artificial mounds. What was in them they knew not, and but two or - three, to my knowledge, have ever been opened. On August 16, 1872, - I opened one on the high table-lands that spread out on both sides - of a little stream called the James. The point is about 47° north - latitude, and 98° 38´ longitude west from Greenwich. It is within - three miles of the line of the North Pacific Railroad. The mound is - circular in form, 30⁸⁄₁₀ feet in its shorter, and 35³⁄₁₀ feet in - its longer diameter, and five feet high. I opened four trenches, - three feet wide, from the outer edge, meeting in the centre, - forming a cross when finished. I then excavated the entire mound - from the centre outward, until there was nothing more to find. - For results I had several two-bushel bags full of bones, eight - skulls, many pieces of skulls too small to be of value (there must - have been at least twenty-five bodies buried there), a rough-hewn - stone ten inches high and five and a half inches in diameter, in - shape resembling closely a conical shell, a cutting half an inch - deep around the centre. (This was evidently tied with thongs to a - stout handle, and used in pulverizing their maize.) A portion of a - shell necklace, two flints, two heads of beaver, and some bones of - animals unknown, and a large quantity of bivalves, much like the - clam (<i>Mya oblongata</i>) of our Atlantic coast, but thicker, and - the interior surface much more pearly.</p> - - <p>“The mounds and their contents are apparently of great antiquity. - They are, in every case, on the very highest point in their - immediate neighborhood, and perfectly drained. The climate is - excessively dry; so dry that the James River is entirely dry at - a point about 500 feet above the contemplated railroad-bridge - across the river. Notwithstanding this, many of the bones crumbled - into white dust on being brought to the air, like those found in - Herculaneum and Pompeii, and it was absolutely impossible to get - out a single one in anything like perfection. Around and over - these bodies stones and sticks were placed, doubtless to preserve - the remains from the coyote and the fox. The wood could be rubbed - into fine yellow-brown dust between the thumb and forefinger. Any - trace of excavation around the mound for dirt to heap it with had - been entirely obliterated. The upright position of the skulls also - indicated that the bodies were buried in a sitting posture. The - leg-bones, however, lay lower and horizontal.</p> - - <p>“The number of mounds indicates a denser population than ever has - been known here, or than the natural resources of this region can - now support by the chase. At the same time the number of dry lakes - scattered all over would indicate that at some remote period the - country may have been a better one than now, and supported a larger - population.”</p> - </blockquote> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> “<cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>,” <cite>Smithsonian - Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, vol. vii, 1855. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments</cite>, pp. 97–99. - Recent and possibly more exact surveys of the Alligator give the - figures as somewhat less than the above. Isaac Smucker, a very - reliable antiquarian of Licking Co., Ohio, in an address before the - Ohio State Archæological Convention, held at Mansfield in September, - 1875, corrects the figures in the following statement: “The Alligator - mound is upon the summit of a hill or spur, which is nearly 200 feet - high, six miles west of Newark, and near the village of Granville. - The outlines of the Alligator (or Crocodile) are clearly defined. His - entire length is 205 feet. The breadth of the body at the widest part, - twenty feet, and the length of the body between the fore-legs and - hind-legs is fifty feet. The legs are each about twenty feet long. The - head, fore-shoulders and rump have an elevation varying from three to - six feet, while the remainder of the body averages a foot or two less.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> <cite>Lapham’s Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, pp. 18, 20, 36, - 37, 39, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 69. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> <cite>W. H. Canfield’s Sketches of Sauk County, - Wisconsin</cite>; <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 101. On - the copper remains of the Mound-builders, see <cite>Pre-Historic - Wisconsin</cite>, by <cite>Prof. James D. Butler, LL.D.</cite>, annual address - before the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Feb. 18, 1876. - Wisconsin Hist. Col., vol. vii. Privately printed. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, figured and described - on p. 416 by Jared Warner of Patch Grove, Wis. (Oct. 1872). A further - description of mounds in the same locality, by Moses Strong, M. E., - will be found in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1876, p. 424. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Wisconsin</cite>, pp. 42–5: “The main - features of these remains is the enclosure or ridge of <em>earth</em> - (not brick, as has been erroneously stated), extending around three - sides of an irregular parallelogram; the west branch of Rock River - forming the fourth side on the east. The space thus enclosed is - seventeen acres and two-thirds. The corners are not rectangular, and - the embankment or ridge is not straight. The earth of which the ridge - is made was evidently taken from the nearest ground, where there are - numerous excavations of very irregular form and depth; precisely such - as may be seen along our modern railroad and canal embankments. These - excavations are not to be confounded with the hiding-places (caches) of - the Indians, being larger and more irregular in outline. Much of the - material of the embankment was doubtless taken from the surface without - penetrating a sufficient depth to leave a trace at the present time. If - we allow for difference of exposure of earth thrown up into a ridge and - that lying on the original flat surface, we can perceive no difference - between the soil composing the ridge and that found along its sides. - Both consist of a light yellowish sandy loam. The ridge forming the - enclosure is 631 feet long at the north end, 1419 feet long on the west - side, and 700 feet on the south side; making a total length of wall - 2750 feet. The ridge or wall is about twenty-two feet wide, and from - one foot to five in height.” * * * After describing one of the mounds - of this enclosure, he remarks: “The analogy between these elevations - and the ‘temple mounds’ of Ohio and the Southern States, will at once - strike the reader who has seen the plans and descriptions. They have - the same square or regular form, sloping or graded ascent, the terraced - or step-like structure, and the same position in the interior of the - enclosure. This kind of formation is known to increase in numbers and - importance as we proceed to the south and south-west, until they are - represented by the great structures of the same general character on - the plains of Mexico.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> D. Gunn in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1867. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Dr. Farquharson in <cite>Proceedings of Am. Ass. for the - Adv. of Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, p. 305. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Through the courtesy of Dr. R. J. Farquharson I am - enabled to append the original report made by Mr. Gass to the Davenport - Academy, Jan. 26, 1877. It is as follows: - - <blockquote> - <p>“We broke the surface on the north-east slope of the mound about - ten or twelve feet from the opening on the west side made in - 1874. The earth was frozen to a depth of about three and a half - feet. Five or six inches below the surface we came upon a layer - of shells one or two inches in thickness, which sloped downward - toward the south-east, reaching a depth of two feet or rather more - below the surface, and extending for a distance of ten or twelve - feet. Between the surface and this first layer of shells a number - of small fragments of human bones were found scattered through - the soil. Under this shell layer was a stratum of earth of from - twelve to fifteen inches in thickness, resting on a second layer of - shells, from three to four inches in thickness. Both shell layers - sloped downward nearly parallel with each other.</p> - - <p>“Below the second shell layer the earth was of the nature of a - light mould, darker in color than the earth above and thickly - interspersed with fragments of human bones. These circumstances - arrested my attention and caused me to proceed from this time on - with the greatest caution. At a depth of about fifteen inches under - the lowest part of the shell layer exposed in this excavation—the - shell stratum at this point being five or six inches thick—the - inscribed slates were found. The slate is the same as that usually - found overlying coal beds in this vicinity, and is such as is - frequently seen cropping out from the hill-sides or in isolated - slabs in the beds of streams. Both plates lay close together on the - hard undisturbed clay bottom of the mound.</p> - - <p>“The engraved side of the smaller tablet was upward, and also - that side of the larger one presenting the heavenly bodies, - hieroglyphics, etc. The larger plate being partially divided by - natural cleavage, its upper layer was unfortunately broken in - two by a slight stroke of the spade. The two plates were closely - encircled by a single row of weathered limestones. These stones are - irregular in shape, but almost of the same size, their dimensions - being about three by three by seven or eight inches, and the - diameter of the circle about two feet.</p> - - <p>“In the immediate vicinity were found a number of fragments - of human bones, one being a portion of a skull saturated with - carbonate of copper. A small piece of copper was found; also many - fragments of slate and a piece of bone artificially wrought.”</p> - </blockquote> - - <p>Also see <cite>Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural - Sciences</cite> for <cite>Account of the Discovery of Inscribed Tablets</cite>, - by Rev. J. Gass, with <cite>A Description</cite> by Dr. R. J. Farquharson. - Davenport, Iowa, July, 1877. Cuts and views.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Paces of the U. S.</cite>, p. 107. See - especially <cite>12th Annual Report Peabody Museum</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> In a paper, <cite>A Deposit of Agricultural Flint Implements - Found in Southern Illinois</cite>, <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1868, Dr. - Chas. Rau treats the subject of Aboriginal Agriculture at considerable - length. In the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1873, p. 413 <i>et - seq.</i>, Dr. A. Patton describes the exploration of several remarkable - mounds in Lawrence Co., Illinois. In the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for - 1874, p. 351, Taylor McWhorter describes a number of mounds in Mercer - Co., Illinois. He estimates the number in the county at one thousand, - mostly on the Mississippi River bank. <cite>The Antiquities of Whiteside - County, Ill.</cite>, by W. H. Pratt, of Davenport, Iowa, printed in the - same Report, p. 354 <i>et seq.</i>, is a most valuable contribution to - our knowledge of the mounds. The first mound examined yielded eight - skulls, two of which were preserved. The third mound opened yielded - the skeletons of four adults and several articles of interest, such - as pieces of mica, a lump of galena and a dove-colored arrow-head. - From the fifth mound opened, a remarkably well-preserved skeleton was - recovered. Dr. Farquharson, of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, - has contributed one of the most valuable tables of mound-cranial - measurements ever published. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The best and most exhaustive treatment of the above is - by <cite>Mr. Robert Clarke: The Pre-Historic Remains which were Found on - the Site of Cincinnati, Ohio, with a Vindication of the Cincinnati - Tablet</cite>. Cincinnati, 1876. 8vo, 34 pp. It is to be regretted - that this valuable discussion of the genuineness of one of the most - important Mound-builder relics is only “privately circulated.” Mr. - Clarke has fully accomplished the design for which he wrote. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <cite>Dr. Daniel Drake’s Picture of Cincinnati</cite>, - Cincinnati, 1815. <cite>Squier and Davis in Ancient Monuments</cite>. <cite>Gen. - Harrison: Ohio Hist. and Phil. Society Trans.</cite>, vol. i, and others. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <cite>Dr. Daniel Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, 3d ed., - 1876, vol. i, pp. 274–5. The following description is given in - <cite>Squier and Davis’s Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</cite>: - “The material is fine-grained, compact sandstone of a light-brown - color. It measures five inches in length, three in breadth at the - ends, and two and six-tenths at the middle, and is about half an inch - in thickness. The sculptured face varies very slightly from a perfect - plane. The figures are cut in low relief (the lines being not more than - one-twentieth of an inch in depth), and occupy a rectangular space - four inches and two-tenths long by two and one-tenth wide. The sides - of the stone, it will be observed, are slightly concave. Right lines - are drawn across the face near the ends, at right angles, and exterior - to these are notches, twenty-five at one end and twenty-four at the - other. The back of the stone has three deep longitudinal grooves, and - several depressions, evidently caused by rubbing—probably produced by - sharpening the instrument used in the sculpture.” [Mr. Gest, however, - does not regard these as tool marks, but thinks they are of peculiar - significance.] “Without discussing the singular resemblance which the - relic bears to the Egyptian <em>Cartouch</em>, it will be sufficient - to direct attention to the reduplication of the figures, those upon - one side corresponding with those upon the other, and the two central - ones being also alike. It will be observed that there are but three - scrolls or figures—four of one and two of each of the others. Probably - no serious discussion of the question whether or not these figures are - hieroglyphical is needed. They more resemble the stalk and flowers of - a plant than anything else in nature. What significance, if any, may - attach to the peculiar markings or graduations at the end, it is not - undertaken to say. The sum of the products of the longer and shorter - lines (24 × 7 + 25 × 8) is 368, three more than the number of days in - the year; from which circumstance the suggestion has been advanced - that the tablet had an astronomical origin, and constituted some sort - of a calendar.” We may here add that Col. Chas. Whittlesey published - at Cleveland, Ohio, in <cite>Historical and Archæological Tract No. 9</cite> - (Feb. 1872) of the Western Reserve Historical Society, a statement that - the “Cincinnati Tablet” was a fraud. But we are informed that he is - since convinced of its genuineness. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Judge M. F. Force: <cite>Mound-Builders</cite>. Cincinnati, - 1872. Rev. S. D. Peet in the <cite>American Antiquarian</cite> for April, - 1878, refers to the visit of the Ohio Archæological and the National - Anthropological Conventions to Fort Ancient in September, 1877, and - states that during the visit the significance of the walls of the lower - enclosure was discovered. “They bear a resemblance,” he remarks, “to - the form of two massive serpents, which are apparently contending with - one another. Their heads are the mounds, which are separated from the - bodies by the opening which resembles a ring around the neck. They - bend in and out and rise and fall, and appear like two massive green - serpents rolling along the summit of this high hill. Their appearance - under the overhanging forest trees is very impressive”—p. 50. See also - Mr. Peet’s memoir on a Double-walled Earthwork in Ashtabula County, - Ohio, in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1876, pp. 443–4. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Dr. Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 145, cites - a letter from Prof. E. B. Andrews, of the Ohio Geological Survey, - describing an earthwork discovered by him in Vinton County with the - ditch <em>outside</em> the parapet. In his <cite>Report of Explorations - of Mounds in Southern Ohio</cite>, published in <cite>Tenth Ann. Report of - the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch. and Eth.</cite>, p. 53 (Camb., 1877), - the Professor remarks: “On a spur of a ridge about two miles east of - Lancaster is an earth wall, evidently for defence. The ditch is on the - outside of the wall, where it should be according to modern ideas of - defence. In this particular the earthwork differs from all the circles - and so-called ‘forts,’ either circular or square, which I have seen, - these having the ditch on the inside.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 128: “No one, I - think, can view the complicated system of works here displayed and - stretching away for miles without arriving at the conclusion that - they are the result of an infinite amount of toil expended under the - direction of a governing mind, and having in view a definite aim. At - this day, with our iron instruments, with our labor-saving machines, - and the aid of horse-power, to accomplish such a task would require the - labor of many thousand men continued for many months. These are the - work of a people who had fixed habitations, and who, deriving their - support in part at least from the soil, could devote their surplus - labor to the rearing of such structures. A migratory people dependent - upon the uncertainties of the chase for a living, would not have the - time, nor would there be the motive, to engage in such a stupendous - undertaking.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 129. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> <cite>North American Review</cite>, July, 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Robert Clarke’s <cite>Pre-Historic Remains at - Cincinnati</cite>, p. 18: “I believe I am correct in saying that there - is no clay in Ohio which could be applied in this way and resist for - any length of time the washing rains and sudden winter changes of - temperature of our climate,” <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> See A. B. Tomlinson’s <cite>Grave Greek Mound</cite> (1838). - <cite>Schoolcraft in American Ethnological Soc. Transactions</cite>, vol. i. - Especially Squier and Davis. - - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Dr. Patton has described some interesting mounds near - Vincennes, Indiana. A giant mound, which towers above many others of - considerable proportions, is called the Sugar-loaf Mound, and stands on - a promontory which overlooks the rich valley of the Wabash. The height - of the Sugar-loaf is seventy feet, with a circumference at the base - of one thousand feet. Dr. Patton in June, 1873, sank a shaft in this - mound to the depth of forty-six feet. The composition of the mound was - of siliceous sand, nowhere found in the region except in other mounds. - At ten feet below the summit bones were found, but much decayed. - Immediately below them was a layer of charcoal and ashes. Thirty feet - deeper the same conditions were repeated, and the bones again were so - brittle as to render it impossible to save them. A bed of calcined clay - was next entered which could not be penetrated with the instruments - at command. One mile south of the Sugar-loaf is a pyramidal mound - forty-three feet high, with a circumference of 714 feet at the base and - a platform on top fifteen feet wide and fifty feet in length. Others of - as great proportions are described. <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1873, - pp. 411 <i>et seq.</i> See also <cite>Antiquities of La Porte County, - Indiana</cite>, by R. S. Robertson in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874, - pp. 377 <i>et seq.</i> A very low type of cranium was exhumed from - one of the mounds in this county. Also see <cite>Mounds at Merom and - Hutsonville on the Wabash</cite>, by F. W. Putnam—<cite>Proceedings of the - Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</cite>, vol. xv, 1872. Fifty-nine mounds were - examined, and three stone graves discovered. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> For an excellent treatment of this part of the subject, - see <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 130–144 inclusive. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> In <cite>Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley.</cite> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> <cite>Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of - Tennessee.</cite> <cite>Smithsonian Contribution No. 259.</cite> Oct. 1876, p. 100. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 39, and other places. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 138. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. - 348–360. Cambridge, 1878. See also <cite>Antiquities of Jackson County, - Tenn.</cite>, by Rev. Joshua Hale, in <cite>Smithsonian Reports</cite> for 1874, - p. 384. Very interesting and valuable explorations have been conducted - in Tennessee by Mr. E. O. Dunning for the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch. - and Eth. See <cite>Reports</cite>, 3d, p. 7; 4th, p. 7; 5th, p. 11. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> <cite>Mr. Jas. R. Page’s Results of Investigations of Indian - Mounds</cite>, in <cite>Transactions of St. Louis Acad. of Science</cite>, vol. - iii, p. 226, and copied in <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science</cite>, - Oct. 1875, vol. ii, No. 4, pp. 371 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> In <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Journal of Science</cite>, Oct. 1875, - p. 378. Also see <cite>Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 318. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> See <cite>Wilson’s Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 317. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> <cite>Fontaine’s How the World was Peopled</cite>, p. 278, and - <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 111 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, p. 278. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis’s Ancient Monuments</cite>, pp. 117 - <i>et seq.</i> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 112. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> <cite>E. Cornelius</cite> in <cite>Silliman’s Journal</cite>, vol. i, - p. 223, and <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 122. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1870, and <cite>Foster’s - Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 123. A further description of works - on Etowah River in Bartow Co., Ga., by <cite>Mr. Stephenson</cite> in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, p. 421. A full and elaborate - treatment is also that by Charles C. Jones, Jr., entitled <cite>Monumental - Remains of Georgia</cite>. Savannah, 1861. 12mo, p. 118. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1874, pp. 390 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> These measurements were carefully made by Dr. S. H. - Headlee, of St. James, Missouri, and communicated to the editors of the - <cite>Cincinnati Quar. Jour. of Science</cite>, published in January number, - 1875, pp. 94–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> A sensational description of this mound which appeared - in the <cite>St. Louis Times</cite> is used by Mr. S. M. Hosea as the - basis of an article on Sacrificial Mounds in the above number of the - <cite>Cincinnati Quarterly Jour. of Science</cite>, p. 62. The account - contains some wonderful statements, which are evidently made by some - unscientific person, and hence are utterly worthless. Although, judging - from internal evidence, we have little faith in the reliableness of the - correspondent, we give a paragraph for what it is worth: “The approach - or causeway which leads across the trench from the north is ten feet - in width. Ascending from this causeway to the summit of the mound - are the remains of a rude flight of stairs, constructed originally - of roughly-hewn stones. Most of these steps are now displaced, and - quite a number have rolled down into the trench below, but there is - unmistakable evidence that they were at one time arranged in regular - order of ascent, and could doubtless be again replaced in position by - an intelligent architect.” “By a series of investigations, I found that - about a foot beneath the surface there was a regular solid platform - of stone covering the entire top of the mound. This platform, though - constructed by rude and unmechanical hands, is placed in position - with a precision and firmness that might well defy the ravages of the - elements in all coming ages. About twelve feet from the northern edge - of the mound, and directly on a line with the approach and stairway, - I noticed a very perceptible elevation of the earth, covering an - area of about twenty by fifteen feet; and driving a pick into the - elevated ground, the point struck upon solid rock a few inches below - the surface. * * * Pushing our work, we soon unearthed a piece of - workmanship that an antiquarian would have worked a week to bring to - light. The newly-discovered curiosity consisted of a flat rock twelve - feet long, ten feet wide, and eleven inches thick. The centre of the - stone was hollowed to a depth of six inches, with a margin of about one - foot around the edge.” “At the south end of the stone, a round hole - five inches deep and four in diameter was drilled. Amongst the dirt - taken out of this place hewn in the stone, was a large fossil tooth - and a piece of small broken stone column, and several bits of pottery - ware.” This description is very suggestive of the Mexican Temple or - Teocalli, but unfortunately for the facts, Dr. Headlee, who made the - measurements given in the text a short time subsequently, failed to - find any certain evidences that either a stairway or temple had existed - on the mound. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <cite>Report on the Geology of Arkansas</cite>, vol. ii, p. - 414—cited by Foster. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> See on chambered mounds similar to English barrows, - Curtiss in <cite>Peabody Museum Reports</cite>, vol. ii, p. 717; Broadhead in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1879, pp. 350 <i>et seq.</i> (with cuts). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> “Within the State, from Pulaski County to Arkansas, in - all the little valleys which wind in and out among the flint-crowned - hills of the Ozarks, are seen what may be termed garden mounds. These - are elevated about two or three feet above the natural surface of - the land, and are from fifteen to fifty feet in diameter, varying - thus in size according to the amount of richer soil which could be - scraped together. Their presence may always be detected in fields of - growing grain by its more luxuriant growth and deeper green.”—<cite>A. J. - Conant</cite> in the <cite>Transactions</cite> cited above, p. 354. The same - writer has treated the subject more fully in a recent work published at - St. Louis, entitled, “<cite>The Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 115, and <cite>Pre-Historic - Races</cite>, p. 120. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> <cite>Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 72. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Prof. Forshey, in <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. - 121, 122, remarks: “There is a class of mounds west of the Mississippi - Delta and extending from the Gulf to the Arkansas and above, and - westward to the Colorado in Texas, that are to me, after thirty - years’ familiarity with them, entirely inexplicable. In my Geological - Reconnoissance of Louisiana in 1841–2, I made a pretty thorough report - upon them. I afterwards gave a verbal description of their extent - and character before the <cite>New Orleans Academy of Sciences</cite>. - These mounds lack every evidence of artificial construction based on - implements or other human vestigia. They are nearly all round, none - angular, and have an elevation hemispheroidal of one foot to five feet, - and a diameter from thirty feet to one hundred and forty feet. They - are numbered by millions. In many places, in pine forests and upon the - prairies, they are to be seen nearly tangent to each other as far as - the eye can reach, thousands being visible from an elevation of a few - feet. On the gulf-marsh margin, from the Vermillion to the Colorado, - they appear barely visible, often flowing into one another, and only - elevated a few inches above the common land. A few miles interior they - rise to two and even four feet in height. The largest I ever saw were - perhaps one hundred and forty feet in diameter and five feet high. - These were in Western Louisiana. Some of them had abrupt sides, though - they are nearly all of gentle slopes. There is ample testimony that the - pine trees of the present forests antedate these mounds. The material - for their construction is like that of the vicinity everywhere, and - often there is a depression in close proximity to the elevation.” We - can make no conjecture concerning the use of those mounds described by - Prof. Forshey, except to suggest that they in all probability served as - foundations for dwellings in a low country, which at that time may have - been moister and more marshy than at present. If such was the case, - the whole region must have presented the appearance of a continuous - community instead of the proper proportion of country and village. This - crowded state of affairs could have been produced by the pressure from - enemies in the north, and the lack of agricultural lands evidently was - sufficient alone to cause a migration to the south. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> A number of the cuts in this chapter illustrative of - the Arts of the Mound-builders, are copies of those used by Dr. - Charles Rau in his <cite>Catalogue of the Archæological Collection of - the National Museum</cite>, Washington, Smithsonian Contribution No. 287 - (1876), granted me through the courtesy of Professor Henry. A few also - are from the memoir by Prof. Jos. Jones on the <cite>Aboriginal Remains - of Tennessee</cite>. Smithsonian Contribution No. 259 (1876). For an - able classification of these Mound Relics (a work which I could not - undertake in a volume not devoted exclusively to the Mound-builders), - I refer the reader to Rau’s Memoir above cited, as being altogether - the most satisfactory attempt of the kind of which I have any - knowledge. For a classification of works in Ohio, see <cite>Antiquities of - Ohio</cite>: Report of the Committee of the State Archæological Society - to the Centennial Commission of Ohio (Columbus, Ohio, 1877, 8vo). - The incompleteness of the work is to be regretted. Ohio, out of its - vast fund of material, certainly ought to furnish a more satisfactory - contribution to the subject of archæology. The work comprises seven - chapters, of which the last is the least satisfactory of all, for - while bearing the title “Location of Ancient Earthworks in Ohio,” - it enumerates only one hundred and sixteen out of the ten thousand - mound-works in the State. Still the memoir is not without value. Its - chapters on Stone Relics, Copper Relics, and Insignia and Ornaments are - comparatively thorough. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 143. Prof. E. B. Andrews has - shown that the supposed uniformity of stratification in altar mounds - is a fallacy. In many instances the earth has been dumped together - indiscriminately. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> <cite>Ancient Monuments</cite>, p. 143, the following general - description is given: “The altars or basins found in these mounds are - almost invariably of burned clay, although a few of stone have been - discovered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size or shape. - Some are round, others elliptical, and others square or parallelograms. - Some are small, measuring barely two feet across, while others are - fifty feet long by twelve or fifteen feet wide. The usual dimensions - are from five to eight feet. All appear to have been modelled of fine - clay brought to the spot from a distance, and they rest on the original - surface of the earth. In a few instances a layer or small elevation of - sand had been laid down, upon which the altar was formed. The height of - the altars, nevertheless, seldom exceeds a foot or twenty inches above - the adjacent level. The clay of which they are composed is usually - burned hard, sometimes to the depth of ten, fifteen, and even twenty - inches. This is hardly to be explained by any degree or continuance of - heat, though it is manifest that in some cases the heat was intense. On - the other hand, a number of these altars have been noticed which are - very slightly burned; and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute - of remains.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Charles Rau in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872, p. 357. - <cite>Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 41. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> <cite>Squier and Davis</cite>: <i>Op. Cit.</i>, pp. 169–70. - <cite>Foster</cite>: <i>Op. Cit.</i>, pp. 188–196. Schoolcraft in vol. - i, <cite>Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc.</cite> M. C. Read in <cite>American - Antiquarian</cite>, vol. i, p. 139, Jan. 1879. Dr. Clemens in Morton’s - <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 221. Mr. E. O. Dunning in <cite>Foster</cite>, p. 194. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> <cite>Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound near - Newark, Ohio</cite>, by O. C. Marsh, F. G. S., in <cite>American Journal of - Science and Arts</cite> for July, 1866. Second Series, vol. xlii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> See <cite>Dr. Charles T. Jackson’s Geological Report to the - United States Government</cite>, 1849. <cite>Foster and Whitney’s Report - on the Geology of the Lake Superior Region</cite>, Part I. Published - by authority of Congress in 1850, and substantially reproduced in - <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races of the U. S.</cite>, chap. vii, in 1873. - The most elaborate treatment is by <cite>Col. Charles Whittlesey</cite>, - <cite>Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior</cite>. Published in - the <cite>Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge</cite> in 1863, vol. xiii. - <cite>Swineford’s History and Review of the Mineral Resources of Lake - Superior</cite>, Marquette, 1876. Containing <cite>Ancient Copper Mines of - Lake Superior by Jacob Houghton</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> <cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 268. For a further - account, see Mr. Henry Gillman in an article printed in <cite>Appleton’s - Journal</cite>, August 9, 1873, and entitled <cite>Ancient Works at Isle - Royal</cite>; also to a paper printed in the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> - for 1873, and in the <cite>Proceedings of the Amer. Ass. for the - Advancement of Science</cite>, 1875 meeting, p. 330. Also A. C. Davis in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1874, p. 369. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> <cite>Ancient Mining on the Shore of Lake Superior</cite>, p. 2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="fr"> - <a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> “L’on trouve souvent au fond de l’eau, des pieces de - cuivre tout formé, de la pesanteur de dix et vingt livres; i’en ay - veu plusieurs fois entre les mains des Sauvages, et comme ils sont - superstitieux, ils les gardent comme autant de divinités, ou comme des - presents que les dieux qui sont au fond de l’eau leur ont faits pour - estre la cause de leur bonheur; c’est pour cela, qu’ils conservent ces - morceaux de cuivre envelopés parmi leurs meubles les plus pretieux, il - y en a qui les gardent depuis plus de cinquante ans; d’autres les ont - dans leurs familles de temps immemorial, et les cherissent comme des - dieux domestiques.”—<cite>Relations des Jésuites, en l’Année 1667</cite>, p. - 8. Quebec reprint, 1858. Tome iii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="fr"> - <a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> “En y entrant par son embouchure, que se décharge au - Sault, le premier endroit que se présente où se retrouve du cuivre - en abondance, est une Isle que est éloignée de quarante on cinquante - lieuës, scituée vers le côté du Nord, vis a vis d’un endroit qu’on - appelle Missipicoüatong. Les sauvages racontent que c’est une Isle - flottante, que est quelquefois loing, quelquefois proche, selon les - vents qui la poussent, et la promenent de côté et d’autre. Ils ajoûtent - qu’il y a bien longtemps que quatre sauvages y furent par rencontre, - s’etans égarez dans la brume, dont cette Isle est presque toujours - environnée. C’étoit du temps qu’ils n’avoient point encore eu de - commerce avec les François, et n’avoient aucun usage ny des chaudieres - ny des haches. Ceux-cy donc voulans se preparer à manger, firent à leur - ordinaire: prenant des pierres qu’ils trouvoient au bord de l’eau, les - faisaient rougir dans le feu et les jettaient dans un plat d’ecorce - plein d’eau pour la faire boüillir et faire cuire par cette industrie - leur viande. Comme ils choisissoient ces pierres, ils trouvoient, que - c’étoient presque tous morceaux de cuivre; ils se servirent donc des - unes et des autres, et aprés avoir pris leur repas, ils songerent à - s’embarquer au plustost, craignant les Loups Cerviers et les Lievres, - qui sont en cét endroit grands comme des Chiens, et qui venoient - manger leurs provisions et même leur Canot. Avant que de partir, ils - se chargerent de quantité de ces pierres grosses et menuës, et même de - quelques plaques de cuivre; mais ils ne furent pas bien éloignez du - rivage, qu’une puissante voix se fit entendre à leurs oreilles, disant - tout en colere: Qui sont ces voleurs qui m’emportent les berceaux - et les divertissemens de mes enfans? Les plaques de cuivre sont les - berceaux, parce que parmy les sauvages ils ne sont faits que d’un ou - deux aix joints ensemble, sur lesquels ils couchent leurs enfans; et - ces petits morçeaux de cuivre qu’ils enlevoient, sont les jouets et - les divertissemens des enfans sauvages, qui joüent ensemble avec des - petites pierres.” The voice which the savages heard was believed to be - that of a spirit called Missibizi, a certain water-god. “Quoy qu’il en - soit, cette voix étonnante jetta tellement la frayeur dans l’esprit de - nos Voyageurs, qu’un des quatre mourut avant que d’arriver à terre; - peu de temps aprés un second fut enlevé, puis le troisièma; de sorte - qu’il n’en resta qu’un, lequel s’étant rendu en son Pays, raconta - tout ce qui s’étoit passé, pues mourut fort peu apriés.” The Father - adds that the savages never afterward could be induced to approach - the island for fear of being seized by the Genii presiding over its - treasures.