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diff --git a/old/63091-0.txt b/old/63091-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dd7c2b9..0000000 --- a/old/63091-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4080 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Craft of Athenian Pottery, by Gisela M. -A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Craft of Athenian Pottery - An Investigation of the Technique of Black-Figured and Red-Figured Athenian Vases - - -Author: Gisela M. A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter - - - -Release Date: August 31, 2020 [eBook #63091] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY*** - - -E-text prepared by ellinora and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 63091-h.htm or 63091-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63091/63091-h/63091-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63091/63091-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000024550 - - - Some characters might not display properly in this UTF-8 - text file (e.g., empty squares). If so, the reader should - consult the html version or the original page images noted - above. - - - - - -The Metropolitan Museum of Art - -Publication of the Committee on Education - -THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY - -by GISELA M. A. RICHTER - - - * * * * * * - -OF THIS BOOK -500 COPIES WERE PRINTED -IN MAY 1923 - -500 ADDITIONAL COPIES -WERE PRINTED -IN MARCH 1924 - - * * * * * * - - -The Metropolitan Museum of Art - -THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY - -An Investigation of the -Technique of Black-Figured and -Red-Figured Athenian Vases - -by - -GISELA M. A. RICHTER, LITT.D. - -Associate Curator, Department of Classical Art - - -[Illustration] - - - - - - -New Haven -Yale University Press -London · Humphrey Milford · Oxford University Press -MDCCCCXXIV - -Copyright 1923 by the -Metropolitan Museum of Art - -Printed in the United States of America - - - - -CONTENTS - - - _Page_ - - List of Illustrations vii - - Preface xi - - Chapter I. Technical Processes in the Making of Modern Pottery - and their Application to the Technique of Ancient Vases 1 - - Preparation of the Clay 1 - Ingredients and Properties 1 - Washing 2 - Wedging 2 - Fashioning the Vases 4 - (1) Wheelwork 4 - Types of Wheel 4 - Throwing 7 - Turning 10 - Work in Sections 15 - Polishing 19 - Attachment of handles 20 - (2) Building 26 - (3) Moulding 27 - Firing the Vases 29 - Production of Temperature 29 - Types of Kilns 32 - Packing the Kiln 34 - Firing 35 - Number of Firings 37 - Injuries in the Firing 44 - Glazing 47 - Red Ochre Wash 53 - Were Athenian Vases Made for Every-Day Use? 59 - - Chapter II. Representations of Ancient Potters 64 - - Fashioning the Vases 64 - Decorating the Vases 70 - Firing the Vases 75 - Miscellaneous Scenes 78 - Representations Wrongly Interpreted as Pottery Scenes 83 - Potter’s Implements 84 - - Chapter III. References to the Pottery Craft in Ancient Literature 87 - - Preparation of the Clay 87 - Fashioning the Vases 89 - (1) Wheelwork 89 - (2) Building 93 - Firing the Vases 94 - Red Ochre Wash 96 - Porosity of Greek Pottery 98 - The Status of Potters 98 - - Conclusion 106 - - Selected Bibliography 109 - - Index 111 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - _Figure_ _Page_ - - 1. Wedging (a) 3 - 2. Wedging (b) 4 - 3. Kick-wheel with treadle 5 - 4. Kick-wheel with disk 6 - 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle 6 - - _Processes of throwing_: - 6. Centering ball 7 - 7. Pressing clay down 7 - 8. Squeezing clay into cone 7 - 9. Inserting thumb 7 - 10. Making cylinder 8 - 11. Making bowl 8 - 12. Making jar 8 - 13. Making bottle 8 - - 14. Turning a vase 10 - 15. Turned foot 11 - 16. Foot left as thrown 12 - 17. Turning marks on outside of vase 13 - 18. Turning marks on inside of vase 13 - 19. Finishing marks left in handwork 14 - 20. Unturned inside of amphora 15 - 21. Vase thrown in sections 16 - 22. Sections in place 17 - 23. Vase after turning 17 - 24. Wet cellar 18 - 25. Detail of kylix showing joint 19 - 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between polished and - unpolished surfaces 20 - 27. Attachment of handles 21 - 28-33. Athenian vases showing treatment of handles 22, 23, 24 - 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough 25 - 35. Making coils 26 - 36. Vase poured in a mould 28 - 37. Inside of moulded vase 29 - 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould 30 - 39. Open kiln 31 - 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware 32 - 41. Open kiln showing saggers 33 - 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware 34 - 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch 37 - 44. Design on red-figured krater. - (a) Preliminary sketch 38 - (b) Completed painting 38 - 45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze 41 - 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body - still adhering 42 - 47. Unfinished kylix 43 - 48. Foot of unfinished kylix 43 - 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side 46 - - _Methods of Glazing_: - 50. Dipping 48 - 51. Pouring 49 - 52. Use of the brush 50 - 53. Spraying 51 - - 54. Hydria showing brush marks 52 - 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line 53 - 56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line (on arm) - going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line 57 - 57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear 63 - - _Representations of ancient potters fashioning vases_: - 58. Athenian pottery establishment 64 - 59. Potter throwing 66 - 60. Potter throwing 66 - 61. Potter attaching handles 67 - 62. Potter incising lines (?) 68 - 63. Potter joining sections (?) 68 - 64. Boy finishing a vase 69 - 65. Potter building a vase 70 - - _Representations of ancient potters decorating vases_: - 66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work 71 - 67. Youth decorating kylix 72 - 68. Potter glazing kylix 73 - 69. Potter painting bands on a krater 73 - 70. Three youths, one painting a krater 74 - 71. Pottery establishment 75 - - _Representations of ancient potters firing_: - 72. Potter stoking fire 76 - 73. Potter stoking fire 76 - 74-79. Potters regulating draught 77 - 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln 78 - - _Representations of ancient potters: miscellaneous scenes_: - 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks 79 - 82. Youth working on vases (?) 79 - 83. Master potter(?) 80 - 84. Woman potter(?) 81 - 85. Client in potter’s shop 82 - 86. Ship with cargo of pottery 82 - - _Potter’s Implements_: - 87. Wheel-head 84 - 88. Tools found at Arezzo 85 - 89. Stilt 85 - - - - -PREFACE - - -For our knowledge of the technique of Athenian vases we have various -sources of information. There are a number of references to the craft in -ancient literature; we have several actual representations of potters at -work among extant vase paintings; and there is the important testimony of -the vases themselves. The information gleaned from these three sources -has been duly worked over by archaeologists, and the many accounts we -have of the technique of Greek vases are all based more or less on this -evidence. There is, however, another very important source of information -ready to our hand which has not been fully utilized, namely, the study of -the technical processes employed in the making of modern pottery. For, -the nature and properties of clay being the same now that they were in -Greek times, the manner of working it must have been essentially the same -then as now. Many archaeologists have, of course, seen potters at work -in different places, or perhaps consulted potters on specific points; -but that is a different thing from getting a thorough knowledge of the -craft oneself and learning once for all what is possible and what is not -possible in clay-working. - -The neglect of this highly valuable source of information has led to some -surprising theories regarding the technique of Greek vases; and these -theories have been repeated over and over again in our books on vases, -for the simple reason that, not having any first-hand knowledge, we have -copied these statements from one another. A modern potter reading these -accounts finds them remarkable literature. The present writer, realizing -her own ignorance on the many questions of clay-working, went to a modern -pottery school. The result of this first-hand study was not only the -acquisition of new knowledge, but a totally new insight into the whole -subject. The present essay is an attempt to revise the current theories -of the technique of Athenian pottery in the light of this practical -experience. - -Not only does such practical experience supply us with the knowledge -essential for the consideration of technical problems, but it gives -us a new appreciation of the beauty of Athenian vases. If we try to -make such shapes ourselves we shall begin to observe many details -which perhaps passed unnoticed before—the finely designed handles, -the well-proportioned feet, the practical mouths; and the curves, the -mouldings, and the subtle variations will become a constant delight -to the eye. Moreover, we shall be impressed more than ever with the -wonderful sense of proportion in Athenian vases. For the relation of the -height to the width, the proportions of the neck, the body, the foot, and -the handles to one another appear to be all nicely thought out. There is -no hit-or-miss about it; the whole is an interrelated theme evidently -planned carefully before making, either by the potter himself or by a -professional designer. - -In short, any one who has tried his hand in the production of Greek forms -will understand very well that the makers of such vases were proud of -their work and that the signature of a well-known potter was at least as -valuable as that of a popular decorator.[1] - -The pottery school to which I went was the New York State School of -Ceramics at Alfred, New York. Throughout my work at the school and -later in my investigation of Greek vases at the Metropolitan Museum, -I had the great benefit of the advice of Professor Charles F. Binns, -director of the school. In fact, any value which this paper may possess -is largely due to this opportunity of appeal to someone who possesses the -rare combination of expert knowledge in the field of practical pottery -with a scholar’s attitude toward the problems presented by the ancient -ware. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the many helpful suggestions -made from time to time by Miss Maude Robinson, director of the pottery -work at Greenwich House, New York, as well as by Miss Elsie Binns and -Harold Nash, modern potters whom I have had the advantage of consulting -on various questions. I am indebted to Miss Helen McClees for valuable -assistance in the section dealing with the references to pottery craft in -ancient literature. In my examination of Greek vases, which necessitated -handling of the specimens, I was greatly helped by the courteous -assistance of many museum directors. - -The plan of this book is as follows: The first chapter gives a concise -account of the processes in use in the making of vases at modern pottery -schools[2] and their application to the technique of ancient vases. The -second chapter contains a description of the various representations we -have of ancient potters at work. In the third chapter are collected the -chief Greek and Latin texts referring to the ancient pottery craft. After -this presentation of all the evidence on the technique of Athenian vases -comes a short summary of the new conclusions arrived at, and a selected -bibliography. - -The illustrations of modern pottery scenes were taken under the direction -of Charles F. Binns at the New York State School of Ceramics, Alfred,[3] -and of Maude Robinson at pottery studios in New York City.[4] - - - - -I. TECHNICAL PROCESSES IN THE MAKING OF MODERN POTTERY AND THEIR -APPLICATION TO THE TECHNIQUE OF ANCIENT VASES - - -PREPARATION OF THE CLAY - - -_Ingredients and properties._ - -The making of a pot begins in the clay bed. The clay has to be found, it -has to be transported, and above all it has to be tested to see whether -it is adapted to the potter’s needs. For there are many different kinds -of clay and they are as individual as human beings; so that a thorough -understanding of them is essential to the successful potter. - -The chief ingredients of clay are silica, alumina, and water. Other -possible ingredients are iron oxide, lime (calcium oxide), magnesia, and -potash. To the iron compounds are due the different colors of the clay. -When potters speak of the color of a clay—red, yellow, white—they refer -to the color after burning, not in the raw state. The tones of the color -are controlled by heat; for instance, a red clay becomes first pink, then -in a higher fire a deeper red, and in a still higher fire a brownish red. - -The potter demands three properties of his clay: (1) plasticity, the -property which enables the clay to acquire form; (2) porosity, the -property which enables the water to escape; and (3) vitrification, the -property which enables the clay to be fired. These three properties -are due to the three chief component parts of the clay; namely, clay -base, quartz, and feldspar. It will be found that some clays are not -plastic enough, others not sufficiently porous, and others again not -properly vitrifiable; in such cases the addition of certain substances is -necessary to make the clay usable. The actual composition of the clay, -therefore, is of great importance, as no amount of skilful labor will -avail if the clay itself has not the right consistency. - - -_Washing._ - -When the right composition of the clay has been assured, the next step -is to wash it and separate it from the many natural impurities, such as -stones, sticks, etc., with which it is mixed. A clay not properly washed -is a source of great vexation in the later stages of pottery making. The -best method is that of “blunging,” that is, the dry clay is put into -water and stirred constantly until it reaches the consistency of cream, -technically called “slip,” whereupon it is poured through sieves, coarse -or fine according to the desired consistency. The liquid clay or slip -must then be dried sufficiently to become plastic and workable. This can -be done either in filter presses in which the water is squeezed out in a -comparatively short time, or in shallow receptacles in the open air where -the water is allowed slowly to evaporate. - - -_Wedging._ - -But even at this stage the clay is not yet ready for use; it has first to -go through the important process of kneading or “wedging.” This consists -of cutting a ball of clay in two against a wire (fig. 1), slapping the -two parts on a plaster or wooden board, one on top of the other (fig. 2), -then lifting up the whole lump, cutting it in two again, and slapping it -down as before. The purpose is to remove all air bubbles and to correct -irregularities in hardness. The operation has sometimes to be repeated -fifteen or twenty times before a good texture is secured.[5] - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Wedging (a)] - -We learn from the above survey that the fine consistency of the clay in -Athenian and in some other Greek wares is not necessarily due to its -natural state, but to the careful washing and kneading undergone in its -preparation for use. When different particles are found in the fired -clay they are due to indifferent washing. And the varying shades of pink -and red of Greek vases likewise do not presuppose different kinds of -clay, but are due largely to the various temperatures to which the vases -were fired. We have too often made our analyses of clays of Greek vases -without due cognizance of these facts. - - -FASHIONING THE VASES - - -(1) WHEELWORK - -There are three principal ways of making vases—fashioning them on the -wheel, building them, and making them from moulds. Let us examine first -the work on the wheel, the potter’s tool par excellence. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Wedging (b)] - - -_Types of wheel._ - -There are various types of wheel in general use today. The wheel run by -electric power does not concern us here since it cannot have been used -by the Greeks. In studio potteries, a kick-wheel is often used. In this -the operator stands and kicks with his left foot against a treadle, -the weight of his body being supported by the right (fig. 3). Another -fairly popular type has a large, heavy disk at the bottom revolving in a -horizontal plane, and kept in motion by one foot of the operator (fig. -4). A very simple type of wheel in use some time ago is illustrated in -fig. 5. Here the motion is imparted by an assistant turning the handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Kick-wheel with treadle] - -Any one of these three types may have been used by the Greeks. In the -representations of ancient potters at work (cf. pp. 64 ff.) the wheel -appears to have been propelled either with the foot or by an assistant. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Kick-Wheel with disk] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle - -Barber, _The Pottery and Porcelain of the United States_, p. 4, fig. 2] - - -_Throwing._ - -[Illustration: FIGS. 6-9. Processes of throwing - -Fig. 6. Centering ball - -Fig. 7. Pressing clay down - -Fig. 8. Squeezing clay into cone - -Fig. 9. Inserting thumb] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 10-13. Processes of throwing - -Fig. 10. Making cylinder - -Fig. 11. Making bowl - -Fig. 12. Making jar - -Fig. 13. Making bottle] - -The first task in fashioning a vase on the wheel—or “throwing” it, as it -is technically called—is to center the ball of clay on the wheel-head. It -is accomplished by pressing the left hand against the ball of clay as it -revolves rapidly, care being taken to keep the left forearm absolutely -rigid (fig. 6). The right hand is used for keeping the clay wet by -sprinkling it with water, and for pulling the clay inward, thus squeezing -it up to a cone. The cone is pressed up and down in this manner several -times (figs. 7 and 8). When the ball runs perfectly true, it is time to -open it by inserting the thumb in the center (fig. 9); then by placing -the fingers of one hand inside the hollow, and the fingers of the other -on the outside,[6] and by raising both hands gradually several times and -squeezing the clay lightly while so doing, a cylinder is formed (fig. -10). The cylinder is the foundation of all other shapes. For to produce a -bowl, one need only pull out the cylinder a little at the top (fig. 11); -to make a globular jar, pull it out at the bottom and in at the top (fig. -12); to fashion a long-necked vase, pull it out at the bottom and in at -the top, leaving enough clay to spin the top into a tall, narrow cylinder -which will serve as a neck (fig. 13); and by various other manipulations -one can produce almost every variety of shape. To throw a vase to -specific measurements, a careful drawing of the shape should first be -made and calipers and measuring sticks kept close at hand for checking -the work as it proceeds. - -The earliest Greek vases are made by hand; but from the Early Minoan III -and Middle Helladic I periods (i.e., about 2200 B.C.) in certain places -at least, vases were regularly thrown on the wheel. They could not have -the regular and symmetrical outlines they have if they were built by -hand, and many would show traces of vertical joints if they were made in -moulds. - -That the processes of throwing were identical with those described as -in use today, there is of course no means of determining; but they -certainly must have been similar, as clay has not changed its nature from -Greek times to ours. The evidence which we glean from representations -on Greek vases of potters at work, scanty though it is, bears out this -self-evident fact. From the above description it will be noted that in -this work of throwing the simultaneous use of both hands is necessary—an -important fact to remember when interpreting scenes to be related to the -fashioning of vases. - - -_Turning._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. Turning a vase] - -After a piece has been thrown on the wheel, it has assumed its general -shape, but that is all. The thinning of the walls, the refinements of -foot and lip, all such finishing touches must be reserved for the next -process. This is known among modern potters as “turning.” In this the -clay is no longer in a wet state, but in a “leather-hard” condition, -and it is not worked with the hands but with steel cutting tools. A -newly shaped vase becomes leather hard after it has been kept in the air -and the water allowed to evaporate for about twenty-four hours. Pieces -in this state are hard enough to be handled with care and to be cut -easily with a knife. They are not so fragile as either in the wet or in -the “bone-dry” state, but they are still delicate and exposed to many -dangers. Not until a vase has been fired is it safe to handle it freely. -The cutting with the steel tools is done on the wheel (or “jigger”[7]), -the right hand which grasps the tool being kept steady by letting it rest -on a stick held in the left hand; the stick should have a sharpened nail -on one end, the point of which is pressed into a wooden board at the -height required (fig. 14). By continued cutting off of thin shavings of -clay and by adding more clay in slip form when more is needed, the final -outline of the shape and the various grooves and mouldings for lip and -foot can be obtained. But it is a slow process, requiring time, care, and -great patience. For the smoothing of the surface, scrapers, sandpaper, -and sponge are useful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. Turned foot - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.234.2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. Foot left as thrown - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.232.30] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. Turning marks on outside of vase - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.64] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. Turning marks on inside of vase - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.1228] - -This turning or refining of the shape after throwing, was, as we might -expect, not in universal use in ancient times. Prior to the sixth century -B.C. it was used occasionally here and there, and often only to a limited -extent. But there cannot be the slightest doubt that in the Athenian -black-figured and red-figured vases extensive use was made of the turning -tools. The grooves and mouldings for lip and foot were produced by this -turning process, not, as modern archaeologists tell us, by the use of -moulds.[8] For this there is abundant proof. The feet of Athenian vases -are almost all turned at the bottom, some with remarkable care and -finish (fig. 15), not left flat, as they would be after throwing (fig. -16). The lids of pyxides and similar vases could not have been made to -fit so neatly on their ledges without the use of turning. Above all, -the wonderful finish and precision of Athenian vases could never have -been attained by mere throwing. But there is even more convincing proof. -Unless the marks of the turning tools are very carefully obliterated -(with scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge), traces of them are always -visible. And this is the case also in Athenian vases. The outside -surfaces are generally carefully smoothed, but even there the ridges -formed by the tools are often discernible (fig. 17); and on the inside of -the necks or feet or lids such ridges and concentric or spiral scratches -are quite frequent (fig. 18). They are very different, however, from -the finishing marks left in handwork (fig. 19). To appreciate the fine, -smooth surface which work with the turning tools produces, we need only -examine the insides of most Athenian amphorai and hydriai; for these, -being more or less concealed, are generally left as thrown, often showing -the spiral ridges which rapidly revolving clay will cause (fig. 20). They -thus form a striking contrast to the finely smoothed outside surfaces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. Finishing marks left in handwork - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.834] - -The fact that the Athenian potter made use of the turning process -shows incidentally that he was able to make his vases to very exact -measurements. This is important in connection with Jay Hambidge’s theory -that Athenian pottery was carefully designed on certain geometrical -principles;[9] for if the Athenian potter had confined himself merely -to throwing on the wheel that would not have been possible. It is during -the second process of turning that an expert potter can effect many -changes in width and height or in details, and thus make his product -correspond exactly with his carefully planned design. Modern potters of -standing work in the same way today. They first make a drawing of a vase, -full size or to scale, and then proceed to follow this drawing in every -detail, using rules and calipers for their guidance. Of course it needs -a great deal of skill and patience to be able to work so exactly; but -Greek potters, we can be quite sure, had a good supply of both of these -qualities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. Unturned inside of amphora - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.545] - - -_Work in sections._ - -So far we have spoken only of comparatively small vases, which can be -thrown all in one piece. Larger vases are best thrown in sections. To -throw large jars in one piece requires great physical strength, and it is -very difficult to finish such jars properly on the inside and to prevent -them from being unduly heavy. The section work is by no means easy. At -first a drawing of the vase has to be made, either full size or to scale, -and the heights of the different parts marked off. While throwing the -respective pieces use must be made of measuring sticks and calipers, to -obtain the right heights and diameters. The measurements should be those -of the soft clay, which will of course be slightly larger than those -of the final shape. About one-eighth is the average allowance for the -shrinkage of the clay in drying and firing. This shrinkage will naturally -be proportional; so that the relation of every part to the whole will -be the same in the fired vase as in the thrown product. The joining is -obtained by applying a thick slip of the same clay as was used for the -vase, to act as a binder. When all the sections are in place the outside -of the vase can be “turned.” If this and the foregoing processes are done -skilfully the final joints will hardly be visible, even before the glaze -is applied. Figs. 21, 22, 23 show the three chief stages in the making of -a vase in sections. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. Vase thrown in sections] - -To obtain good results in this work it is important that it should not -be hurried. It is best, for instance, before joining the sections, to -let them stand on top of one another for a day or longer, in order that -they may mature together. To retain the pieces during this time in -leather-hard condition, they must be kept in a “wet cellar,” that is, in -a moist place where the water in the clay will not evaporate (fig. 24). -With this simple precaution pieces can be kept leather hard practically -indefinitely. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. Sections in place] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. Vase after turning] - -Section work was used by the Greeks, as it is now. There would, in fact, -be nothing gained in throwing the very large vases, such as some of the -kraters and amphorai, all in one piece; and though the joints are, as a -rule, skilfully concealed, they are plainly visible on certain examples, -especially on the inside. Where possible the joints seem to have been -made at the natural angles or “articulations” of the vase (that is, at -the neck, the foot, etc.); and further to simplify the work, a thin ridge -of clay was often added to conceal the joint.[10] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. Wet cellar] - -One of the most difficult things to throw successfully is a flat, -wide bowl on a foot; and the larger the diameter of the bowl the more -difficult the task, since the overhanging rim almost always sags at the -critical moment. The fifth-century kylix has therefore always been -rightly admired as one of the greatest feats of the Athenian potter. -How did he prevent the bowl from sagging? Did he throw it upside down -and hollow it out later with the turning tools? Or did he make the -base very thick and then “turn” it down to fit on a slender foot? Both -methods would be clumsy, as they would entail lengthy turning work. Or -was the Athenian potter so skilful that he somehow prevented the clay -from sagging? Not at all. He simply threw his kylix in two sections; -the foot with a bowl about half the required diameter in one piece (or -possibly two, with the foot separate), and the remaining part of the bowl -as a separate section. The joints where the two parts of the bowl were -united are clearly visible on many kylikes on the outside (fig. 25)[11]; -the inside of the kylix, being the most conspicuous part, is always so -carefully turned that no joining can be detected. - - -_Polishing._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. Detail of kylix showing joint - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.167] - -To impart a polish, the blade of a knife is applied to the surface while -the vase is revolving; for an inward curve a curved tool must be used. -The operation is simple and can be accomplished in a few minutes. It is -not often employed, however, by the modern potter, whose object is to -keep the pores of his vase open for the better adhesion of the glaze with -which he intends to cover the surface of his pot. - -The Athenian potter, on the other hand, put great stress on giving the -surface of his vase a fine polish; probably using the simple method -described above. The difference between a polished and an unpolished -surface is clearly seen on some vases on which the potter has omitted -to repolish the parts round the handles where the slip used for the -attachment had spilled over (fig. 26). - - -_Attachment of handles._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between -polished and unpolished surfaces - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530] - -The final process in the fashioning of a vase is the attachment of the -handles. These can be made either in moulds or by hand. Any one who -thinks that the making of handles is a simple or quick process will soon -be undeceived. Whether working in plaster, as one would if the handle -is made in a mould, or in clay, if it is made by hand, the potter must -bestow infinite care on the work, as both clay and plaster are very -liable to break; and working on so small a thing as a handle is extremely -fussy. The writer personally found nothing so difficult in her whole -pottery training as the making of handles. The best method of procedure -in handwork is first to shape the handle roughly while the clay is soft -and plastic, then wait until it becomes leather hard, and finally refine -it to the desired form and finish with modeling tools. In moulded work, -the handle has to be cut out in plaster and then used for making the -mould. When the handles are finally made, they are joined to the vase -by means of slip, in the same way that the sections were (fig. 27). As -the handle is pressed into position the superfluous slip will of course -spill over the edge, and this has to be carefully removed and the surface -smoothed before the vase can be pronounced finished. The vase is then put -in the drying room so that all the water in the clay may evaporate. Only -when it is perfectly dry can it be fired in the kiln; otherwise it is -liable to crack. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. Attachment of handles] - -The handles of Athenian vases show perhaps better than anything else -the great skill and sense of beauty of the Athenian potter; and they -will repay detailed study (cf. figs. 28-33). They are never, as so -often on modern vases, detached pieces stuck on the vase as a kind of -afterthought. Rather, they seem to grow out of the vase like branches -from a tree, which gives them a wonderful, living quality. Moreover, -the place where they were attached, the size, and the curve have been -carefully considered both from a practical and from an aesthetic point -of view. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. Amphora in the Boston Museum - -Acc. No. 01.17] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29. Hydria in the Metropolitan Museum - -Acc. No. 06.1021.190] - -[Illustration: Fig. 30. Kantharos in the Boston Museum - -Acc. No. 95.36] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. Volute krater in the Boston Museum - -Acc. No. 90.153] - -[Illustration: Fig. 32. Bell krater in the Metropolitan Museum - -Acc. No. 07.286.86] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33. Kylix in the Metropolitan Museum - -Acc. No. G.R.1047] - -Athenian handles are made by hand, not in moulds. Practically every -pair of handles shows perceptible variations such as are unavoidable in -handwork and distinguish it from the mechanical products of moulding. The -handles were attached to the vase in leather-hard condition, and often -the pressure entailed thereby resulted in a slight bulge on the inner -side. This is particularly noticeable on kylikes where the walls of the -pot were especially thin. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle -left rough - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.73] - -It may be noted that the handles of Athenian vases are not finished -off neatly in parts where they were not seen. For instance, the under -parts of handles on column kraters are generally left quite rough (fig. -34). This fact, together with that already observed, that the insides -of amphorai and hydriai are usually unturned, shows that the Greeks, at -least, had no such theories as those often held today that a work should -be finished perfectly all over, even in places not ordinarily seen, and -were quite willing to save trouble when possible. Many potters today -bestow as much care on the inside of a narrow flask as on that of an open -bowl. It is characteristic of the sense of proportion of the Greeks that -their potters took infinite trouble with what was important—the shapes, -the proportions, the decoration—but that they did not spend time and -labor where it profited nobody. - - -(2) BUILDING - -[Illustration: Fig. 35. Making coils] - -Compared to the wheelwork the building appears simple at first, but -experience will soon show that it too needs considerable practice. -Though the actual process has not the glamor and thrill associated with -wheelwork, there is a certain quality in a built vase which gives it a -value of its own. Building is generally done nowadays by means of coils -of clay (fig. 35), which must be a little thicker than the walls of the -vase are to be and should be as uniform as possible. To make the foot -of the vase, the end of one of these coils is laid in the center of a -plaster bat and the rest coiled round in spiral line. To hide the joints -the surface is rubbed over with the fingers on both sides. In making -the walls of the vase a coil is used for each round and the superfluous -clay pinched off, every new coil being begun at a new point. The whole -surface, inside and outside, is again smoothed by rubbing with the -fingers, using very little water in the process. Only about three coils -should be worked in at a time and then left to harden before new coils -are added. In building up a certain shape it is best to use a templet of -cardboard or plaster, to be sure that the profile of the vase is followed -out correctly. To give the required finish at the end, modeling tools as -well as further rubbing with the fingers are required. - -With this process in mind it is easy to distinguish between built and -wheel-made pottery among the Greek wares. In the built pottery, however -careful the work, there is always a certain unevenness of outline—which -indeed gives it some of its charm. Unlike the moderns, the Greeks did not -continue to build pottery after the invention of the wheel. Naturally the -general adoption of the wheel was not synchronous in all ceramic centers. -It was used considerably earlier in Crete, for instance, than in Cyprus. -But when once its convenience was thoroughly realized, the slower and -more monotonous method was entirely dropped. Among Athenian black-figured -and red-figured vases there are no built pieces. - - -(3) MOULDING - -The process of moulding vases is the one most in use nowadays, for -the simple reason that when once the required mould has been made the -production of any number of vases is a rapid and easy task. But though -commercially favored, this method is looked down upon by the artistic -potter as being purely mechanical, and there is no doubt that a moulded -vase has all the characteristics of machine work. - -The material used for moulds nowadays is plaster. The clay can either -be poured into a mould in slip form or pressed into a mould while soft -and plastic. In the former process the mould or moulds are made in two -or more pieces, which fit closely together leaving an opening at the -top. By pouring the clay slip into the opening, leaving it to harden a -little, and then pouring out again what has not hardened, a hollow vase -is formed. After due shrinkage the mould is carefully removed from the -vase (fig. 36). The same mould can be used indefinitely for making vases -of the same shape; it has only to be dried between one use and the next. -Handles can be produced in the same way and then attached. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Vase poured in a mould] - -In pressing clay into moulds each part of the mould is used separately, -except where only one mould is required, as in the case of an open bowl -or tile. When the clay has been carefully pressed into every part of the -mould, it is left to harden, and then, upon shrinkage, can be easily -separated. If the vase has been pressed in several pieces, the parts must -be carefully joined and the seams effaced as neatly as possible. - -The Greek potter did not use moulding as a labor-saving device. He -employed it only where the work demanded it, as in the Athenian plastic -ware. Here we sometimes even find the same mould used several times, as -in the group of a negro and a crocodile of which chance has preserved us -at least five replicas[12]; but the number of such repetitions is not -great and certainly would not indicate mass production. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. Inside of moulded vase - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.205] - -The material of Greek moulds was burnt clay. That the Athenian plastic -vases were pressed into moulds rather than poured can be seen from the -fact that the insides of these vases are rough and show finger-marks -(cf. fig. 37). The joints of the two parts are clearly visible on many -examples (cf. fig. 38). Often the lip was thrown separately on the wheel -and attached. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.203] - - -FIRING THE VASES - - -_Production of Temperature._ - -In the fire the great miracle takes place and the dry clay, most friable -and perishable of materials, becomes one of the most durable. This is -accomplished by the softening of the feldspar grains which cement the -whole together and thus form a dense mass. To produce the temperature -at which this phenomenon takes place two things are necessary, fuel and -draught, the former supplying the carbon, the latter the oxygen. The -liberation of the carbon in the fuel and its union with the oxygen of the -air develop combustion, during which heat is generated. Combustion can -be complete or incomplete. It is complete when there is an excess of air -and the carbon can combine with two molecules of oxygen to form carbon -dioxide (CO₂). This condition is called oxidation. It is incomplete when -there is not enough air and the carbon can get only one molecule of -oxygen, forming carbon monoxide (CO). This condition is called reduction. -Carbon monoxide, being very hungry for oxygen, will try to extract it -from whatever source it can. If ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) is present in the -clay—which is the case in red clay—the carbon monoxide will take one -molecule of oxygen from it and convert it into ferrous oxide (CO + Fe₂O₃ -= CO₂ + 2FeO). The important feature in this process is that ferric oxide -is red and will make the clay burn red; but ferrous oxide (FeO) is black -and will give the clay a blackish color. If no ferric oxide is present in -the clay, that is, if the clay is not a red clay, then reduction has no -effect on the color of the clay and can be freely used. In Europe potters -regularly burn under reducing conditions, while in America the general -practice is to burn under oxidizing conditions. When the draught in the -kiln is faulty, partial reduction will often occur, and many faults in -the burning, especially in the glazes, are attributable to this cause. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Open kiln] - -We shall see presently how important is a knowledge of these chemical -changes during the process of firing when we come to consider the defects -on Greek vases caused by injuries in the firing (cf. pp. 44 ff.). - - -_Types of kilns._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware] - -There are two chief types of kiln construction in use today: (1) the open -kiln, in which the flame passes through the kiln chamber (fig. 39); (2) -the muffle kiln, in which the flame passes around the chamber and not -through it (fig. 40). In the open kiln the ware either comes in direct -contact with the flame, or is stacked in saggers, i.e., boxes made of -fire clay fitting one on top of the other (fig. 41). The muffle kiln is, -so to speak, one large sagger, and the ware is stacked on shelves. The -draught in the kiln can be either an up draught or a down draught; in -either case the air supply, as well as the fuel supply, must be under -control, so that the combustion shall be as desired. The draught can be -regulated by means of dampers, the fuel by attention to the burners. An -arched top is an advantage, for it imparts greater strength—an important -item considering the strain to which the kiln is subjected—and it -facilitates the circulation of the heat. Coal, wood, gas, or kerosene oil -can be used for fuel. Of these, oil and gas are now the most popular; -coal and wood are rapidly coming into disuse on account of the greater -labor they entail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Open kiln showing saggers] - - -_Packing the kiln._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware] - -In packing the kiln the ware is stacked as closely as possible for -economical reasons, so that as much as possible shall be accomplished in -one firing. In biscuit firing the ware can be placed so that it touches -(fig. 40); in glaze firing the pieces must be separated (fig. 42) both -from one another and from the bottom of the saggers or shelves on which -they stand, since the melted glaze is apt to run. Glazed pieces are -therefore generally placed on stilts made of burnt clay, and the marks of -these stilts will often show on the bottoms of the vases. - -That the chief features of modern and Athenian kilns were similar is -clear from an examination of the ancient representations of kilns (cf. -figs. 72-81 and pp. 76 ff.). How closely the ware was sometimes stacked -is clearly seen in fig. 80. The fuel used by the Greeks was probably wood -and charcoal. - -Almost all modern pottery is twice fired; once for the conversion of the -clay into terracotta or biscuit, and the second time for the glaze. To -glaze unbiscuited ware is a delicate business, and the risk of glazing a -piece of raw clay is considered larger than the trouble of burning it a -second time. It is done occasionally when very tough clay is used, for -instance, in kitchen crooks and in stoneware; in that case it is best to -apply the glaze when the clay is in leather-hard condition, for then the -absorption is less. More than the two regular firings are often used for -correcting mistakes in glazing, for additional coats of glaze, and for -decorating the ware. - - -_Firing._ - -Different wares and different glazes require different temperatures. -Thus porcelain and stoneware are fired to much higher temperatures than -ordinary pottery, and salt and alkaline glazes need a higher fire to -mature than the ordinary lead glazes. When the required temperature has -been reached—which nowadays is determined either by means of a pyrometer -or with the help of pyrometric cones which melt at a given temperature -and which are watched through a spy-hole (cf. fig. 40 where the cones are -set up opposite the spy-hole in the door, and fig. 42 where the cones -have melted)—the fire is gradually extinguished and the kiln left to cool -slowly. Twelve hours for the firing and twelve for cooling is a rough -estimate for the firing of an ordinary kiln. It is important not to hurry -the process of cooling, as a too rapidly cooling fire may crack the ware -or affect the glaze injuriously. - -The Greeks fired their pottery at a considerably lower temperature -than potters do today. It seems to have been about 960° centigrade -(corresponding to about cone 010) since any increase over this -temperature causes a change in the color of the clay together with an -additional contraction. Mr. Tonks has made the ingenious suggestion -that, 950° and 1065° being the melting points of silver and gold -respectively, the Greeks may have used these metals in the same way as -the modern potters use cones, to regulate the heat of the kiln.[13] - -When the kiln is finally opened comes the exciting moment of seeing -what the fire has done with one’s products. In taking out the contents -of the kiln, gloves and sticks are often useful for handling ware that -is still too hot to touch. Invariably there will be surprises—what one -has expected to be a great success often turns out a failure, and what -one thought little of may become a rare thing of beauty. In the biscuit -firing the adventures of the pot are comparatively few; it may crack or -sag or warp, but as a rule the expected shape is maintained. But in the -glaze firing so many elements enter in that even an experienced potter -can never be sure of the result. The color may turn out a different shade -from that desired; the glaze may unexpectedly be matt (dull) or too -glossy; it may blister or peel or crack; it may be too thin or too thick. -Such defects are almost invariably due to faulty composition of the clay -or the glaze or to the conditions of firing. They can often be remedied -by further glazings and firings; but quite often a pot on which much -time and labor have been bestowed is hopelessly ruined. A good potter, -however, will soon learn to bear such mishaps philosophically; and it is -certainly true that one often learns much more from failures than from -successes. Moreover, the element of uncertainty lends spice to the craft. - -A careful consideration of the modern processes of firing pottery -described above will help us to settle the problems connected with the -firing of Greek vases—for the action of fire on clay remains the same -even though the kilns in use by the Greeks were probably somewhat more -primitive than now. - -The chief problems which confront us in Athenian pottery are (1) the -number of firings, (2) the interpretation of defects on Greek vases as -injuries in the firing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.114] - -[Illustration: Fig. 44. Design on red-figured krater - -(a) Preliminary sketch (b) Completed painting - -Furtwängler u. Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, I, pl. VII] - - -_Number of firings._ - -Was Athenian pottery once or twice fired?[14] That is, was it decorated -in leather-hard or in biscuit condition? This has been one of the most -debated questions in Greek ceramics. Archaeologists often assume offhand -a number of firings,[15] but without stating any evidence or squarely -facing the problems involved. Briefly, the arguments for and against are -as follows. As is well known, a large proportion of red-figured vases of -good period show a preliminary, colorless sketch for the design traced -with a blunt[16] instrument directly on the clay (cf. figs. 43-44). The -smooth grooves of this sketch show beyond doubt that the sketch was made -while the clay was in leather-hard condition, that is, before firing. If -the vase had been fired, even at a low temperature, the sketch would have -had to be scratched in with a sharp tool, and would have left a ragged, -not a smooth line.[17] Now it is not a natural procedure for an artist -to make a rough sketch for his design, and then to leave his vase to be -fired before completing his work. Furthermore, an examination of the -incised lines on the black-figured vases—which clearly go over the black -glaze—shows also that these lines must have been made while the clay was -still leather hard. The ragged edge of the glaze along the incisions has -sometimes been thought to indicate that they were made after firing. But -just this effect is produced by cutting through dry glaze on unfired -clay; and it would have been very difficult to attain the required -delicacy, swing, and smoothness by incision into hard, fired clay. Any -one who will try the experiment will soon become convinced of this.[18] -So that, for the black-figured period at least, this evidence points to a -once-fired pottery. - -On the other hand, it might be urged that if we assume that the -decoration was executed in leather-hard condition, the vase painters -whom we see depicted on Greek vases should be handling their pots -with considerable care, and that this is hardly conveyed in the -representations. On the Boston fragment, for instance, the painter -is holding a kylix by its slender foot without any apparent fear of -breaking it (fig. 67). And whoever painted the scene knew what he was -doing, for he was in the act of decorating such a kylix himself. However, -if the clay used by the Athenians was of a tough variety,[19] this -would, I have been told by potters, be a perfectly possible procedure; -and experiments made with imported Athenian clay[20] bore this out to an -astonishing degree. Vases made of this clay could be handled quite freely -in leather-hard condition. So that if the Athenian potter of the fifth -century used similar clay to that of his present-day descendant, his -handling of these pots on the vase paintings would be perfectly justified -in the leather-hard state. - -There is, moreover, evidence which seems to settle this question beyond -dispute. On a number of the Athenian vases there are dents such as can -only have occurred while the vase was still in a leather-hard state. The -mark of the object contact with which caused the dent is invariably over -the black glaze (cf. fig. 45), showing clearly that the glaze must have -been applied in leather-hard condition.[21] In some cases we find still -adhering in the dents a little burnt clay, apparently from another vase -contact with which caused the accident. Here it is probable that the -accident was caused not while the vase was leather hard, but when red -hot in the kiln, at least in those instances, as in the black-figured -amphora in the Metropolitan Museum[22] (fig. 46), where the glaze shows -a rough fracture due to the separation of the two pieces which had stuck -together; for this fractured edge would have become fused and smooth upon -subsequent firing.[23] - -[Illustration: Fig. 45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over -black glaze - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 17.230.15] - -The fragments of unfinished vases which have been found from time to -time[24] have been used as evidence to prove several glaze fires; for -they show fired vases at a definite stage in the glazing, the outlines -and inner markings painted, but the background not yet filled in. Must -we, then, suppose that it was the regular practice—at least in the later -red-figured period to which all the unfinished pieces belong—to fire -before and after the painting of the background? It is difficult to see -what would be gained by the process. If the pottery were fired before any -decoration was applied, there would be the advantage of safer handling of -the ware; but to have an extra firing with the decoration more than half -completed gives no apparent gain and there is the distinct disadvantage -of the extra expense of firing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from -other body still adhering - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530] - -[Illustration: Fig. 47. Unfinished kylix - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48. Foot of unfinished kylix - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9] - -The unfinished kylix in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum may -shed light on this problem (fig. 47). It is not so fragmentary as the -pieces in the other museums, being complete except for portions of the -rim. The foot is very roughly turned (fig. 48), very different from the -average kylix foot, as if it had not been worth while to spend much -time on this product. The decoration itself is also quite cursory. This -suggests that the piece was merely a “test,” such as potters use often -nowadays for making trials of their clay body, or their glaze, or their -kiln. The kylix is, as a matter of fact, too soft fired, and the glaze -has turned reddish in parts. May we be permitted the guess that this was -a trial to test out a new kiln? It is only a possibility and there are -many others. The important point is that the evidence of the unfinished -fragments does not make it necessary to assume more than one glaze firing. - -The probability, therefore, is that Athenian pottery is once fired,[25] -all ornamentation—both glaze and accessory colors[26]—being applied while -the vase was in leather-hard condition; for in the case of the accessory -colors also there would have been no advantage in an additional firing. - - -_Injuries in the firing._ - -The action of the fire on the potter’s products was apparently as much an -open question in Greek times as it is now. Practical experience must have -gone a long way then as today; but full control could not be achieved. -In forming an estimate of what proportion of the pottery was spoiled in -the kiln we must remember that in our museums we are apt to encounter -the survival of the fittest—what the potter considered worth preserving, -what the Greek client deemed adequate to his need, and what the modern -museum curator considers good enough for exhibition. But even in this -selection we meet with a number of kiln mishaps, which apparently were so -common that they were hardly noticed. When our eyes have become trained -to observe such things, we shall note that in any collection of Greek -vases there are many cases of warping and sagging, especially in the -overhanging lips of the hydriai and amphorai.[27] There are many cracks -and dents,[28] many faults in the glaze. A very conspicuous fault is the -change of the clay from a pink to a grayish color.[29] Archaeologists -often explain this as due to over-firing.[30] The real reason is not that -the temperature has been too high, but that the clay has been subjected -in the kiln or in the funeral pyre, to fumes the carbon of which has been -absorbed by the clay. In other words, there was either reduction and the -red ferric oxide in the clay has been changed to black ferrous oxide -(cf. pp. 30 f.), or the clay has absorbed the black carbon physically. -When controlled, this change is very useful to the potter for obtaining -certain effects. Thus bucchero pottery is simply red clay fired under -completely reducing conditions; and in the Vasiliki mottled ware some -carbonaceous pigment like tar was probably placed on the spots which were -intended to be black, whereupon the carbon would be absorbed by the clay -and the iron reduced.[31] - -The commonest injury to the glaze in the fire is its change into a -brilliant red instead of the intended black. This can be observed on many -vases, sometimes as a large spot (cf. fig. 49), other times as a less -clearly defined variegation.[32] The cause was irregularity of fire, a -jet of air passing through the kiln coming in contact with parts of the -vases. In other words, there was an excess of oxygen (or the reverse of -reduction) which turned the black ferrous oxide of the glaze into red -ferric oxide.[33] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one -side - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.607] - -Such red spots caused by jets of air coming in contact with the vases -must not be confused with the very similar red spots which are due to -the wearing off of the black glaze and the exposure underneath it of the -ochre-tinted clay (cf. p. 58). Examination with a magnifying glass will -show the difference: in one case the red is part of and level with the -black glaze, in the other it is on a layer beneath the black glaze; in -the former case the red will not come off when rubbed, in the latter it -will. - - -GLAZING - -Besides shaping and firing a vase, a potter must understand the art of -glazing, to many the most alluring part of the craft; this comprises both -the preparation of the glaze and its application to the pot. A glaze is -a chemical compound, known as a silicate, which upon firing becomes a -glassy substance. It has three chief ingredients: (1) an oxide of lead, -of lime, of alkali, etc., which forms the foundation of the glaze; (2) -alumina and boron oxide, which regulate the behavior of the glaze in the -fire; and (3) silica, which controls the fitting of the glaze to the -body. Modern glazes are divided into two chief categories: lead glazes -and leadless glazes. Of these the former are by far the more numerous; -but alkaline glazes, tin enamels, etc., are also used, especially in -studio potteries. - -In the preparation of a glaze the ingredients have first to be weighed -out carefully in the required proportions; the mixture has then to be -ground with water and sieved; and when the right thickness is attained -(usually about the consistency of cream), the glaze is applied to the -vase, which should first be soaked in water to saturation to prevent too -rapid absorption. Gum tragacanth is used as a binder to make the glaze -stick. - -The glaze can be applied in various ways—by dipping (fig. 50), by pouring -(fig. 51), by the use of the brush (fig. 52), or by spraying (fig. 53), -the method depending chiefly on the individual choice of the potter. To -apply a glaze properly to the clay body is a great art, and upon it, as -much as on the preparation of the glaze, final success depends. The glaze -mixtures when applied are whitish or grayish; it is only after firing -that they assume the wonderful range of colors which delight us so much -today. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50. Method of glazing: dipping] - -[Illustration: Fig. 51. Method of glazing: pouring] - -The Athenian potter had no ambition to produce brilliant color effects -in glazing. He was content with the one variety which he had brought to -perfection—a thin, luminous glaze of a deep, velvety black color and of -astonishing durability. After generations of experiments we cannot yet -say that we can successfully imitate it. Its composition is, however, no -longer a secret. It has been shown by analysis and synthesis that the -chief component parts of the glaze are an alkali (potash or soda), a clay -(which would contain some silica such as flint naturally), and ferrous -oxide.[34] The exact proportion of these parts, and above all the -manipulation of the glaze are still unknown. At least, nothing completely -corresponding to the Greek glaze has as yet been produced, though Mr. -Tonks[35] and especially Mr. Binns[36] have come very near it. Whether -the secret lies in the proportion, in the medium used for binder,[37] or -in some undiscovered element one cannot tell. It is only certain that -when the discovery is made, as doubtless it must be, it will be of great -import both to archaeologists and to modern potters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52. Method of glazing: use of the brush] - -The glaze was, as I have endeavored to show (cf. pp. 37 ff.), applied to -the vase in leather-hard condition. At that stage the clay still contains -enough water to prevent too rapid absorption, and the glaze, therefore, -runs in an easy, flowing manner.[38] To carry out his work the painter -could take his time, for, as we have seen (cf. p. 16), a vase can be kept -leather hard for an indefinite period by the simple device of placing -it in a damp box, that is, an air-tight case with a pan of water at the -bottom.[39] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53. Method of glazing: spraying - -Cox, _Pottery for Artists, Craftsmen and Teachers_, p. 111, fig. 51] - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. Hydria showing brush marks - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.7] - -How did the Greek painter apply the glaze to his pottery? We know that -on the broader surfaces the brush was used, for brush marks are clearly -visible in many cases.[40] When possible the backgrounds and horizontal -bands were painted while the piece was rotating on the wheel; where a -panel had to be reserved, the irregularity of free-hand brush work can -readily be observed (fig. 54). For the “flat” glaze lines, in both the -figured scenes and the ornamental motives, smaller brushes were employed. -But what was the instrument which produced the famous “relief” lines, -that is, those fine lines which stand out perceptibly from the surface -and which were used for the contours and inner markings of the figures -during the best red-figured period (fig. 55)? The quality of these lines -has been justly admired by all who have studied them and it has been -thought that the instrument used had much to do with the result.[41] -After a number of experiments with fine brushes, single bristles, -reeds, feathers, pens, etc., I have come to the conclusion that it is of -little avail to discuss the instrument used before we can employ in our -experiments a glaze identical with the Greek. For to get the wonderful -flow of the Greek line, the glaze must run much more easily than any -imitation black glaze which we have so far produced. The groove which -runs down the middle of the relief lines hardly affords a clue; for -slight pressure of any instrument seems to produce such a result. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 10.210.18] - - -RED OCHRE WASH - -In three statements of ancient writers the addition of red ochre to -Athenian pottery is referred to.[42] In Pliny, Natural History, XXXV, -152, we read: Boutades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta -fingere, “Boutades first added red ochre, or made pottery of red clay.” -Isidorus, Etymologiae, XX, iv, 3, speaks of pottery vases having been -first invented at Samos and then adds: Postea inventum et rubricam addere -et ex rubra creta fingere, “a later invention was to add red ochre and -to make pottery of red clay.” Suidas in his lexicon, where he describes -Cape Kolias as a place in Attica where pottery is made, says that the -clay from that region is the best, and adds: ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῆς -μίλτου, “so that it is also dyed with red ochre.” - -Archaeologists have assumed that this red ochre was mixed with the clay -and that to it was due the deeper color of Athenian ware as compared, for -instance, with the geometric. Thus in practically all our books on vases -the preparation of the clay for the manufacture of Athenian vases is -described somewhat as follows: “The clay having been thoroughly purified -and washed, was then kneaded and brought to a consistency suitable for -shaping it on the wheel. It was at this stage that other substances, -chiefly a red earth (ochre = μίλτος), were worked in with the clay to -deepen the color.” First of all, it should be noted that if ochre is to -be added to the clay it must be done long before the kneading stage, -otherwise the red ochre will of course not mix evenly. The best time -would be when the clay is dry, so that a definite proportion could be -weighed out. But that is too obvious to need discussion. The question is, -Does the addition of red ochre materially change the color of the clay? -It may be interesting in this connection to record my experience in the -matter. About three years ago I was asked to speak at a convention of -modern potters meeting at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, on the subject -of Greek vases. I thought that these potters would probably be specially -interested in the technical side of Greek ceramics, and with the courage -of ignorance I described in detail our theories regarding the manufacture -of Greek pottery. It was the questions which the potters asked me -afterwards which convinced me that it was time I went to a pottery -school. One of my statements which aroused considerable interest was this -theory that red ochre was added as an ingredient to deepen the color of -red clay. Several men came to me after the talk and said, “I don’t see -why the Greeks did that; for by just slightly raising the temperature -they could easily have deepened the color.” I had no answer then, but -when I went to the pottery school I thought I should take nothing for -granted, but convince myself by making my own experiments. So I made some -tests, adding certain percentages of ochre to see how it would affect the -color. Apparently the ochre had little effect, and the pieces with and -without ochre were about equally pink when they came out of the kiln. I -then burned some pieces without any ochre to a little higher temperature -and the red was considerably deepened. I was quite convinced then that -the ochre added as an ingredient to the clay would not have the desired -result; besides, if we needed further proof we might remember that -analyses made of Athenian clay have shown no trace of ochre.