—<cite>Relations des Jesuités l’année 1670</cite>, p. 84, tome iii. - Quebec reprint, 1858. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> <cite>Ancient Mining</cite>, p. 22 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes.</cite> - Luxembourg. 1877, tom. i, pp. 51–2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> <cite>Essai Politique</cite> (Paris, 1825–27), vol. iii, - p. 114. Dr. Charles Rau has courteously furnished me the following - references on ancient mining in Mexico: <cite>Clavigaro’s History of - Mexico</cite>, Phil., 1817, vol. i., p. 20. <cite>Prescott’s Mexico</cite>, - vol. i, p. 138; <cite>Despatches of Hernando Cortés</cite> addressed to - the Emperor Charles V (trans. by Folsom, New York, 1842), p. 412. - <cite>Memoirs of Bernal Diaz</cite> (trans. of Lockhart, London, 1844), vol. - i, p. 36. Dr. Rau remarks: “We are forcibly led to the conclusion that - the Mexicans obtained copper by the mining process.”—<cite>Letter to the - Author</cite>, Aug. 24, 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Colonel Whittlesey in the <cite>Report of the State - Archæological Society</cite> to the Centennial Commission of Ohio, Chap. - IV, pl. 10, has figured several symmetrical tubes of stone from Ohio - Mounds. The most perfect of these he thinks may have served “as - telescopic helps for distant views.” The most general use to which most - of them were applied, it is believed, was the making of signals, or - possibly rude music. One of the tubes taken from the Tippet Mound near - Newark, Ohio, and figured in the report, has its upper end flattened - like a whistle or flute, and has a hole penetrating it just below the - mouthpiece, which indicates that it may have been a musical instrument. - The Huron slates were most frequently employed in the manufacture of - tubes, as they were in the production of the class of objects known as - ceremonial relics. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient America</cite>, p. 42, and Dupaix, - quoted on pp. 122–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Dr. Rau has shown that division of labor and its - advantages was recognized among the aborigines; that certain - individuals who were qualified to manufacture particular implements - devoted themselves exclusively to that work. He bases his conjecture - “on the occurrence of manufactured articles of a homogeneous character - in mounds or in deposits below the surface of the soil. There is little - doubt, for instance, that there were persons who devoted their time - chiefly to the manufacture of stone arrow-heads and of other articles - produced by chipping, among which may be mentioned those remarkable - large digging tools described by me several years ago, and the oval or - leaf-shaped implements made of the peculiar hornstone of ‘Flint Ridge’ - in Ohio.” See Stock-in-trade of an Aboriginal Lapidary, by Charles Rau, - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Dr. S. S. Schoville, in the <cite>Cincinnati Quarterly - Journal of Science</cite>, April, 1875, p. 164, describes the discovery of - numerous mica plates in a mound on the east bank of the Little Miami - River, about twenty-five miles east of Cincinnati. He states, that - at the base of the mound, on a level with the surrounding country, - the remains of several skeletons were found, placed with their heads - together and lying in a horizontal position. “Lying upon or immediately - over the cranial debris, were found plates of mica, some a foot in - diameter. These plates were disposed in such a way as to cover an area - somewhat larger than that occupied by the crania beneath. However, - it could not definitely be determined whether the design had been to - make a continuous or common roof over the faces as a group, or whether - each face had a covering of its own.” The writer ventures the rather - fanciful conjecture that the mica in this and many other cases served - the purpose of exhibiting temporarily the features of the dead in the - manner that glass is now used on caskets. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> See a most interesting and extensive memoir on - <cite>Aboriginal Trade in</cite> <cite>North America</cite>, by Charles Rau, - first published in vol. iv of the <cite>Archiv für Anthropologie</cite> - (Braunschweig, 1872), and translated in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for - 1872, pp. 249–394. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Mr. A. J. Conant in the <cite>Commonwealth of Missouri</cite>, - pp. 77–8 (St. Louis, 1877), refers to ancient canals fifty feet wide - and twelve feet deep observed by Dr. G. C. Swallow. He quotes a pretty - full account from Geo. W. Carleton, Esq. Mr. Conant considers some of - the southern bayous of artificial origin. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> For further material on the Mound-builders, see the - documents cited throughout the chapter. No less important is Dr. - Foster’s admirable work so often quoted, and which we must add has been - of great service in the preparation of this chapter. A very good paper - on the Mound-builders is that by Robert S. Robertson of Fort Wayne, - Indiana, in the <cite>Congrès International des Américanistes Compte-Rendu - de la Sec. Ses. Luxembourg</cite>, 1877, tom. i, pp. 39–50, though we - do not fully agree with the author’s views as to the colonization - of the Mississippi valley from the south. The classification of - Mound-works by Rev. Stephen D. Peet in the same document, p. 103, is - very satisfactory, and corresponds to that adopted in this chapter. The - learned article by Judge Force of Cincinnati in the same document, vol. - i, pp. 121–156, is full of interest. For recent mound explorations, see Appendix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Times</cite>, p. 425. Also cited by - Foster. In this connection I refer the reader to the argument of - Mr. John H. Becker of Berlin, in the <cite>Congrès International des - Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. i, pp. 345–6: “These northern - nations * * * have not quite forgotten the former existence and the - exodus of these Nahua Mound-builders in and from the western prairie - country. Cusick’s remarkable history of the Iroquois (Schoolcraft, - vol. v) states again and again that ‘their hunters were opposed by big - snakes,’ that the ‘great horned snake appeared on Lake Ontario,’ that - the ‘lake serpent traversed the country, and they were compelled to - build fortifications in order to save themselves from the devouring - monsters,’ that ‘a snake with a human head prevented the intercourse - of their several villages, as it had settled near the principal path - of communication,’ also ‘that it retreats,’ etc., etc. Now, in order - to understand the force of these passages, it is necessary to remind - the reader that the Nahua race were perhaps even more properly and - generally designated as the ‘Culhua’ the ‘Snake’ race, and one branch, - remotely connected with them in blood and language, though wofully - degenerated, the Snakes or Shoshones of Oregon, etc., carry the name to - this very day. * * * ‘An expedition was sent towards the Mississippi - River; they crossed it, reached an extensive meadow; they discovered a - <em>curious animal</em>, a <em>winged fish</em>; it flew about the tree, - it moved like a <em>humming bird</em>’ * * * the <em>humming bird</em> was - the totem of the last tribe of Nahuas, arriving in Anahuac from Aztlan. - The Cherokee tradition, told by Timberlake, is equally significant: - ‘The prince of rattlesnakes lives in the glens of the mountains. His - palace is guarded by obedient subjects. * * * And in the myth of the - Algonquins, the god-hero Michabo is in conflict with the shining prince - of serpents who lives in the lake; he destroys the reptile with a dart; - clothes himself with the skin of his foe, and <em>drives the rest of the - serpents to the south</em>.’” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> <cite>J. D. Baldwin’s Ancient America</cite>, p. 47. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Foster, pp. 172–3, remarks: “Squier and Davis hastily - stated that none of these works occupied the alluvial bottoms (an error - which Mr. Squier subsequently corrected), and from this statement the - most erroneous conclusions as to their antiquity have been drawn. - There is nothing to indicate but that those works were constructed - after the surface had assumed its present configuration, and that the - climate had become essentially as it is now. That they should not - occur as abundantly on the bottoms as on the river terraces is not - to be wondered at, when we consider the great fluctuations of the - Mississippi and its tributaries. The extreme range between low and - high water of the Upper Mississippi at its mouth is thirty-five feet; - that of the Missouri at its mouth about the same; and that of the Ohio - at Louisville, forty-two feet. Hence, during the flood time a greater - portion of the bottom lands are subject to overflow, and it would be - natural for the Mound-builders to shun such situations. Where the - immediate valleys lie above high water, we find their works. Of this - the ‘American Bottom’ is a notable instance.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> See Dr. Lapham’s communication in Foster’s - <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 373–5, in which he shows the possibility - of finding the average increase of wood each year by measuring annual - rings of growth. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> Sir Charles Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 41, says: - “When I visited Marietta in 1842, Dr. Hildreth took me to one of the - mounds, and showed me where he had seen a tree growing on it, the trunk - of which when cut down displayed eight hundred rings of annual growth.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> See Prof. Asa Gray in Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, - p. 392; also Lyell’s <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 41, where the opinion - of President Harrison is quoted as follows: “We may be sure that no - trees were allowed to grow so long as the earthworks were in use; and - when they were forsaken, the ground, like all newly-cleared land in - Ohio, would for a time be monopolized by one or two species of tree, - such as the yellow locust and the black or white walnut. When the - individuals which were the first to get possession of the ground had - died out one after the other, they would, in many cases, instead of - being replaced by other species, be succeeded, by virtue of the law - which makes a rotation of crops profitable in agriculture, by other - kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries (several hundred - years perhaps), that remarkable diversity of species characteristic - of North America, and far exceeding what is seen in European forests, - would be established.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 118, 119, - 122, and M. Stronck, <cite>Repères chronologiques de l’histoire des - Mound-builders</cite> in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, - tom. i, pp. 316–18, catalogues the record of the age of trees found on mounds. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 370. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, Jan. 1868. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> <cite>Second Visit to the United States</cite>, vol. i, p. 252. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Dr. Brinton’s <cite>Notes on the Floridian Peninsula</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> From the immense heaps distributed over an area of 150 - miles between Pilatka and Salt Creek Dr. Wyman made some collections - of interest. The banks were composed mostly of the <i>Ampullaria - Depressa</i>, the <i>Paludina Multilineata</i> and <i>Unio - Buckleyi</i>. The bank at King Phillip’s Town, 450 feet long by 120 - feet wide, and in some places eight feet thick, yielded fragments - of pottery and decayed animal bones. At Black Hammock, on the St. - Johns, a mound 900 feet long and from 100 to 150 in width, yielded - the following: such marine shells as the strombus-gigos, pyrula - carica and P. perversa. These had been shaped into hatchets, gouges - and chisels. Scarcely any stone implements were found in any of the - mounds examined. A chisel and twenty-five arrow-heads were collected - in the vicinity of the above shell-bank. The following animal remains - were found: bear, deer, raccoon, opossum, terrapin, turtle, alligator, - cat-fish and garpike. But few bones of birds were found. Prof. Wyman - can only explain the presence of so many of the now scarce species, - the Ampullarius and Paludinas, on the supposition that they were much - more plentiful and are now becoming extinct, or that the heaps where so - abundantly found were made by slow accumulation, through the lapse of - an indefinitely long period.—<cite>American Naturalist</cite>, vol. ii, Nos. - 8 and 9, and <cite>Fifth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 22–25. - Also <cite>First Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 11, 18. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> A small sand-mound near Cedar Keys yielded peculiarly - massive skulls; the capacity being 1375 cubic centimetres, or nearly - 84 cubic inches. They show no distortion, and the average thickness of - eight of them through the parietal bones measured 10.5 millimetres, or - 0.42 of an inch. The heaviest weighed 995 grams, and notwithstanding - the loss of its organic matter, is heavier than any of the three - hundred skulls in the collection (Peabody Museum).—<cite>Fourth Annual - Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 13. Also see Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic - Races</cite>, p. 170. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 159. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 272. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> C. C. Jones, Jr., <cite>Antiquities of the Southern - Indians</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Further consult, <cite>Second Indiana Report</cite>, p. iii; - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1870; Humphreys and Abbot’s <cite>Physics - and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Valley</cite>, p. 89, and Foster’s - <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, Chap. IV. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="de"> - <a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Martius: <cite>Von dem Rechtszustande unter den - Ureinwohner Brasiliens</cite>, p. 80, and reprinted in his <cite>Beiträge - zur Ethnographie</cite>, etc., Leipzig, 1867, quarto. “Der dermalige - Zustand dieser Naturwesen beurkundet, dass die amerikanische Natur - schon seit Jahrtausenden den Einfluss einer verändernden und - umgestaltenden Menschenhand erfahren hat. Auf den Antillen und dem - Festlande fanden die ersten Conquistadores den stummen Hund als - Hausthier und auf der Jagd dienend, ebenso das Meerschweinchen in - St. Domingo in einem heimischen Zustande.... Das Llama war in Peru - schon seit undenklicher Zeit als Lastthier benützt worden, und kam - nicht mehr im Zustand der Freiheit vor; ja sogar das Guanaco und die - Vicunna scheinen damals nicht ganz wild, sondern in einer beschränkten - Freiheit den Urbewohnern befreundet, gelebt zu haben, da sie, um - geschoren zu werden, eingefangen, so dann aber wieder freigelassen - würden.... Die Cultur dieser Pflanze (Maize) aus welcher die Peruaner - auch Zucker bereiteten, ist uralt; man findet sie, und die Banane, den - Baumwollenstrauch, die Quinoa- und die Mandioca-Pflanze ebenso wenig - wild in America als unsere Getreidearten in Asien, Europa und Africa. - Die einzige Palme, welche von den Indianern angebaut wird, hat durch - diese Cultur den grossen, steinharten Saamenkern verloren, der oft in - Fasern zerschmolzen, oft gänzlich aufgelöst ist. Ebenso findet man die - Banane, deren Einfuhr nach America geschichtlich nicht nachgewiesen - werden kann, immer ohne Saamen. Man weiss aber aus anderen Erfahrungen, - welch’ lange Zeit nothwendig ist, um den Pflanzen einen solchen Stempel - von der umbildenden Macht menschlichen Einflusses aufzudrücken. Gewiss, - auch in America sind die dort heimischen Nutz-Pflanzen der Menschheit - seit undenklichen Zeiten zinsbar unterworfen.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, p. 37. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 352. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 44. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, p. 12. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, vol. ii, p. 434, 1868. Also - quoted by Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 77. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Daniel Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, p. 12. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Vol. i, p. 200. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> Meigs: <cite>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</cite>, 1828, p. 285. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 42. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Vol. ii, p. 197. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 203. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <cite>Extinct Mammalia of North America</cite>, p. 365: - “The specimen may have been contemporary with the remains of extinct - animals, with which it is said to have been found, though it appears - to me equally if not more probable that it may have fallen into - the formation from an Indian grave above at a comparatively recent - date, and become stained like the true fossils from ferruginous infiltration.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Foster: <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 61. “A dozen - plantation burial places and Indian mounds and camps had been exposed - above for centuries; and in recent years since uninhabited by the - whites (for a hundred years), the drains had cut through the surface - to the depth of twenty and even forty feet of the bluff loam-beds. The - probabilities are a hundred to one that this bone was not of the bluff - (mastodon) formation but of the recent era.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Foster in <cite>Transactions of the Chicago Academy of - Sciences</cite>, vol. i, part ii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Fontaine’s <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, pp. 67–69. - A book with many good points, but obscure as to this particular case. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> <cite>On the Geology of Lower Louisiana and the Salt - Deposit on the Petit Anse Island</cite>, p. 14, in <cite>Smithsonian - Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, No. 248. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 58. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, p. 35. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> Vol. xxxvi, p. 198. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Vol. xxxvii, p. 191. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> J. D. Dana: <cite>Koch’s Evidence on the Contemporaneity - of Man and the Mastodon in Missouri</cite>, in the <cite>Am. Jour. of Sci. - and Arts</cite>, Art. xxxv, May, 1875, gives the title of two of these - pamphlets as follows: 1. <cite>Description of the Missourium or Missouri - Leviathan, together with its Supposed Habits; Indian Traditions - Concerning the Location from which it was Exhumed; Also, Comparisons - of the Whale, Crocodile, and Missourium with the Leviathan, as - described in the Forty-first Chapter of the Book of Job</cite>: by Albert - Koch, 16 pp. octavo, St. Louis, 1841 (1840 on the cover, indicating - that the copy is from a second edition). 2. <cite>Description of the - Missourium Theristocaulodon (Koch) or Missouri Leviathan (Leviathan - Missouriensis), together with its Supposed Habits and Indian - Traditions; Also, Comparisons of the Whale, Crocodile, and Missourium - with the Leviathan, as described in the Forty-first Chapter of the Book - of Job</cite>: by Albert Koch. Fifth edition enlarged, 28 pp. octavo. - Dublin, 1843. (A third edition of twenty-four pages appeared in London - in 1841.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> <cite>American Journal of Science and Arts</cite>, 1830, Art. - xxxvi, p. 198, and copied by Mr. J. D. Dana, in his article before - cited, May, 1875. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Dr. Koch’s <cite>Pamphlet</cite> of 1843, pp. 13, 14, 27, - copied by J. D. Dana. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> <cite>Transactions of St. Louis Academy of Sciences</cite>, - vol. i, 1857. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Foster’s <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 62. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872, p. 396, in a note to - his article on <cite>North American Stone Implements</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> J. D. Dana in <cite>American Journal of Science and - Arts</cite>, May, 1875, p. 340. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Article cited, p. 344. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Though the above argument by so eminent a specialist - must satisfy any one that Dr. Koch’s claim, as it now stands, is - valueless to science; still, it is due to the memory of the latter, - to admit that he was the most indefatigable and successful collector - in his department in this country. Though unscientific himself, his - service to science must ever be recognized. The great Mastodon in the - British Museum is a monument to his persevering research. Perhaps the - disposition to acknowledge his services, has unduly biased the judgment - of many in favor of his groundless claim. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 67. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> “But it is one of those isolated cases which require - further investigation before full credence can be attached to - it.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 71. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man in the United States, Transactions - of American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>. Chicago, 1869. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> <cite>Second Visit to the United States.</cite> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 336, and - Lyell’s <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 43. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> <cite>Tableau of New Orleans</cite>, 1852, cited by Foster, - <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 73. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 43. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> <cite>Surface Geology</cite>, p. 92, <cite>Smithsonian - Contributions to Knowledge</cite>, vol. ix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> <cite>Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi</cite>, pp. - 150 <i>et seq.</i>, and 435. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 76. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> <cite>Philadelphia Acad. of Natural Sciences. - Proceedings</cite>, Part I, 1872. Also Foster, pp. 69–71. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> This letter bears date December 24, 1876, written from - Waynesville, Ohio, and signed by Robert F. Furnas, M. D. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Prof. Orton in <cite>Geology of Highland County</cite> in - “<cite>Progress of the Ohio</cite> <cite>Geological Survey in 1870</cite>,” - published 1871, and in vol. i. of <cite>State Geological Report</cite>, p. 442. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Prof. Winchell remarks: “The very general interest - that is being excited in this country in the problems that invest the - history of the drift is my only excuse for calling your attention to - the prevalence of vegetable remains in the Drift of the North-west, and - to the wide divergence of high authorities on the relative position of - those remains in respect to the boulder clay.”—See <cite>Proceedings</cite>, - p. 56, <cite>Am. Ass. for Adv. Sci.</cite>, 1875, <cite>24th Meeting</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum</cite>, p. - 226, Cambridge, 1878. Dr. Abbott concludes his interesting report by - citing a letter from Mr. Thomas Belt, dated Grant, Colorado, June 29, - 1878, in which the writer reports the discovery of “a small human skull - in undisturbed loess, in a railway cutting about two miles from Denver, - near the watershed between the South Platte and Clear Creek. All the - plains are covered with a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose - pebbles, overlaid by a sandy and calcareous loam closely resembling the - diluvial clay and the loess of Europe.” The skull was found at a point - three and a half feet from the surface.—<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 257. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> <cite>Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum, Cambridge</cite>, - 1877, vol. ii, pp. 30–43; <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, June, 1876, p. 329. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> <cite>Tenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 47. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Grote, <cite>The Peopling of America</cite>, <cite>American - Naturalist</cite>, April, 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> <cite>Primitive Industry</cite>, by C. C. Abbott, M.D., 1881, - p. 551. A truly scientific work. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> <cite>Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological - Survey, under Dr. Hayden in 1872</cite>, p. 657. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> General Thomas gives the following account of this - form of skull discovered by him, p. 657: “It is unlike that of any - human being to-day alive on this continent; the frontal bone being - low, receding, growing narrow and pinched from the brows up; the top - of the head depressed in the centre. The cavity of the cranium is - full seven inches long, and a scant four and a half inches wide. The - orbital ridges or eyebrows are excessively developed, like those of - the great Gibbon monkey. In fact the whole skull resembles that of the - great Gibbon monkey. The malar or cheek bones run down very low and - deep toward the lower jaw, are set very far to the front, and are not - wide at top, but widen very much toward the bottom. The nose, and here - is the anomaly, is much more aquiline than that of the Indian. The - superior maxillary is one-third deeper and much more prominent than - the Indian’s. The inferior maxillary is of uncommon prominence, depth, - and power, far exceeding that of the Indian. The mouth is narrow and - long, more dog-shaped than the Indian’s. The <i>foramen magnum</i> or - aperture at base of skull, where the spinal cord enters the head, is - peculiarly small. The <i>condyloid processes</i> are full, oblong, flat - on the working surfaces, and at such an angle as to set the head upward - and back more than any race we know to-day on this continent. Set one - of these skulls, without the lower jaw, on the table, and a line drawn - from the upper jaw perpendicularly upward would be a good inch and a - half in front of the forehead. Set on the lower jaw and it would be - two inches.” Mr. R. D. Guttgisal, formerly an engineer on the Mexican - Central Railroad, in connection with some friends, opened a mound at - Chihuahua, on the line of that railroad. The skulls resembled those I - have described (so he informs me) in every particular. He especially - remembers the somewhat bird-shaped head, and the excessively small - <i>foramen magnum</i>. The bodies were not interred horizontally there, - but leaning backward as if in a rocking-chair. Professor H. H. Smith, - University of Pennsylvania, has one of the skulls. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Professor James Orton, <cite>The Andes and the Amazons</cite>, - third ed., p. 109, New York, 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Sir John Lubbock, alluding to the changes that have - transpired in the condition of man from his first appearance in - America, says: “But even if we attribute to these changes all the - importance which ever has been claimed for them, they will not require - an antiquity of more than three thousand years. I do not, of course, - deny that the period may have been very much greater, but in my - opinion, at least, it <em>need</em> not be greater.”—<cite>Pre-Historic - Times</cite>, p. 234, London, 1865. - - <p>Dr. Foster, after giving many of the reputed proofs of man’s antiquity - here, sums up the argument in the following language: “The evidence, it - must be confessed, rests, in most cases, upon the testimony of a single - observer, and besides, there has not been a recurrence of ‘finds’ in - the same deposit (except in the gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming, - which require further investigation to command an unqualified belief), - as in the valley of the Somme and in the European caves, which is so - conclusive as to the existence of man as contemporary with the great - Pachyderms.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic Races</cite>, p. 71.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> <cite>De Civitate Dei</cite>, lib. xvi, cap. 9. Above I have - availed myself of the admirable translation by Rev. Marcus Dods, vol. - ii, p. 118. Edinburgh, 1871. On the subject of Antipodes we may refer - the reader to the view of <cite>Cosmas Indicopleustes</cite>, an Egyptian - of the middle of the 6th century. See Draper’s <cite>Conflict between - Religion and Science</cite>, p. 65, and the opinion of the Venerable Bede, - cited by the same author. See further Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races of the - Pacific States</cite>, vol. v, pp. 1–8, and Ogilby’s <cite>America</cite>, pp. 6–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> R. H. Major’s <cite>Prince Henry of Portugal</cite>, chap. - xxi. London, 1868, 8vo. Draper’s <cite>Conflict</cite>, pp. 163–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> The narrowness of the attainments of the “educated” in - Spain in the 17th century is portrayed by Buckle: “Books, unless they - were books of devotion, were deemed utterly useless; no one consulted - them, no one collected them; and until the 18th century, Madrid did - not possess a single public library. * * * De Torres, who was himself - a Spaniard, and was educated at Salamanca early in the 18th century, - declares that he had studied in the university for five years before - he had heard that such things as the mathematical sciences existed. So - late as the year 1771, the same university publicly refused to allow - the discoveries of Newton to be taught; and assigned as a reason, that - the system of Newton was not so consonant with revealed religion as the - system of Aristotle.”—<cite>History of Civilization in England</cite>, vol. - ii, pp. 72–3. New York, 1861. Of course these remarks apply to Spain’s - period of misfortune and decline, but it must also be remembered that - the spirit of intolerance which alone brought about that condition was - at its height about the time of the discovery of America. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Mr. Bancroft has illustrated the spirit of this latter - class by quoting a passage from Garcia’s <cite>Origen de Los Indios</cite>, - Madrid, 1729, p. 248. It is certainly one of the most venomous and - narrow-minded utterances on record. See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 4. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="es"> - <a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España con Noticias - de los Ritos y Costumbres de los Indios y Explicacion del Calendario - Mexicano, por F. Diego Duran</cite>, Escrita en el año de 1585; MS. in - three vols. folio of upwards of 1000 pp. each. On p. 507, tom. iii, we - find notice of December, 1579, as the date at which that stage of the - work was reached. Copy in the library of Congress at Washington. From - Beristain’s <cite>Biblioteca Hispano-Americana, Septentrional</cite>, tom. i, - p. 442, Mexico, 1816, we quote the following: “Duran (F. Diego) á quien - el Illmõ. Eguara, p. 324, de su Biblioteca dá equivocadamente el nombre - de Pedro, y á quien el Jesuita Clavigero llama Fernando con igual - equivocacion. Fué natural de Tezcuco, antigua corte de los Emperadores - Megicanos: y Profeso el Orden de Santo Domingo, en el Convento Imperial - de Megico, á 8 de Margo de 1556. Era varon Docto en Theología, y de - vasta erudicion en la historia antigua de los Indios; pero molestado de - enfermedades en sus años ultimos, no pudo dar á luz publica los bellos - libros, que tenia compuestos, los mas amenos y gustosos, que hasta - entonces se habian escrito sobre las cosas de Indias, como se explica - el Illmõ. Dáila Padilla, y repetieron despues los criticos franceses - Querif y Echard. El referido Arzo-Bispo añade, que el P. Juan de Torar, - Jesuita Megicano, en cuyo poder paraban los manuscritos de su paisano - Duran, se los dió al P. José de Acosta á quien servieron mucho para su - Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, en lo qual convienen Pinelo y - D. Nicolás Antonio. Los dichos MSS. eran:” <cite>Historia de los Indios de - la N. E. Antigüallas de los Indios de la N. E.</cite> - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="es"> - <a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> “Cuanto á lo primero tendremos por principal fundamento - el ser esta Nacion y Gente Indiana advenediza de estrañas y remotas - regeiones, y que en su venida á poseer esta Tierra hizo un largo y - prolijo camino, en el cual gastó muchos meses y años para llegar á - ella, como de su relacion y pinturas se colige, y como de algunos - viejos ancianos de muchos dias he procurado saber para sacar esta - opinion en limpio; y dado caso que algunos cuenten algunas falsas - fabulas conviene á saber, que nacieron de unas fuentes y manantiales - de agua; otros, que nacieron de unas cuebas; otros, que su generacion - es de los Dioses; lo cual clara y abiertamente se ve ser fabula, y - que ellos mismos ignoran su origen y principio, dado caso que siempre - confiessan havre venido de tierras; y asi lo he hallado pintado en sus - antiguas pinturas, donde señalan grandes trabajos de hambre, sed, y - desnudez, con otras innumerables afliciones que en él pasáron hasta - llegar a esta tierra y poblada; con lo cual confirmo mi opinion y - sospecha de que estos Naturales sean de aquellas diez Tribus de Isrrael - que Salmanasar, Rey de los Asirios cautivó y transmigró de Asiria - en tiempo de Ozeas, Rey de Isrrael, y en tiempo de Ozequias, Rey de - Jerusalem, como se prodra ver en el cuarto Libro de los Reyes, capitulo - diez y siete, donde dice que fue transladado Isrrael de su tierra á - los Asirios hasta el dia de hoy, etc.; de las cuales dice Esdras en - el Libro cuarto, capitulo trece, que se pasaron á vivir á una tierra - remota y apartada que nunca habia sido habitada; á la cual habia largo - y prolijo camino de año y medio, donde agora se hallan estas Gentes - de todas las Islas y Tierra firma del mar oceano hacia la parte de - occidente.”—<cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, tom. i., pp. - 1–2, MS. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> London, small quarto, 1650; we have both this and the - edition of 1660 before us. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Harmon L’Estrange, Kt., <cite>Americans No Jewes; or - Improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race</cite>, p. 4. 1652; - quarto, London. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Id., p. 13. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="es"> - <a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> “De suerte que aviendose conservado este nombre Piru, - que es lo mismo que Ophir, en aquellas tierras, y hallandose que - los moradores dellas parecen a los Hebreos en muchas cosas, bien se - signe que a quellos Indios, y los demas proceden de Ophir nieto de - Heber de quien los Hebreos, y su lengua tomaron el nombre. Tambien se - halla el nombre de Iectan padre de Ophir en la provincia que oy se - llama Yucatan, en la Nueva España, que no es pequeño fundemento para - provar que ya que no pusiesse aquel nombre Iectan, por no haver ido a - aquella tierra, pudo ser que lo diesse su hijo Ophir.”—<cite>Origen de los - Indios</cite>, p. 323. Ed., <cite>Valencia</cite>, 1607. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> <cite>Origen de los Indios</cite>, (<cite>Valencia</cite>, 1607), p. 485. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> <cite>Hist. de la Nouvelle France</cite>, lib. i, cap. iii, p. - 25. Paris, 1611. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> <cite>Historia General de los Hechos de los - Castellanos</cite>, Madrid, 1728–30, fol. decada 1, lib. i, cap. vi. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> <cite>Historia de la Conquista Itza</cite>, p. 27, Madrid, - 1701, fol. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="es"> - <a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Aunque la verdad es que ellos, por hablar mas - propriamente y los otros de quien descendieron, por Generacion - Natural, son de los Hijos de Noé * * * y segun lo que tenemos dicho, - en otra parte, acerca de el color de estas gentes, no tendria por cosa - descaminada, creer que son descendientes de los Hijos, u Nietos de - Cham, tercero Hijo de Noé.—<cite>Monarquia Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 30. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Pineda in <cite>Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin</cite>, 1852, p. 343; - see tradition of Votan, this work, chap. v. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. iv, p. 17; cited by - Bancroft. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> <cite>Historia del origen de pentes que poblaron la America - Septentrional que llaman la Nueva España con noticia de los primeros - que establecieron la Monarquia, que en ella florecio de la Nacion - Tolteca, y noticias que alcanzaron de la creacion del Mundo</cite> (date - at end of first vol. 1755, and end of third 1780), <cite>por M. Fer. de - Echevarria y Veitia</cite>, pp. 24–30, chap, i, tom. i, MS. Three vols. - folio, in Library of Congress at Washington. About one-fourth of the - work is published in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, tom. viii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> <cite>Historia</cite>, cap. xii, tom. i, p. 92, MS.; of - Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, tom. viii, p. 189. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> <cite>Noticias Americanas</cite>, pp. 391–5, 405–7. Cited by - Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 10. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 11. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol. i, p. 26. But what else could be - expected of the editor of that curiosity of Americo-Germanic literature - executed by some German school-boy and unearthed in the Arsenal Library - at Paris, entitled <cite>Manuscript Pictographique Américain précédé d’une - notice sur l’Ideographie des Peaux-Rouges</cite>, par l’Abbé Em. Domenech, - Paris, 1860. Published under the auspices of the Minister of State and - of the Emperor Napoleon III. See also <cite>Le Livre des Sauvages au Point - de Vue de la Civilization Française</cite>, Brussels, 1861. The internal - evidences of this remarkable MS. being the work of a German boy are - plain to any one having the slightest knowledge of the German language. - How the Abbé and the Emperor could have been so blinded to its real - character we cannot imagine; however, it would be unfair to leave the - impression that, because of the theory of Ophir’s colonization and - because of this literary blunder, the Abbé’s work entitled <cite>Seven - Years’ Residence in the Great Deserts of North America</cite> is without - value. On the contrary, it contains much useful information. The - following passage occurs on p. 66 of the above work: “The most careful - study concerning the origin of the red-skins, made on the spot, - has confirmed us in the belief that there is nothing in science to - contradict the Bible, which represents Adam as the sole stock whence - sprung the three great races which form the principal types of the - human family.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. iv, p. 15. We quote - the following from the translation by Cullan, London, 1807: “We do - not doubt that the population of America has been very ancient, and - more so than it may seem to have been to European authors: 1. Because - the Americans wanted those arts and inventions, such, for example, - as those of wax and oil for light, which on the one hand being very - ancient in Europe and Asia, are on the other most useful, not to say - necessary, and when once discovered are never forgotten. 2. Because the - polished nations of the new world, and particularly those of Mexico, - preserve in their traditions and in their paintings the memory of the - creation of the world and of the building of the Tower of Babel, the - confusion of languages and the dispersion of the people, though blended - with some fables, and had no knowledge of the events which happened - afterwards in Asia, in Africa, or in Europe, although many of them - were so great and remarkable that they could not easily have gone from - their memories. 3. Because neither was there among the Americans any - knowledge of the people of the old continent, nor among the latter any - account of the passage of the former to the new world.” He then cites - Votan. See further on early views, Gottfried Wagner’s <cite>De Originibus - Amer. Disertatio Lipsiæ</cite>, 1669; Hugo Grotius’s <cite>Dissertatio de - Origine Gentium Americanorum Amstelodami</cite>, 1642; Jean De Laet’s - <cite>Notæ ad Diss. H. Grotii de Originine Gent. Americ.</cite>, 1643; Jean - De Laet’s <cite>Responsio ad H. Grotii Diss. de Origine Gent. Americ.</cite>, - 1644; Poisson’s <cite>Animadrersiones in Originem Peruvianorum et - Mexicanorum</cite>, Parisiis, 1644; Georgius Hornius’s <cite>De Originibus - Americanis Hagæ</cite>, 1652; Rocha’s <cite>Tratado Unico y Singulare del - Origin de los Indios Occidentales, del Peru, Mexico, Santa Fe, y - Chile</cite>; Lima, 1681; Engel’s <cite>Essai sur Cette Question: Comment - l’Amérique est-elle été Peuplée d’Hommes et d’Ammaux</cite>, Amsterdam, - 1767; Corn. De Pauw’s <cite>Recherche sur l’Amérique et les Americans</cite>, - Berlin, 1774; Vater’s <cite>Untersuchungen über America’s Bevölkerung aus - dem alten Continent</cite>, Leipzig, 1810. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> D. B. Warden’s <cite>Recherches sur les Antiquités de - l’Amérique du Nord</cite>, in <cite>Antiquités Mexicaines</cite>, tom. ii, div. - ii. Paris, 1834, quarto. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, chap. i. The literary - apparatus contained in the notes accompanying the chapter is remarkably - full and valuable. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> “I know of no man better qualified than was Brasseur de - Bourbourg, to penetrate the obscurity of American primitive history. - His familiarity with the Nahua and Central American languages, his - indefatigable industry and general erudition, rendered him eminently - fit for the task, and every word written by such a man on such a - subject is entitled to respectful consideration. Nevertheless there - is reason to believe that the Abbé was often rapt away from the truth - by the excess of enthusiasm, and the reader of his wild and fanciful - speculations cannot but regret that he has not the opportunity or the - ability to criticise by comparison the French savant’s interpretation - of the original documents.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>, p. 127. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> The work in which he repudiates his first interpretation - of the Codex Chimalpopoca, and in which he advocates the allegorical - meaning together with the theory of Atlantis, is entitled <cite>Quatre - Lettres sur le Mexique</cite>, Paris, 1868. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> This work, p. 135. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Among these we may cite Adair’s <cite>History of the - American Indians</cite>; Jones’ <cite>History of Ancient America</cite>; - Giordan’s <cite>Tehuantepec</cite>; Rossi’s <cite>Souvenirs d’un Voyage en - Orégon</cite>, pp. 276–7; Ethan Smith’s <cite>Views of the Hebrews</cite>; - Thorowgood’s <cite>Jewes in America</cite>; Domenech’s <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol. - i, and Simon’s <cite>Ten Tribes</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, London, 1831–48, 9 vols. - imperial folio. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> The tablets remained in their place of concealment until - discovered by Joseph Smith, September 22, 1827. Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, p. 97 <i>et seq.</i> (from which we draw the above), has - translated a full account of this wonderful claim from Bertrand’s - <cite>Memoirs</cite>, pp. 32 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Pineda’s <cite>De Rebus Solomonis</cite>, but especially - Horn’s <cite>De Origine Gentium Americanarum</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Some of these features will receive attention in a - following chapter. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Hudson’s <cite>Geographiæ Veteris Scriptores Græci - Minores</cite>, 1698–1712, 8vo, and Rev. Thos. Falconer’s <cite>Voyage of - Hanno</cite>, translated, etc., Oxford, 1797, 8vo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, p. 66. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Chap. V.; see Tradition and Literature. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> By George Jones, R. S. I.; M. F. S. V., etc.; dedicated - by permission to the Archbishop of Canterbury and to Frederick William - the Fourth, King of Prussia. London, 1843. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> Mr. Jones states in his preface that to furnish a - list of the works from which he drew his material would be pedantic, - and adds: “Yet being professedly an original work, the volume of the - brain has been more largely extracted from than any writer whose works - are already before that public—to whose final judgment (upon its - merits or demerits) the present author submits the first history of - ancient America with all humility; but he will yield to none in the - conscientious belief in the truth of the startling propositions and the - consequent conclusions.” With such convictions there is no opportunity - for unbiased investigation. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> <cite>Traditions of Decoodah and Antiquarian - Researches</cite>, p. 16. New York, 1858, 8vo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains Comparées aux Mœurs - des Premiers Temps.</cite> Paris, 1724. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, p. 122; the Abbé - Brasseur de Bourbourg’s discovery of the Greek Gods in America - (<cite>Landa, Relacion</cite>, pp. lxx–lxxx) will be considered further on. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, pp. 55 <i>et seq.</i>; - M’Culloch’s <cite>Researches</cite>, pp. 171–2; Mayer’s <cite>Mexico as it - Was</cite>, p. 186; Humboldt’s <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 120–4, and - Stephen’s <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, p. 441; Jones’ <cite>Hist. Anc. - Am.</cite>, pp. 122 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Delafield’s <cite>Inquiry into the Origin of the - Antiquities of America</cite>, Cincinnati, 1839, quarto. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 54. In a note an - excellent collection of authorities is quoted. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Colonel Kennon in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 65 <i>et - seq.</i> Also C. W. Brooks on Japanese Race in Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 51. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> In <cite>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles - Lettres</cite>, vol. xxviii, 1761. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> English by Chas. G. Leland: <cite>Fusang, or the Chinese - Discovery of America</cite>, 1875. New York. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 34, note, - says: “A Chinese <i>li</i> is about one-third of a mile”—English, - we suppose, but upon what authority we are unable to say. Klaproth - adopted 850 <i>li</i> to a degree, while D’Eichthal fixes it at 400 to - a degree in the sixth century, though at present it is 250 <i>li</i> - to a degree. Deguignes’ <cite>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptiones et - Belles Lettres</cite>, vol. xxviii, 1761, and Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 128 and 140. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, pp. 25 <i>et seq.</i> This - translation was revised by Professor Neumann himself, and is more - literal than that by Klaproth. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Klaproth’s <cite>Recherches</cite>, in <cite>Nouvelles Annales - des Voyages</cite>, 1831, tom. li, pp. 57 <i>et seq.</i> Humboldt’s - <cite>Examen Critique</cite>, tom. xi, pp. 65–6. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Sr. Jose Perez in <cite>Revue Orientale et Américaine</cite>, - No. 4, pp. 189–195. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Dr. E. Bretschneider in the fifth number of the - <cite>Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal</cite>, vol. iii, published - at Foochow, October 1870. The article entitled <cite>Fusang, or Who - Discovered America</cite>, is copied in full in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, - pp. 165 <i>et seq.</i> See also Dr. Neumann’s <cite>Ost-Asien und West - Amerika</cite>; in <cite>Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Erdkunde</cite> for April, - 1864. See <cite>D’Eichthal</cite> in <cite>Revue Archéologique</cite>, 1862, vol. - ii, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 33 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> The strongest proof upon which the Chinese theory rests - is that of physical resemblance, which on the extreme north-western - coast of America is very marked. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 37. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> John Ranking’s <cite>Historical Researches on the Conquest - of Peru, Mexico, etc., by the Mongols</cite>, London, 1827. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 44–50, - contains a good review, but Ranking himself must be examined to be appreciated. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 40 <i>et seq.</i>, - gives a brief review. The subject will be fully treated in its proper place. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> In the Landnama-book, No. 107, is found a narrative of - <span class="smcap">Are Marson</span>, in Hvitramanna Land. Prof. Rafn (<cite>Antiquitates - Americanæ</cite>, pp. 210 <i>et seq.</i>), translates it as follows: - <span lang="la">“Ulvus Strabo, filius Högnii Albi, totum occupavit Reykjanesum inter - Thorskafjördum et Hafrafellum; uxorem habuit Bjargam, filiam Eyvindi - Œstmanni, sororem Helgii Marci. Eorum filius Atlius Rufus, qui uxorem - habuit Thorbjargam, sororem Steinolvi Humilis; horum filius erat Mar de - Reykholis, qui uxorem habuit Thorkatlam, filiam Hergilsis Hnapprassi - (natibus globosis). Eorum filius fuit Arius, qui tempestate delatus est - ad Hvitramannalandiam (Terram alborum hominum), quam nonnulli Irlandiam - Magnum appellant, qui in oceano occidentali jacet prope Vinlandiam - Bonam, sex dierum navigatione versus occidentem ab Irlanda.”</span> On - Hvitramannaland, see <cite>Antiquitates Americanæ</cite>, pp. 162, 163, 183, - 210, 212, 214, 447, 448, and De Costa’s <cite>Pre-Columbian Discovery of - America</cite>, pp. lii, 86, 63, 70, 87, 88. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> <cite>Monastikon Britannicum</cite>, pp. 131–2, 187–8. Cited - by De Costa, <cite>Pre-Col. Dis. of Am.</cite>, p. xviii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> On this subject see Brasseur de Bourbourg in the 16th - vol. of the sixth series of <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</cite>, pp. - 263, 281–9; also 3d vol. of same work, sixth series, 1855, pp. 156–7, - and in <cite>New York Tribune</cite> for November 21, 1855. - </div> - - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique par les Normands an X<sup>e</sup> - siècle, par Gabriel Gravier</cite>, Paris, 1864, 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <cite>America Not Discovered by Columbus</cite>, by R. B. - Anderson, Chicago, 1874, 16mo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Gravier, <cite>Découverte de l’Amérique</cite>, p. 235, quotes - Dr. Schuck as authority, <cite>Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</cite>, - 1840–43, pp. 26–7; also 1844, p. 181. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> Hakluyt’s <cite>Principal Navigations, Voyages, etc.</cite>, - vol. iii, pp. 1 <i>et seq.</i>; see a good discussion of the Welsh - claim in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 116 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> “I think, therefore (as mentioned before), we do not at - all derogate from God’s greatness, nor in any ways dishonor the sacred - evidence given us by His servants, when we think that there were as - many Adams and Eves (every one knows these names to have an allegorical - sense), as we find different species of the human genus * * * * God - has created an original pair here as well as elsewhere.”—<cite>Roman’s - Concise Nat. Hist. of E. and W. Florida</cite>, p. 55, New York, 1775. “We - will candidly confess that we could never understand why philosophers - have been so pre-disposed to advocate the theory which peoples America - from the Eastern hemisphere. We think the supposition that the Red - man is a primitive type of a family of the human race, originally - planted in the Western Continent, presents the most natural solution - of the problem; and that the researches of physiologists, antiquaries, - philologists and philosophers in general, tend irresistibly to this - conclusion.”—<cite>Norman’s Rambles in Yucatan</cite>, p. 251, New York, - 1843, 8vo. “My own belief is that, whatever was the origin of the - different tribes or families, the whole race of American Indians - are native and indigenous to the soil. There is no proof that they - are either the lost tribes of Israel or emigrants from any part of - the old world. They are a separate and as distinct a race as either - the Ethiopian, Caucasian, or Mongolian. In the absence of all proof - to the contrary, it seems to me to be both rational and consistent - to assume that the Creator placed the Red race on the American - Continent as early as He created the beasts and reptiles that inhabit - it.”—<cite>Swan’s North-west Coast</cite>, p. 206, New York, 1857. <span lang="fr">“Dieu a - créé plusieurs couples d’êtres humains différant les uns des autres - intérieurement et extérieurement; chacun de des couples a été placé - dans le climat approprié à son organisation.”</span>—<cite>Lord Kames in Warden’s - Recherches</cite>, p. 203. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> The reader who has not given special attention to this - phase of the subject, will be surprised to learn how generally received - has been the autochthonic theory among writers in this field. Mr. - Bancroft has given several quotations to illustrate this fact. See - Morelet’s <cite>Voyage</cite>, vol. i, p. 177, Paris, 1857; Evens’ <cite>Our - Sister Republic</cite>, p. 332; Catlin’s <cite>North American Indians</cite>, - vol. ii, p. 232. We prepared extracts for insertion at this point, but - the limit of our space will not permit a full consideration of the - question. - - <p>Mr. Bancroft says of the theory, “If we may judge by the recent - results of scientific investigation, [it] may eventually prove to - be scientifically correct. To express belief, however, in a theory - incapable of proof, appears to me idle. Indeed such belief is not - belief, it is merely acquiescing in or accepting a hypothesis or - tradition until the contrary is proved.”—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, - pp. 130–1.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 260. Philadelphia, 1839. - Folio. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Dr. Morton gives the following comparative table showing - the internal capacity and dimensions of the crania of different races: - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Crania of different races"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="5" class="bt bb bl br">RACES.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Number of Skulls.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Mean Internal Capacity in cubic in.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Largest in the Series.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Smallest in<br />the Series.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Caucasian</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>52</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>87</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>109</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>75</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Mongolian</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>83</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>93</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>69</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Malay</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>81</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>89</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>64</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">American</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>147</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>82</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>100</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br"><div>60</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb">Ethiopian</td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>78</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>94</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl br bb"><div>65</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> After presenting several arguments together with - accompanying proofs, Agassiz says: “This coincidence between the - circumscription of the races of man and the natural limits of different - zoological provinces characterized by peculiar distinct species of - animals, is one of the most important and unexpected features in - the Natural History of Mankind, which the study of the geographical - distribution of all the organized beings now existing upon earth has - disclosed to us. It is a fact which cannot fail to throw light at some - future time upon the very origin of the differences existing among - men, since it shows that man’s physical nature is modified by the same - laws as that of animals, and that any general results obtained from - the animal kingdom regarding the organic differences of its various - types must also apply to man. Now there are only two alternatives - before us at present: 1st. Either mankind originated from a common - stock, and all the different races with their peculiarities, in their - present distribution, are to be ascribed to subsequent changes—an - assumption for which there is no evidence whatever, and leads at once - to the admission that the diversity among animals is not an original - one, nor their distribution determined by a general plan established - in the beginning of the creation; or 2d, we must acknowledge that - the diversity among animals is a fact determined by the will of the - Creator, and their geographical distribution part of the general plan - which unites all organized beings into one great organic conception; - whence it follows that what are called human races down to their - specializations as nations are distinct primordial forms of the type of - man.” * * * He concludes in these words: “The laws which regulate the - diversity of animals and their distribution upon earth apply equally - to man <em>within the same limits and in the same degree</em>; and all - our liberty and moral responsibility, however spontaneous, are yet - instinctively directed by the All-wise and Omnipotent to fulfill the - great harmonies established in Nature.”—<cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, pp. - lxxv and lxxvi. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Agassiz in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, - p. 78. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> <cite>Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals</cite>, - p. 420. N. Y., 1872. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> Note to Retzius’ article in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, - 1859, p. 264. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> As an illustration of complex classification, we have - the following: “From an old and well-filled European graveyard may be - selected specimens of <i>klimocephalic</i> (slope or saddle skull), - <i>conocephalic</i> (cone-skull), <i>brachycephalic</i> (short-skull), - <i>dolichocephalic</i> (long-skull), <i>platycephalic</i> (flat-skull), - <i>leptocephalic</i> (slim-skull), and other forms of crania equally - worthy of penta or hexa-syllabic Greek epithets.”—<i>Owen (R.)</i>, - <i>Anatomy of Vertebrates</i>, vol. ii, p. 570. London, 1866, 8vo. - Foster, in <i>Pre-Historic Rates of the United States</i>, in addition - to the long and short skulls, adopts also the <i>orthocephalic</i> - (erect-head), with the longitudinal diameter 100; he assumes the - transverse diameter for dolichocephalæ to be less than 73; for - orthocephalæ, to range between 74 and 79, and for brachycephalæ, 80 and upwards. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, chap. xx. 3d ed. London, 1876. - 2 vols. 8vo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Dr. Wilson’s <cite>American Cranial Type</cite> in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, pp. 250 <i>et seq.</i> Dr. Wilson - clearly shows that in one set there is the characteristic Mongol - auxiliary of prominent cheek bones, while in the other the bones of - the face are small and delicate. In twenty-six measurements he finds - proof that the Peruvians were distinct from the Mexicans. Thirty-one - dolichocephalic crania as compared with twenty-two brachycephalic - crania convince him of the error of Morton and establish a diversity - among the tribes of the North-east. He thinks analogies are traceable - between the Esquimaux and the type of elongated skull; at all events he - is satisfied that the form of the skull is as little constant among the - tribes of the new world as among those of the old. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> This author (Dr. Morton), who has given us such numerous - and valuable facts, as well as the linguists who have studied these - American languages with indefatigable zeal, have arrived at the - conclusion that both race and language in the new world are unique. I - am obliged to avow that the facts advanced by Morton himself, and that - the study of numerous skulls with which he has enriched the museum of - Stockholm, have conducted me to a wholly different result. I can only - explain the fact by surmising that this remarkable man has allowed the - views of the naturalist to be warped by his linguistic researches. For, - if the form of the skull has anything to do with the question of races, - we cannot fail to see that it is scarcely possible to find anywhere - a more distinct distribution into dolichocephalæ and brachycephalæ - than in America. It would be only necessary, in order to show this, to - direct attention to certain of the delineations in his own work, where - the skull of the Peruvian infant (Pl. 2), the Lenni-Lenape (Pl. 32), - the Pawnee (Pl. 38), the Blackfoot (Pl. 40), etc., as clearly present - the dolichocephalic form as on the other hand his Natchez (Pl. 30 and - 31) and the greater part of his representations of the skulls of Chile, - Peru, Mexico, Oregon, etc., are distinct types of the brachycephalic. - Conclusive, however, as the plates are, I should scarcely have ventured - to advance these remarks, if the rich series of our own collection, and - the numerous and excellent figures of Blumenbach, Sandifort, Van der - Hoeven, etc., did not declare in favor of my opinion. (<cite>Retzius</cite> - in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 264.) - - <p>Latham, in <cite>Natural History of the Varieties of Man</cite>, p. 452, - says: “As to the conformation of the skull, a point where (with - great deference) I differ with the author of the excellent <cite>Crania - Americana</cite>, the Americans are said to be <i>brakhy</i>-kephalic, - the Eskimo <i>dolikho</i>-kephalic.” He quotes Morton’s tables to - contradict his (Morton’s) conclusions.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> “Tried by Dr. Morton’s own definitions and - illustrations, the Scioto Mound skull differs from the typical - cranium in some of its most characteristic features. Instead of the - low, receding, unarched forehead, it has a finely-arched frontal - bone with corresponding breadth of forehead. The wedge-shaped vertex - is replaced by a well-rounded arch curving equally throughout; and - with the exception of the flattened occiput, due to artificial - though probably undesigned compression in infancy, the cranium - is a uniformly proportioned example of an extreme brachycephalic - skull.”—<cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 127. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> Chapter II, p. 127. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Henry Gillman, <cite>The Ancient Men of the Great - Lakes</cite>, in <cite>Proceedings of the American Association for the - Advancement of Science</cite>, 24th meeting, at Detroit, 1875, p. 317; - also <cite>American Journal of Arts and Science</cite>, 1874, vol. cvii, p. 1 - <i>et seq.</i>, and <cite>Sixth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 12–20. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Opportunity did not permit to obtain the exact - (absolute) capacity. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Artificially perforated. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Very retreating frontal. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Very protuberant occipital. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Artificially perforated. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> With epactal bone 1.5 in length. It may be interesting - to mention that I find occasionally in our mounds a tendency to the - formation of the epactal bone by a sudden approach of the sutures - immediately below the apex of the occipital—a sort of transitional state. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> <cite>Recent Explorations of Mounds near Davenport, - Iowa</cite>, in <cite>Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement - of Science</cite>, 24th meeting, 1875, pp. 297 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Dr. Farquharson considers that some of his measurements - in inches are scarcely accurate enough, and gives the following table - in the decimals of a metre: - - <div class="center xsmall mt1">MEASUREMENTS OF MOUND SKULLS; ALSO OF SIOUX SKULLS IN DECIMALS OF A METRE.</div> - - <div class="center xxsmall mt1">FORAMINAL DISTANCE TAKEN WITH WYMAN’S INSTRUMENT.</div> - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Measurements of mound skulls"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="10" class="bt bb bl br"><i>No.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="9" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Horizontal Circumference.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="8" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Long Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="7" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Transverse Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="6" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Vertical Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="5" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Capacity in Cubic Centimetres.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="4" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Foraminal Distance.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="3" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Foraminal Ratio.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th class="bl"> </th> - <th colspan="2" class="tdlh bt bl br"><i>Ratio of Diameter.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bb bl"> </th> - <th class="bt bb bl br"><i>Mounds.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.546</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.120</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1190</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.600</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>2</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.483</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.162</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1190</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.062</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.382</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.790</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>3</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.495</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.174</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1020</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.077</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.442</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.752</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>7</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.125</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.823</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>8</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.495</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.175</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1249</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.065</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.370</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.771</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Davenport, Mound No. 9.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>9</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.171</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1334</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.062</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.362</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.818</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>10</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.167</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.148</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.070</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.419</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.886</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>11</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.145</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1362</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.833</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>12</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.457</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.167</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1021</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.766</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>13</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.522</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1362</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.089</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.427</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.702</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>14</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.483</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.171</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.138</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1192</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.079</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.460</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.807</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.138</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.145</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1306</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.081</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.443</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.745</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>16</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.457</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.130</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.078</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.448</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.764</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>17</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.185</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.146</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>1249</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.072</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.389</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.703</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.508</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>19</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.533</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.196</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.704</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>20</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.128</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.640</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>21</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.180</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.137</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.761</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Henry County, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>23</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.178</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.073</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.410</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.730</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>24</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.184</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.139</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.150</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.088</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.478</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.755</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Rock River, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>26</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.200</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Shell Bed, Rock Island.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>27</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.482</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.170</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.125</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>936</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.076</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.388</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.735</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>28</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.177</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.135</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><div>.762</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>29</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.507</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.177</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.130</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.145</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1137</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.088</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.440</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.734</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">Albany, Ill.