[43] - -What, then, do Pliny and Suidas mean when they speak of the addition of -red ochre to Athenian pottery? A number of archaeologists have observed -from time to time that Athenian vases, especially of the late red-figured -period, show traces of a reddish pigment applied over the surface. -Reichhold in his technical description of vases in Furtwängler und -Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, frequently refers to it as “rötliche -Lasur.”[44] Pottier ascribed it to a sort of varnish or lustre applied -over the surface of the decorated, fired vase which on decomposition -precipitated into a red deposit.[45] Walters thought that red ochre -was rubbed on certain parts of the vase which had remained too pale -after baking.[46] A detailed examination of the vases in many European -and American museums convinced me that the use of this red pigment was -quite general throughout the red-figured period, and to a limited extent -in the black-figured period. On a few vases it appears in excellent -preservation.[47] The majority of red-figured vases of all periods[48] -and a few of the black-figured vases[49] show traces of it. When it is -not otherwise visible, it can often be detected in the slight depressions -of the preliminary sketch, or under the handles, or on the under side of -the foot. As the color comes off when rubbed with a damp cloth, it is not -surprising that it is not better preserved, after the extensive cleaning -that most museum specimens have undergone. But the many traces which are -still preserved can only be satisfactorily explained by assuming that it -was the general practice—at least in the red-figured period—to apply a -red pigment over the whole surface of the vase. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze -line (on arm) going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.236.2] - -In the light of this experience let us again examine what Pliny and -Suidas say. Pliny’s statement is sufficiently vague to make any -interpretation possible; but Suidas’ use of the word βάπτεσθαι, “to be -dipped,” is illuminating. The clay could not have been “dipped” in a -powdery or liquid state, the only way of having the ochre become an -actual ingredient in the clay. The term βάπτεσθαι implies that the clay -must have become a solid vase, in which case the ochre was applied only -on its surface. Indeed Athenaeus (480 E) uses the term βάπτεσθαι to -signify the “glazing” or “silvering” of earthen vessels. So that literary -testimony seems to agree with the evidence of the vases themselves -that the ochre was applied on the surface. At what stage, then, was -this ochre added? Was it before or after the black glaze? Careful -examination has shown that it was previous to the glazing. When the -black glaze is chipped off it generally takes the surface too, so that -instances of the red ochre showing underneath are not numerous; but -there are nevertheless a number of undoubted examples.[50] An especially -convincing instance is on an amphora in the Metropolitan Museum in which -a diluted black glaze line goes clearly over traces of the red lift in a -preliminary sketch line (fig. 56). Furthermore, in many cases the glaze -on the background surfaces has disintegrated and shows the red ochre -beneath.[51] - -Since the black glaze was probably applied to the leather-hard clay, the -ochre wash must also have been added in that state. The leather-hard -vase might have been dipped in an ochre solution or the ochre applied -with a brush or rubbed into the surface as a powder. In order to make it -adhere properly to the clay actual experiments have shown that by far the -best results are obtained by giving the surface a good polish after the -application of the ochre. The ochre is thereby actually incorporated with -the clay and forms a good firm surface. If not so polished, it is powdery -after firing and comes off easily. - -Experiments further showed that (1) red ochre applied in this manner on -the red clay in leather-hard condition produced an effect identical with -the red “wash” observable on the Athenian vases; (2) preliminary sketch -lines engraved lightly with a blunt tool did not remove the ochre; (3) -the ochre in no way interfered with the adhesion of the black glaze over -it; (4) the ochre came off only a little at a time even when rubbed hard -while wet. It is therefore only during the long processes of wear and -time that the red ochre application has worn off. But even when it has -entirely disappeared, it has stained the clay a deeper color—namely, -the orangey hues which we see now; for the actual color of the clay is -lighter and pinker, as any fracture will show.[52] - -Originally, however, we learn from our investigation, the red-figured -Athenian vases had an even deeper and richer tint than they have -now—approaching more nearly the color of copper. The general effect, -therefore, must have been considerably more vivid than it is today, and -to some this thought may not at first appeal. But we should remember that -we are discovering also in other fields that the Greeks loved bright, -intense color, not the faded tints that so many of their works present -today. - - -WERE ATHENIAN VASES MADE FOR EVERY-DAY USE? - -The theory has often been advanced that the painted black-figured and -red-figured vases were made for decoration and for votive and funeral -purposes, but not for actual use. Percy Gardner in his Grammar of Greek -Art (p. 160) holds this view and gives as his reason that the painted -vases were too fragile to be easily handled and too porous to contain -liquid. Reichhold in Furtwängler und Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, -Text, I, p. 82, and Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister, p. 10, is of the -same opinion, and bases his assumption on the fact that a number of the -vases show ancient rivet marks and could not therefore have served any -practical purpose in such a condition; also that no ancient vases show -signs of wear, which would have been unavoidable if they had been in -daily use. Does our investigation of the technique of Athenian vases help -to settle this question? Let us look first at the case in its broader -aspects. - -Nobody can work long with Greek vases or other forms of Greek industrial -art without being impressed with the wonderful combination of beauty and -practical utility which these objects show. The Greek vases are not only -finely proportioned, but each one is admirably adapted to its purpose. -We need only try pouring from an oinochoë to see how easily the liquid -flows without any danger of spilling; or from a lekythos to see how the -oil trickles through the narrow neck, drop by drop, or in a very thin -stream, just right for cooking or the making of salad dressing. We need -only drink from a kylix to realize how, contrary to expectations, it is -an easy and delightful process—the little curve of the rim preventing the -liquid from spilling down one’s cheeks.[53] We need only closely observe -the handles of Greek vases to see how their positions, their curves, and -above all their extraordinary solidity render them eminently practical. -Moreover, the study of a hundred little details, the forms of the knobs -on pyxides, the projections for holding the lids in place, the outward -or inward curves of the lips, the substantial feet, all combine to form -overpowering evidence that these vases were designed for actual use. It -is only in isolated instances, such as the loutrophoroi which have no -bottoms or the white lekythoi which have no connection between the neck -and body, that this rule does not hold good. Such vases, however, belong -to clearly defined classes evidently made as votive offerings or as tomb -furniture. - -That the bulk of vases were made for votive purposes, there is no real -evidence. Among the many sixth- and fifth-century inscriptions recording -such offerings there are few relating to pottery vases. Nor is it -conceivable that these vases were purely ornamental. We know that private -houses in Athens were at that period excessively simple, consisting -mostly of a courtyard and a few rooms opening on it, so that it is not -likely that people surrounded themselves with a lot of useless ornaments; -nor can we believe that in a period which, at least in the sixth century, -was still one of strenuous endeavor, these vases were exported to all -parts of the world merely as decorative bric-à-brac. Everything we know -of Greek life at that time points against such an assumption. Moreover, -if the Greeks had such decorations in their homes we should expect to -see, depicted in the vase paintings, cabinets or shelves with vases -displayed on them; instead, when vases are shown, they are invariably -in actual use, or hanging on a nail on the wall, ready for immediate -service.[54] - -There is another consideration. Even if, from our modern point of view, -we may hesitate to believe that a beautiful cup of Euphronios was used -merely as a drinking vessel, where are we to draw the line? Any one who -has worked in a museum or has excavated on fifth-century sites knows -that besides the selected specimens exhibited in museum cases there are -a large number of inferior examples, hastily decorated, which could -hardly have been displayed as ornaments, but which are open to the same -objections raised against the vases of better workmanship. - -And now let us examine these objections. First, the vases are supposed -to be too porous to contain liquid. The fineness of the clay, the polish -which was imparted to it, and perhaps the application of the ochre -tended to reduce this porosity somewhat. In the course of time the -deposit left by wine and oil would still further close the pores. In any -case, experiments show that Athenian vases do hold liquids without any -difficulty. The unglazed portions become damp, and a damp mark is left -on the table if the foot is not glazed; but in the days before highly -polished furniture there was no strong objection to that, and there was -on the other hand a very real advantage. For it allows a certain amount -of evaporation which would tend to cool the liquid—a very desirable thing -in a warm climate without a regulated ice supply. Any one who has tried -the experiment of keeping water in an unglazed jar in a warm room has -found that the evaporation keeps it delightfully cool. In southern Europe -today liquids are kept in that manner during the summer. We must also -remember that a large number of the early wares from the Bronze Age down, -as well as the commoner wares at all times, are either wholly unglazed -or have unglazed portions. And surely nobody wants to contend that these -vases were not manufactured for use. - -The objection that Athenian pottery is fragile is easily disposed of. -Actual handling of the vases will show that they are anything but -fragile, in fact that they are remarkably strong. All those portions -which would get special wear, such as handles and rims, are almost always -stoutly made, more so than much of the china and earthenware and glass -we use today. Occasionally, of course, we get a very thin and delicate -example; and that would have to be handled with special care. - -Then, as regards the question of wear. Terracotta is, as a matter of -fact, one of the most indestructible materials we have, and especially so -when glazed. Glazed earthenware, consequently, even though in constant -use shows little trace of wear. What little we should expect, a close -inspection of Athenian vases will reveal. The black glaze, even when -perfectly preserved on the exterior, is much worn on the interior of -stamnoi or kraters (cf. fig. 57), where the liquid came in constant -contact with the glaze, and the unglazed interiors of amphorai and -hydriai are certainly not perfectly fresh and unused looking. It is -also noteworthy that finely and poorly decorated vases are in the same -condition in this respect. A comparison with the Corean pottery of the -Korai period, 935-1392 A.D.,[55] which is known to have been made to -serve merely as tomb furniture, is helpful. The fresh and clean insides -of these vases offer a very different appearance from that of the -discolored interiors of Greek amphorai and hydriai—a clear proof that the -Athenian ware did not serve the same unutilitarian purpose as the Corean. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.74] - -Lastly, regarding the argument about riveted vases, it is surely natural -now and then, instead of throwing away a broken pot, to have it put -together and make the best of it in its mended state. We do the same -thing nowadays. At all events, the vase could still have been used to -contain dry materials. Such Athenian vases with ancient rivet marks are -in any case infrequent, and do not compare in number with the broken -vases which have not been mended. - -Such considerations should once for all explode the theory that Athenian -vases were not actually used; so that we can think of them, in the way -that appeals to our imagination, as serving in the daily life of the -Athenians and as adding to the enjoyment of that life, both by their -beauty and by their usefulness. - - - - -II. REPRESENTATIONS OF ANCIENT POTTERS - - -An important source of knowledge for the technique of Greek vases is -supplied by the representations of ancient potters at work and by -potter’s implements which have survived. It may be interesting to review -these and see what new interpretations experience at a modern pottery -school will suggest. - - -FASHIONING THE VASES - - _1. Black-figured hydria in Munich._ - - Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, Text, p. - 159. - - Jahn, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in der Pinakothek zu - München, No. 731. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58. Athenian pottery establishment - -Furtwängler u. Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, I, Text, p. 159] - -An Athenian pottery establishment. To the left a man sits on a stool and -is holding with both hands an amphora on his lap; a boy (only the head -and one hand are preserved) is standing before him, placing one hand -on the body of the vase; the latter is painted black, that is, it has -already been glazed. The man has the air of inspecting it, while the boy -is apparently helping him hold it (since it is still in leather-hard -condition, it requires careful handling). The next group represents a man -throwing a tall vase on a wheel; a boy is sitting before him on a low -stool, turning the wheel with both hands at whatever speed is required. -The vase is so tall that the entire forearm of the potter is inserted; -while his other hand (now missing) was doubtless placed on the outside -of the vase, so that by the pressure of the two hands the pot might -acquire the necessary form and thickness. The vase is painted white to -show that it is as yet unglazed. A pair of calipers is hanging on the -wall ready for use, to enable the potter to check the heights and widths -of his products. To the right a youth is carefully carrying away a vase -that has just been thrown, to dry. A similar vase is already standing on -the other side of a column, drying in the open air or in a court. Both -vases are painted white to indicate their unglazed condition. Next we -see an old man walking leisurely with a stick. His dignified air is in -strong contrast to the busy absorption of the workmen. He is evidently -the overseer or proprietor of the pottery. To his right a tall youth is -carrying a heavy weight on his back, apparently a sack of charcoal. He is -bringing it to the kiln, which is being stoked by the fireman. The kiln -has a satyr head at the top to avert the evil eye and protect the pottery -from all danger during the firing.[56] - - _2. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._ - - Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pls. 8, 17. - - Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No. - 869. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59. Potter throwing - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, No. 17] - -A potter throwing a vase on a wheel, with both his hands placed on the -outer surface; only the two hands of the potter and the upper part of the -wheel with the vase are preserved. - - _3. Red-figured fragment from the Akropolis in Athens._ - - Athenische Mittheilungen, XIV, 1889, p. 157. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60. Potter throwing - -_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1889, p. 157] - -A potter is sitting on a stool and throwing a vase on a wheel which is -being propelled by a boy; another man sits behind him with a krater on -his lap. - - _4. Interior of a black-figured kylix in the British Museum._ - - British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition), - 1920, p. 182, fig. 218. - - Walters, Catalogue of the Greek and Etruscan Vases, II, B.432. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61. Potter attaching handles - -British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 182, -fig. 218] - -A potter is sitting in front of his wheel on which a kylix is standing. -He is apparently engaged in attaching the handles. On a shelf above are -piled some more kylikes and a jug. The whole is very roughly painted. - - _5. Corinthian black-figured pinax in the Museum of the Louvre._ - - Gazette archéologique, VI, 1880, p. 106, 3a. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62. Potter incising lines (?) - -_Gazette archéologique_, 1880, p. 106 (3a)] - -A potter is sitting before his wheel propelling it with one hand. He is -working on what appears to be a one-handled jug. He is not “throwing” -or “turning” it, since it already has its handle attached. Perhaps he -is incising horizontal lines on it, for which process he could easily -propel his own wheel. On the wall hang two other jugs (with similar -incised lines), and some plates (?) are stacked on the floor. - - _6. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._ - - Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 14b. - - Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No. - 885. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63. Potter joining sections (?) - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, No. 14b] - -A man is sitting in front of a tall globular vase on a high foot. He is -not throwing it, for there is no indication of a wheel. Perhaps he is -joining the sections of a tall vase, some of which are already in place, -while one part lies on the floor waiting to be attached. But the whole -scene is so roughly painted that it is impossible even to know definitely -that a potter is represented. - - _7. Interior of a red-figured kylix, Berlin Museum No. 2542._ - - Rayet et Collignon, Histoire de la céramique grecque, p. XVII, - fig. 7. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64. Boy finishing vase - -Rayet et Collignon, _Histoire de la Céramique grecque_ p. XVII, fig. 7] - -A boy is sitting with a cup (kotyle) in one hand and an implement in the -other, evidently engaged in a finishing process. Perhaps he is removing -the surplus clay after the handles have been attached; for the vase is as -yet unglazed and is left in the red color of the clay, in contrast to the -black kotyle and oinochoë on the stand close by. - - _8. Terracotta statuette of a potter in the British Museum._ - - British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition), - 1920, p. 181, fig. 216. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. Potter building a vase - -British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 181, -fig. 216] - -A man is represented in a crouching attitude apparently engaged in -building a pot. - - -DECORATING THE VASES - - _1. Red-figured hydria in Ruvo._ - - Annali dell’Instituto, 1876, pl. DE. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work - -_Annali dell’Instituto_, 1876, pl. DE] - -Athena and two Victories crowning potters at work. To the left is a -potter sitting on a low stool and engaged in decorating a volute krater; -he is holding a brush in his closed fist in Japanese fashion, and is -looking in surprise at the Nike who is crowning him; by his side are two -paint pots. In front of him another workman, comfortably seated on a -chair, is busily painting a kantharos which he holds tipped on his lap. -He also holds the brush in his fist downwards. Another kantharos and an -oinochoë stand on the floor, awaiting their turn to be decorated; on a -low stand close by are two paint pots, one with its lid tipped against -the side. The artist is completely absorbed in his work and has not -yet discovered Athena, the patron of arts and crafts, approaching him -with a wreath. Behind Athena a third workman is seated on a low stool, -decorating a bell krater with a palmette design. He tips up the vase -with one hand, holds the brush firmly in his fist, and has his paint -pot within easy reach on the floor. A Nike is about to crown him with -a wreath; but he, too, is entirely engrossed in his work and quite -unconscious of the honor to be conferred on him. Completing the scene -on the right is a girl on a low platform painting the handle of a large -volute krater. The figure is of special interest today, for it shows that -there were women potters then as now. Above her on the wall are suspended -a kantharos and a lekythos. The whole scene is of great importance as the -most representative we possess of ancient vase painters at work. - - _2. Red-figured kylix in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston._ - - Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, pl. 4. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67. Youth decorating kylix - -Hartwig, _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, 1899, pl. IV] - -A youth is sitting on a stool, holding a kylix by the foot and decorating -the outside of it with what looks like a brush with long bristles, -though it has also been identified as a feather (by Hartwig). In the hand -that grasps the kylix is a pointed instrument which has been identified -by Hartwig as the implement with which the preliminary sketch was drawn. -The attitude of the painter suggests the quiet absorption required by a -delicate task. Behind the youth is his knotted staff, and on the wall -hang his oil flask and strigil. - - _3. Fragment of a red-figured kylix, found on the Akropolis, - Athens._ - - Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, p. 154, fig. 2. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68. Potter glazing kylix - -Hartwig, _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, 1899, pl. 154, fig. 2] - -A potter glazing the inside of a kylix as it rotates on the wheel. A -woman appears to be crowning him with a wreath. - - _4. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._ - - Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18. - - Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No. - 868. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69. Potter painting bands on a krater - -Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18] - -A potter is sitting on a stool before his wheel, apparently in the act -of painting broad black bands on a column krater while the vase is -revolving. - - _5. Red-figured bell-krater in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford._ - - Beazley, Journal of Hellenic Studies, XXVIII, 1908, pl. XXXII, - A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70. Three youths, one painting a krater - -Beazley, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, XXVIII (1908), pl. XXXII, A.] - -To the left a youth is sitting on a stool painting the outside of a -bell krater. He is steadying the vase with his left arm placed inside -the krater, while he lets the rim rest on his lap. By his side is a low -stand with a skyphos evidently containing the paint. A second workman -is carrying off another krater to the right. He may be going to fetch -some water or wine in it, for it is evidently a completed, fired vase, -otherwise he would not be carrying it by the handles. A third workman -is moving in the same direction holding up a skyphos, perhaps to get -more paint or some water or wine to drink. A krater standing on the -ground completes the scene. On the wall hang some implements of the -potter’s trade, identified by Beazley from the original as (1) a kylix -for drinking, (2) a mortar for grinding the ingredients of the glaze, -(3) a brush case, (4) a bowl to contain liquid glaze, (5) a strainer for -sieving the glaze. - - _6. Bœotian black-figured skyphos in the Polytechnion in - Athens._ - - Found in Lokris. - - Blümner, _Athenische Mittheilungen_, XIV, 1889, p. 151. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71. Pottery establishment - -Blümner, _Athenische Mittheilungen_, XIV, 1889, p. 151] - -The master of the pottery is sitting with a kylix in one hand, while -with the other he is trying to beat a slave who is running off with -three skyphoi. Three other skyphoi are on the ground, while a kantharos -and a skyphos are near by on a shelf. Another workman is inspecting a -skyphos he has just glazed; a paint pot and brush are on a low stand by -his side. He takes no notice of a scene which is taking place close by, -a man beating a slave suspended from the ceiling. The workmanship is -very crude, and if it is a product of the pottery establishment which it -depicts, it is a fair sample of the work we might expect from a place run -on such methods! - - -FIRING THE VASES - - _1-10 Votive tablets or pinakes found at Penteskuphia near - Corinth, dating 650-550 B.C. (figs. 72-80). Nos. 73-78, 80 are - in the Berlin Museum; Nos. 72, 79 in the Museum of the Louvre._ - - Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, Nos. 1, 4, 12, 15, 19b, - 21, 22, 26 (Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu - Berlin, I, Nos. 608, 802, 616, 893, 909, 827, 611). Gazette - archéologique, VI, 1880, p. 105 (1), p. 106 (1). - -[Illustration: Figs. 72-73. Potters stoking the fire - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, 26. - -_Gazette archéologique_, VI, p. 105.] - - -_Representations of potter’s kilns._ - -The kilns are domed, and have three openings, one at the bottom for the -fuel, one on the side for the insertion of the ware and to act as a -spy-hole, and one at the top to let out the smoke and for the regulation -of the draught. On figs. 72-79, the firemen are busy stoking the fire, -and climbing to the top of the kiln to manipulate the draught-hole with -a hooked implement; for the flames are seen emerging at the top, which -means that heat is being wasted. Fig. 80 shows the inside of a kiln, in -horizontal section, with two openings for the fire, each opening having -two channels into the kiln. The vases should of course stand upright, -but the painter naturally found it difficult to depict them in the right -perspective looking at them from the top. - -[Illustration: Figs. 74-79. Potters regulating draught - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, Nos. 4, 12, 1, 21, 22; _Gazette -archéologique_, VI, p. 106.] - -Furtwängler (Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, p. 70, note) -was inclined to think that these ovens are not pottery kilns, but -furnaces for metal smelting. His objections, however, do not hold. The -ovens are not too large for pottery, and the climbing to the top for -the regulation of the draught is a well-known proceeding. Moreover, -the scene (fig. 80) showing the stacked vases, the little pots painted -on figs. 75 and 78 as if to indicate the purpose of the ovens, and -the representations of potters at work on other tablets, make the -interpretation as pottery kilns the most likely. These pictures are of -special importance since no actual Greek kilns have yet been discovered, -though several Etruscan and numerous Roman ones have come to light (cf. -Montelius, Civilisation primitive, pl. 107, 11, and Blümner, op. cit., -II, pp. 23 ff.). - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. VIII, No. 19b] - - -MISCELLANEOUS SCENES - - _1. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._ - - Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, II, title vignette. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks - -Millin, _Peintures de vases_, II, title vignette] - -A youth is sitting in front of an oven removing with two sticks a -two-handled vase which has been placed there for drying. He is using -the sticks instead of his fingers because the pot is too hot to touch; -not in order to avoid injuring the fresh glaze on the vase, as has been -suggested (cf. Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie II, 1895, p. 52), for -the sticks would mark the glaze as much as the fingers would. Modern -potters often use sticks for removing hot ware from the kilns (cf. p. 36). - - _2. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._ - - Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, I, vignette. - - Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie, II, p. 52, fig. 13. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82. Youth working on vases (?) - -Millin, _Peintures de vases_, I, vignette] - -A youth is sitting on a low tripod in front of an oven. He holds a jug by -the handle, and seems to be working on it with an instrument. It is not -clear what he is doing; the way he holds the vase by one handle suggests -that the vase has been fired. On the oven are a kylix and an oinochoë, -perhaps placed there for drying. - - _3. Archaic Greek stele in the Akropolis Museum, Athens._ - - Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Pheidias_, p. 367, fig. 29. - - Dickins, Catalogue of the Akropolis Museum at Athens, p. 272, - No. 1332. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. Master potter (?) - -Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Phidias_, p. 367, fig. 29] - -A bearded man is represented seated, holding in his left hand two -kylikes, one by the handle, the other by the foot. A large part of the -stele is missing. The figure has been interpreted, with some probability, -as a “master potter.” - - _4. Greek stele in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York._ - - Richter, Handbook of the Classical Collection, p. 209, fig. 125. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84. Woman potter (?) - -Met. Mus. Acc. No. 08.258.42] - -A woman is represented seated with a pyxis on her lap and a lekythos in -one hand. On the analogy of the Akropolis stele, it is possible that here -too we have a votive offering of a potter. - - _5. Interior of a kylix in the Johns Hopkins University, - Baltimore._ - - Hartwig, Die griechischen Meisterschalen, pl. XVII, I, and - title vignette. - - Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Red-Figured Vases, II, p. 355. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85. Client in potter’s shop - -Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen_, title vignette] - -A client in a potter’s shop is examining the stacked ware, and holds his -purse ready to pay for what he will select. - - _6. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._ - - Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 3a. - - Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No. - 831b. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86. Ship with cargo of pottery - -_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, 3a] - -Sailing-ship with a sheet wound round the mast, and a row of jugs painted -in the field above. The latter apparently indicate the cargo of the ship, -and the tablet is probably an offering of a merchant to the sea-god -Poseidon for the safe conduct of his precious consignment to foreign -lands. - -This is the only picture we have of the transport of Greek vases, which -we know played so significant a part in Greek ceramic industry. Even in -the seventh century B.C., when most important localities produced their -own wares, such shipments must have been frequent, since, for instance, -large numbers of Corinthian vases have been unearthed in Etruria, and -Laconian vases are found scattered far and wide. In the sixth and fifth -centuries B.C., when Athens supplied a large part of the Greek world -with her pottery, the trade must have been an exceedingly active one; so -that we must imagine ship after ship laden with pottery sailing from the -Piraeus for distant lands. - - -REPRESENTATIONS WRONGLY INTERPRETED AS POTTERY SCENES - -From time to time various representations have been interpreted as -pottery scenes which probably have no such significance. The following -are the two most important. - - _1. Interior of a kylix in the Metropolitan Museum of Art._ - -A satyr is stoking the fire of an oven on which is a skyphos. This scene -is figured in many of the books on vases (cf. e.g. Walters, History of -Ancient Pottery, I, p. 216, fig. 68) and interpreted as a satyr firing -pottery; probably he is simply cooking his dinner. - - _2. Interior of a kylix._ - - Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder, pls. CLXXX-CLXXXI. - -Youth holding the rim of a large krater with both hands. He is sometimes -interpreted as a potter working on a vase; but there is no clear -connection with pottery work. - - -POTTER’S IMPLEMENTS - -Unfortunately very few potter’s implements of classical Greek times have -survived. We have no Athenian wheel or kiln or turning tools. And even -from other periods the list of such utensils is a slim one. But what has -survived here and there from other periods is in line with the general -trend of the evidence—that the techniques in ancient times were very -similar to what they are today. Perhaps the most interesting pieces are -the terracotta disks found at Gournia, Arezzo, and elsewhere,[57] which -are wheel-heads[58] on which the pottery was thrown and turned. On the -under side of some of these is a hole for insertion in the pivot (fig. -87). - -[Illustration: Fig. 87. Wheel-head - -British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 181, -fig. 217] - -The potter’s tools found at Arezzo (fig. 88)[59] are not unlike our -modern modeling tools and were doubtless used for various finishing -processes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88. Tools found at Arezzo - -Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, -p. 1122, fig. 3036] - -In the British Museum (Nos. 74.7-10,302) are terracotta stilts used for -supporting vases in the kilns, very like the stilts used by potters -today. It is unlikely that they were used by the Athenian potters, since -the Greek black glaze is so thin it would not be apt to run, but for the -Roman ware with metallic glaze they were essential, and the marks they -left are visible on the feet of the vases.[60] On one of the British -Museum stilts (fig. 89) are remains of a greenish glaze from such a vase. -No moulds for the Athenian plastic ware have to my knowledge been found. -But moulds for the later wares, such as the Arretine, are of course -plentiful. They are invariably made of burnt clay. The kilns which have -survived all date from Roman times (cf. Blümner, op. cit., II, pp. 23 -ff.). - -[Illustration: Fig. 89. Stilt] - - - - -III. REFERENCES TO THE POTTERY CRAFT IN ANCIENT LITERATURE - - -The information derived from ancient literature on the subject of the -technique of Athenian vases is decidedly meagre; and naturally so. The -only people who could have given us valuable data regarding technical -questions were the potters themselves, and they were not writers. -Outsiders knew as little of the technique of the craft as they do today. -So we obtain from them only general remarks; and these on the whole bear -out the points we have already made. Occasionally, however, they throw -fresh light on a question, or give us information on some point on which -the vases themselves cannot speak, such as the status of the ancient -potters, the value placed on the vases, etc. It is important, therefore, -to examine the chief references in Greek and Roman literature on this -subject. - - -PREPARATION OF THE CLAY - - -_Geoponica_, II, 49. - - 3. It is most necessary for every reason to have potters (on - a farm), since we are convinced that it is possible to find - potter’s clay on any land; for either on the surface, or deep - down, or in out-of-the-way places on the land you will find - earth suitable for making pottery. - - 3. Ἀναγκαιότατον δὲ καὶ κεραμέας ἔχειν πάντων ἕνεκα, - πεπεισμένον ὅτι ἐν πάσῃ τῇ γῇ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν κεραμικὴν γῆν, ἢ γὰρ - ἐπιπολάσιον, ἢ ἐν βάθει, ἢ ἐν ἀποκεκρυμμένοις μέρεσι καὶ τόποις - τοῦ χωρίου ἐπιτηδείαν γῆν πρὸς κατασκευὴν κεράμων εὑρήσεις. - -The abundance of clay on Greek soil must have helped the manufacture of -the many local varieties before Athens obtained the monopoly in the sixth -century B.C. - - -_Geoponica_, VI, 3. - -_On making pithoi_ - - 1. Not all earth is suitable for pottery, but with regard to - potter’s clay, some prefer the yellowish red, some the white, - and others mix the two. 2. Some in judging of a well-made - pithos are satisfied if, when struck, it gives forth a sharp, - clear sound. 3. That, however, is not enough, but the person - in charge ought to be present while the work is going on, and - see to it that the clay has been well worked, and not let it be - put on the wheel before the clay shows what sort of pot it will - make when fired. - -περὶ κατασκευῆς πίθων - - 1. Γῆ οὐ πᾶσα ἐπιτήδειος πρὸς κεραμείαν, ἀλλὰ τῆς κεραμίτιδος - γῆς οἱ μὲν προκρίνουσι τὴν πυρρὰν τὸ χρῶμα, οἱ δὲ τὴν λευκήν, - οἱ δὲ ἀμφοτέρας συμμιγνύουσι. 2. Τινὲς μὲν οὖν ἀρκοῦνται ἐν - τῇ δοκιμασίᾳ τοῦ καλῶς κεκεραμευμένου πίθου, τῷ κρουσθέντα - αὐτὸν ἀποδοῦναι ἦχόν τινα ὀξὺν καὶ πορόν. 3. Οὐκ ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο - αὔταρκες, ἀλλὰ χρῆ τὸν κατασκευάζοντα παρεῖναι τῇ κεραμείᾳ, καὶ - ὅπως ὁ πηλὸς καλῶς εἰργασμένος εἴη προνοῆσαι, καὶ μὴ πρὶν ἐᾶσαι - ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάσαι, πρὶν τὸν πηλὸν διαδεῖξαι ὁποῖος - ἔσται ὁ πίθος ὀπτηθείς. - -Good potters were evidently well aware, then as now, of the importance -of the right composition and consistency of their clay. It is also -interesting to note that potters in modern Athens still regularly use a -mixture of red and white clay (cf. p. 40, note 2). - - -_Sophokles_, _Fragments_, 438. - - First begin to work the clay with your hands. - - Καὶ πρῶτον ἄρχου πηλὸν ὀργάξειν χερσῖν. - - -_Hesychius_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ ὀργάσαι. - - ὀργάσαι: to make ready; or as is said, to knead the clay, which - is to prepare it, to mix it, to wet it, to work it into a - plastic mass. - - ὀργάσαι· ἑτοιμάσαι, καὶ τὸν πηλὸν ὀργάσαι φασίν, ὅ ἐστιν - ἑτοίμασαι, φυρᾶσαι, βρέξαι, ἀνάδευσαι. - -Ὀργάσαι in other words was the Greek expression for wedging the clay and -getting it ready for throwing. - - -FASHIONING THE VASES - - -(1) WHEELWORK - - -_Diodorus Siculus_, IV, 76. - - Talos, the son of Daedalus’ sister, was brought up as a child - by Daedalus, and being cleverer than his teacher, he invented - the potter’s wheel. - - Τῆς ἀδελφῆς τῆς Δαιδάλου γενόμενος υἱὸς Τάλως ἐπαιδεύετο παρὰ - Δαιδάλῳ παῖς ὢν τὴν ἡλικίαν, εὐφυέστερος δ’ ὢν τοῦ διδασκάλου - τὸν κεραμευτικὸν τροχὸν εὗρε. - - -_Strabo_, _Geography_, VII, p. 303. - - Ephoros says that Anacharsis’ inventions were the bellows, the - double-fluked anchor, and the potter’s wheel. I repeat this - statement, although I am well aware that this writer is not - very accurate, and especially in the account of Anacharsis, - for how could the potter’s wheel be an invention of his, while - Homer[61] who was of an earlier time knew of it? - - Ὁ Ἔφορος ... εὑρήματά τε αὐτοῦ λέγει τά τε ζώπυρα καὶ τὴν - ἀμφίβολον ἄγκυραν καὶ τὸν κεραμικὸν τροχόν. ταῦτα δὲ λέγω σαφῶς - μὲν εἰδὼς ὅτι καὶ οὗτος αὐτὸς οὐ τἀληθέστατα λέγει περὶ πάντων, - καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἀναχάρσιδος. πῶς γὰρ ὁ τροχὸς εὕρημα αὐτοῦ, - ὃν οἶδεν Ὅμηρος πρεσβύτερος ὤν; - - -_Pliny_, _Natural History_, VII, 198. - - Coroebus the Athenian invented earthen pots, and among the - inventors, the Scythian Anacharsis, or as others say, Hyperbius - the Corinthian, discovered the potter’s wheel. - - ... figlinas (invenit) Coroebus Atheniensis, in iis orbem - Anacharsis Scythes, ut alii, Hyperbius Corinthus. - - -_Critias_, _Elegies_, I, 12-14 (Bergk). - - The child of the wheel and the earth and the kiln, the famous - pottery, useful house servant, that city invented which set up - the glorious trophy at Marathon. - - Τὸν δὲ τροχοῦ γαίης τε καμίνου τ’ ἔκγονον εὗρεν, - κλεινότατον κέραμον, χρήσιμον οἰκονόμον, - ἡ τὸ καλὸν Μαραθῶνι καταστήσασα τρόπαιον. - -It is natural that the ancients should have attributed the great -invention of the potter’s wheel to various individuals or cities, but -they themselves realized the anomaly of ascribing it to a comparatively -recent period, when it was known to Homer (see below). Actual remains of -wheel-thrown vases show that the wheel was known in Crete and Greece in -the Early Minoan and Early Helladic III periods (before 2200 B.C.) and in -Egypt in the third and fourth dynasties[62] (about 3000 B.C.). - - -_Homer_, _Iliad_, XVIII, 599-601. - - And now they would run round with deft feet exceeding lightly, - as when a potter sitting by his wheel that fitteth between his - hands maketh trial of it whether it run. (Lang, Leaf and Myers.) - - Οἱ δ’ ὁτὲ μὲν θρέξασκον ἐπισταμένουσι πόδεσσιν, - ῥεῖα μαλ’, ὡς ὅτε τις τροχὸν ἄρμενον ἐν παλάμῃσιν. - ἑζόμενος κεραμεὺς πειρήσεται, αἵ κε θέῃσιν. - - -_Plutarch_, _De genio Socratis_, p. 588f. - - One ought not to be surprised at seeing the movement of large - merchant-vessels controlled by small helms, nor the whirling of - the potter’s wheel moving regularly at the mere touch of the - tips of his fingers. - - Οὐ δεῖ δὲ θαυμάζειν ὁρῶντας τοῦτο μὲν ὑπὸ μικροῖς οἴαξι μεγάλων - περιαγωγὰς ὀλκάδων, τοῦτο δὲ τροχῶν κεραμεικῶν δίνησιν ἄκρας - παραψαύσει χειρὸς ὁμαλῶς περιφερομένων. - - -_Persius_, _Satires_, III, 23-24. - - [Advice to an idle young man of good position.] - - You are wet, soft clay; at this very moment you should be - hastening to shape yourself on the swift wheel. - - udum et molle lutum es, nunc nunc properandus et acri fingendus - sine fine rota. - - -_Hippokrates_, Περὶ Διαίτης, I, _Littré_, VI, p. 494, §22. - - Potters turn the wheel which moves neither backward nor forward - and at the same time imitates the rotation of the universe, and - on this same wheel as it whirls they make things of all kinds, - no one of them like another, from the same materials with the - same tools. - - Κεραμέες τροχὸν δινέουσι, καὶ οὔτε ὀπίσω οὔτε πρώσω προχωρέει - καὶ ἀμφοτέρωσε ἅμα τοῦ ὅλου μιμητὴς τῆς περιφορῆς· ἐν δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ - ἐργάζονται περιφερομένῳ παντοδαπά, οὐδὲν ὅμοιον τὸ ἕτερον τῷ - ἑτέρῳ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ὀργάνουσιν. - -The fascination of a pot shaped on a rapidly turning wheel appealed to -the ancients as it does to us; and the parallelism between a pot in -the making and man shaped by life is too obvious to have escaped them. -Hippokrates’ remark that of the vases produced on the wheel no two are -alike is characteristic of the Greek love of variety. - - -_Ecclesiasticus_, 38, 32. - - So does the potter sitting at his work and turning his wheel - round with his feet, who is always painstaking with his task; - and all his work is done by number. He moulds the clay with - his arm, and his feet. [Literal translation of the Greek text - written by a Hebrew and evidently colored by his own idiom.] - - Οὕτω κεραμεὺς καθήμενος ἐν ἔργῳ αὐτοῦ, καὶ συστρέφων ἐν ποσὶν - αὐτοῦ τροχόν, ὃς ἐν μερίμνῃ κεῖται διὰ παντὸς ἐπὶ τὸ ἔργον - αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐναρίθμιος πᾶσα ἡ ἐργασία αὐτοῦ. - - Ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ τυπώσει πηλόν, καὶ πρὸ ποδῶν κάμψει ἰσχὺν - αὐτοῦ. - -This is the only place in ancient literature in which the action of -the foot in wheelwork is referred to. In the second century B.C., -therefore, we might assume the knowledge of the kick-wheel, though it -may well have been in use long before then, since it is a simple and -obvious device. Where labor, however, was cheap and plentiful, as in -fifth-century Athens, a slave boy turning the wheel for the potter, whose -whole strength and attention could then be expended on his work, would -be preferable; and this is the manner in which wheelwork is depicted in -Athenian vase paintings (cf. pp. 64 ff). - - -_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 480 c. - - These kylikes are clay drinking-cups, and are so called from - being turned on the wheel. - - Ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ κεράμεα ποτήρια καὶ λέγεται ἀπὸ τοῦ κυλίεσθαι τῷ - τροχῷ. - -The kylix is, of course, the wheel-made vase par excellence. Nothing so -light and graceful or with such a fine flow of line could be produced by -handwork. - - -_Plato_, _Gorgias_, p. 514 e. - - Is not this, as they say, to learn the potter’s craft by - undertaking a pithos, ... and does not this seem to you a - foolish thing to do? - - Τὸ λεγόμενον δὴ τοῦτο ἐν τῷ πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν ἐπιχειρεῖν - μανθάνειν ... οὐκ ἀνοητόν σοι δοκεῖ ἂν εἶναι οὕτω πράττειν; - - -_Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b. - - For if this is your first attempt at education, you must take - care lest you try the experiment, not on a Carian slave, but on - your sons or the children of your friends, and let the proverb - fit you which says that the potter’s art is in the pithos. - - Εἰ γὰρ νῦν πρῶτον ἄρξεσθε παιδεύειν, σκοπεῖν χρὴ μὴ οὐκ ἐν τῷ - Καρὶ ὑμῖν ὁ κίνδυνος κινδυνεύηται, ἀλλ’ ἐν τοῖς ὑέσι τε καὶ - ἐν τοῖς τῶν φίλων παισί, καὶ ἀτεκνῶς τὸ λεγόμενον κατὰ τὴν - παροιμίαν ὑμῖν συμβαίνῃ ἐν πίθῳ ἡ κεραμεία γιγνομένη. - - -_Scholiast on Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b. - - The proverb, “in the pithos is the potter’s art,” about those - who skip the first lessons and take hold of the greatest tasks - which are properly the last. - - Παροιμία, ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν, ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας μαθήσεις - ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ τῶν μειζόνων καὶ ἤδη τῶν - τελειοτέρων. - - -_Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum_, _Zenobius_, III, 65. - - “I learn the potter’s craft on the pithos”; a proverb upon - those who skip the first lessons, and immediately attempt - greater things; as if anyone who was learning to be a potter, - before learning to mould plates or any other small thing, - should undertake a pithos. - - Ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν μανθάνω: Παροιμία ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας - μαθήσεις ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ εὐθέως τῶν μειζόνων. Ὡς - εἴ τις μανθάνων κεραμεύειν, πρὶν μαθεῖν πίνακας ἢ ἄλλο τι τῶν - μικρῶν πλάττειν, πίθῳ ἐγχεροίη. - -The fact that there was a Greek proverb on the folly of attempting large -vases before a thorough knowledge of the craft has been acquired, shows -how common was the realization of the difficulty of the task. - - -_Plutarch_, _Quaestiones conviviales_, II, p. 636 c. - - Polykleitos the modeler said that the work is most difficult - when the clay stands the test of the nail (?). - - Πολύκλειτος ὁ πλάστης εἶπε χαλεπώτατον εἶναι τοὔργον, ὅταν ἐν - ὄνυχι ὁ πηλὸς γένηται. - -If we interpret this passage as referring to a potter, and ὅταν ἐν ὄνυχι -γένηται as meaning when the stage has been reached that the clay is hard -enough to be scratched with the nail, this may possibly be an allusion to -turning; which may well be called the most difficult process of pottery -making. But this interpretation is very uncertain. The passage is usually -taken as referring to the sculptor’s last touches on a clay model for a -bronze statue. - - -(2) BUILDING - - -_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (4). - - 4. Potters do not use the wheel for all pithoi, but only for - the small ones. The larger ones they build up day by day, - placing them on the ground in a warm room, and thus make them - large. - - 4. Οὐ πάντας δὲ τοὺς πίθους ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάζουσιν - οἱ κεραμεῖς, ἀλλὰ τοὺς μικρούς. τοὺς μέντοι μείζους χαμαὶ - κειμένους ὁσημέραι ἐν θερμῷ οἰκήματι ἐποικοδομοῦσι, καὶ - μεγάλους ποιοῦσιν. - - -_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 164. - - 164. That around which those who make pithoi put the clay and - shape it—this wooden core is called κάναβος. - - 164. Περὶ δὲ ὃ οἱ τοὺς πίθους πλάττοντες τὸν πηλὸν περιτιθέντες - πλάττουσι, τοῦτο τὸ ξυλήφιον κάναβος καλεῖται. - -Such hand-built ware does not, of course, include the large painted -kraters and amphorai of Athenian make; for these have all the ear-marks -of wheel-thrown pottery. Wooden cores are still used today in the making -of cement forms. Since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the wood -does not, care must be taken to prevent the former from cracking. The -wooden core is therefore made in collapsible form. A wedge is made in the -center and a core built around it. When the work is finished the wedge -can be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in.