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.503</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.179</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.134</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.140</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>1188</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.075</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.432</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>.755</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">Mean.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>18</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>24</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>22</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>21</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>15</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>14</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>14</div></td> - <td class="tdc bl bb"><div>22</div></td> - <td class="tdlh bl br bb">No. of skulls measured.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Dr. Jones found skeletons six feet, and in one instance - seven feet in length. (<cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, pp. 44 and 53.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 72; also note other - similarities on p. 119. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> <cite>Ancient Men of the Great Lakes.</cite> <cite>Proceedings - of the American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>, meeting of - 1875, pp. 322–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xx, pp. 145, - 158, 165. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> The Aztecs are represented in our museum by three - skulls found in an ancient cemetery near Mexico, which was uncovered - in digging intrenchments to protect the Mexican capital against the - armies of the United States. They are remarkable for the shortness - of their axis, large flattened occiput, obliquely truncated behind, - the height of the semicircular line of the temples, the shortness and - trapezoid form of the parietal plane. They present an elevation or - ridge along the sagittal suture; the base of the skull is very short, - the face slightly prognathic, as among the Mongol Kalmucs. (Retzius in - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 268.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> <cite>Crania Americana</cite>, p. 98. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> See Dr. Morton in <cite>Nott & Gliddon</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xx. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> See especially <cite>Eleventh Annual Report Peabody - Museum</cite>, pp. 294–304. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> <cite>Geography</cite>, book i, chap. ii, § 35, and book xi, - chap, xi, § 7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> <cite>Natural History</cite>, book vii, chap. iv. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> <cite>De Situ Orbis</cite>, lib. i, chap. xix, l. 78 (ed. - 1782). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> <cite>Description of a Deformed Fragmentary Skull found - in an Ancient Quarry-cave at Jerusalem</cite>, by Dr. J. A. Meigs, - <cite>Transactions of Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences</cite>, 1859. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> We can no longer doubt, then, that this practice of - giving an artificial form to the skull has subsisted from a remote - epoch among the Oriental nations. As Thierry, moreover, pronounces - it to be a Mongol usage, I have submitted the question in the memoir - before spoken of, whether this fact does not speak in favor of an - ancient communication between the old and the new world? Such a - communication seems, indeed, to be now placed beyond doubt by the - proofs which have been accumulated from time to time, through the - efforts of numerous and zealous inquirers. It would seem likely that - the usage in question has been introduced by the Mongols into America, - where it has become diffused even among tribes not of the Mongol - stock. (Retzius in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 270; also the - same author in <cite>Arch. des Sciences Naturelles</cite>, Geneva, 1860; - <cite>Proceedings of American Association for Advancement of Science</cite>, - 1867, and <cite>Edinburgh Phil. Journal</cite>, new series, vol. vii.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, p. 286. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> <cite>Essai sur les Deformations Artificielles du - Crâne</cite>, p. 74. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> <cite>Crania Britannica</cite>, chap. iv, p. 38. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> Retzius, <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, pp. 269–70. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Prof. Wilson, <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 221, - and Retzius in the Reviews referred to in note 1, p. 180. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> J. B. Davis in <cite>Crania Britannica</cite>, decade iii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> <cite>Races of Man</cite> (Bohn), p. 45; Dr. Nott in <cite>Types - of Mankind</cite>, p. 436; Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol ii, p. 221. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1862, p. 291. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Du Pratz’s <cite>History of Louisiana</cite>, vol. ii, p. 162. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Adair’s <cite>History of American Indians</cite>, p. 284. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> On skull flattening, see Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic - Man</cite>, vol. ii, chap. xxi. Prof. Jones’ <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee, - Smithsonian Contributions</cite>, 1876, pp. 118 <i>et seq.</i> Landa’s - <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 181. Catlin’s <cite>North American Indians</cite>, - vol. ii, p. 40 and other places. Townsend’s <cite>Tour to the Columbia - River</cite>, pp. 178 <i>et seq.</i> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite> as - follows: I, 151, 158, 180, 210, 226–8, 256–7; Among the Mexicans, I, - 651; II, 281; Central Americans, I, 717, 754; II, 681–2, 731–2, 802; - IV, 304, and the accompanying literary apparatus. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> “This is certainly not a common disease now, and - although rare, the instances of cure by bony anchylosis (the only way - in which a true cure can take place), are even yet more rare. Nelaton, - in his <cite>Pathologie Chirurgicale</cite>, has only been able to note - twenty-five recorded cases of such an event. Now, as the space of one - year is the shortest possible time allowed by authorities for such - a cure to take place, and as during all this time the parts must be - kept absolutely at rest, and the person so afflicted being entirely - helpless, the inference is a strong one that these people were not in - a savage state. They must necessarily have been in such a state, in - the progress of advancement in civilization, as to be possessed of an - accumulation of food, the requisite leisure of persons nursing the - sick, and of dwellings sufficiently comfortable to protect them from - inclemency of the weather in this latitude; without those elements of - civilization those persons would inevitably have perished.”—<cite>Dr. - Farquharson in Proceedings of Am. Association for Advancement of - Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, p. 314. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> Prof. Jones, <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, gives a - good summary of the discussion from the first writers to the present - time, p. 65 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> “This flattening of the leg-bone was of a degree unheard - of—I might almost say undreamt of—in any other part of this country - or of the world. In many of the more extreme cases of those flattened - tibiæ with sabre-like curvature which I had exhumed at the Rouge, the - transverse diameter was only 0.48 of the antero-posterior, less than - half, while in that most marked and isolated case recorded by Broca, - from the cave at Cro-Magnon, France, it was 0.60. In the chimpanzee - and gorilla the compression is 0.67. Shortly afterward, even this - extreme degree of compression was cast in the shade by my bringing - to light from a mound on the Detroit River, rich in relics, among a - number of the flattened tibiæ, two specimens of this bone in which - the latitudinal indices were respectively 0.42 and 0.40.”—<cite>Henry - Gillman</cite> in <cite>Proceedings American Association for Advancement of - Science</cite>, vol. xxiv, pp. 316–17. <cite>The Sixth Annual Report of the - Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology, Dr. Jeffries Wyman.</cite> - <cite>The American Journal of Arts and Sciences</cite>, 3d series, vol. vii, - January 1874. <cite>Gillman</cite> in <cite>Smithsonian Report for 1873</cite>, and - <cite>Dr. Farquharson</cite> in <cite>Proceedings of A. A. A. S.</cite>, vol. xxiv, - p. 313. 1875. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Gillman in <cite>American Naturalist</cite> for August, 1875, - and <cite>Proceedings of A. A. A. Science</cite>, 1875, p. 327. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Prof. Wilson has pathetically described the disinterment - of a Peruvian family, consisting of the father, mother and child, - and has especially dwelt upon the color and qualities of the hair as - distinguishing them from the Red Indians. (<cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, pp. - 440 <i>et seq.</i>) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> <cite>Commentarios Reales</cite>, book v, chap. xxix; book - iii, chap. xx. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Haywood’s <cite>Natural and Aboriginal History of - Tennessee</cite>, p. 191. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Haywood, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 163–6, 169, 100, - 148–9, 338–9. On the mummies of Lexington, Kentucky, see Atwater’s - <cite>Archæologia Americana</cite>, p. 318. Mammoth Cave, p. 359, <i>et - passim</i>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> <cite>Antiquities of Tennessee</cite>, p. 5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> Squier and Davis’ <cite>Ancient Monuments of Mississippi - Valley</cite>, pp. 243 <i>et seq.</i> Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic - Man</cite>, vol. i, pp. 365 <i>et seq.</i> Charles Rau, <cite>Smithsonian - Contributions No. 287</cite>, 1876, pp. 84, 55. Prof. Joseph Jones’ - <cite>Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee</cite>, <i>passim</i>, <cite>Smithsonian - Contributions</cite>, No. 259. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Bryant’s <cite>History of United States</cite>, vol. i, chap. - ii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Prichard, <cite>Researches into the Physical Hist. of - Mankind</cite>, 4th ed., 1841, vol. i, p. 269, after reviewing the - question of the unity of the American race, remarks: “It will be easy - to prove that the American races, instead of displaying a uniformity of - color in all climates, show nearly as great a variety in this respect - as the nations of the old continent; that there are among them white - races with a florid complexion inhabiting temperate regions, and tribes - black or of very dark hue in low and inter-tropical countries; that - their stature, figure and countenances are almost equally diversified. - Of these facts I shall collect sufficient evidence when I proceed to - the ethnography of the American nations.” He fulfils this promise ably - enough in vol. v, pp. 289, 374, 542, and other places. We respectfully - refer the reader to the facts there accumulated. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> Wilson’s <cite>Pre-Historic Man</cite>, vol. ii, p. 189. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> See Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 262, note, where reference is - made to Charnay, <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 32, 45, 97, 103. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> <cite>The American Migration</cite>, by Frederick von - Hellwald. <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1866, pp. 329, 330. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> Jean Lamarck, <cite>Philosophic Zoologique</cite>, etc., - Paris, 1809, 2 vols., and <cite>Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertebres</cite>, 1815. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> See Hæckel, <cite>History of Creation</cite>, vol. ii, pp. - 255–6, and Professor Huxley’s reference to the genus <i>Equus</i> - (embracing the horse, ass and zebra from specimens collected by Prof. - Marsh). New York Lectures, September, 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Dr. McCosh in <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, November, - 1876, p. 88; Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 192 (New York ed.). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1866. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 188. Also, “The - Simiadæ then branched off into two great stems, the new world and old - world monkeys, and from the latter, at a remote period, man, the wonder - and glory of the universe, proceeded.”—<cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. - i, p. 204. Again, “We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy - quadruped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in - its habits and an inhabitant of the old world.”—<cite>Descent of Man</cite>, - vol. ii, p. 372. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> <cite>History of Creation</cite>, (N. Y. ed.), 1876, vol. ii, - p. 318. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> “Nowhere can lines of demarcation be so clearly - drawn, so imperceptibly do the families of mankind blend at their - circumferences. The various classifications which have been attempted - are so many proofs of unity of origin; and their confliction shows - the fallacy of the theory of diversity. * * * * We cannot admit that - mankind can have diversity of origin while so united by one great - plan. If a species or variety of the <i>genus homo</i> sprang up in - Europe and another in America by agency of conditions existing in - those localities, it would be beyond probability that they should both - be formed on the same plan.”—<cite>H. Tuttle’s Origin and Antiquity of - Physical Man Scientifically Considered</cite>, pp. 34–5. Boston, 1866, 12mo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i, p. 224, and - Nilsson’s <cite>The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia</cite>, Lubbock’s - trans., 1868, p. 104. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> See <cite>Early History of Fire</cite>, by Prof. N. Joly of - the Faculty of Toulouse in <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, November, - 1876, p. 17; also Darwin, as above cited. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Waitz’s <cite>Anthropology</cite>, Eng. trans., pp. 226–28. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Pallas was the first to show the fallacy of the theory - in <cite>Act. Académie St. Petersburg</cite>, 1780, Part II, p. 69; followed - by Rudolphi in his <cite>Beyträge zur Anthropologia</cite>, 1812, and - especially by Godron, <cite>De l’Espèce</cite>, 1859, vol. ii, p. 246 <i>et - seq.</i>; see Darwin’s <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 232. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indigenous Races</cite>; Duke of - Argyll’s <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 99. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 100. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> “We ourselves, when visiting the famous cavern of - Abou Simbel, were far from finding all that the writings of certain - anthropologists and partisans of Egyptian art, such as Gliddon, Nott, - etc., had promised us. Doubtless one can perfectly distinguish certain - types, that is indisputable; but to desire to find <em>a people</em> in - each portrait—Scythians, Arabs, Philistines, Lydians, Kurds, Hindoos, - Jews, Chinese, Tyrians, Pelasgians, Ionians, etc.—is it not to give too - great an influence to the Egyptian artists, who were copyists without - skill, and but clumsy inventors?”—<cite>Pouchet’s Plurality of the Human - Race</cite>, Eng. trans., p. 50. London, 1864. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> Duke of Argyll’s <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, p. 101. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Darwin’s <cite>Variation of Animals under - Domestication</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 227–335, and many places. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Harlan’s <cite>Medical Researches</cite>, p. 532, and - <cite>Quatrefanges</cite> (<cite>Unité de l’Espèce Humaine</cite>, 1861, p. 128), - cited by Darwin, <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 237. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. 233, Bradford (A. W.) - discusses the origin of color and other racial peculiarities, and - attributes to the tendency of a species to vary, and cites the - production of Albinoes, Xanthous, and Sedigidi or six-fingered - individuals. “It must be admitted,” he says, “that this theory is - sufficiently supported by an irrefragable mass of testimony to - establish the <em>original unity</em> of the human race, and to indicate - that varieties of mankind are descended from the same primitive - stock.”—<cite>American Antiquities</cite>, pp. 238–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> See instances in Darwin’s <cite>Descent</cite>, vol. i, p. - 234; Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Types of Mankind</cite>, p. 68, and especially - Pouchet’s <cite>Plurality of the Human Race</cite> (trans.), p. 60. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> “I doubt not that there will be found continuous and - uninterrupted causes which shall explain all the diversities of - the different branches of the human family without the necessity - of resorting to independent creations.”—<cite>Foster’s Pre-Historic - Races</cite>, p. 355. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> See an excellent treatment of this subject by the Duke - of Argyll, <cite>Primeval Man</cite>, pp. 94 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> “When speaking in a former work of the distinct races - of mankind, I remarked that if all the leading varieties of the human - family sprang originally from a single pair (a doctrine to which then, - as now, I could see no valid objection), a much greater lapse of time - was required for the slow and gradual formation of such races as the - Caucasian, Mongolian, and Negro, than was embraced in any of the - popular systems of chronology.”—<cite>Sir Charles Lyell’s Antiquity of - Man</cite>, p. 385. Dr. J. P. Thompson says: “For such works [alluding to - Babel] and especially for founding such an empire as was ancient Egypt, - there was need of centuries for the growth of a population in numbers - and resources, equal to the gigantic structures that crown the banks of - the Nile. The less than two centuries between Archbishop Usher’s date - of the cessation of the flood, and Piazzi Smith’s calculation of the - date of the great pyramid, was far too short an interval for results - upon a scale so magnificent. * * * Either then we must place the flood - much farther back upon the chronological scale, or must admit not only - that it was not universal in territorial extent, which is altogether - probable, but that it was not universal in the destruction of mankind, - which would seem to contradict both the letter and the spirit of the - sacred record.”—<cite>Man in Genesis and Geology</cite>, p. 100. New York, - 1870. 12mo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> See Humboldt’s <cite>Essai Polit.</cite>, vol. i, p. 79, - Paris, 1811. He considers not only the Red Indians, but the Toltecs - and Aztecs, to be of Asiatic Origin. See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s - <cite>Nat. Civil. Ant.</cite>, tom. i, p. 27. McCullough’s <cite>Researches</cite>, - <cite>Phil. and Ant.</cite>, pp. 175 <i>et seq.</i> Crowe, <cite>The Gospel in - Central America</cite>, p. 61. Bradford, <cite>American Antiquities</cite>, in - chapter xii, gives his reasons for declaring the Americans to have been - a “primitive and cultivated branch of the human family.” Mayer (Brantz) - in <cite>Mexico as it Was</cite>, p. 260, expresses his agreement with the - opinion entertained by Bradford. Carver, in <cite>Travels through the - Interior Parts of North America</cite>, repeats the opinion of Charlevoix, - that the Americans are of old world origin. Tylor, <cite>Anahuac</cite>, - London, 1861, p. 104, says: “On the whole, the most probable view of - the origin of the Mexican tribes seems to be the one ordinarily held, - that they really came from the old world, bringing with them several - legends, evidently the same as the histories recorded in the book of Genesis.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> “La teoria de la diversidad especifica de razas es - tan intenible, que sin mas decir podemos, dejar esta cuestion, la - cual ultimamente, en especial en Norte-América, ha escitado alguna - controversia. Quédanos, pues, un origen primordial para toda la raza - humana y entonces la cuestion es, saber de qué tronco ó familia del - antiguo continente se pobló el nuevo, ó bien vice-versa, que tambien es - possible, aunque improbable, que del que llamamos nuevo se haya poblado - el viego continente.”—<cite>Ezequiel Uricoechea</cite> in <cite>Soc. Mex. - Bol.</cite> 2d. ep. iv, 1854, p. 128. “For my own part I have long been - convinced of the consanguinity between the brachycephalæ of America and - those of Asia and the Pacific islands, and that this characteristic - type may be traced uninterruptedly through the long chain of tribes - inhabiting the west coast of the American Continent from Behring - Straits to Cape Horn.”—<cite>Retzius, Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, p. 267. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> “The era of their existence as a distinct and isolated - race must probably be dated as far back as that time which separated - into nations the inhabitants of the old world, and gave to each branch - of the human family its primitive language and individuality.”—<cite>J. C. - Prichard’s Natural History of Man</cite>, p. 356. London, 1845. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> <cite>Hist. Ant. del Messico</cite> (Eng. trans., 1807), vol. i. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> <span lang="fr">“Quoique Votan soit le veritable fondateur de la - civilisation et de l’empire des Quichés, le Codex Chimalpopoca, - attribue néanmoins la fondation de l’empire à son Igh ou Ik, appelé - par les Mexicains <i>Ehecatl</i> ou <i>Cipactonac</i>, parceque ce - prince vint le premir amener une colonie sur le continent américain. - Cipactonac est composé de <i>Cipactli</i>, et de <i>Tonacayo</i>. - Le premier vient de <i>ce</i> un, <i>Ipan</i>, sur ou au-dessus, et - <i>tlactli</i>, qui est le corps humain, c’est-à-dire, <i>Un homme - supérieur aux autres hommes</i>, ou encore de <i>notre race</i>, toutes - choses qui conviennent parfaitement au père de la race des chànes. - Tonacayo, veut dire <i>notre chair</i> ou le <i>corps humain</i>, le - mot tout entier Cipactonac ayant la signification suivante: ‘Celui qui - est sorti du premier de notre race.’ <i>Ehecatl</i> est en mexicain - l’air, ou le souffle, Igh ou Ik, en langua maya et tzendale. Dans - les calendriers d’Oxaca, Soconusco, Chiappas et d’Yucatan, il suit - immediatement le nom de Nin, Imos ou Imox, comme celui d’Ehecatl - suit dans le mexicain celui de Cipactli.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg, - Cartas</cite>, note, p. 71. He then proceeds to sustain his conclusions - by citing analogies between the name and its significance among the Egyptians. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> <cite>Chimalpopoca</cite>, MS., Brasseur de Bourbourg, - <cite>Popol Vuh.</cite>, p. lxxxviii; see also <cite>Memorias para la Historia - del Antiguo, Reyno de Guatemala</cite>, por Franc. de Paula Garcia Pelaez - (Guatemala, 1851). Pelaez states that Votan founded the ancient - Culhuacan, now known as Palenque, in the year 3000 of the world and in - the tenth century <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. lxxxx, on - the authority of Ordoñez. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 159. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> <cite>Ordoñez</cite>, Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, - p. lxxxvii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> <cite>Constituciones Diocesanes del Obispado de - Chiappas.</cite> Rome, 1702. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 160: “It is - not altogether improbable that a genuine Maya document similar to the - Manuscript <cite>Troano</cite> or <cite>Dresden Codex</cite>, preserved from early - times, may have found a native interpreter at the time of the Conquest, - and have escaped in its disguise of Spanish letters the destruction - which overtook its companions.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> “The memoir in his possession consists of five or six - folios of common quarto paper, written in ordinary characters in the - Tzendal language, an evident proof of its having been copied from the - original in hieroglyphics, shortly after the Conquest. At the top of - the first leaf, the two continents are painted in different colors, - in two small squares, placed parallel to each other in the angles; - the one representing Europe, Asia and Africa is marked with two large - S’S upon the upper arms of two bars drawn from the opposite angles - of each square, forming the point of union in the centre; that which - indicates America has two S’S placed horizontally on the bars, but I - am not certain whether upon the upper or lower bars, but I believe - upon the latter. When speaking of the places he had visited on the old - continent, he marks them on the margin of each chapter with an upright - S and those of America with a horizontal S. Between these squares - stands the title of his history: ‘Proof that I am Culebra (a Snake),’ - which title he proves in the body of the work by saying that he is - Culebra because he is Chivim.”—<cite>Cabrera, Teatro Critico Amer.</cite>, pp. 33–4. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> Title of Ordoñez in brief: <cite>Historia de la Creation - del Cielo y de la Tierra Conforme al Sistema de la Gentilidad - Americana</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> See his <cite>Teatro Critico Americano</cite>, p. 32 <i>et - seq.</i>, in Rio’s <cite>Description of the Ruins of an American City</cite>. - London, 1822, quarto. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> <span lang="fr">“Mais il y défigura complètement l’ouvrage d’Ordoñez - qu’il no connaissait pas assez et auquel il ajouta des opinions - extrêmement hasardées. D. Ramon se plaignit amèrement de ce plagiat et - des fausses idées que Cabrera donnait de son travail, obtint contre lui - un jugement, où le plagiaire fut condamné par le tribunal de l’audience - royale de Guatémalà, le 30 Juin, 1794. Mais Cabrera, tout en pillant - les idées du savant antiquaire, n’en rendait pas moins justice à son - talent et à son merite.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg on Ordoñez MS. - Cartas</cite>, p. 8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> The explanation given by Cabrera is as follows: “Let - us suppose then, with Calmet and other authors whom he quotes, that - some of the Hivites who were descendants from Heth, son of Canaan, - were settled on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and known from the - most remote parts under the name of Hivim or Givim, from which region - they were expelled, some years before the departure of the Hebrews - from Egypt, by the Caphtorims or Philistines, who, according to some - writers, were colonists from Cappadocia, others considering them to - be from Cyprus, and more probably, according to a third opinion, from - Crete, now Candia; that to strengthen their native country Egypt, and - to protect themselves from all assault, they built five large cities, - viz.: Accaron, Azotus, Ascalon, and Gaza [fifth wanting in account], - from whence they made frequent sallies upon the Canaanite towns and all - their surrounding neighbors (except the Egyptians, whom they always - respected), and carried on many wars in the posterior ages against - the Hebrews. The Scriptures (Deuteronomy, chap. ii, verse 23, and - Joshua, chap. xiii, verse 4) inform us of the expulsion of the Hivites - (Givim) by the Caphtorims, from which it appears that the latter - drove out the former, who inhabited the countries from Azzah to Gaza. - Many others were settled in the vicinity of the mountains of Eval and - Azzah, among whom were reckoned the Sichemites and the Gabaonites; the - latter by stratagem made alliance with Joshua, or submitted to him. - Lastly, others had their dwellings about the skirts of Mount Hermon, - beyond Jordan to the eastward of Canaan (Joshua, chap. ii, verse 3). - Of these last were Cadmus and his wife Hermione or Hermonia, both - memorable in sacred as well as profane history, as their exploits - occasioned their being exalted to the rank of deities, while in regard - to their metamorphosis into snakes (Culebras) mentioned by Ovid, - <cite>Metam.</cite>, lib. 3, their being Hivites may have given rise to this - fabulous transmutation, the name in the Phœnician language implying - a snake, which the ancient Hebrew writers suppose to have been given - from this people being accustomed to live in caves under ground like - snakes.”—<cite>Cabrera, Teatro Critico</cite>, pp. 47–8. On p. 95 he reaches - the conclusion that the Votanites were Carthaginians. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 163. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> <cite>Cartas</cite>, p. 12. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> The description of its contents drawn by Brasseur de - Bourbourg from the part in his possession is briefly as follows: - The second volume of Ordoñez comprised the history of the ancestors - of Votan, a descendant of Shem by the Hivo-Phœnician line; of their - emigration from the Eastern Continent to the Occident; of their voyage - with their first legislator by the Usumasinta River and its affluents - to the Plain Palenque; the foundation of the great monarchy of the - Quichés as well as that of Nachan, which was the capital; of the - founding of the three royal cities of Mayapan, Tulha, and Chiquimula. - The Abbé finds allusion to this work in Torquemada, Juarros, Cogolludo, - Lizana, and particularly in Sahugun, book iii of his <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, - where it is claimed to treat of the original inhabitants of Palenque. - He then states that the work was written in Guatemala at the close of - the eighteenth century, and was sent to Spain or taken thither by its - author for publication. In 1803 it was found in the hands of Sr. Gil - Lemos of Madrid, where it had been left for publication. Its contents - becoming known to the Council of the Indias, it was suppressed like - many others on the early history of America. Ordoñez, who for ten years - afterwards was canon of the Cathedral at Ciudad Real, died without - seeing his work published. See Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Cartas</cite>, p. - 12 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> These are as follows: Chontal, Quiché, Zutugil, - Kachiquel, Mam, Pokoman, Pokonchi, Caichi Coxoh, Ixil, Tzendal, - Tozotzil, Chol, Huaxteco, and Totonaco; besides those of the islands of - Cuba and Hayti, Borquia and Jamaica.—<cite>Geografia de los Linguas</cite>, - p. 98. Mexico, 1864, 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 128. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="fr"> - <a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> <span lang="fr">“Il y a plus d’un trait de ressemblance entre le - personnage mysterieux qui parut à Carthage et le Votan des Tzendales. - Les chemins souterraines où celui-ci fut admis, lesquels traversent le - terre pour arriver à la racine du ciel, indiquent une suite d’épreuves - qui rappellent les initiations Égyptiennes et dont on trouve des traces - jusqu’à l’époque même de la conquête dans les épreuves de la chevalerie - Mexicaine.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh</cite>, p. cviii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. ii, p. 124. - Mexico, 1865, 8vo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> MS. Quiché de Chichicastenango in Brasseur de - Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 105–6. See also - Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 21. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> The <cite>Popol Vuh</cite> was first published by Dr. - Scherzer in Vienna, in 1857, under the title of <span lang="es"><cite>Las Historias del - Origen de los Indios de esta Provincia de Guatemala, traducidas de la - Lengua Quiché al Castellano para mas Comodidad de los Ministros del - S. Evangelio</cite>, por el R. P. F. Francisco Ximenez, cura doctrinero - por el real patronato del Pueblo de S. Thomas, Chuila,—Exactamente - segun el texto español del manuscrito original que se halla en la - biblioteca de la Universidad de Guatemala, publicado por la primera - vez, y aumentado con una introduccion y anotaciones por el Dr. C. - Scherzer.</span> Father Ximenez, a Dominican and curate of Chichicastenango - of Guatemala, wrote about 1720, and subsequently. His work, because of - its condemnation of the oppression of the Indians, was suppressed, but - was finally discovered in June, 1854, in the library of the University - of San Carlos, in Guatemala, by Dr. Scherzer. Father Ximinez describes - the work as a literal copy of an original Quiché book, made in Roman - letters by Quiché copyists, after the introduction of Christianity into - Guatemala. The copy is stated ambiguously to have been made to replace - the original <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>—national book—which was lost. How a book - which had been lost could be copied literally, the Father fails to - tell us. Internal evidence, however, sustains the claim that it was - written by native Quichés. In 1860, Brasseur de Bourbourg undertook - a new translation of the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, from the Ximinez document - (containing the Quiché and Spanish). This he did among the Quichés and - with the aid of the natives, and as a result it is believed that a much - more literal translation than that made by Ximenez was obtained. In our - examination of Quiché history we have compared both translations and - shall draw from them directly, but shall also take advantage of the - excellent condensations and renderings which Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft has - made. See <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 42, note, for the leading - facts as we have stated them. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> We must refer the reader either to the originals or - to that treasure-house of American traditional lore, Mr. Bancroft’s - third volume, which is a repository of poetic renderings as well. Nor - have we endeavored in every instance to avoid the use of that author’s - incomparable terminology, so expressive of the spirit of the original. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. 7; Ximinez, - <cite>Hist. Ind. Guat.</cite>, pp. 5–6; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 44. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s rendering, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, - p. 45. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s graceful and truly poetic rendering, - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 47, 48. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 54. - Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages 1858</cite>, tome - iv, p. 268, and <cite>Hist. de Tlaxcallan</cite> in the same, tome xcix, - 1843, p. 179, where reference is made to these bundles. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. lxxxv, note, et <i>Ibid.</i>, p. - ccliv. The Abbé places that Tulan among the ruins of the valley of - Palenque near the modern town of Comitan in the state of Chiapas. He - adds: <span lang="fr">“Siége principal des princes de la race Nahuatl, cette ville - aurait été fondée à une époque contemporaine de la capitale des - Xibalbides, plusieurs siècles avant l’ère chrétienne, et au rapport - de toutes les traditions, elle aurait rivalisé constamment avec sa - métropole dont elle cherchait à se rendre indépendante.”</span> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, notes, pp. xci–ii. We have used Mr. - Bancroft’s rendering of the passage. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> <cite>Geografia de las Linguas Mexicanas</cite>, pp. 96–8 and - pp. 127–29. A linguistic argument. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg is the authority cited by Mr. - Bancroft, vol. v, p. 188. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 188. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. 195. Bancroft, vol. v, 172–80. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. cclvi. Bancroft, vol. v, p. 545. - The Abbé has largely drawn upon his imagination in this instance as - in some others, and the opinion is only interesting because of its authorship. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Las Casas, <cite>Hist. Apologética</cite>, MS., tom. iii, cap. - cxxiv et cxxv. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Torquemada, tom. ii, pp. 53–4. Ximinez renders the word - Xibalby “Inferno.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> It will be remembered that Votan deposited his treasure - in the “house of gloom” or “darkness.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Mr. Bancroft’s rendering of the paragraph. Vol. v, p. - 179. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> See Bancroft, vol. v, p. 184. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. v, p. 187. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> <cite>Memorias para la Historia del Antiguo Reyno de - Guatemala.</cite> Guatemala, 1857. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> <cite>Nations Civilisées</cite>, tom. i, p. 126. Also see the - following from the <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, p. clx: <span lang="fr">“Quant aux évènements dont - Tulan fût le théâtre à cette époque, on ne saurait se dissimuler, en - comparant l’ensemble des détails qu’on trouve dans ce chaos, qu’il ne - se fût opéré alors un vaste mouvement parmi les populations de l’empire - de Xibalba, mouvement causé sans doute par les efforts d’une caste - souveraine pour garder le pouvoir et par l’invasion de races nouvelles, - sorties des mêmes contrées, septentrionales, d’où étaient venus les - Nahuas, ou des regions plus sauvages du nord-ouest; barbares ou - civilisées, il y eut naturellement de leurs essaims qui s’amalgamèrent - aux nations soumises à l’empire, tandis que d’autres, continuant leur - route vers l’Amérique méridionale, y portèrent, sinon les institutions - entières des Quinamés et des Nahuas, au moins les symboles qui les - avaient le plus frappés au passage ou qui convenaient davantage à leur génie.”</span> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> <span lang="fr">“De la creation, pues, tenien esta opinion. Decian que - antes de ella ni habia cielo ni tierra ni sol, ni luna ni estrellas. - Ponian que hubo un marido y una muger divinos que lamaron Aehel - Atcamma. Estos habian tenido padre y madre los cuales engendaron trece - hijos, y que él mayor con algunos con él se ensoberbecieron y guiso - hacer criaturas contra la voluntad del padre y madre; pero no pudieron - por que lo que hicieron fueron unos vasos viles de servicio como jarros - y ollas y semejantes. Los hijos menores que se llamaban Huncheven - hunahan, pidieron licencia à su padre y madre para hacer creaturas, - y concedieransela, diciendoles que saldrian con ellos por que se - habian humillado. Y asi lo primero hicieron los Cielos y Planetas, - luego Ayre, Agua y Tierra. Despues dicen que de la tierra formaron - al hombre y á la muger. Los otros que fueron soberbios presumiendo - hacer criaturas contra la voluntad de los padres fueron en el infierno - lanzados.”</span>—<cite>Las Casas, Historia Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. 235, - p. 324; see also <cite>Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 53–4; - <cite>Help’s Spanish</cite> <cite>Conquest</cite>, vol. ii, p. 140; <cite>Garcia, - Origen de los Indios</cite>, p. 519, Valencia ed., 1607, and <cite>Brasseur - de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civil.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 74–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> <cite>Historia Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. 235, p. 327. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 28, and Herrera, Dec. iv, - lib. x, cap. ii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> <span lang="es">“Y antiguamente dezian al oriente cen-ial, - pequena-baxada, y al puniente nohen-ial, la grande-baxada.”</span>—<cite>Lizana’s - Devocionario</cite>, p. 354 in <cite>Landa’s Relacion</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Cogolludo’s <cite>Historia de Yucatan</cite>, lib. iv. cap. - iii, p. 178. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> <cite>Geografia de las Linguas</cite>, p. 128. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 618. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Bancroft, vol. iii, p. 463; Lizana in Landa’s - <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 356; Cogolludo’s <cite>Hist. de Yuc.</cite>, p. 197; - Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 76, tom. ii, pp. 10–13. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> Landa, pp. 35–9, and 300–1. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> See Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. - ii, p. 18; Torquemada’s <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 52; Herrera’s - <cite>Hist. Gen. Dec.</cite>, iv, lib. x, cap. ii; Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, - pp. 35–9, 300 <i>et seq.</i>; <cite>Echevarria y Veitia, MS.</cite>, cap. 19, - p. 116 <i>et seq.</i>, and Las Casas’ <cite>Hist. Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. cxxiii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> See for those annals the Perez document in Stephen’s - <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 465–9; Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa, - pp. 120–9, and Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 762–5, and vol. v, p. 624 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Las Casas, <cite>Hist. Apologética, MS.</cite>, cap. cxxiii, - p. 10, Cogolludo’s <cite>Hist. Yuc.</cite>, p. 190; Torquemada’s <cite>Monarq. - Ind.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 133. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. ix, p. 322. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap. ii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 199. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Ixtlilxochitl fixes the date of the destruction in the - year 229 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, Veytia in 107. See further on the Quinames, - Echevarria y Veitia, <cite>Historia del Origen de Gentes</cite>, MS., tom. - i, p. 33, and Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. viii, cap. iii, - p. 179. Mendieta’s <cite>Hist. Eccl.</cite>, p. 96, Mexico, 1870. Pineda - in <cite>Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin</cite>, tom. iii, p. 346. Brasseur de - Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, pp. lxviii, and <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, - tom. i, p. 66. Oviedo’s <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 539. - Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, p. 125. Boturini, - <cite>Idea de Una Nueva Historia</cite>, pp. 130–5. Humboldt, <cite>Vues des - Cordilleres</cite>, p. 205, and Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia de las - Lenguas</cite>, pp. 119–24. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, lib. iii, cap. vii. - Bancroft, vol. v., p. 206. Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 120, - 125, 133. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 154. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, p. 127. Pimentel, - <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. i, p. 223. Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 204. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 278. - Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 151–61. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> <cite>Historia Chichimeca</cite>, cap. i, in Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 205. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 196, and vol. - ii, p. 112. Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 32. Mendieta’s - <cite>Hist. Eccl.</cite>, p. 146. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> <span lang="es">“Celebraron assimismo los Indios su dicho origen en - antiguos cantares, y tuvieron tan viva la memoria de la torre de - Babel, que la quisieron imitar en America con varios monstruosos - edificias.”</span> He then cites the Pyramid of Cholula as having been built - in commemoration of the Tower of Babel. See Boturini, <cite>Idea de Una - Nueva Historia</cite>, p. 113. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Boturini’s <cite>Idea</cite>, p. 111 <i>et seq.</i> Clavigero, - <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp. 129–31, et tom. ii, p. - 6. Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, especially vol. vi, p. 401, - and <cite>Spiegazione delle Tavole del Codice Mexicano</cite>, tav. vii, - in <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. v, pp. 164–5, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 67; vol. v, p. 200 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> A portion of the work has been printed at Mexico. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua de la Nueva España</cite>, MS., tom. i, - cap. i, pp. 6–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> Alcedo (<cite>Diccionario Geografico Historico</cite>, tom. - iii, p. 374) says that the Olmecs subsequently migrated southward and - settled Guatemala. While this statement may be true in part, still it - is not probable that any general migration took place, and Guatemala - was certainly populated long before the Olmec power existed. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 321–2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 25. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> See Prescott’s <cite>Conq. Mexico</cite>, vol. i, p. 171, on - the Censorial Council; also Ixtlilxochitl, Clavigero and Veytia as - cited by him. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> Echevarria y Veitia, <cite>Hist. Gentes</cite>, MS., tom. i, - p. 29, and Kingsborough, vol. viii, p. 176. Panes, <cite>Fragmentos de - Historia</cite>, MS., p. 3 (copy in Congressional Library, Washington), as - well as several other authorities. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 193–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite> in Brasseur’s <cite>Hist. Nat. - Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 53, 71. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> <cite>Codex Chimal.</cite> in Brasseur’s <cite>Hist. Nat. - Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 117, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 194. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva - España</cite>, p. xviii, tom. i, Mexico, 1829. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. iii, lib. x, p. 139 <i>et - seq.</i> A translation and summary of facts is also given by Bancroft, - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 189 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 211, in a note - has summarized the dates of departure from Hue hue Tlapalan, as given - by different authors, with the following result: Date of departure - according to Veytia (tom. i, p. 208), 596 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; Clavigero - (tom. iv, p. 46), 544 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; but in the 1st tom., p. 126, he - gives 596, agreeing with Veytia; Müller (<cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. iii, p. - 94 <i>et seq.</i>, 439 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; Brasseur de Bourbourg (<cite>Popol - Vuh</cite>, p. clv), last of the fourth century; Cabrera (<cite>Teatro</cite>, - pp. 90–1), 181 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> The commonly accepted date is that of - Clavigero—544 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> But after comparing these authors and - considering the grounds upon which they base their calculations, we are - convinced that it is useless to attempt to arrive at the true date, - just as it is impossible to determine any date with certainty in all - the ancient American chronology. We will not go so far as Mr. Bancroft, - who says that “the departure from Hue hue Tlapalan seems to have - taken place in the fifth or sixth century.” The claims for the fourth - century, we think, are just as good as for the others, if not better. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> On the migration see Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relacions</cite>, - in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 321–4; Brasseur de - Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, p. 100, 136, and <cite>Popol - Vuh</cite>, p. clv, clix–xi: Veytia’s <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej. Tom.</cite> <i>1st - passim</i>; Clavigero’s <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, p. 426; - tom. iv, pp. 46, 51; Müller’s <cite>Reisen in den Vereinigten-Staaten, - Canada and Mexico</cite>, Bd. iii, ss. 91–7, Leipzig, 1864; Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 192–223. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> See <cite>Geografia de las Lenguas de Mexico</cite>, the - <cite>Carta ethnografica</cite> affixed, and the text, pp. 1–76. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Hist. Chichimeca</cite>, cap. ii. - Kingsborough, <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 206. On page 450 see also - another and different account. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 214. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 214–15; - Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, pp. lxiv, cxii, cxxvi–viii, - clix; Ixtlilxocbitl in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, p 446; - Alvarado in <cite>Ternaux-Compans Voy.</cite>, série i, tom. x, p. 147. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient Am.</cite>, p. 202. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> See E. Q. Squier, <cite>Nicaragua, its People, Scenery</cite>, - etc. <cite>Archæology and</cite> <cite>Ethnology of Nicaragua</cite>, part i, vol. - iii, <cite>Trans. of Am. Ethnol. Soc.</cite>, and <cite>Notes on Cent. Am.</cite>, chap. xvi. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Buschmann (Johann Carl Ed.), especially his <cite>Die - Spuren der Aztekischen Sprachen im Nördlichen Mexico und Höhern - Amerikanischen Norden</cite>. Berlin, 1859. Quarto. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 688 <i>et seq.</i>; - vol. v, p. 215, and numerous places. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> “All around the lakes of Mexico there are traces - of ancient potteries, and I noticed that the bits of broken red - earthenware scattered about them are identical in composition and color - with those I have picked up in the valley of the Mississippi, and - supposed to be relics of the ancient Mound-builders.”—<cite>Evens (A. S.), - Our Sister Republic</cite>, p. 330. Hartford, 1870. Octavo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relaciones</cite>, Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. ix, p. 322. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, lib. i, cap. 19. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> <cite>Relaciones</cite>, in many places, and in <cite>Hist. - Chichimecs</cite>, cap. 13. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, MS. written 1582 in Sr. Icazbalceta’s - collection. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> <cite>Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico</cite>, tom. i, p. 154. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> <cite>Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España</cite>, MS., p. - 45, Library at Washington. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> Duran’s <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, tom. i, cap. i, p. 9, - MS. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> Duran’s <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap. - 27; also cited in the Spanish by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306. Aztlan, - translated “whiteness” above, may be rendered “colorless” with equal - propriety. Hue hue Tlapalan, on the contrary, is translated ancient - red-land, or land of color, just the opposite of Aztlan, a fact which - may serve to prove that they were two quite different localities. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp. - 156–9 (north of Colorado River); Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, ii, p. 179, and - <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, tom. i, p. 53 (north of 42° north latitude); Orozco - y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 81–2, and 136–7; Prichard’s <cite>Nat. Hist - of Man</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 514–16 (Arazonia); Pimentel, <cite>Lenguas Indig. - Mex.</cite>, tom. i, p. 158. Most writers indefinitely assign the name to - a region in the North, without attempting to designate the locality. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Acosta, <cite>Hist. de las Ind.</cite>, p. 454; Schoolcraft’s - <cite>Archives of Ab. Knowledge</cite>, vol. i, p. 68; M. Aubin places it in - Lower California; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. - ii, p. 292; Pickering’s <cite>Races in U. S. Ex. Ex.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 41. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecles.</cite>, p. 144 (Xalisco); - Veytia, <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej.</cite> (Sonora); Möllhausen, <cite>Reisen in d. - Felsengebirge N. Am.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 143 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> Chief among these we may cite: Squier’s <cite>Notes on - Central Amer.</cite>, p. 349; Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, p. 45, and - Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 221, 305–6, 322–5; Müller, - <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</cite>, pp. 530–4, the - latter, though inclined to assign Aztlan to a southern locality, still - recognizes the fact that the Nahua family was originally a northern people. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> <cite>Historia Antigua</cite>, MS., tom. i, cap. i, p. 9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 292. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Chief among whom are Gallatin, Gama and Veytia, who - suppose that the adjustment of the calendar took place in 1090 - <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and that the year Ce Tochtli corresponds with that date. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 324, and - seems to be the opinion of Brasseur, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. ii, - pp. 292–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Garcia Cubas’ <cite>Republic of Mexico in 1876</cite> (Eng. - trans.), p. 58. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> Veytia, tom. ii, pp. 91–8, and as summarized by - Bancroft, vol. v, p. 323. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. ix, pp. 5–8, and - Bancroft, vol. v, p. 323. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. i, pp. 156–63. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> See Acosta, <cite>Hist. Nat. Ind.</cite>, pp. 454–62. Herrera, - <cite>Histor. Gen.</cite>, dec. iii, lib. ii, cap. x–xi. Duran, MS., <cite>Hist. - Antig.</cite>, cap. i, ii, iii of tom. i. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> <span lang="es">“Pero porque la noticia que tengo de su origen y - principio no es mas, ni ellos saben dar mas relacion sino desde aqullas - siete cuebas donde habitaron tan largo tiempo, las cuales desampararon - para venir a vuscar esta Tierra unos primero que otros, otros despues, - otros muy despues hasta dejarlas desiertas. Estas cuebas son en - Teo-culhuican, que por otro nombre le llaman Aztlan, tierra de que - todos tenemos noticia caer hacia la parte del Norte y Tierra-firma con - la Florida; por tanto desde este lugar de estas cuebas dare verdadera - relacion de estas Naciones y de sus sucessos. * * * Salieron pues - siete Tribus de Gentes de aquellas cuebas donde habitaban para venir á - vuscar esta Tierra, á las cuales llamaban Chicomostoc, de donde vienen - a fingir que sus Padres nacieron de unas cuebas, no teniendo noticia de - lo de atras de la salida.”</span>—<cite>Duran</cite>, <cite>Hist. Antig.</cite>, MS., tom. - i, cap. i, p. 9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> The <cite>Fragmentos de Historia de Nueba España</cite>, MS. - (Congressional Library) of Diego Panes alludes to this event. <span lang="es">“Como - los Tarascos se adelantaron luego que pasaron el estrecho de mar, en - los troncos de Arboles, y balsas, y otros instrumentos del pasaje y se - metieron á vida y avitar en las siete cuebas espelnucas, y Tabernas de - la Tierra, hasta que hicieron abitaciones, y moradas y como desde alli - fueron cresciendo, y tomnado, el tiento de la Tierra y disposiciones de - ella para poblarla.”</span> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> We quote Bancroft’s rendering from the <cite>Vues</cite>, - tom. ii, p. 176 <i>et seq.</i>: “From Colhuacan, the Mexican Ararat, - fifteen chiefs or tribes reach Aztlan, ‘land of flamingoes,’ north of - 42°, which they leave in 1038, passing through Tocolco, ‘humiliation,’ - Oztotlan, ‘place of grottoes,’ Mizquiahuala, Teotzapotlan, ‘place of - divine fruit,’ Iluicatepec, Papantla, ‘large-leaved grass,’ Tzompanco, - ‘place of human bones,’ Apazco, ‘clay vessel,’ Atlicalaguian, ‘crevice - in which rivulet escapes,’ Quauhtitlan, ‘eagle grove,’ Atzcapotzalco, - ‘ant hill,’ Chalco, ‘place of precious stones,’ Pantitlan, - ‘spinning-place,’ Tolpetlac, ‘rush mat,’ Quauhtepec, ‘eagle mountain,’ - Tetepanco, ‘wall of many small stories,’ Chicomoztoc, ‘seven caves,’ - Huitzquilocan, ‘place of thistles,’ Xaltepozauhcan, ‘place where the - sand issues,’ Cozcaquauhco, ‘a vulture,’ Techcatitlan, ‘place of - obsidian mirrors,’ Azcaxochitl, ‘ant flower,’ Tepetlapan, ‘place of - tepetate,’ Apan, ‘place of water,’ Teozomaco, ‘place of divine apes,’ - Chapultepec, ‘grasshopper hill.’”—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 324, - note. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> The following account is from Franc. Gemelli Carreri’s - <cite>Voyage Round the World</cite>, Churchill’s <cite>Voyages</cite>, London, - 1732, 6 vol. fol. (book iv, cap. iii), p. 485: “The ancient histories - of Mexico make mention of a flood, in which all men and beasts - perished, and only one man and woman were saved in a boat, which in - their language they call <i>Acalle</i>. The man, according to the - character by which his name is expressed, was called Cox-cox, and the - woman Chichequetzal. This couple coming to the foot of the mountain, - which, according to the picture, was named Culhuacan, went ashore, and - there they had many children, all born dumb. When they multiplied to a - great number, one day a pigeon came, and from the top of a tree gave - them their speech, but not one of them understood the others’ language, - and therefore they divided and dispersed, every one going to take - possession of some country. Among these they reckoned fifteen heads - of families who happened to speak the same language, joined together - and went about to find some land to inhabit. When they had wandered - one hundred and four years they came to the place they call Antlan, - and continuing their journey thence, came first to the place called - <i>Capultepec</i>, then to Culhuacan, and lastly to the place where - Mexico now stands.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> See communication in Garcia y Cubas’ <cite>Atlas - Geografico, Estadistico e Histórico de la República Mejicana</cite>, April - 1858, entrega 29, and Bancroft, iii, p. 68, note. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> We should be guilty of a fault if we were to convey - the idea that no deluge legend other than this was current among the - Aztecs. The Codex Chimalpopoca records a flood in which mankind were - drowned and turned into fishes. In Mr. Bancroft’s graceful rendering we - learn that “the waters and sky drew near each other; in a single day - all was lost, the day Four Flower consumed all that there was of our - flesh. And this was the year Ce-Calli; on the first day, Nahui-Atl, - all was lost. The very mountains were swallowed up in the flood, and - the waters remained, lying tranquil during fifty and two spring-times. - But before the flood began, Titlacahuan had warned the man Nata and - his wife Nena, saying: Make now no more pulque, but hollow out to - yourselves a great cypress, into which you shall enter when, in the - month Tozoztli, the waters shall near the sky. Then they entered into - it, and when Titlacahuan had shut them in, he said to the man: Thou - shalt eat but a single ear of maize, and thy wife but one also. And - when they had finished eating, each an ear of maize, they prepared to - set forth, for the waters remained tranquil and their log moved no - longer; and opening it they began to see the fishes. Then they lit a - fire by rubbing pieces of wood together and they roasted fish.” The - account states that the deities then descended and transformed the - fishes into dogs. (Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. - i, pp. 425–7. Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 69, 70.) We cannot with gravity - give the Tezpi legend preserved in Michoacan. If the reader will refer - to the Mosaic account of the flood, he will only need to substitute the - name of Tezpi for Noah, a vulture for the raven, and a humming-bird - for the dove, and the Tezpi legend substantially will be before him. - Of course the detail of the Mosaic account is wanting; nevertheless - it is certain that the Tezpi legend is the product of the fancy of - some over-zealous priest, who thought he could see a stricter analogy - between the Nahua deluge tradition and the Scriptural account than - really exists. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 325. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> See note 1, page 261, this chapter. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Bancroft, vol. v, p. 325. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> E. G. Squier in <cite>Notes on Cent. Am.</cite>, p. 349, makes - the following remark: “It is a significant fact, that in the map of - their migrations, presented by Gemelli, the place of the origin of the - Aztecs is designated by the sign of water (Atl standing for Atzlan), a - pyramidal temple with grades, and near these a <em>palm-tree</em>. This - circumstance did not escape the attention of the observant Humboldt, - who says, ‘I am astonished at finding a palm-tree near this teocalli. - This tree certainly does not indicate a northern origin.’” We might add - that we are equally surprised that so generally able a writer as Mr. - Squier should resort to so absolutely weak an argument. Sr. Ramirez - has clearly explained that all the figures and their adjuncts are but - hieroglyphic parts of proper names. The palm-tree no doubt plays its - part. M. Waldeck (<cite>Voyage Pitt.</cite>, p. 45) makes the same remark - as Mr. Squier—that it indicates a southern origin. Gondra (Prescott’s - <cite>Historia Conq. Mex.</cite>, cited by Bancroft, vol. v, p. 306, note) - replies that this may be a thoughtless insertion of the painter. - The possibility that an unskillful artist should unintentionally - represent a tree of which he had no knowledge is so great, that any - argument dependent upon it hangs upon a slender thread. Over against - Mr. Squier’s claim we desire to place the simple inquiry, Does the - Elephant Mound of Wisconsin indicate that its constructors were natives - of Asia, where the elephant is common, or that they lived in the epoch - of the American Mastodon? It is well-known that the latter phase of - the question could not be true, since the condition of the mound - contradicts such great antiquity. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 245 <i>et - seq.</i>, states that a band of people came from the north by way of - Panuco, dressed in long black robes; that they thence went to Tulla, - where they were well received, but that region being already thickly - populated, they went to Cholula. They were great artists, were skilled - in working metals; with them was Quetzalcoatl, with a fair and ruddy - complexion and a long beard. ‘He was their leader.’ - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecl.</cite>, pp. 82, 86, 92, 397–8; also - cited by Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 250–2, and Clavigero, <cite>Hist. Ant. - Del. Messico</cite>, pp. 11–13. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. i, lib. iii, p. 245, - and Torquemada, tom. ii, p. 47 <i>et seq.</i>, do not agree fully as to - the details. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 47 <i>et - seq.</i>, and Sahagun, tom. i, chap. iii, p. 245 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Mendieta, <cite>Hist. Ecl.</cite>, p. 82 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> Goatzacoalco, described as a province near the sea, one - hundred and fifty leagues from Cholula (Torquemada, tom ii, pp. 48–52). - The same author traces him to Yucatan and identifies him with Cukulcan. - See preceding chapter. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> On a raft, according to Sahagun. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> See Müller, <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen - Urreligionen</cite>, p. 599. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 50. In - presenting these legends we have employed nearly the same language - which we used in treating the same subject in an article entitled - “Culture-Heroes of the Ancient Americans,” published in <cite>Appleton’s - Journal</cite> for March 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> See Bancroft, vol. v. p. 256, and the authorities cited. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> The sources of the Quetzalcoatl legends have been cited - in connection with our version of the fables applying to the name. On - the relation of Ceacatl Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec king, to the subject, - see Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. ii, lib. viii, p. 266, but - especially see Bancroft, vol. v, p. 256 <i>et seq.</i>, for a fuller - account. The same author has treated the subject with an unprecedented - fullness in his third volume, chap. vii. The able examination of - Quetzalcoatl’s character by Müller, in his <cite>Geschichte d. Am. - Urreligionen</cite> (pp. 577 <i>et seq.</i>), has been of great value to - us in the preparation of this sketch. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 404 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> <cite>Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in - Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua.</cite> New York, - 1854, vol. ii, pp. 348 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> <cite>Ensayo sobre Chihuahua</cite>, p. 74. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 621 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> Published in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iv, tom. - i, pp. 282 <i>et seq.</i>, translated in Schoolcraft’s <cite>Hist. and - Condition of Indian Tribes</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 300 <i>et seq.</i>, - and Bartlett’s <cite>Pers. Narrative</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 281–2. Quoted in - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 622–23. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Bernal in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iii, tom. iv, p. - 804. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Sedelmair, <cite>Relacion</cite>, in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, - série iii, tom. iv, p. 847, copied by Orosco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, - pp. 108–10. Also cited by Bancroft. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> <cite>Pers. Narrative</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 278–80. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 81–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> Johnston’s <cite>Journal</cite> in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 567–600. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> <cite>Pers. Nar.</cite>, pp. 271–284. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> Browne’s <cite>Apache Country</cite>, pp. 114–24. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Coronado, on his trip from Culiacan to the “seven cities - of Cibola” in 1540, saw a roofless building called Chichilticale, or - “red house.” Castañeda says it was built of red earth and had formerly - been occupied by people from Cíbola. This is of interest, especially - since it is quite certain that the seven cities visited were identical - with the Pueblo towns around old Zuñi on the Zuñi River in New Mexico - (see Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 673–4, and Morgan in <cite>North American - Review</cite>, April, 1869. The best treatment of Coronado’s march is by - Simpson in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1859, pp. 309 <i>et seq.</i> See - further <cite>Castañeda</cite>, in Ternaux-campans, <cite>Voy.</cite>, série i, - tom. ix, pp. 40–1, 161–2. Gallatin in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, - vol. ii, and Whipple in <cite>Pac. R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite> in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite>, série iii, - tom. iv, p. 847. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 634. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> Velarde in <i>ibid.</i>, série iv, tom. i, p. 363, and - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 634. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> Bartlett’s <cite>Pers. Nar.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 242–8. - Johnston in Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 596–600. Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 636. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in <cite>Pacific R. R. - Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 14, 15. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 636. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> Whipple in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. - 91–4. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> Emory’s <cite>Reconnoissance</cite>, pp. 63–9, 80, 133–4. - <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 581–96. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. - 638–9, has copied three plans. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 640. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, in <cite>Pacific R. R. - Report</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> First published in <cite>Scribner’s Monthly</cite>, vol. ix, - Nos. 3, 4 and 5, for January, February and March, 1875. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> <cite>Cañons of the Colorado</cite>, in <cite>Scribner’s - Monthly</cite>, vol. ix, p. 528. Powell’s <cite>Explorations of the Colorado - River of the West</cite>. Washington. 1875. 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> “It was ever a source of wonder to us why these ancient - people sought such inaccessible places for their homes. They were - doubtless an agricultural race, but there were no lands here of any - considerable extent which they could have cultivated. To the west - of Oraiby, and of the towns of the Province of Tusayan, in northern - Arizona, the inhabitants have actually built little terraces along the - face of the cliff, where a spring gushes out, and there made their site - for gardens. It is possible that the ancient inhabitants of this place - made their lands in the same way. But why should they seek such spots? - Surely the country was not so crowded with population as to demand the - utilization of a region like this. The only solution which suggests - itself is this: We know that for a century or two after the settlement - of Mexico, many expeditions were sent into the country now comprising - Arizona and New Mexico for the purpose of bringing the town-building - people under the dominion of the Spanish government. Many of their - villages were destroyed, and the inhabitants fled to regions at that - time unknown, and there are traditions among the people who now inhabit - the pueblos which remain, that the cañons were these unknown lands. - It may be that these buildings were erected at that time. Sure it is - that they had a much more modern appearance than the ruins scattered - over Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico.”—<cite>Major Powell - in Scribner</cite>, vol. ix, p. 525. <i>Id.</i>, <cite>Explorations of the - Colorado River of the West</cite>, pp. 87, 88. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> <cite>Cañons of the Colorado</cite>, in <cite>Scribner’s - Monthly</cite>, vol. ix, p. 402; Powell’s <cite>Exploration of the Colorado - River of the West</cite>, pp. 68–9. Major Powell on the 125th page of his - report on the Colorado, gives a brief description of remains in a side - cañon, a few miles from the great river. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Sitgreaves’ <cite>Report, Zuñi and Colorado Rivers</cite>, - pp. 8–9; Whipple, <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 46–50; - Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 642–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> Whipple, <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. - 76–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> Sitgreaves, <cite>Zuñi Ex.</cite>, p. 6; Whipple, in - <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 39, 71; Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 645, 673. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> See authorities cited on page 281, note 1, of this - chapter. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> See Whipple, in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, - p. 67, with beautiful full-page view. Simpson’s <cite>Jour. of Mil. - Recon.</cite>, pp. 90–3; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 645, 667, 673. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> Whipple in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. - 68, 70, 66, 40–8, views of old Zuñi, and sacred spring; Möllhausen, - <cite>Reisen in die Felsengebirge N. Am.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 196, 402; - <i>Id.</i>, <cite>Tagebuch</cite>, pp. 283–4, 278, with cut; Bancroft, vol. - iv, pp. 645–7, with cut. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Möllhausen’s <cite>Journey</cite>, vol. ii, p. 82; Whipple - <i>et al.</i>, in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, p. 39; - Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 95–7; Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 647–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 89–109, 60–1, - 65–74, 100, with cuts, views and plans; Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, - in <cite>Pacific R. R. Report</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 22, 52, 63–4; see also - Möllhausen’s <cite>Tagebuch</cite> and <cite>Journey</cite>; Bancroft, vol. iv., - pp. 645–50. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> In Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 131–3, and - copied in a note by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 657. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> See on Chaco ruins, Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, - pp. 34–43, 131–3. Domenech’s <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol. i, pp. 199–200, - 379–81, 385. Baldwin’s <cite>Anc. Am.</cite>, pp. 86–9, cut; Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 652–62, which we have found of - valuable assistance; especially see <cite>Ruins of the Chaco Cañon, - examined in 1877</cite>, by W. H. Jackson, in <cite>Tenth Annual Report of U. - S. Geol. Survey</cite>. Washington, 1879. Best account. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Simpson’s <cite>Jour. Mil. Recon.</cite>, pp. 74–5, plates - 53–4, copied by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 652; also see Domenech’s - <cite>Deserts</cite>, vol i, p. 201, and <cite>Annual Scienc. Discov.</cite>, 1850, p. 362. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> W. H. Jackson in <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geol. and Geog. - Survey of the Territories</cite>, 2d series, No. 1, Washington, 1875, and - in the <cite>Annual Report</cite> of the same, Washington, 1876, pp. 369 - <i>et seq.</i> A condensed though excellent account is furnished by - Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 718 <i>et seq.</i> Also a condensed account by - Prof. Edwin A. Barber in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, - 1877. <cite>Seconde Session</cite>, tom. i, pp. 22–38. Also <i>Ibid.</i>, - <cite>The Ancient Pueblos, or Ruins of the Valley of the Rio San Juan</cite>. - Parts I, II. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> <cite>Bulletin No. 1</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 11, 12. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> Published in <cite>Bulletin of the Geological and - Geographical Survey of the Territories</cite>, vol. ii, No. 1. Washington, - 1876. Mr. Bancroft’s account in the <cite>Native Races</cite>, necessarily - terminates with the close of Mr. Jackson’s labors in 1874. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> See <cite>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of South-western - Colorado, examined during the summer of 1875, by W. H. Holmes</cite>, - in <cite>Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the - Territories</cite>, vol. ii, No. 1. Washington, 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> Ives’ <cite>Colorado River of the West</cite>, pp. 119–26, - with plates. The same extract condensed into nearly the same form as - above is given by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 667–80. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 662 <i>et seq.</i>, - and the authors cited therein. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 663, and Simpson’s - <cite>Journal Mil. Recon.</cite>, p. 114. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> I have carefully examined Father Escalante’s - <cite>Diario</cite> in the MS. copy deposited in the Congressional Library - at Washington, but find nothing to contradict the opinion of recent - explorers. The reader will also see Dominguez and Escalante’s <cite>Diario - y Derrotero Sante Fé à Monterey</cite>, 1776, in <cite>Doc. Hist. Mex.</cite> - Serie ii, tom. i. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> <cite>Ninth Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, p. 12. - Cambridge, 1876. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum</cite>, - Cambridge, 1878, pp. 198–200, 267–80. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1872, pp. 413 <i>et - seq.</i>; and this work, chapter I. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> The facts claimed in the following account are drawn - from Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii., pp. 171–74 and 175–7. - Ward, in <cite>Ind. Aff. Report</cite>, 1864, pp. 192–3. Brinton’s <cite>Myths - of the New World</cite>, p. 190. Ten Broeck in Schoolcraft’s <cite>History - and Condition of the Indian Tribes</cite>, vol. iv, p. 73, and Tyler’s - <cite>Primitive Culture</cite>, vol. ii, p. 384. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Davidson, in <cite>Ind. Aff. Report</cite>, 1865, pp. 131–3, - and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 75–77. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> This feature of the legend is beautifully developed by - Mr. Bancroft. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> In this account of Montezuma I have used, with few - variations, the same language employed by me in treating the subject - in an article entitled, “Culture-Heroes of the Ancient Americans,” - published in <cite>Appleton’s Journal</cite> for March, 1877, pp. 275–6. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Hindoo Mounds, see Squier’s observations on Dr. - Westerman in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, April, 1851; and Atwater, - in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 196–267. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Chief among whom are Dupaix, in Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>; Waldeck (exploration performed in 1832–3), - Pub. 1866 fol.; Stevens and Catherwood in 1840; M. Morelet in 1846, and - Charney in 1858; for best bibliographical treatment, see Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 289–294, note. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Stephens, vol. ii, p. 310: Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. - 2, and Brasseur in <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 17; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 300. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 300–1. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. vii. See also Stephens, - vol. ii, p. 310; Dupaix, pl. xi.; Kingsborough, vol. iv, pl. xiii; - Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 307. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 312. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 303. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 339–43, and Bancroft, vol. iv, - pp. 323–27. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> On the tower, see Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. iii, pl. - xviii, xix. Morelet’s <cite>Voyage</cite>, tom. i, p. 266. Bancroft, vol. iv, - p. 315, and Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 86–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Incidents of Travel in Yucatan</cite>. New - York (1st ed. 1843, and others subsequently). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> Waldeck, <cite>Voyage Pittoresque et Archéologique dans - la Province d’Yucatan</cite>, Paris, 1838, large fol., 22 illustrations. - Norman, <cite>Rambles in Yucatan</cite>, New York, 1843, 8vo, illustrated. - Baron von Friederichstal, <cite>Les Monuments de l’Yucatan</cite>, in - <cite>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</cite>, 1841, tom. xcii, pp. 297, 314. - Charnay, <cite>Cités et Ruines Américaines</cite>, Paris, 1863, large - folio. Of many general notices made up from these sources we consider - Bancroft’s as the most critical and satisfactory. His note on the - bibliography of the subject is also of interest. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> We have followed the measurements of Stephens; seeming - to us most accurate. (See <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 165 <i>et - seq.</i>) Norman, Charnay and Waldeck all differ in their measurements. - Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 154–5 has given a good condensation of the - description. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 175. Reproduced in Bancroft, - vol. iv, p. 156, and Baldwin, <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 132. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 174. Reproduced by Bancroft, - vol. iv, p. 160, and Baldwin, <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 132. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 301. Bancroft, vol. - iv, pp. 176–7. Baldwin’s <cite>Anc. America</cite>, p. 136. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Waldeck reports that a turtle was sculptured upon each - of the blocks of the pavement. See <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xii, where - four are figured. Stephens, however, found no traces of them. See - Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 175. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 313. Waldeck’s - <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pp. 95–6, pl. ix, x, xi. Stephens’ <cite>Cent. - Amer.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 425 <i>et seq.</i> Charnay’s <cite>Ruines - Americ.</cite>, pp. 70 <i>et seq.</i> Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 192 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 397, view of Kabah - edifice. See a sectional view in Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 207. - </div> - - <div class="footnote" lang="fr"> - <a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> D’abord j’ai été frappé de la ressemblance qu’offrent - ces étranges figures des édifices mayas avec la tête de l’éléphant. - Cet appendice, placé entre deux yeux et depassant la bouche de presque - toute la longueur, m’a semblé ne pouvoir être autre chose que l’image - de la trompe d’un proboscidian, car le museau charnu et saillant du - tapir n’est pas de cette longueur.—<cite>Waldeck, Voy. Pitt.</cite>, p. 74, - pl. xiv, xv. Also <cite>Humboldt, Vues</cite>, ed. 1810, p. 92. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 311–17; Bancroft, - vol. iv, pp. 230–36, with plans and cuts from Stephens’ and Baldwin’s - <cite>Anc. Amer.</cite>, p. 140. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 130–9; Baldwin, <cite>Anc. - Amer.</cite>, p. 129. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 387 <i>et - seq.</i>; Bancroft, vol iv, pp. 254–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> The original accounts furnished by actual explorers of - Copan are as follows: 1st, by the Licenciado Diego García de Palacio, - who prepared an account of his duties and their performance, for the - king, Felipe II of Spain, dated March 8, 1576, and preserved in the - Muñoz collection of MSS. The account has been published several times, - at least once in the United States, in Palacio, <cite>Carta Dirijida al - Rey</cite>, Albany, 1860, and translated into English by E. G. Squier; - 2d, an account by Fuentes y Guzman, in a MS. dated 1689. However, so - much as related to Copan was published in 1808 in Juarros, <cite>Compendio - de la Hist. de la Ciudad de Guatemala</cite>, trans. in English in 1823; - 3d, by Col. Juan Galindo, an officer in Central American service - (explorations made in 1835), published communication in <cite>Am. Antiq. - Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 545–50, and in <cite>Antiq. Mex.</cite>, tom. - i, div. ii, pp. 73, 76; 4th, Stephens and Catherwood in 1839, published - in <cite>Incidents and Travels in Central America</cite>, vol. i, pp, 95–160. - New York, 1841. - - <p>The ruins have been visited by two or three persons since described - by Stephens, but the public has not enjoyed the benefit of their - researches, as we believe nothing has since been published on Copan. - Brasseur de Bourbourg, who visited the ruins in 1863 and 1866, - testifies to the perfect accuracy of the descriptions and plates in - Stephens’ and Catherwood’s work. A considerable number of notices of - Copan have been made up by different writers from these sources. The - latest and best of such notices is that by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 77–105, from whose bibliographical note we have - drawn somewhat for the above facts.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Juarros, <cite>Hist. Guat.</cite>, pp. 56–7; Stephens’ - <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. i, p. 144, and Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 82–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 171, - 182–8, and Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 124–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, - p. 15, and cited by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 131. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> The only comprehensive and satisfactory treatment of the - entire field in detail is that by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, - chaps. vii, viii, ix, x. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Third Expedition</cite>, pp. 6–7, pl. iii–v, - fig. 6–9; Kingsborough, <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 469, and Mayer’s - <cite>Observations on Mexican History and Archæology</cite>, pp. 25–6, and - cuts (Smithsonian contribution, No. 86), 1856; Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 368–71, with cuts. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> <cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. ii, p. 282, and Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 375. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Seconde Expédition</cite>, published in - Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 255–68, vol. vi, pp. 447–56, vol. iv, pl. - xxvii–xli, fig. 81–95, and in <cite>Antiq. Mex.; Seconde Expédition</cite>, - pp. 30–44, pl. xxix–xlvi, figs. 78–93.; Charnay, <cite>Cités et Ruines - Américaines</cite>, pp. 261–9, photographs ii–xviii, and Viollet-le-Duc - in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 74–104; Humboldt obtained his information and - plates from the survey and drawings of Don Luis Martin and Col. de la - Laguna, who visited the ruins in 1802; see <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. ii, pp. - 278–85, pl. xvii–xviii, and in his other works on the same subject. - The remaining original works are Mühlenpfordt in the <cite>Ilustracion - Mejicana</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 493–8; Tempsky’s <cite>Mitla</cite>, pp. 250–3, - with plates; Garcia, in <cite>Soc. Mex. Georg. Boletin</cite>, tom. ii, - pp. 271–2; Sawkins in Mayer’s <cite>Observations</cite>; Fossey in his - <cite>Mexique</cite>, pp. 365–70, and Müller, <cite>Reisen</cite>, tom. ii, pp. - 279–81. We might append a large number of notices made second-hand from - the above, but as they contain nothing original we omit them, and refer - the reader who is desirous of examining them, to Bancroft’s note in - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv. p. 391. Our examination of the subject - has been confined to the accounts of Dupaix, Humboldt, and Charnay, - together with Mr. Bancroft’s critical review of the field. From the - latter we draw some of our bibliographical material. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> Charnay, <cite>Mexique</cite>, Phot. iv; also <cite>Cités et - Ruines Amér.</cite>, Phot. v, vi. Other views in Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 396–405. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> Fossey, <cite>Mexique</cite>, p. 367, finds twenty-two - different styles of grecques in this front, while Mühlenpfordt gives - cuts of sixteen different styles in <cite>Ilustracion Mej.</cite>, tom. ii, p. 501. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> See full discussion by Viollet le Duc in Charnay’s - <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 78–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> Charnay, phot. x. Mr. Bancroft was not ignorant of this - error. Tempsky’s plate served as the guide for Baldwin’s cut. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Seconde Exped.</cite>, pp. 40–1, pl. xliv–v, - fig. 93–4. Kingsborough, vol. v, p. 265; vol. vi, p. 455; vol. iv, pl. - xl–i, fig. 95, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 413. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> See especially a communication from Mr. Hugo Finck, - for twenty-eight years a resident of the region, published in the - <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1870, an extract from which is published - in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 431–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> Sr. Gondra received considerable information concerning - these ruins from some unnamed person, which he published in <cite>Mosaico - Mexicano</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 368–72. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 442. This - author has given quite a full description of the fortification, and two plates. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 8–9, pl. ix–xi, - fig. 9–12; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 215–16; vol. vi, pp. 425–6, pl. - v–vi, fig. 11–15; an account in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. - iv, pp. 368–72 and cut. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco y Arqueolójico sobre la - República Mejicana</cite>, 1829–34, Paris, 1839, fol.; Mayer’s <cite>Mex. - Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 199–200; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, - pp. 247–8, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 47, 55–8, - with two illustrations. We have cited Nebel from the latter. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> The original describers of Papantla are Diego Ruiz, in - <cite>Gaceta de Mexico</cite>, July 12, 1785, tom. i, pp. 349–51, copied in - <cite>Diccionario Univ. Geog.</cite>, tom x, pp. 120–1; also Nebel, <cite>Viaje - Pintoresco</cite>. Humboldt states that Dupaix and Castañeda visited the - locality, but they published no description, his own description may - have been from information received from them; <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, - pp. 102–3; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, p. 274; <i>Ibid.</i>, in - <cite>Ant. Mex.</cite>, tom. i, div. ii, p. 12. Of the many descriptions - drawn from these sources, those of Mayer, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, vol. - ii, pp. 196–7; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, pp. 248–9, and - Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 452–4, with cut from - Nebel, are probably the best. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Of a large number of notices of Cholula, the most - important of the original class are those of Humboldt, <cite>Essai - Pol.</cite>, pp. 239–40; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 96–124, - fol. 2d, pl. vii–viii; Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, p. 2, pl. xvi, - fig. 17, and Kingsborough, vol. v, p. 218, vol. iv, pl. viii, fig. 20; - Clavigero, <cite>Storia Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. ii, pl. 33–4; Mayer, - <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, p. 26, and <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, etc., vol. ii, - p. 328, cuts. For most recent reference, though not very scientific, - see Evens’ <cite>Our Sister Republic</cite>, pp. 428–32 (1869), and Haven’s - <cite>Mexico, Our Next Door Neighbor</cite>, pp. 109–202, 1875. Mr. Bancroft - has given a short, though satisfactory notice, especially valuable - for its citation of authorities. In a note (11) vol. iv, p. 471–2, a - full list of the authors who have written on Cholula will be found, - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 469–77. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> <cite>Reisen</cite>, pp. 131–2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> Heller, <cite>Reisen</cite>, pp. 131–2, cited by Bancroft, - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 473. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> Exploration performed in 1777, and account published in - <cite>Gaceta de Literatura</cite>, November, 1791, also tom. ii, p. 127 of - the same. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> Copied the proceedings to a considerable extent in - <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 129–37, pl. ix, and in <cite>Essai Pol.</cite>, pp. 189–90. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Dupaix’s <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 14–18, pl. - xxxi–ii, figs. 33–6; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 222–4, vol. iv, pl. xv–vi. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco</cite>, pl. ix–x, xix–xx. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> The Government exploration report in <cite>Revista - Mexicana</cite>, tom. i, pp. 539–50, and in <cite>Deccionario Univ. - Geog.</cite>, tom. x, pp. 938–42; Mayer’s <cite>Mexico As It Was</cite>, pp. - 185–7; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, etc., vol. ii, pp. 283–5, with - cuts; Tylor’s <cite>Anáhuac</cite>, pp. 183–95. To these original accounts - many compiled notices might be added. Mr. Bancroft’s critical review - of the sources, supplemented with full bibliographical notes, is - valuable and should receive the attention of the reader. See <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 483–98, with several cuts after Nebel. We have - found this writer’s summary of facts of great service in making up the - following description. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> The vandalic destruction of this Acropolis of Mexican - architecture is due to the vulgar cupidity of a neighboring sugar - manufacturer, who despoiled it in order to build the furnaces of his - refinery. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> See Tylor, <cite>Anahuac</cite>, p. 149, and on the subject in - hand. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> See Prescott, book iv, caps. i, ii, vol. ii, Kirk’s ed. - of 1875, pp. 100–51. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> See chapter vi, p. 248, this work. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> Almaraz, <cite>Apuntes sobre las Pirámides de San Juan - Teotihuacan</cite>. <cite>Mexico</cite>, 1864. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 529–44, and - a good bibliographical note on p. 530. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, p. 533. On page - 548, the same author in a note translates the following interesting - passage from Sr. Garcia y Cubas: “The pyramids of Teotihuacan, as they - exist to day, are not in their primitive state. There is now a mass of - loose stones whose interstices covered with vegetable earth have caused - to spring up the multitude of plants and flowers with which the faces - of the pyramids are now covered. This mass of stones differs from the - plan of construction followed in the body of the monuments and besides - the falling of these stones, which has taken place chiefly on the - eastern face of the Moon, has laid bare an inclined plane perfectly - smooth, which seems to be the true face of the pyramid. This isolated - observation would not give so much force to my argument if it were not - accompanied by the same circumstances in all the monuments.” This inner - smooth surface has an inclination of 47°, differing from the angle of - the outer faces. Sr. Garcia y Cubas, conjectures that the Toltecs, the - descendants of the civilized architects of these monuments, fearing - that they would be despoiled by the savages who followed them, covered - up their sacred places with the outer coatings described. See Appendix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> Quemada was at first mentioned by early writers as one - of the stations in the Aztec migration. Captain Lyon published in - his <cite>Journal</cite>, vol. i. pp. 225–44, the result of explorations - performed by him at Los Edificios in 1826. Another report was made by - Sr. Esparza from data furnished him by Pedro Rivera in 1830, which - appeared in Esparza’s <cite>Informe presentado al Gobierno</cite>, pp. 56–8, - and <cite>Museo Mex.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 185 <i>et seq.</i> Herr Berghes - made a pretty good survey of the ruins in 1831: his observations were - published by Nebel. Herr Burkart, a companion of Berghes, published a - description in his <cite>Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico</cite>, tom. ii, pp. - 97–105. Nebel published his observations in his <cite>Viaje</cite>. Several - authors have made up notices from these sources without adding any - original information. A list of these, as well as those given above, - may be found in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 578–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Central America</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 438 <i>et - seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s <cite>Cités et Ruines, - Introduct.</cite>, pp. 28 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> Garcia y Cubas, <cite>Ensayo de un Estudio comparativo - entre las Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas</cite>; Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 543–4, and vol. v, pp. 55–6. See Appendix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> Delafield, <cite>Inquiry into the Origin of American - Antiquities</cite>, pp. 57–61. 1839. 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> <cite>Mexique</cite>, pp. 274–5. Leipzig, 1843. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> <cite>Historical Researches</cite>, p. 355. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> See further, Clavigero, <cite>Storia del Messico</cite>, tom. - iv, pp. 19–20; Jones, <cite>Hist. Anc. Amer.</cite>, p. 122; Bancroft, vol. - iv, p. 474; Prescott, <cite>Mex.</cite>, tom. iii, p. 407; Humboldt, <cite>Essai - Pol.</cite>, tom. i, p. 265; Tylor’s <cite>Early History</cite>, p. 206. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 92 (fol. ed., 1810), - considers that this people was originally from Asia and preserved some - remembrance of the elephant, or that in their traditions they had - accounts of the mammoth of the American continent. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Waldeck, p. v, pl. xii, xiii. Stephens, <cite>Cent. - Am.</cite>, vol ii, pp. 311, 116–17. Dupaix, pp. 20, 37, 75–6, pl. - xiv–xxii. Kingsborough, vol. iv, pl. xxvi. Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol iv, pp. 304–6. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. xiv, xv, shows both - groups. Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 313. Dupaix, pl. xxiii–iv. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> Waldeck, pl. xiv. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> Waldeck, pl. xvii. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 317–18. - Stephens, vol. ii, p. 318. Morelet, p. 97. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. iii, pl. 42. Dupaix, pl. - xxxiii, Fig. 37. Kingsborough, pl. xxxv, fig. 37. Stephens, vol. ii, p. - 355. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 328–30. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> Waldeck, p. vii, pl. xxi–ii. Stephens, vol. ii, pp. - 345–7. Charnay, p. 419, pl. xxi. Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–6. - Especially see Rau’s <cite>Palenque Tablet</cite> (Smithsonian Contrib., No. - 331), for the best account of Tablet of the Cross. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a> Waldeck, pl. 23–24; Stephens, vol. ii, p. 352; Dupaix, - p. 24, pl. xxxvii–viii; mention in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 332–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> Waldeck, pl. 25; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 344, 349; - Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 336–7, with cut. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> Waldeck, pl. xxvi–xxxii; Stephens, vol. ii, pp. 351–4; - Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 338–41. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> Plates, Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xv–xvii; - Charnay’s photographs have attested the accuracy of Waldeck’s drawings; - Waldeck’s views reproduced in Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yuc.</cite>, vol. i, p. 306; Waldeck’s pl. - xvi; also see Charnay’s phot. 39; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 182–4; - Viollet-le-Duc’s drawing in Charnay, p. 65. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> Cut from Waldeck’s <cite>Voy. Pitt.</cite>, pl. xiii–xviii and - p. 100; reproduced by Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 185, of which ours is an - electrotype copy. See also Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 302–3; - Charnay, <cite>Ruines Amer.</cite>, phot. 40, 41, 44; Norman’s <cite>Rambles in - Yucatan</cite>, p. 162. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 303–11; Charnay’s - <cite>Ruines Amér.</cite>, pp. 140–1, phot. 33, 34; Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iv, pp. 220–36. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> Mr. Salisbury, with the most liberal courtesy, has - furnished the heliotypes and photos from which the accompanying - engravings were made. We take this opportunity of expressing publicly - our thanks for this rare favor. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> <cite>Archæological Communication on Yucatan</cite>, by - Dr. Le Plongeon in Salisbury’s <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, p. 65, and - <cite>Proceedings of Am. Antiq. Soc.</cite>, October 21, 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, p. 61. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 62. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> See Torquemada, <cite>Monarchia Indiana</cite>, lib. iv, cap. - 8, and Herrera, <cite>Hist. Gen. Ind.</cite>, decade ii, lib. iv, cap. 17, - quoted by Salisbury, <cite>Maya Archæology</cite>, pp. 33–35. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> See <cite>Terra-cotta Figure from Isla Mugeres</cite>, by - Stephen Salisbury, Jr., in <cite>Maya Archæology</cite> (heliotypes). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Stephens, <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 103–4, 134–43 - with plates; Foster, <cite>Pre-Historic Races</cite>, pp. 302–322, 338–9; - Galindo in <cite>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 548–9; - Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 89–105, with cuts. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 371, 381, 385, 387, 414, 415, - 421, 427, 428, 435, 436, 455, 457, 462, has figured some of these, but - all indicate an order of art inferior to the Maya. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> Nebel, <cite>Viaje Pintoresco</cite>; Mayer’s <cite>Mex. - Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 199, 200; Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 457–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Vetch, in <cite>London Geog. Soc. Jour.</cite>, vol. vii, pp. - 1–11, plate; Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 462. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> Dupaix, <cite>Third Expedition</cite>, p. 5, pl. i–ii; - <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>First Expedition</cite>, pp. 3–4, pl. i–ii, fig. 1, - 2; p. 10, pl. xii; pp. 12–13, pl. xvii–xxii, fig. 19, 24; <cite>Second - Expedition</cite>, p. 51, pl. lxi, fig. 117; Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. - 285–6; vol. iv, pl. i–ii, fig. 1–3; vol. vi, p. 467; vol. v, pp. - 209–10; vol. vi, pp. 421–2; vol. iv, pl. i, fig. 1–4; vol. v, p. 217; - vol. iv, p. vi, fig. 16, and Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 467–69. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Dupaix, <cite>First Expedition</cite>, p. 14; Bancroft, vol. - iv, p. 481. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> This work, p. 372. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 499, has reproduced some of them. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, pp. 332 <i>et seq.</i>; - tom. ii, pp. 1 <i>et seq.</i> and 84–5, pl. viii, (fol. ed. pl. xxiii); - <cite>Mayer, Mexico As it Was</cite>, pp. 126–8; Prescott, <cite>Conq. Mex.</cite>, - vol. i, pp. 126, 145–6; vol. ii, pp. 112, ed. 1875; Bancroft, vol. iv. - pp. 505–9, and cut. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 148–61 (fol. ed., - pl. xxix); <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Antiq. Mex.</cite>, tom. i, div. ii, pp. 25–7, - suppl. pl. vi; Nebel, <cite>Viaje</cite>, with large plate; Mayer, <cite>Mex. - Aztec</cite>, vol. i, pp. 108–11; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mexico As it Was</cite>, - pp. 109–14; Bullock’s <cite>Mexico</cite>, pp. 337–42; Leon y Gama, <cite>Dos - Piedras</cite>, pt. i, pp. 1–3, 9, 10, 34, and five plates latterly cited - by Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 512–15, four plates. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> Bancroft, vol. iv, p. 517; Mayer, <cite>Mexico As it - Was</cite>, pl. 100–1; <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Mex. Aztec</cite>, vol. ii, p. 274. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, pl. 55. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> Waldeck’s <cite>Palenqué</cite>, p. viii, pl. xliv. Tylor’s - <cite>Anahuac</cite>, pp. 110, 337, for information concerning the masks. - Also Bancroft, vol. iv, pp. 557–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> <cite>Smithsonian Contribution</cite>, No. 287, pp. 82–7 - (1876). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> <cite>Hist. Kingdom Guatemala</cite>, p. 19. Lond., 1823. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> F. Giordan, <cite>Description et colonization de l’Isthme - de Tehuantepec</cite>, p. 57. Paris, 1838. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> Melgar in <cite>Mex. Geog. Soc. Bolletin</cite>, 2d época, - tom. iii, p. 112 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> Dr. Max Uhlmann, <cite>Handbuch der gesamten Ægyptischen - Alterthumskunde</cite>, I <cite>Theil. Geschichte der Egyptologie</cite>, p. - 108. Leipzig, 1857. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> Botta, <cite>Mon. de Ninive</cite>, vol. ii, pl. 58, and - <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite> for Jan. 1870, p. 231. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> John Newton in Appendix to Inman’s <cite>Ancient Pagan and - Modern Christian Symbolism</cite>, p. 116. London, 1874. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> <cite>Saturn</cite>, lib. i, cap. 20. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> Zoeckler, <cite>Das Kreutz Christi</cite>, p. 9, Güterslo, - 1875, and <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite>, Jan. 1870, p. 232. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> Mr. Bancroft remarks, “He happens, however, here to have - selected two Egyptian subjects which almost find their counterparts in - America. In the preceding volume of this work, page 333, is given a cut - of what is called the ‘Tablet of the Cross’ at Palenque. In this we - see a cross and perched upon it a bird, to which (or to the cross) two - human figures in profile, apparently priests, are making an offering. - In Mr. Stephens’ representation from the Vocal Memnon we find almost - the same thing, the differences being, that instead of an ornamented - Latin cross, we have here a <i lang="la">crux commissa</i>, or <i lang="la">patibulata</i>; - that instead of one bird there are two, not on the cross but - immediately above it, and that the figures, though in profile and - holding the same general positions, are dressed in a different manner, - and are apparently binding the cross with the lotus instead of making - an offering to it; in Mr. Stephens’ representation from the obelisk of - Carnac, however, a priest is evidently making an offering to a large - bird perched upon an altar; and here again the human figures occupy the - same position. The hieroglyphics, though the characters are of course - different, are, it will be noticed, disposed upon the stone in much the - same manner. The frontispiece of Stephens’ <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. ii, - described on p. 352, represents the tablet, on the back wall of the - altar, Casa No. 3 at Palenque. Once more here are two priests clad in - all the elaborate insignia of their office, standing one on either side - of a table or altar, upon which are erected two batons, crossed in such - a manner as to form a <i lang="la">crux decussata</i>, and supporting a hideous - mask. To this emblem they are making an offering.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native - Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 60–1, note. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> W. H. Holmes in <cite>Bulletin of the Geog. and Geol. - Survey of the Territories</cite>, Vol. II, No. I, p. 20, Pl. 11 and 12. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 44. Villagutierre, - <cite>Conq.Itza</cite>, pp. 393–4. Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 768. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 316. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> Peter Martyr, Dec. iv, lib. viii. Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. - 769–70. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Cent. Amer.</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 342, 453–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. - 780. Brasseur’s admission will be found in the <cite>Bibliothéque - Mexico-Guatemalienne</cite>, Paris, 1871, p. xxvii. The translation, - prefaced with 136 quarto pages devoted to a consideration of the Maya - characters, is published under the title, <cite>MS. Troano: Etudes sur le - systéme graphique et la langue des Mayas</cite>. Paris, 1869–70. 4to, 2 - vols., 70 colored plates. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 773, plate, p. 774. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> The original of Landa’s explanation is as follows: <span lang="es">“De - sus letras porne aqui un <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, que no permite - su pesadumbre mas porque usan para todas las aspiraciones de las letras - de un caracter, y despues, al puntar de las partes otro, y assi viene a - hazer <i lang="la">in infinitum</i>, como se podra ver en el siguiente exemplo: - <i>Lé</i>, quiere dezir laço y caçar con el; para escrivirle con sus - carateres, haviendoles nosotros hecho entender que son dos letras, lo - escrivian ellos con tres, puniendo a la aspiracion de la <i>l</i> la - vocale <i>é</i> que antes de si trae, y en esto no hierran. aunque - usense, si quisieren ellos de su curiosidad, exemplo: <i>e L e Lé.</i> - Despues al cabo le pegan la parte junta. <i>Ha</i> que quiere dezir - agua, porque la <i>haché</i> tiene <i>a</i>, <i>h</i>, antes de si - la ponen ellos al prinicipio con <i>a</i>, y al cabo deste manera, - <i>ha</i>. Tambien lo escriven a partes pero de la una y otra manera, - yo no pusiera aqui ni tratara dello sino por dar cuenta enters de las - cosas desta gente. <i>Ma in kati</i> quiere dezir no quiero, ellos - lo escriven a partes desta manera: <i>ma i n ka ti.</i>”</span>—<cite>Landa, - Relacion</cite>, p. 318, translated by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. - ii, p. 778. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 322. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> Bollaert, <cite>Examination of Central American - Hieroglyphs</cite>, in <cite>Memoirs of Anthropological Soc. of London</cite>, - vol. iii, pp. 288–314. London, 1870. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> Charencey, <cite>Essai de Déchiffrement d’un fragment - d’inscription palenquéenne</cite>, in <cite>Actes de la Société - Philologique</cite>, tom. i. March, 1870. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> Rosny, <cite>Essai sur le Déchiffrement de L’Écriture - Hiératique de L’Amérique Centrale</cite>, Paris, 1876, folio, with large - colored plates and fac-similes. In three parts, two of which only have - as yet appeared (Oct. 1878). The author informs me (Feb. 1879) that a - fourth part will be required to complete the work. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> Bollaert in <cite>Memoirs of Anthropol. Soc. of London</cite>, - vol. iii, p. 298. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 301. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 307. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> See a review of these attempts in Rosny’s <cite>Essai</cite>, - pp. 12–13, and remarks on Charencey in Appendix D of Baldwin’s - <cite>Ancient America</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> <cite>Examination of Cent. Am. Hier.</cite>, p. 306. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> <cite>The Ancient Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan</cite>, p. 6, - N. Y., 1870, cited by Rosny, <cite>Essai</cite>, p. 25. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> <cite>Essai</cite>, p. 26; Rosny cites Bancroft’s opinion to - the same effect, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 782. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 529–33. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 537. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> Gemelli Carreri, Humboldt, Kingsborough, Ramirez in - Garcia y Cubas, and Bancroft; see this work, chapter vi, p. 262. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> Vol. ii, pp. 544–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. i, pl. lxi; explanation, vol. - v, pp. 96–7; Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 538–40. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> Delafield, <cite>Antiq. of Am.</cite>, pp. 42–7. M. Ed. - Madier de Montjau has recently added much to our understanding of - Aztec picture-writing in his Chronologie hieroglyphico-phonétic des - rois Aztèques de 1352–1522 retrouvée dans diverses mappes américaines - antiques, expliquée et précédée d’une introduction sur l’Écriture - mexicaine. A valuable article on the same subject is found in the - <cite>Congrès des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. ii, pp. - 346–362, by M. l’Abbé Jules Pipart, entitled Eléments phonétiques dans - les Ecritures figuratives des anciens Mexicains. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> An excellent account of the various collections of - Aztec picture-writing will be found in the introduction to Domenech’s - <cite>Manuscrit Pictographique</cite>, Paris, 1860, 8vo; a book which would - be valueless but for that feature. See also account of M. Aubun’s - collection in Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Hist. Nat. Civ.</cite>, tom. i, - pp. lxxvi–lxxviii. For general description of hieroglyphic principles - see Tylor, <cite>Researches</cite>, pp. 89–101, and Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, - tom. i, pp. 177–9, 162–202. See also Boturini, <cite>Idea de una - Hist.</cite>, pp. 5, 77, 87, 96, 112, 116. Prescott, <cite>Conq. Mex.</cite> - (Kirk’s ed., 1875), vol. i, pp. 94, 99, 107–9. Clavigero, <cite>Storia - Ant. del Messico</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 187–94. Mendoza, in <cite>Soc. Mex. - Geog. Boletin</cite>, 2d época, tom. i, pp. 896–904. Gallatin in <cite>Amer. - Ethno. Soc. Transact.</cite>, vol. i, pp. 126, 165–69. Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 87, and Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Hist. - Chich.</cite> in Kingsborough, vol. ix, p. 201. Torquemada, <cite>Monarq. - Ind.</cite>, tom. i, p. 149. Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 521–52. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Landa, <cite>Relation</cite>, pp. 204–316, and the work by - Perez, entitled <cite>Cronologia Antigua de Yucatan</cite>, with Brasseur’s - translation into French in the above work, pp. 366–429. Also see - English translation in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 434–59. - See also Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 104–8, and an able - discussion in Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 755–67. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 204. Bancroft’s <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 756. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 757. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> See Perez’s Appendix to Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. - i, pp. 458–59, and in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, Appendix, pp. 370–382, - and Brasseur in the same. Especially Rosny, <cite>Essai sur le Dech. de - L’Écrit. Hiérat. de L’Amér. Cent.</cite>, pp. 15–24. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. 234. Perez in Landa, pp. 394 - <i>et seq.</i>, and in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 439; also - see Bancroft, vol. ii, pp. 759 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> Perez in Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 366–8; also cited - by Bancroft, vol. ii, p. 759. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 318–19. Stephens - was unable to assign any use to the pillars referred to. He counted - upwards of 380. Dr. Le Plongeon accords with our view. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, pp. 441 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> See Landa, <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 313, 400–412; Stephens, - <cite>Yucatan</cite>, Perez, vol. i, pp. 441–447, MS. cited in vol. ii, - pp. 465–469; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 762–765; M. - Delaporte, <cite>Le Calendrier Yucatèque</cite>, MS. cited by Rosny, <cite>Essai - sur le déchiffrement de L’Écriture Hiératique</cite>, p. 25. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> Perez in Stephens’ <cite>Yucatan</cite>, vol. i, p. 447. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, tom. i, lib. ii, pp. 49–76; - lib. iv, pp. 282–310, gives a partial though very satisfactory account. - Leon y Gama, <cite>Dos Piedras</cite>, is critical and learned, but often - incorrect. Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, furnishes an elaborate account, which - is very valuable though complicated. Veytia’s explanation is the result - of thorough research, <cite>Hist. Ant. Mej.</cite>, tom. i. Gallatin is - extremely clear and reliable in <cite>Amer. Ethno. Soc. Transactions</cite>, - vol. i. McCulloch’s <cite>Researches in Amer.</cite>, pp. 201–25. Bancroft’s - <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 502–22, furnishes us an account, - clear and full, as are all of his discussions. Several cuts enhance - the value of the chapter. We especially refer the reader to his rich - bibliography of the subject, appended in notes. A number of additional - authors are before us: Ixtlilxochitl, Müller, Herrera, Clavigero, - Brasseur de Bourbourg, Boturini, Prichard, but last and best is the - ingenious and masterly <cite>Vortrag über den Mexicanischen Calender stein - gehalten von Prof.</cite> <cite>Ph. Valentini, am 30 April, 1878</cite> (in - Republican Hall, New York), <cite>vor dem Deutsch ges. wissenschaftlichen - Verein</cite>, 32 pp. 8vo, recently translated and published by Stephen Salisbury, Jr. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 508. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> Mr. Bancroft also follows the opinion that the above - date is the correct one.—<cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 515. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 512. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> Prof. Valentini, <cite>Vortrag</cite>, p. 16. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, p. 513. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> Mr. Bancroft incorrectly states that thirteen days were - intercalated at the end of each tlalpilli (13 years). It is plain - that if 365 days constitute a year, the lost time would not amount to - thirteen days before fifty-two years. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> Prof. Valentini quotes the terms given above, and Mr. - Bancroft states that the same process of computation was pursued in - both divisions. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> See <cite>The Nation</cite> for Aug. 8, 1878, p. 84, and - for Sept. 19, 1878. Also Mr. Salisbury’s translation of Valentini’s - <cite>Vortrag</cite>, Worcester, 1879. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> Prof. Valentini cites <cite>Codex Vaticanus</cite>, pl. - 91, <cite>Codex Boturini</cite>, pl. 10, <cite>Codex Tellerianus</cite>, pl. 6 - and 8. The Professor in making the comparison, remarks: <span lang="de">“Auf beiden - senkt sich ein Schaft in ein rundes Loch, von welchem aus sich etwas - volutenähnliches hervorwindet. Wir gewahren auf den gemalten Bildern, - dass jede der Voluten in 2 Hälften getheilt ist, die eine grau die - andere roth gemalt. Dieselbe Abtheilung finden wir auch auf der - Sculptur. Was dieses Symbol bedeute, wird uns aus der Beobachtung klar, - dass wir es in den gemalten Jahrestafeln immer nur dann wiederkehrend - finden, sobald 52 Jahre verflossen sind. Wir sehen es immer gerade an - das Symbol dieses 52ten Jahres angehängt, an einer Stelle, in Cod. - Tell. IV, Pl. 8. 1. Kingsb. Coll., vol. i, es erscheint auch mit einem - erklärenden Texte. Er lautet: ‘<cite>Dieses ist das Zeichen für die - Zusammenbindung der 52 Jahre.</cite>’”</span>—<cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 23, 24. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> Prof. Valentini, <cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 24, 25, cites - <cite>Codex Selden</cite>, pl. 10, <cite>Codex Laud</cite>, pl. 8, and <cite>Codex - Veletri</cite>, fol. 34. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> Prof. Valentini cites a Codex from the Squier - collection, where the symbol occurs accompanied with the word - <i>Molpiynxihuitl</i>, which translated means “the binding of the - years.” He also cites <cite>Codex Boturini</cite>, pl. 10, Kingsborough - Collection.—<cite>Vortrag</cite>, pp. 25, 26. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon in <cite>Yucatan</cite>, by Stephen Salisbury, - Jr., p. 88. Worcester, 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> <cite>Monarq. Ind.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 254 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> Humboldt, <cite>Vues</cite>, pp. 148 <i>et seq.</i> (Ed. - 1810.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 152. On page 150 he furnishes tables - of comparison which show unmistakably the analogy between the Mexican - Calendar and that of the people of Eastern Asia. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> Cabrera, <cite>Teatro</cite> in <cite>Rio’s Description</cite>, pp. - 103–5. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> Delafield’s <cite>American Antiquities</cite>, pp. 52–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 174, 182. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. vi, p. 163. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> <cite>Mexican Antiquities</cite>, vol. viii, p. 19. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> “It is impossible on reading what Mexican mythology - records of the war in heaven, and of the fall of Zoutemoque and - the other rebellious spirits; of the creation of light by the word - Touacatecutli, and of the division of the waters; of the sin of - Yztlacohuhqui, and his blindness and nakedness; of the temptation of - Suchiquecal and her disobedience in gathering roses from a tree, and - the consequent misery and disgrace of herself and all her posterity—not - to recognize scriptural analogies. But the Mexican tradition of the - deluge is that which bears the most unequivocal marks of having been - derived from a Hebrew source. This tradition records that a few - persons escaped in the Ahuehuete, or ark of fir, when the earth was - swallowed up by the deluge, the chief of whom was named Patecatle or - Cipaquetona; that he invented the art of making wine; that Xelua, one - of his descendants, at least one of those who escaped with him in the - ark, was present at the building of a high tower, which the succeeding - generation constructed with a view of escaping from the deluge should - it again occur; that Tonacatecutli, incensed at their presumption, - destroyed the tower with lightning, confounded their language and - dispersed them; and that Xelua led a colony to the New World.”—<cite>Mex. - Antiq.</cite>, tom. vi, p. 401. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> Ixtlilxochitl’s <cite>Relaciones</cite> in <cite>Mex. Ant.</cite>, - vol. ix, and this work, chap. vi. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 66, - 68. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 27. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 246. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 253. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 361. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. viii, p. 67. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 137. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 382. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 238; washing of hands after - meals, see p. 53, Appendix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 414; vol. viii, p. 18. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> The following is Kingsborough’s account of the Mexican - baptism: “The midwife took the infant in her arms naked, and carried it - into the court of the mother’s house, in which court were strewed reeds - or rushes, which they call Tule, upon which was placed a small vessel - of water, in which the said midwife bathed the said infant; and after - she had bathed it, three boys being seated near the said rushes, eating - roasted maize mixed with boiled beans, which kind of food they named - Yxcue, which provision or paste they set before the said boys, in order - that they might eat it. After the said bathing or washing, the said - midwife desired the said boys to pronounce the name aloud, bestowing a - new name on the infant which had been thus bathed; and the name which - they gave it was that which the midwife wished.”—<cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, - vol. vi, p. 45. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 248. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 69. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 163 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 167. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 248. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 125; <cite>Codex - Telleriano-Remensis</cite>, pl. xix; <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vii, - pp. 240–1, and Duran, MS., part ii, cap. 20; see further, <cite>Mex. - Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 135–218. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 121–2. He cites several - authors to prove this sweeping statement, and is not content with - finding it among the Indians, but is provoked by his zeal to discover - the practice of the same rite among the Hottentots. See <i>Ibid.</i>, - vol. vi, pp. 272, 333–5; vol. viii, pp. 143, 391, 20. On page 393, vol - vi, he makes this remarkable statement: “From an examination of some - of the Mexican paintings, it would appear that circumcision among the - Indians was not confined to the human species.” Also vol. viii, p. 155: - “The head of the Totonac high-priest, was anointed by the blood of - circumcised children.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, p. 273; vol. viii, pp. 157, - 236, 160. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 504. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 361. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 257. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 222. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 142. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 258. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 301, 312; vol. viii, pp. - 23–58. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 27. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, p. 32. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. viii, pp. 26–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 190. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, pp. 207–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi, p. 261. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. vi, pp. 207–8. He thinks the - gospel must have been preached at an early day in Yucatan, and in proof - cites from the sixth chapter of the Fourth Book of Cogolludo’s History - the following: “A certain ecclesiastic wrote to a priest commissioned - by Las Casas, that he met a principle-lord, who, on being questioned - respecting the ancient religion which they professed, told him that - they knew and believed in the God who was in Heaven, and that this - God was the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, and that the Father was named - Yzona, who had created man; and that the Son was called Bacab, who was - born of a virgin of the name of Chiribirias, and that the mother of - Chiribirias was named Yxchel; and that the Holy Ghost was named Echvah. - Of Bacab, the Son, they said he was put to death and scourged and - crowned with thorns and placed with his arms extended upon a beam of - wood, to which they did not suppose that he had been nailed, but that - he was tied, where he died and remained dead during three days, and on - the third day came to life and ascended into heaven, where he is with - his Father; and that immediately afterwards Echvah, who is the Holy - Ghost, came and filled the earth with whatsoever it stood in need of.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> Mr. Bancroft in his fifth vol., pp. 84–89, has collated - a great number of Lord Kingsborough’s analogies. Our limited space - forbids further treatment. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt’s - <cite>Vues</cite>, tom. i, p. 236. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, p. 41; Humboldt, - <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 256; Tschudi, <cite>Peruvian Antiq.</cite>, p. 211. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 230 (ed. 1810). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> Viollet-le-Duc in Charnay’s <cite>Ruins</cite>, pp. 41–2. - Paris, 1863. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> <cite>Vues</cite>, p. 148 (ed. 1810). - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> <cite>Mœurs des Sauvages</cite>, pp. 108–455. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> Brasseur in <cite>Introduction</cite> to Landa’s - <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. lxx–i. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, <cite>Introduc.</cite>, pp. lxxi - <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg in Landa, pp. lxvi–ix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> We have not thought it necessary to treat the mythology - or religious systems of the Mayas and Nahuas in any formal manner, - but only incidentally to call attention to some salient features, - cropping out in connection with the subject in hand. The religions of - the ancient Americans have been so often and so admirably treated, that - anything relating to them in this connection would be superfluous. - See especially Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii; Müller’s - <cite>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</cite>; Squier’s <cite>Serpent - Symbol in America</cite>; Brinton’s <cite>Myths of the New World</cite>, and - <i>Ibid.</i>, <cite>Religious Sentiments in the New World</cite>. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> <cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 134–6. London, 1873. - 12mo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> Spanish, in Kingsborough’s <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. - viii, pp. 110–15. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> English translation in Prescott’s <cite>Mexico</cite>, vol. - iii, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 494–97. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_704" href="#FNanchor_704" class="label">[704]</a> <cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 125–26. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_705" href="#FNanchor_705" class="label">[705]</a> The same author refers to the classification of - languages adopted by Prof. Steinthal in his <cite>Charakteristik der - hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues</cite>. Languages are divided - into <em>cultivated</em> and <em>uncultivated</em>, and each again - are subdivided into <em>isolating</em> and <em>inflectional</em>. The - American languages are classed as uncultivated and inflectional by - incorporation.—(<cite>Families of Speech</cite>, p. 127.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_706" href="#FNanchor_706" class="label">[706]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 559, - 670–2. See on the latter page especially a vocabulary of resemblances. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_707" href="#FNanchor_707" class="label">[707]</a> We refer the reader who is interested in the aboriginal - languages of the North-west to the <cite>Contributions to North American - Ethnology</cite>, published by the Department of the Interior, under the - direction of Major J. W. Powell, Washington, 1877. 3 vols. 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_708" href="#FNanchor_708" class="label">[708]</a> Garcia y Cubas, <cite>The Republic of Mexico in 1876</cite>. - A political and ethnographical division of the population, etc., - translated by Geo. F. Henderson, p. 66. Mexico, 1876. Most of the above - names are cited by Mr. Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. - 760; by Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 18–25 <i>et passim</i>, - and by Pimentel, <cite>Lenguas Indígenas de Mex.</cite>, vol. ii, p. 5 <i>et - seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_709" href="#FNanchor_709" class="label">[709]</a> <cite>Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, vol. ii, p. 3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_710" href="#FNanchor_710" class="label">[710]</a> <cite>Geografía de las Lenguas de Mex.</cite>, pp. 129. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_711" href="#FNanchor_711" class="label">[711]</a> See Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 760, - and the literary apparatus appended. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_712" href="#FNanchor_712" class="label">[712]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 22, 128. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_713" href="#FNanchor_713" class="label">[713]</a> Communication of Dr. Le Plongeon to the Hon. John W. - Foster, minister of the United States at Mexico, dated Island of - Cozumel, May 1, 1877, in Salisbury’s <cite>Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, - p. 83. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_714" href="#FNanchor_714" class="label">[714]</a> Dr. Le Plongeon, communication to Stephen Salisbury, - Jr., Esq., dated Island of Cozumel, June 15, 1877. He remarks: - “Notwithstanding a few guttural sounds, the Maya is soft, pliant, - rich in diction and expression, even every shade of thought may be - expressed.” “Strange to say the language remained unaltered. Even - to-day, in many places in Yucatan the descendants of the Spanish - conquerors have forgotten the native tongue of their sires, and only - speak Maya, the idiom of the vanquished.”—<cite>Communication above cited - in Salisbury’s Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, pp. 95 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_715" href="#FNanchor_715" class="label">[715]</a> The following is Señor Melgar’s comparative list with - the Spanish translated into English. - - <table class="small mt2 mb2" summary="Maya language"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th><i>Hebrew.</i></th> - <th><i>English.</i></th> - <th><i>Chiapenec.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td>Ben,</td> - <td>Son,</td> - <td>Been.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bath,</td> - <td>Daughter,</td> - <td>Batz.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Abbá,</td> - <td>Father,</td> - <td>Abagh.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chimah,</td> - <td>Star in Zodiac? the creator of rain,</td> - <td>Chimax.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maloc,</td> - <td>King,</td> - <td>Molo.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Abah,</td> - <td>Name applied to Adam,</td> - <td>Abagh.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chanan,</td> - <td>Afflicted,</td> - <td>Chanam.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Elab,</td> - <td>God,</td> - <td>Elab.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tischiri,</td> - <td>September,</td> - <td>Tsiquin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chi,</td> - <td>More,</td> - <td>Chic.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chabic,</td> - <td>Rich,</td> - <td>Chabin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Enos,</td> - <td>Son of Seth,</td> - <td>Enot.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Votan,</td> - <td>To give,</td> - <td>Votan.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lambotus,</td> - <td>River of Arica,</td> - <td>Lambat.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>He adds: <span lang="es">“Todas estas coincidencias hacer suponer que en épocas muy - remotas existeron communicaciones entre el viejo y el nuevo mundo.”</span> He - then refers to Plato’s <cite>Atlantis</cite>.—<cite>Melgar in Sociedad Mex. de - Geog. Boletin</cite>, iii, <cite>Época</cite>, p. 108.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_716" href="#FNanchor_716" class="label">[716]</a> Brasseur’s letter to M. Rafn in <cite>Nouvelles Annales des - Voy.</cite>, 6th series, vol. xvi, p. 263. He thinks the Scandinavians - may have reached those remote parts at an early day. On pp. 281–9 he - gives a list of words chosen from the Quiché, Cakchiquel and Zutohil, - showing analogies with languages of Northern Europe, especially with - the Scandinavian. Also see the same author in the <cite>Nouv. Ann. des - Voy.</cite>, 6th series, vol. iii, 1855, pp. 156–7. The Abbé in a letter - to the <cite>New York Tribune</cite>, November 21st, 1855, in referring - to the early inhabitants of Vera Paz, says: “<em>They came from the - east</em>—not from the south-east, <em>but from the north-east</em>. I - speak only of the tribes of Quiché-Cakchiquel and Zutohil. They came - from the north-east, certainly passed through the United States, and as - they say themselves, <em>they crossed the sea in darkness, mist, cold - and snow</em>. I suppose they must have come from Denmark and Norway. - They came in small numbers, and lost their white blood by their mixture - with the Indians whom they found—whether in the United States or in - these regions, certainly there must have been a Tula in our northern - European countries. But what is more convincing of this migration or - passage, I find the same result by a comparison of the languages. I - cannot speak of the structure of them, but by what I have observed is - that the fundamental forms and words of the languages of these regions - (except the Mexican) are intimately connected with the Maya or Tzendal, - and that all the words that are neither Mexican nor Maya belong to our - languages of Northern Europe, viz.: English, Saxon, Danish, Norwegian, - Swedish, Flemish and German, some even appear to belong to the French - or Persian.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_717" href="#FNanchor_717" class="label">[717]</a> Dr. Farrar, referring to the Basque, says: “What is - certain about it is, that its structure is polysynthetic, like the - language of America. Like them, and them only, it habitually forms its - compounds by the elimination of certain radicals in the simple words; - so that, <i>e. g.</i>, <i>ilhun</i>, twilight, is contracted from - <i>hill</i>, dead, and <i>egun</i>, day; and <i>belhaun</i>, the knee, - from <i>belhar</i>, front, and <i>oin</i>, leg. It was this fact that - made Larramendi give to his treatise on Basque grammar the title of - ‘The Impossible Overcome.’ The most daring of all the hypotheses which - have been suggested points to the conceivable existence of some great - Atlantis; to the possibility of the ‘Basque area being the remains of - a vast system, of which Madeira and the Azores are fragments belonging - to the Miocene period.’ Be this as it may, the fact is indisputable - and is eminently noteworthy that, while the affinities of the Basque - roots have never been conclusively elucidated, there has never been - any doubt that this isolated language, preserving its identity in a - western corner of Europe between two mighty kingdoms, resembles in its - grammatical structure the aboriginal languages of the vast opposite - continent, and those alone.”—<cite>Families of Speech</cite>, pp. 132–3. - Also see Alfred Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indigenous Races of the - Earth</cite>, p. 48. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_718" href="#FNanchor_718" class="label">[718]</a> See Maury in Nott and Gliddon’s <cite>Indig. Races</cite>, pp. - 81–84. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_719" href="#FNanchor_719" class="label">[719]</a> Salisbury’s <cite>Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, p. 96. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_720" href="#FNanchor_720" class="label">[720]</a> See on the Maya, Ruz, <cite>Gram. Yucateca</cite>; Pimentel, - <cite>Quadro Leng. Indig.</cite>, tom. ii, pp. 5 <i>et seq.</i>, whose - grammar we have followed above. Also vol. ii, pp. 119, 221; vol. i, - p. 229, for idioms; Gallatin in <cite>Am. Ethnol. Soc. Transact.</cite>, - vol. i, pp. 252 et seq.; Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>. tom. iii, pt. - iii, pp. 4–24; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <cite>Grammaire</cite> in Landa’s - <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. 459 <i>et seq.</i>, also <cite>Maya and French - Vocabulary</cite>; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 759–82, - quotes prayer as above. Further see literature cited in Ludewig’s - <cite>Literature of American Aboriginal Languages</cite>, ed. of Trübner. - London, 1858, pp. 102–3. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_721" href="#FNanchor_721" class="label">[721]</a> Full accounts of the grammatical structure of the - languages of this family may be found in Pimentel’s <cite>Quadro</cite>, tom. - i, pp. 35–78, 321–60; Orozco y Berra’s <cite>Geografía</cite>, pp. 25 <i>et - seq.</i>; Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 748–58. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_722" href="#FNanchor_722" class="label">[722]</a> Ixtlilxochitl, <cite>Hist. Chic.</cite> in Kingsborough’s - <cite>Mex. Antiq.</cite>, vol. ix, p. 217, and cited by Bancroft, <cite>Native - Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 724. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_723" href="#FNanchor_723" class="label">[723]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 724–5; Pimentel, - <cite>Quadro Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, tom. i, pp. 154–8, and our - discussion in this work, chapter vi. p. 255. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_724" href="#FNanchor_724" class="label">[724]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 726–7. The same - author refers to the <cite>Natural History</cite> of Dr. Hernandez, written - in the Aztec, as proof of its copiousness. “Twelve hundred different - species of Mexican plants, two hundred or more species of birds, and a - large number of quadrupeds, reptiles, insects and metals, each of which - is given its proper name in the Mexican language.” (Quoted by Pimentel, - <cite>Quadro.</cite>, vol. i, p. 168.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_725" href="#FNanchor_725" class="label">[725]</a> See Prescott’s <cite>Conq. of Mex.</cite>, vol. i, p. 174 (ed. - of 1875). “Tezcuco,” says Boturini, “where the noblemen sent their sons - to acquire the most polished dialect of the Nahuatlac language, and - to study poetry, moral philosophy, the heathen theology, astronomy, - medicine and history.” (<cite>Idea</cite>, p. 142, cited by Prescott.) - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_726" href="#FNanchor_726" class="label">[726]</a> <cite>Geografía de las Lenguas</cite>, p. 9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_727" href="#FNanchor_727" class="label">[727]</a> Pimentel, <cite>Quadro, Lenguas Indig.</cite>, p. 165, also - copied by Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 731. From - Pimentel we draw our extract of Aztec Grammar. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_728" href="#FNanchor_728" class="label">[728]</a> <cite>Quadro, Leng. Indig.</cite>, tom. i, p. 183. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_729" href="#FNanchor_729" class="label">[729]</a> It will be observed in some portions of this abstract, - I have used almost the same words as are employed by Mr. Bancroft. - This is owing to the fact that both he and I have translated certain - passages literally from Señor Pimentel, from whose work I have drawn - this account throughout. See <cite>Quadro, Lenguas Indig. de Mex.</cite>, - tom. i, pp. 164–216; Gallatin in <cite>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, - vol. i, pp. 214–246; Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>, vol. iii, pt. iii, pp. - 85–106, and Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 721–37. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_730" href="#FNanchor_730" class="label">[730]</a> <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 726. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_731" href="#FNanchor_731" class="label">[731]</a> <cite>Mithridates</cite>, tom. iii, pt. iii, pp. 75 <i>et - seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_732" href="#FNanchor_732" class="label">[732]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 663–70, our - authority for the facts stated on p. 486. See his sketch of the theory - and the reaction under Buschmann. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_733" href="#FNanchor_733" class="label">[733]</a> <cite>Die Lautveränderung Aztekischer Wörter in der - Sonorischen Sprachen.</cite> Berlin, 1855, 4to, and <cite>Die Spuren der - Aztekischen Sprachen</cite>. Berlin, 1850, 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_734" href="#FNanchor_734" class="label">[734]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 669. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_735" href="#FNanchor_735" class="label">[735]</a> Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 667–8; - William von Humboldt in Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite> pp. - 48–50; Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, p. 39. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_736" href="#FNanchor_736" class="label">[736]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 172; Orozco - y Berra, <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 321–5; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, - vol. iii, p. 714. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_737" href="#FNanchor_737" class="label">[737]</a> <cite>Geografia</cite>, pp. 58, 147–8. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_738" href="#FNanchor_738" class="label">[738]</a> “As regards this Aztec element, I do not mean to say - that these languages are related to the Aztec language in the same - sense that other languages are spoken of as being related to each - other, for this might lead those who are searching for the former - habitation or fatherland of the Aztecs, to suppose that it has been - found. This element consists simply in a number of words identical or - reasonably approximate to the like Aztec words, and in the similarity, - perhaps, of a few grammatical rules. How this Aztec word-material crept - into the languages of the Shoshones, whether by inter-communication, or - Aztec colonization, we do not know. Nor do I wish to be understood as - attempting to sustain the popular theory of an Aztec migration from the - North; on the contrary, the evidences of language are all on the other - side.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 660–1. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_739" href="#FNanchor_739" class="label">[739]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 290; - Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 673–4. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_740" href="#FNanchor_740" class="label">[740]</a> <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, pp. 349–51, 391, 648–52 - <i>et seq.</i>; Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 661–79, - comparative table compiled from Buschmann, Turner, Molina, Ortega, and - others, on p. 678. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_741" href="#FNanchor_741" class="label">[741]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, p. 629, and - Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, pp. 630–1. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_742" href="#FNanchor_742" class="label">[742]</a> “The Chinook language is spoken by all the nations from - the mouth of the Columbia to the Falls. It is hard and difficult to - pronounce for strangers, being full of gutturals like the Gaelic. The - combinations <i>thl</i> or <i>tl</i> are as frequent in the Chinook as - in the Mexican.”—Franchère, <cite>Narrative of a Voy. to N. W. Coast of - N. Am.</cite>, p. 262. Swan, speaking of the Chinook, says: “The peculiar - clucking sound is produced by pressing the tongue against the roof of - the mouth, and pronouncing the word ending with <i>tl</i> as if it were - the letter <i>k</i> at the end of the <i>tl</i>; but it is impossible - in any form or method of spelling that I know of, to convey the proper - guttural clucking sound. Sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end - all their words in <i>tl</i>; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three - or four talking at the same time with this singular sound, like so many - sitting-hens.”—<cite>North West Coast</cite>, p. 315. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_743" href="#FNanchor_743" class="label">[743]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Spuren der Aztek. Spr.</cite>, pp. 628–9; - Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 619. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_744" href="#FNanchor_744" class="label">[744]</a> Gibbs’ <cite>Alphabetical Vocab. of Clallam and Lummi - Lang.</cite>, p. 6; Gallatin, in <cite>Trans. Am. Eth. Soc.</cite>, vol. i, p. 54. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_745" href="#FNanchor_745" class="label">[745]</a> Buschmann, <cite>Die Völker und Sprachen Neu-Mexico’s</cite>, - p. 370, calls attention to the great resemblance of - - <table class="small" summary="Language"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th><i>Aztec.</i></th> - <th colspan="3"> </th> - <th><i>Nutka.</i></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td>tepuztli</td> - <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td> - <td>copper</td> - <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td> - <td>chipuz</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>tetl</td> - <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td> - <td>stone</td> - <td class="tdc"><div>=</div></td> - <td>tenetschök</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p class="noindent">and adds that <cite>Esquiates</cite> the name of a society is - entirely Mexican. We append the result of his investigations:</p> - - <p lang="de">“Von ähnlicher Art, gleich den Spanisch gemodelten Gestalten - Mexicanischer Wörter, sind viele Nutka-Wörter der Spanischen Sammlung: - nur mit dem Unterschiede, dass sie auf keinen vorhandenen mexicanischen - Wörtern beruhen (da zufällig diese Buchstaben-combinationem in - der Azt. Sprache nicht vorkommen, aber ihren Wesen nach recht gut - vorkommen könnten). Solche Wörter sind: <i>iztocoti</i> = Muschel - (dazu Eigenname <i>iztocoti</i> No. 923); <i>majati</i> = jagd (caza), - <i>mamati</i> = Hof, <i>muztati</i> = Regenbogen: <i>cucustlati</i> = - Nasenloch, <i>natlaycazte</i> = Rippen; <i>otniquit</i> = Jungfrau; - <i>mamatle</i> = Schiff; <i>oumatle</i> = Leib; <i>aguequetle</i> - = Hunger; <i>capitzitle</i> = Dieb; <i>tahechitle</i> = larga: - <i>temextixitle</i> = Kuss; <i>cuachitle</i> = reisen; <i>cuchitle</i> - = pincher; <i>meyali</i> = Schmerz. Es giebt noch eine höhere Gattung - von Nutka-Wörtern (der Span. Reise), welche (besonders durch die - Aechtheit ihrer Endung von der vorigen verschieden) ganz und gar - wie mexicanische Wörter aussehen, und (so weit sie substantiva - sind) mexicanische sein würden, wenn es der Sprache beliebt hätte - diese bestimmten Lautgestalten zu bilden: <i>inapatl</i> = Rücken; - <i>tlexatl</i> = Matte; <i>tzahuacatl</i> = 9; <i>chamiehtl</i> = Iris; - <i>naguatzitl</i> = Zwerg; <i>naschitl</i> = Tag; <i>jacamitl</i> = - viereckig; <i>huatzacchitl</i> = Husten; <i>nectzitl</i> = trinken; - <i>pugxitl</i> = heben; <i>cocotl</i> = Seeotter; <i>amanutl</i> - = espinilla; <i>apactzutl</i> = Bart; <i>ictlatzutl</i> = Mund; - <i>iniyutl</i> = Kehle; <i>jayutl</i> = Fluth; <i>tlatlacastzeme</i> - = Blätter (wie ein Mex. Plural in <i>me</i>); <i>coyactzac</i> = - Fuchsbalg. Noch mehr Wörter finden sich, wenn man für die Mex. - Sprache unnatürliche und zu harte Consonanten—Verbindungen übersieht. - Diese letzte höhere Gattung vorzüglich, doch auch die erstere meint - Alexander von Humboldt in der obigen Stelle (S. 363). So gawinnt die - Nutka-Sprache durch eine reiche Zahl von Wörtern und durch grosse - Züge ihres Lautwesens, einzig von allen anderen fremden, die ich - habe aufdecken können, in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende - Aehnlichkeit mit der Aztekischen oder Mexicanischen; und so wird die - ihr schon früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt. - Ihrer Mexicanischen Erscheinrung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite - hier ausspreche jede Wirklichkeit.”—<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 371.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_746" href="#FNanchor_746" class="label">[746]</a> <cite>Compte-Rendu Seconde Ses. Cong. Internat, des - Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, vol. i, pp. 51–2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_747" href="#FNanchor_747" class="label">[747]</a> Bancroft’s <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. iii, p. 727. - Acosta, <cite>Hist. Nat. Ind.</cite>, p. 600. Sahagun, <cite>Hist. Gen.</cite>, - tom. iii, lib. ix, cap. 9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_748" href="#FNanchor_748" class="label">[748]</a> “To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, - when visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the - shores of Oregon, Washington and Vancouver’s Island, nations that - now and then understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other - tongues, some of which had been adopted into their own language. When - Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon [Chinook] - seems to have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the - sentences quoted by the explorers.”—<cite>Bancroft’s Native Races</cite>, - vol. iii, p. 632. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_749" href="#FNanchor_749" class="label">[749]</a> I append a partial list from Señor Najera’s - <cite>Disertacion sobre la lengua</cite> <cite>Othomi</cite>, Mexico, 1845, fol., - pp. 87–8. I have rendered the Spanish list into English. - - <table class="small mt1" summary="Language"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Othomi.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>English.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl2 bt bb"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl bt bb"><div><i>Othomi.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl bt bb br"><div><i>English.</i></div></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Cho.</td> - <td class="bl">To.</td> - <td class="bl">The, that.</td> - <td class="bl2">Pa.</td> - <td class="bl">Da.</td> - <td class="bl br">To give.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Y.</td> - <td class="bl">N-y.</td> - <td class="bl">A wound.</td> - <td class="bl2">Tsun.</td> - <td class="bl">Nsu.</td> - <td class="bl br">Honor.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Ten.</td> - <td class="bl">Gu, Mu.</td> - <td class="bl">Head.</td> - <td class="bl2">Hu.</td> - <td class="bl">Hmu.</td> - <td class="bl br">Sir, Lord.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Siao.</td> - <td class="bl">Sui.</td> - <td class="bl">Night.</td> - <td class="bl2">Na.</td> - <td class="bl">Na.</td> - <td class="bl br">That.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Tien.</td> - <td class="bl">Tsi.</td> - <td class="bl">Tooth.</td> - <td class="bl2">Hu.</td> - <td class="bl">He.</td> - <td class="bl br">Cold.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Ye.</td> - <td class="bl">Yo.</td> - <td class="bl">Shining.</td> - <td class="bl2">Ye.</td> - <td class="bl">He.</td> - <td class="bl br">And.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Ky.</td> - <td class="bl">Hy (ji).</td> - <td class="bl">Happiness.</td> - <td class="bl2">Hos.</td> - <td class="bl">Hia.</td> - <td class="bl br">Word.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Ku.</td> - <td class="bl">Du.</td> - <td class="bl">Death.</td> - <td class="bl2">Nugo.</td> - <td class="bl">Nga.</td> - <td class="bl br">I.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Po.</td> - <td class="bl">Yo.</td> - <td class="bl">No.</td> - <td class="bl2">Ni.</td> - <td class="bl">Nuy.</td> - <td class="bl br">Thou.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Na.</td> - <td class="bl">Ta.</td> - <td class="bl">Man.</td> - <td class="bl2">Hao.</td> - <td class="bl">Nho.</td> - <td class="bl br">The good.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Nin.</td> - <td class="bl">Nsu.</td> - <td class="bl">Female.</td> - <td class="bl2">Ta.</td> - <td class="bl">Da.</td> - <td class="bl br">The great.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Tseu.</td> - <td class="bl">Tsi, Ti.</td> - <td class="bl">Son.</td> - <td class="bl2">Li.</td> - <td class="bl">Ti.</td> - <td class="bl br">Gain.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">Tso.</td> - <td class="bl">Tsa.</td> - <td class="bl">To perfect.</td> - <td class="bl2">Ho.</td> - <td class="bl">To.</td> - <td class="bl br">Who.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl">uan.</td> - <td class="bl">Khuani.</td> - <td class="bl">True.</td> - <td class="bl2">Pa.</td> - <td class="bl">Pa.</td> - <td class="bl br">To leave.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl bb">Siao.</td> - <td class="bl bb">Sa.</td> - <td class="bl bb">To mock.</td> - <td class="bl2 bb">Mu, Mo.</td> - <td class="bl bb">Me.</td> - <td class="bl bb br">Mother.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_750" href="#FNanchor_750" class="label">[750]</a> Warden, in <cite>Antiquités Mexicaines</cite>, tom. ii, - div. ii, pp. 125 <i>et seq.</i> The same author has furnished many - linguistic analogies, though without following any scientific - classification. Ampère, <cite>Promenade en Amérique</cite>, vol. ii, p. 301, - furnishes a list of Chinese and Otomi resemblances. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_751" href="#FNanchor_751" class="label">[751]</a> Orozco y Berra, <cite>Geografía</cite>, p. 17. Pimentel, - <cite>Leng. Indig. de Mex.</cite>, tom. i, p. 118. Bancroft, vol. iii, p. - 737. Vater, <cite>Mithridates</cite>, tom. iii, pt. iii, p. 113. Malte-Brun - (V. S.), in <cite>Congrès des Américanistes, Luxembourg, Seconds Ses.</cite>, - tom. ii, pp. 16–18. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_752" href="#FNanchor_752" class="label">[752]</a> “In 1857, a gentleman named Henley, a good Chinese - scholar, who acted as an interpreter of this state for some time, - published a list of words in the Chinese and Indian languages to - show that they were of the same origin. From this we make an extract - supporting our remarks: - - <table class="small mt1" summary="Language 2"> - <thead> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"><div><i>Indian.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc"><div><i>English.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc bl"><div><i>Indian.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc"><div><i>Chinese.</i></div></th> - <th class="tdc"><div><i>English.</i></div></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td>Nang-a,</td> - <td>Nang,</td> - <td>Man.</td> - <td class="bl">A-pa,</td> - <td>A-pa,</td> - <td>Father.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yi-soo,</td> - <td>Soa,</td> - <td>Hand.</td> - <td class="bl">A-ma,</td> - <td>A-ma,</td> - <td>Mother.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keoka,</td> - <td>Keok,</td> - <td>Foot.</td> - <td class="bl">Ko-le,</td> - <td>A-ko,</td> - <td>Brother.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Aek-a-soo,</td> - <td>Soo,</td> - <td>Beard.</td> - <td class="bl">Ko-chae,</td> - <td>To-chae,</td> - <td>Thanks.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yuet-a,</td> - <td>Yuet,</td> - <td>Moon.</td> - <td class="bl">Nagam,</td> - <td>Yam,</td> - <td>Drunk.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yeeta,</td> - <td>Yat,</td> - <td>Sun.</td> - <td class="bl">Koolae,</td> - <td>Ku-kay,</td> - <td>Her.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Utyta,</td> - <td>Hoto,</td> - <td>Much.</td> - <td class="bl">Koo-chue,</td> - <td>Chue-koo,</td> - <td>Hog.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lee-lum,</td> - <td>Ee-lung,</td> - <td>Deafness.</td> - <td class="bl">Chookoo,</td> - <td>Kow-chi,</td> - <td>Dog.”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ho-ya-pa,</td> - <td>Ho-ah,</td> - <td>Good.</td> - <td colspan="3" class="bl"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <p>We have no means at hand of testing the following statement from - the same author: “The Chinese, who have become so numerous in - California since the discovery of gold, bear a striking resemblance - to the Indians, and are known to be able to converse with them in - their respective languages to an extent that cannot be the result of - mere coincidence of expression.”—<cite>Cronaise, The Natural Wealth of - California</cite>, p. 31. Probably a mistake.</p> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_753" href="#FNanchor_753" class="label">[753]</a> “Unhesitatingly as I make this assertion—an assertion - for which I have numerous tabulated vocabularies as proof—I am by - no means prepared to say that one-tenth part of the necessary work - has been done for the parts in question; indeed, it is my impression - that it is easier to connect America with the Kuirle Isles and - Japan, etc., than it is to make Japan and the Kuirle Isles, etc., - Asiatic.”—<cite>Latham, Man and His Migrations</cite>, pp. 195–6. Barton, - <cite>New Views</cite>, is certain that the languages of America originated - in Asia; see pp. lxxxviii–xcii. On p. 28 of Appendix he furnishes a - comparative list of Japanese and Indian words. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - - <a id="Footnote_754" href="#FNanchor_754" class="label">[754]</a> Vergleichung der Amerikanischen Sprachen mit den - Ural-Altaïschen hinsichtlich ihrer Grammatik. (<cite>Congrès des - Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. ii, p. 56 <i>et seq.</i>) - Also see E. L. O. Roehrig “On the Language of the Dakota or Sioux - Indians,” <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1872. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_755" href="#FNanchor_755" class="label">[755]</a> Prof. Valentini’s communication to the author. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_756" href="#FNanchor_756" class="label">[756]</a> Brasseur, in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, p. xxi, and - <cite>Popol Vuh</cite>, chap. iii. Brasseur, in <cite>Quatre Lettres</cite>, p. 24, - speaking of the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, says: <span lang="fr">“Oui, Monsieur, si ce - livre est en apparence l’histoire des Toltèques et ensuite des rois des - Colhuacan et de Mexico, il présente, en réalité, le récit du cataclysme - qui bouleversa le monde, il y a quelques six on sept mille ans, et - constitua le continents dans leur état actuel,” pp. 40–41. He expresses - his belief that the <cite>Cod. Chim.</cite> has a double meaning, and that - many names and symbols possessed by the natives refer to the cataclysm - which occurred six or seven thousand years ago. “C’est le récit de ces - bouleversements, c’est l’histoire du cataclysme, dont tous les peuples - ont gardé la mémoire, que racontent tous mes documents.”</span> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_757" href="#FNanchor_757" class="label">[757]</a> The following are the legends, according to Brasseur de - Bourbourg: “According to the tradition of the Sacred Book (<cite>Popol - Vuh</cite>), water and fire contributed to the universal ruin, at the - time of the last cataclysm which preceded the fourth creation. ‘Then,’ - says the author, ‘the waters were agitated by the will of the Heart of - Heaven, and a great inundation came upon the heads of these creatures. - * * * They were engulfed, and a resinous thickness descended from - heaven. * * * The face of the earth was obscured and a heavy darkening - rain commenced, rain by day and rain by night. * * * There was heard - a great noise above their heads as if produced by fire. Then were men - seen running, pushing each other, filled with despair; they wished - to climb upon their houses, and the houses tumbling down fell to the - ground; they wished to climb upon the trees, and the trees shook them - off; they wished to enter into the grottoes, and the grottoes closed - themselves before them.’ In the <cite>Codex Chimalpopoca</cite>, the author, - speaking of the destruction which took place by fire, says: ‘The third - sun is called <cite>Quia-Tonatiuh</cite>, sun of rain, because there fell - a rain of fire; all which existed burned, and there fell a rain of - gravel.’ They also narrate that whilst the sandstone which we now see - scattered about, and the <i>tetzontli</i> (amygdaloide poreuse) boiled - with great tumult, there also rose the rocks of vermillion color. Now - this was in the year <i>Ce Tecpactl</i>, One Flint, it was the day - <i>Nahui-Quiahuitl</i>, Fourth Rain. Now, in this day, in which men - were lost and destroyed in a rain of fire, they were transformed into - goslings; the sun itself was on fire, and everything, together with the - houses, was consumed.” Brasseur recounts a Haytian legend concerning - the origin of the sea and isles: “There was, they say, a powerful man - called Iaia, who, having murdered his only son, wished to bury him; - but not knowing where to put him, enclosed him in a calabash, which he - placed afterwards at the foot of a high mountain, situated a little - distance from the place where he lived; on account of his affection - for his son he often went to the spot. One day, having opened it (the - calabash), there came out whales and other very large fishes, of which - Iaia, full of fear, having returned home, told his neighbors what - had happened, saying that this calabash was filled with water and - innumerable fishes. This news being spread abroad, four twin brothers, - desiring to obtain fish, went to the place where the calabash was. - Just as they had taken it in their hand to open it, Iaia came, and - they seeing him, threw the calabash on the ground, in their fear of - him. This (the calabash) having burst, on account of the great weight - which was enclosed in it, the waters gushed forth, and the interminable - plain, which stretched farther than the eye could reach, was flooded - and covered with water. The mountains alone, because of their great - height, were not submerged in this great inundation. So they believed - that these mountains were the islands and the other divisions of the - earth which we see in the world.”—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg</cite>, in - <cite>Landa’s Relacion</cite>, pp. xxi–iv. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_758" href="#FNanchor_758" class="label">[758]</a> “With regard to the primitive dolichocephalæ of America, - I entertain an hypothesis still more bold, perhaps, namely, that they - are nearly related to the Guanches in the Canary Islands and to the - Atlantic populations of Africa, the Moors, Tauricks, Copts, etc., - which Latham comprises under the name of Egyptian-Atlantidæ. * * * We - find, then, one and the same form of skull in the Canary Islands, in - front of the African coast, and in the Carib-Islands, on the opposite - coast which faces Africa. * * * The color of the skin on both sides - of the Atlantic is represented in these populations as being of a - reddish-brown. * * * These facts involuntarily recall the tradition - which Plato tells us in his <cite>Timæus</cite> was communicated to Solan - by an Egyptian priest respecting the ancient Atlantis. * * * This - tradition deserves attention in connection with facts which seem to - point in the same direction.”—<cite>Retzius, in Smithsonian Report</cite> for - 1859, p. 266. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_759" href="#FNanchor_759" class="label">[759]</a> Salisbury, <cite>Dr. Le Plongeon in Yucatan</cite>, pp. 57–61. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_760" href="#FNanchor_760" class="label">[760]</a> Unger, <cite>Die Versunkene Insel Atlantis</cite>, cited by - Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 440. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_761" href="#FNanchor_761" class="label">[761]</a> Published in Winterthal, 1854–58, 3 bde. Also by - the name author, see <cite>Urwelt der Schweiz</cite>, Zurich, 1865, and - <cite>Ergänzungsblätter</cite>, bd. ii (Hildburgh), 1867. See Meyer’s - <cite>Konversations-Lexicon</cite>, 3. <cite>Aufl.</cite>, bd. viii, p. 693; bd. - ii, p. 125, where the above are cited. Dr. Otto Ule, <cite>Die Erde</cite>, - bd. i, p. 27, concurs with the above; work published in Leipzig, 1874, - 2 vols. large 8vo. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_762" href="#FNanchor_762" class="label">[762]</a> See Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 440, and Oliver, - <cite>Lecture at the Royal Institution</cite>, March 7, 1862, cited by Lyell. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_763" href="#FNanchor_763" class="label">[763]</a> Sir C. Wyville Thomson, <cite>The Atlantic</cite> (voyage of - the <cite>Challenger</cite>), vol. i, pp. 190, 208, 213; vol. ii, 23, 232. - New York, 1878. Also see <cite>Scientific American</cite> for July 28th, 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_764" href="#FNanchor_764" class="label">[764]</a> <cite>Depths of the Sea</cite>, by Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., J. - G. Jeffreys, F.R.S., and Dr. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., London, 1873. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_765" href="#FNanchor_765" class="label">[765]</a> <cite>The Atlantic, Exploring Voyage of H. M. S. - Challenger</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 248–9. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_766" href="#FNanchor_766" class="label">[766]</a> <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, vol. ii, p. 23. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_767" href="#FNanchor_767" class="label">[767]</a> <cite>Scientific American</cite>, July 28, 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_768" href="#FNanchor_768" class="label">[768]</a> <cite>The Atlantic</cite>, vol. ii, p. 254. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_769" href="#FNanchor_769" class="label">[769]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii, p. 288. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_770" href="#FNanchor_770" class="label">[770]</a> <cite>Popular Science Review</cite>, July 1878, cited by - <cite>Scientific American</cite> of August 24, 1878, vol. xxxix, p. 114. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_771" href="#FNanchor_771" class="label">[771]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Elements of Geology</cite>, New York, 1878, p. - 131. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_772" href="#FNanchor_772" class="label">[772]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Geology</cite>, p. 129. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_773" href="#FNanchor_773" class="label">[773]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 127–32. Dr. Otto Ule, <cite>Die Erde</cite>, - bd. i, ss. 496–502. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_774" href="#FNanchor_774" class="label">[774]</a> See Plato’s <cite>Critias and Timæas</cite>. Also Aristotle, - <cite>De Mundo</cite>, cap. iii, and <cite>Prince Henry the Navigator</cite>, chap, - vii, by Major, Lond., 1868. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_775" href="#FNanchor_775" class="label">[775]</a> See Reclus, <cite>The Ocean</cite>, pp. 70–82. New York, ed. - 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_776" href="#FNanchor_776" class="label">[776]</a> Irving’s <cite>Columbus</cite>, vol. i, chap, iii; vol. ii, p. - 308. Reclus, <cite>Ocean</cite>, pp. 223, 229. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_777" href="#FNanchor_777" class="label">[777]</a> Irving’s <cite>Columbus</cite>, vol. ii, p. 279. Lafiteau, - <cite>Conquestes des Portugais</cite>, lib. ii, cited by Irving. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_778" href="#FNanchor_778" class="label">[778]</a> See Martius, <cite>Beitrage</cite>, etc., p. 180, for the - origin-tradition of the Tupis or Brazilians, where it is narrated that - two brothers with their families landed at a remote period on Cape - Frio. The brothers Tupi and Guarani gave their names to the two great - South American families. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_779" href="#FNanchor_779" class="label">[779]</a> Brasseur in Landa’s <cite>Relacion</cite>, pp. lii–lxv; - Eckstein, <cite>Les Cares or Cariens de l’Antiquité</cite>, 2d part, vi, - dans la <cite>Revue Archéologique, XV<sup>e</sup> année</cite>; Brugsch, <cite>Die Geogr. - der Nachbarlaender Egyptens</cite>, pp. 84–88, cited by Brasseur. <span lang="fr">“En ces - vieux jours du monde, dit encore M. d’Eckstein, où Ibères et Libyens, - Lahabim et Phoutim s’enlacaient plus ou moins à travers l’Europe - occidentale, et poussaient jusqu’au sein de l’Irlande et de la Grande - Bretagne, les monuments de Mizraïm semblent révéler des rapports - maritimes de ces Libyens et probablement de ces Ibères avec les Cares - et avec les autres races anté-pélasgiques des côtes de la Grèce et de - l’Italie, ainsi que des iles de l’Archipel.”</span>—<cite>Brasseur de Bourbourg - in Landa’s Relacion</cite>, pp. lvii–lviii. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_780" href="#FNanchor_780" class="label">[780]</a> <cite>Manual of Geology</cite>, second ed., p. 583. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_781" href="#FNanchor_781" class="label">[781]</a> Le Conte, <cite>Elements of Geology</cite>, pp. 145–149. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_782" href="#FNanchor_782" class="label">[782]</a> Baldwin’s <cite>Ancient America</cite>, Appendix C, pp. - 288–293. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_783" href="#FNanchor_783" class="label">[783]</a> <cite>Man and His Migrations</cite>, pp. 129–30. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_784" href="#FNanchor_784" class="label">[784]</a> Kennon in Leland’s <cite>Fusang</cite>, p. 68. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_785" href="#FNanchor_785" class="label">[785]</a> “From the result of the most accurate scientific - observation, it is evident that the voyage from China to America can - be made without being out of sight of land more than a few hours at a - time. To a landsman, unfamiliar with long voyages, the mere idea of - being ‘alone on the wide, wide sea’ with nothing but water visible, - even for an hour, conveys a strange sense of desolation, of daring - and adventure. But in truth it is regarded as a mere trifle, not only - by regular seafaring men, but even by the rudest races in all parts - of the world; and I have no doubt that from the remotest ages, and on - all shores, fishermen in open boats, canoes, or even coracles, guided - simply by the stars and currents, have not hesitated to go far out - of sight of land. At the present day, natives of the South Pacific - islands undertake, without a compass, and successfully, long voyages - which astonish even a regular Jack-tar, who is not often astonished at - anything.”—<cite>Kennon in Leland’s Fusang</cite>, pp. 71–2. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_786" href="#FNanchor_786" class="label">[786]</a> See Bancroft, <cite>Native Races</cite>, vol. v, pp. 51–54, - where the paper of the Japanese Consul, Mr. Brooks, read before the - Californian Academy of Sciences in March, 1875, is cited, detailing - forty-one instances in which Japanese junks were cast upon our coast - since 1782. Mr. Brooks states that he has a record of over one hundred - similar disasters. Whymper, in his <cite>Alaska</cite> (N. Y. 1869), p. 250, - refers to other Japanese wrecks, and especially to one which, after - drifting ten months, reached the Sandwich Islands. The Hawaiians, on - seeing the crew, said, “It is plain now, we came from Asia.” See also - M. de Roquefeuil, <cite>Journal d’un Voyage autour du Monde, pendant les - annes, 1816–1819</cite>; <cite>Smith’s Human Species</cite>, p. 238. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_787" href="#FNanchor_787" class="label">[787]</a> <cite>Physical Geography</cite>, p. 41, cited by Lyell, - <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 367. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_788" href="#FNanchor_788" class="label">[788]</a> <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, p. 367. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_789" href="#FNanchor_789" class="label">[789]</a> “There is as much reason to believe that America was - peopled from Asia, as that the primitive races of Europe and Africa - should derive their origin from an Eastern source.”—<cite>Macfie, - Vancouver Island and British Columbia.</cite> London, 1865. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_790" href="#FNanchor_790" class="label">[790]</a> “The weather is, it is true, cold at Behring’s Straits, - even in summer, but not one-fourth as cold as at Matsumai, Japan, in - winter.”—<cite>Col. Kennon in Leland’s Fusang</cite>, p. 74. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_791" href="#FNanchor_791" class="label">[791]</a> Frederick von Hellwald in <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, - 1866, p. 345. “Open skin canoes, capable of containing twenty or more - persons with their effects, and hoisting several masts and sails, - are now frequently observed among the seacoast Tehuktchis, and the - inhabitants of northern Alaska.”—<cite>Whymper, Alaska</cite>, p. 246–7. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_792" href="#FNanchor_792" class="label">[792]</a> He continues his statement that the Gulf Stream of the - Pacific is the warming agent, and adds the argument that “the present - inhabitants of the countries contiguous to Behring’s Straits on the - two sides, in manners, customs, and physical appearance are almost - identical.”—<cite>Smithsonian Report</cite>, 1866, p. 345. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_793" href="#FNanchor_793" class="label">[793]</a> Gallatin, p. 156. Bancroft, in assuming the certainty - of a migration by Behring’s Straits, says “it seems absurd to argue - the question from any point,” vol. v, p. 54. Venegas, <cite>Noticia de la - California</cite>, Madrid, 1757, vol. i, p. 71, and London ed., 1759, p. - 61, says the Californians at that date had clear traditions of having - come from the north. Fontaine, <cite>How the World was Peopled</cite>, (N. - Y. 1872), pp. 147–9, thinks that the march of Genghis with 1,400,000 - Tartars caused the flight of his enemies in large numbers across the - Aleutian archipelago and Behring’s Straits. Warden, <cite>Recherches</cite>, - pp. 118–36, makes an argument for a migration through Behring’s Straits - from Tartary and China. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_794" href="#FNanchor_794" class="label">[794]</a> Gallatin, in <cite>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</cite>, vol. i, - p. 158, says: “That America was first peopled by Asiatic tribes is - highly probable; but after the lapse of several thousand years, the - memory of that ancient migration was lost.” He inquires as to what we - knew of Gaul or Britain before the Roman invasion. Mr. W. H. Dall, in - his thoughtful Memoir on the <cite>Origin of the Innuit</cite>, says: “I see - no reason for disputing the hypothesis that America was peopled from - Asia originally, and that there were successive waves of emigration. - The northern route was clearly by way of Behring Strait; at least, it - was not to the south of that, and especially it was not by way of the - Aleutian Islands.”—<cite>In Contributions to North American Ethnology</cite>, - vol. i, p. 95. Washington, 1877. 4to. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_795" href="#FNanchor_795" class="label">[795]</a> Aug. R. Grote, <cite>The Peopling of America</cite>, in - <cite>American Naturalist</cite>, April 1877. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_796" href="#FNanchor_796" class="label">[796]</a> Croll, <cite>Climate and Time</cite>, New York, 1875, 12mo. - Prof. McFarland in <cite>Am. Jour. of Sci. and Arts</cite>, June 1876, p. - 456. Newcomb on Croll’s <cite>Theory</cite> in same journal for April 1876, - p. 263. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_797" href="#FNanchor_797" class="label">[797]</a> Whymper, <cite>Alaska</cite>, pp. 246, 247, discusses the - volcanic nature of the Aleutian Islands, mentioning the fact that - “There are records of very severe shocks of earthquake felt by the - Russian traders and nations dwelling on them.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_798" href="#FNanchor_798" class="label">[798]</a> Sir Charles Lyell, <cite>Antiquity of Man</cite>, pp. 273 - <i>et seq.</i>, has shown that Great Britain was separated from the - continent by subsidence and glacial action, thus producing the English - Channel which, we have already seen, corresponds singularly with - Behring’s Straits in width and depth, and formerly, no doubt, both - corresponded more nearly in climatic conditions. It is not unreasonable - to suppose that both passages were produced by the same agencies. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_799" href="#FNanchor_799" class="label">[799]</a> Presidential Address to the Am. Association for Adv. - of Sci., 1872, and published in his <cite>Darwiniana</cite>, pp. 203 <i>et seq.</i> - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_800" href="#FNanchor_800" class="label">[800]</a> John H. Becker, <cite>The Migration of the Nahuas, Congrès - des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, ses., tom. i. p. 349. Altogether the - most enlightened treatment of the subject yet published. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_801" href="#FNanchor_801" class="label">[801]</a> Becker in <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 348–9. The same author - cites from the <cite>Trans. of Am. Geog. Soc.</cite>, 1874, the following - interesting statement made by Gen. Milnor: “Nowhere else on the - continent can similar great valleys such as the Missouri and Columbia - be found, meeting advantageously at a common point on the main dividing - backbone which separates the continental waters flowing east and west - to the two oceans. The heads of these main valleys are here only from - three to four thousand feet above the sea, while the great treeless - plains—further south—are elevated more than six thousand feet.” - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_802" href="#FNanchor_802" class="label">[802]</a> The expedition which the German government and the - Berlin Geographical Society is about to send to the North Pacific under - the intelligent direction of my friend Dr. Van der Horck, will no doubt - contribute largely to our information concerning the ethnographical - relationship of America to Asia. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_803" href="#FNanchor_803" class="label">[803]</a> Second Report on the Implements found in the Glacial - Drift of New Jersey, by C. C. Abbott in <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of - Peabody Museum</cite>, pp. 225–57. Cambridge, 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_804" href="#FNanchor_804" class="label">[804]</a> Mr. Becker remarks: “Why should the Aztec priesthood - and nobility, a class bred and educated in the understanding of - traditional lore and an elaborate system of picture-writing, be - considered as a set of metaphysical lunatics who did not know or did - not mean what they said.”—<cite>Migration of the Nahuas</cite> in <cite>Cong. - des Américanistes</cite>, Luxembourg, 1877, tom. i, p. 342. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_805" href="#FNanchor_805" class="label">[805]</a> <i>Vide</i> <cite>Journal of the Cincinnati Society of - Natural History</cite>, Vol. I, No. 3, October, 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_806" href="#FNanchor_806" class="label">[806]</a> <i>Vide</i> <cite>Archæological Explorations in - Tennessee</cite>, by F. W. Putnam. <cite>Eleventh Annual Report of the - Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology</cite>, Cambridge, - Mass., 1878. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_807" href="#FNanchor_807" class="label">[807]</a> Letter to the author, dated Davenport, Iowa, May 24, - 1879. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_808" href="#FNanchor_808" class="label">[808]</a> <cite>Bulletin of U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey - of the Territories</cite>, vol. ii., No. i., p. 6. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_809" href="#FNanchor_809" class="label">[809]</a> <cite>Contributions to North American Ethnology</cite>, vol. - iv.—U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain - Region, J. W. Powell in charge. Washington, 1881: especially chap. ix. - </div> - - <div class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_810" href="#FNanchor_810" class="label">[810]</a> In addition to the work by Mr. Morgan above cited, the - student of Mound-builder and Pueblo archæology should not fail to - consult vol. vii. of the <cite>Report upon U. S. Geographical Surveys west - of the one hundredth meridian, in charge of Lieutenant Wheeler</cite>, - Washington, 1879. The volume bears the above date, but did not appear - until near the close of 1881. The editing of this valuable work was - committed to the discriminating care of Professor F. W. Putnam, who was - assisted by an able corps of specialists, among others Dr. C. C. Abbott - and Albert S. Gatschet. The Second Part is devoted to papers on the - Pueblos. The magnificent fund of materials here presented, accompanied - by full-page heliotypes of ruins and implements, vastly enlarges our - knowledge of that interesting people. Still another work, of more than - ordinary importance to ethnological and archæological students, is - Dr. Charles Rau’s <cite>Observations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian - Sculptures in the Old World and in America</cite>, Contributions to - Ethnology, vol. v. Washington, 1881. Last, but not least, is Professor - Otis T. Mason’s <cite>Account of recent Progress in Anthropology</cite>, in - Smithsonian Report for 1880. - </div> - </div> - - <div class="transnote mt5"> - <div class="large center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div> - <ul class="spaced"> - <li>Blank pages have been removed.</li> - <li>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li> - <li>Wide tables have been split.</li> - </ul> - </div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICANS OF ANTIQUITY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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