[63] - - -FIRING THE VASES - - -_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (5). - - 5. The firing is no small part of the potter’s craft. Not too - little or too much fire should be built under the pots, but - just enough. - - Οὐ μικρὸν δὲ τῆς κεραμίας ἐστὶ μέρος ἡ ὄπτησις· δεῖ δὲ μήτε - ἔλαττον, μήτε πλέον, ἀλλὰ μεμετρημένως τὸ πῦρ ὑποβάλλειν. - - -_Vita Herodotea_ λβ = _Epigrammata Homerica_, 14. - -(Text of T. W. Allen, in Oxford University Classical Texts.) - - Some potters, seeing him [Homer] setting out the next morning - while they were building a fire in a kiln of fine pottery, - called him to them, knowing that he was a poet, and they - bade him sing, promising to give him some of the pottery and - whatever else they had, and Homer sang to them the following - poem, which is called the “Kiln”:— - - “If you will give me a reward I will sing to you, O potters. - Come hither, Athena, and stretch thy hand over the kiln, and - may the kotyloi blacken well and all the ... and may they be - well baked, and receive the price due to their value, many - being sold in the market, and many in the streets. May they - gain much.... But if you turn to shamelessness, and choose - falsehood, then I summon the destroyers to fall upon the kiln, - Crasher and Smasher and Unquenchable and Shatterer and Fierce - Conquerer, who would bring many evils upon this craft ... and - may the whole kiln be thrown into confusion, while the potters - lament loudly. As a horse’s jaw eats greedily, so may the kiln - devour all the pottery within it, making it brittle. Come - hither, Circe, daughter of the sun, skilled in drugs; bring - malignant poisons, afflict the men and ruin their work. Let - Cheiron bring hither many Centaurs, both those who escaped the - hands of Herakles, and those who perished. Let them harshly - smite the work and smite the kiln, and may the men themselves - see these grievous deeds with lamentations. But I shall be - happy when I see their unlucky craft. And the man who peeps - over, may his whole face burn on account of this, so that all - may know how to do what is right.” - - Tῇ δὲ εἰσαύριον ἀποπορευόμενον ἰδόντες κεραμέες τινες κάμινον - ἐγκαίοντες κεράμου λεπτοῦ, προσεκαλέσαντο αὐτόν, πεπυσμένοι ὅτι - σοφὸς εἴη· καὶ ἐκέλευόν σφιν ἀεῖσαι, φάμενοι δώσειν αὐτῷ τοῦ - κεράμου καὶ ὅ τι ἂν ἄλλο ἔχωσιν. ὁ δὲ Ὅμηρος ἀείδει αὐτοῖς τὰ - ἔπεα τάδε ἃ καλέεται Κάμινος· - - Εἰ μὲν δώσετε μισθὸν ἀείσω, ὦ κεραμῆες· - δεῦρ’ ἄγ’ Ἀθηναίη καὶ ὑπείρεχε χεῖρα καμίνου, - εὖ δὲ μελανθεῖεν κότυλοι καὶ πάντα μάλευρα, - φρυχθῆναί τε καλῶς καὶ τιμῆς ὦνον ἀρέσθαι, - πολλὰ μέν εἰν ἀγορῇ πωλεύμενα, πολλὰ δ’ ἀγυιᾶς, - πολλὰ δὲ κερδῆναι, ἡμῖν δὲ δὴ ὥς σφι νοῆσαι. - ἢν δ’ ἐπ’ ἀναιδείην τρεφθέντες ψεύδε’ ἄρησθε, - συγκαλέω δ’ ἤπειτα καμίνῳ δηλητῆρας, - Σύντριβ’ ὁμῶς Σμάραγόν τε καὶ Ἄσβετον ἠδέ γ’ Ἄβακτον, - Ὠμόδαμόν θ’ ὃς τῇδε τέχνῃ κακὰ πολλὰ πορίζοι. - πεῖθε πυραίθουσαν καὶ δώματα, σὺν δὲ κάμινος - πᾶσα κυκηθείη κεραμέων μέγα κωκυσάντων. - ὡς γνάθος ἱππείη βρύκει, βρύκοι δὲ κάμινος - πάντ’ ἐντοσθ’ αὐτῆς κεραμήϊα λεπτὰ ποιοῦσα. - δεῦρο καὶ ἠελίου θύγατερ πολυφάρμακε Κίρκη. - ἄγρια φάρμακα βάλλε, κάκου δ’ αὐτούς τε καὶ ἔργα. - δεῦρο δὲ καὶ Χείρων ἀγέτω πολέας Κενταύρους, - οἵ θ’ Ἡρακλείους χεῖρας φύγον, οἵ τ’ ἀπόλοντο· - τύπτοιεν τάδε ἔργα κακῶς, τύπτοι δὲ κάμινον, - αὐτοὶ δ’ οἰμῴζοντες ὁρῷατο ἔργα πονηρά. - γηθήσω δ’ ὁρόων αὐτῶν κακοδαίμονα τέχνην. - ὃς δὲ χ’ ὑπερκύψῃ, περὶ τούτου πᾶν τὸ πρόσωπον - φλεχθείη, ὡς πάντες ἐπίσταιντ’ αἴσιμα ῥέζειν. - -This is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in a kiln. - - -_Hippokrates_, _Epidemia_, IV, 20; _Littré_, V, p. 160. - - The man who fell down from the potter’s oven, since a - cupping-glass was not applied immediately, suffered from an - internal inflammation and on the twentieth day grew worse. - - Ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ κεραμέου ἴπνου καταπεσὼν, ᾧ οὐ προσβλήθη αὐτίκα - σικύη, ἐκαύθη ἔσω, καὶ εἰκοστῇ ἐπαλιγκότησεν. - -This reminds us of the men we see climbing on the kilns in the -representations on Corinthian pinakes (p. 76). - - -_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 108. - - It was the custom for bronze casters to hang something - ridiculous in front of their furnaces, or to mould something - upon them, in order to avert envy. These were called βασκάνια. - - Πρὸ δὲ τῶν καμίνων τοῖς χαλκεῦσιν ἔθος ἦν γελοῖά τινα καταρτᾶν, - ἢ ἐπιπλάττειν, ἐπὶ φθόνου ἀποτροπῇ. ἐκαλεῖτο δὲ βασκάνια. - -Such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to pottery kilns, -as we know from actual representations (cf. pp. 64 f.). It is natural -that the vagaries of a kiln should be ascribed by the superstitious -ancients to supernatural forces. - - -RED OCHRE WASH - - -_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546. - - Be it decreed by the senate and people of the Ioulietai - concerning the representations of the envoys from Athens, that - the export of miltos shall be to Athens, and to no other place - from this day forward; if anyone exports it to any other place, - his ship and its cargo shall be confiscated and a half shall be - given to the informer; ... If the Athenians decree any other - regulations for the guarding of the miltos they shall be valid. - - (Ἔδ)οξεν τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, περὶ (ὧν οἱ παρ’ - Ἀθηναίων λέγουσι, δεδόχθα)ι τῇ βούλῃ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, - εἶναι τὴ(ν ἐξαγωγὴν τῆς μίλτου Ἀθήναζε), ἄλλοσε δὲ μηδαμῇ ἀπὸ - τῆσδε τῆς ἡμέρας. ἐὰν δέ τι(ς ἄλλοσε ἐξάγῃ, δημόσια εἶναι - τ)ὸ πλοῖον καὶ τὰ χρήματα τὰ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ. τῷ δὲ φήν(αντι ἢ - ἐνδείξαντι εἶναι τὰ ἡμίσεα) ... (ἐὰν δέ τι ἄλ)λο ψηφίζωνται - Ἀθηναῖοι περὶ φυλακῆς τῆς μίλ(του ... κύρια εἶ)ναι ἃ ἂν - Ἀθηναῖοι ψηφίζωνται. - - -_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546. - - Theogenes moved: be it decreed by the senate and people of the - Koresians, concerning the representations of the envoys from - Athens, the export of miltos shall be to Athens ... as it was - before; and in order that the decrees of the Athenians and - Koresians concerning miltos may be valid, it shall be exported - in a ship which they shall designate and in no other ship ... - the tax of two per cent shall be paid to the collectors by - those engaged in the trade. - - (Θεογ)ένης εἶπεν. δεδόχθαι (τ)ῇ βο(υλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ - Κορησίων. περὶ ὧν λέγουσι οἱ παρ’ Ἀθη)ναίων, εἶναι τῆς μίλτου - τὴν ἐξ(αγωγὴν Ἀθήναζε ... κ)αθάπερ πρότερον ἦν. ὅπως δ’ ἂν - κύρια ἦ(ι τ)ὰ ψηφίσματα (... Ἀθηναίων κ)αὶ Κορησίων τὰ - περὶ τῆς μίλτου, ἐξάγειν ἐμπλοίῳ ὧ(ι ἂν ... ἀποδείξωσιν, ἐν - ἄλλῳ) δὲ πλοῖῳ μηδενί ... (τελ)εῖν δὲ τὴν πεντηκοστὴν τοῖς - πεντηκοστολόγοις τοὺς ἐργαζομένους. - -It is interesting to learn how important miltos (red ochre) was to -the Athenians. We know that it was used in building for the dressing -of stones[64]; and if the appearance of one of the chief articles of -commerce of Athens, viz. the pottery, was dependent on it (cf. pp. 53 -ff.), it is natural that stringent provisions should be made for its -acquisition and monopoly. - - -_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 12 (43), 152. - - The addition of red ochre or moulding in red clay is the - invention of Butades. - - Butades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere. - - -_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κωλιάδος κεραμῆες. - - Potters of Kolias: Kolias, a place in Attica where vases are - moulded. It is said that of all the kinds of clay that are - brought to the wheel (and the wheel on which vessels are shaped - is meant), that is, of all the clay fit for making vases, the - clay of Kolias is the best, so that it is also dyed with miltos. - - Κωλιάς, τόπος τῆς Ἀττικῆς, ἔνθα σκεύη πλάττονται, λέγει οὖν ὅτι - ὅσοι ἐπὶ τροχοὺς φέρονται (τροχὸν δὲ τὸν σκευοπλαστικὸν λέγει) - τουτέστιν, ὅσαι πρὸς σκευοπλασίαν ἐπιτήδειαι, πασῶν ἡ Κωλιάδος - κρείσσων· ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῆς μίλτου. - - -_Isidorus_, _Etymologiae_, XX, iv, 3. - - It is said that pottery vases were first invented in the island - of Samos, being made of clay and hardened by fire, whence comes - the term Samian vases. A later invention was to add red ochre - and to make pottery of red clay. - - Fictilia vasa in Samo insula prius inventa traduntur, facta ex - creta et indurata igni; unde et Samia vasa: postea inventum et - rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere. - -The significance of these passages has already been discussed on pp. -53-59. - - -POROSITY OF GREEK POTTERY - - -_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 161 ff. - - 162. Aristophanes says that a clay vinegar jar has leprosy, - instead of saying that it is moist (sweats?). - - Λεπρᾶν δὲ κεράμειον ὀξηρόν, ἀντὶ τοῦ μυδᾶν, Ἀριστοφάνης λέγει. - -This appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware (and even painted -Athenian pottery is unglazed in parts) becomes moist when filled with -liquid, on account of its porosity. - - -THE STATUS OF POTTERS - - -_Isokrates_, _De Permutatione_, 2. - - As if one should have the insolence to call Pheidias, who made - the statue of Athena, a statuette maker, or to say that Zeuxis - and Parrhasius had plied the same trade as that of the painters - of pinakes. - - Ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις Φειδίαν τὸν τὸ τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἕδος ἐργασάμενον - τολμῷη καλεῖν κοροπλάθον, ἢ Ζεῦξιν καὶ Παρράσιον τὴν αὐτὴν - ἔχειν φαίη τέχνην τοῖς τὰ πινάκια γράφουσιν. - - -_Aristophanes_, _Ekklesiazousai_, 995 f. - - Old Woman. Who is this? - - Young Man. The man who paints lekythoi for the dead. - - Γρ. οὗτος δ’ ἔστι τίς; - - Νεανίας. ὃς τοῖς νεκροῖσι ζωγραφεῖ τὰς ληκύθους. - - -_Plutarch_, _Life of Numa_, 17. - - So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and - trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, - carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters - (A. H. Clough). - - Ἦν δὲ ἡ διανομὴ κατὰ τὰς τέχνας, αὐλητῶν, χρυσοχόων, τεκτόνων, - βαφέων, σκυτοτόμων, σκυτοδέψων, χαλκέων, κεραμέων. - - -_Plato_, _Euthydemos_, 301, c, d. - - What, said he, is the business of a good workman? Tell me, in - the first place, whose business is hammering? - - The smith’s. - - And whose the making of pots? - - The potter’s. - - And who has to kill and skin and mince and boil and roast? - - The cook, I said. - - And if a man does his business, he does rightly? - - Certainly. - - And the business of the cook is to cut up and skin, you have - admitted that? - - Yes, I have, but you must not be too hard upon me. - - Then if some one were to kill, mince, boil, roast the cook, he - would do his business, and if he were to hammer the smith, and - make a pot of the potter, he would do their business (Jowett). - - Οἶσθα οὖν, ἔφη, ὅτι προσήκει ἑκάστοις τῶν δημιουργῶν; πρῶτον - τίνα χαλκεύειν προσήκει, οἶσθα;—Ἔγωγε· ὅτι χαλκέα.—τί δέ, - κεραμεῦειν; κεραμέα.—τί δέ, σφάττειν τε καὶ ἐκδέρειν καὶ - τὰ μικρὰ κρέα κατακόψαντα ἕψειν καὶ ὀπτᾶν;—Μάγειρον, ἦν δ’ - ἐγώ.—Οὐκοῦν ἐάν τις, ἔφη, τὰ προσήκοντα πράττῃ, ὀρθῶς πράξει; - Μάλιστα.—Προσήκει δέ γε, ὡς φῄς, τὸν μάγειρον κατακόπτειν - καὶ ἐκδέρειν; ὡμολόγησας ταῦτα ἢ οὔ;—Ὡμολόγησα, ἔφην, ἀλλὰ - συγγνώμην μοι ἔχε—Δῆλον τοίνυν, ἦ δ’ ὅς, ὅτι ἄν τις σφάξας τὸν - μάγειρον καὶ κατακόψας ἑψήσῃ καὶ ὀπτήσῃ, τὰ προσήκοντα ποιήσει. - καὶ ἐὰν τὸν χαλκέα τις αὐτὸν χαλκεύῃ καὶ τὸν κεραμέα κεραμεύῃ, - καὶ οὗτος τὰ προσήκοντα πράξει. - - -_Justinus_, _Historiae Philippicae_, XXII, 1, 1 and 2. - - Agathocles, the tyrant of Sicily, who succeeded to the great - power of the elder Dionysius, came into the splendor of a - kingdom from a humble and base family. And too, being born in - Sicily of a potter, he had a boyhood not more honorable than - his origin. - - Agathocles, Siciliae tyrannus, qui magnitudini prioris Dionysii - successit, ad regni maiestatem ex humili et sordido genere - pervenit. Quippe in Sicilia patre figulo natus non honestiorem - pueritiam quam principia originis habuit. - -Much has been written about the lowly status of Greek potters,[65] and -the above references bear out this general idea. The craft of pottery was -evidently placed on a par with other trades, and all such manual work -was not considered a worthy occupation of free-born citizens, and left -mostly to the metics, or non-citizens. We know this not only from texts -and inscriptions on stone, but also from the non-Attic forms of the names -of the potters, as well as the inscriptions on the vases which frequently -show non-Attic spellings. It would be absurd, however, to infer that -all pottery was as contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb -lekythoi[66] and the pinakes referred to by Aristophanes and Isokrates. -And this is borne out by the following references. - - -_Plato_, _Hippias Maior_, p. 288 d. - - If a skilful potter had made the vessel smooth and rounded and - well baked, like some of the fine two-handled jars which hold - six choai—if he should ask us about such a vessel as this, we - should be obliged to agree that it was beautiful. - - Εἴπερ ἡ χύτρα κεκεραμευμένη εἴη ὑπὸ ἀγαθοῦ κεραμέως λεία καὶ - στρογγύλη καὶ καλῶς ὠπτημένη, οἷαι τῶν καλῶν χυτρῶν εἰσί τινες - δίωτοι, τῶν ἓξ χοᾶς χωρουσῶν, πάγκαλαι, εἰ τοιαύτην ἐρωτῴη - χύτραν, καλὴν ὁμολογητέον εἶναι. - - -_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 161. - - At Erythrae in the temple there are shown today two amphorai - consecrated on account of their thinness, a pupil and a teacher - having contested as to which of them could draw the clay - thinner. - - Erythris in templo hodieque ostenduntur amphorae duae propter - tenuitatem consecratae discipuli magistrique certamine, uter - tenuiorem humum duceret. - - -_Amphis_, _Ampelourgos_, I. - -_Meineke_, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, III, p. 302. - - There is no sweeter solace in life for human ills than - craftsmanship; for the mind, absorbed in its study, sails past - all troubles and forgets them. - - Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲν ἀτυχίας ἀνθρωπίνης - παραμύθιον γλυκύτερον ἐν βίῳ τέχνης· - ἐπὶ τοῦ μαθήματος γὰρ ἐστηκὼς ὁ νοῦς - αὐτοῦ λέληθε παραπλέων τὰς συμφοράς. - - -_Pindar_, _Nemean Odes_, X, 35, 36. - - And in earthenware baked in the fire, within the closure of - figured urns, there came among the goodly folk of Hera the - prize of the olive-fruit (Myers). - - γαίᾳ δὲ καυθείσᾳ πυρὶ καρπὸς ἐλαίας ἔμολεν Ἥρας τὸν εὐάνορα - λαὸν ἐν ἀγγέων ἕρκεσιν παμποικίλοις. - - -_Simonides_, _Fragments_, 155 (213) (Bergk). - - And he won five garlands in succession at the Panathenaic - games, amphorai full of oil. - - Καὶ Παναθηναίοις στεφάνους λάβε πέντ’ ἐπ’ αἔθλοις - ἑξῆς ἀμφιφορεῖς ἐλαίου. - -That finely executed pottery was held in high esteem is evident from -the remarks of Plato, Pliny, and Pindar; and there certainly could be -no more enthusiastic eulogy of craftsmanship than Amphis’ beautiful -lines. Moreover, the fact that clay vases were used as prizes at the -most important games at Athens certainly points to considerable and -wide-spread appreciation of them. - - -_Ktesias ap. Athenaeus_, p. 464 a. - - And Ktesias says, “Among Persians he whom the king wishes to - insult uses pottery vessels.” - - Καὶ γὰρ Κτησίας “παρὰ Πέρσαις” φησίν, “ὃν ἂν βασιλεὺς ἀτιμάσῃ, - κεραμέοις χρῆται”. - - -_Plutarch_, _Life of Galba_, 12. - - When he was dining with Claudius Caesar he stole a silver cup, - and Caesar, finding it out, invited him to dinner again on the - next day, but ordered his servants to bring out and put before - the guest nothing silver, but everything of pottery. - - Δειπνῶν δὲ παρὰ Κλαυδίῳ Καίσαρι ποτήριον ἀργυροῦν ὑφείλετο. - πυθόμενος δὲ ὁ Καῖσαρ τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ πάλιν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον - ἐκάλεσεν, ἐλθόντι δὲ ἐκέλευσεν ἐκείνῳ μηδὲν ἀργυροῦν, ἀλλὰ - κεράμεα πάντα προσφέρειν καὶ παρατιθέναι τοὺς ὑπηρέτας. - - -_Tibullus_, _Elegies_, I, 1, 37 f. - - Come, ye gods, nor scorn the gifts from a poor man’s table, - from clean pottery vessels. - - Adsitis, divi, neu vos e paupere mensa - dona nec e puris spernite fictilibus. - - -_Juvenal_, _Satires_, III, 168. - - [Even a poor man] is ashamed to dine off pottery dishes. - - fictilibus cenare pudet— - - -_Martial_, _Epigrams_, XIV, 98. - - We advise you not overmuch to despise Arretian vases: Tuscan - earthenware was luxury to Porsena (W. E. Ker). - - Arretina nimis ne spernas vasa monemus. - lautus erat Tuscis Porsena fictilibus. - - -_Lucian_, _Prometheus_, 1. - - Then you say I am Prometheus? If, Sir, it is because I too work - in clay, I recognize the similarity and acknowledge that I am - like him, nor do I refuse to be called a potter. - - Οὐκ οὖν Προμηθέα με εἶναι φῄς; εἰ μὲν κατὰ τοῦτο, ὦ ἄριστε, - ὡς πηλίνων κἀμοὶ τῶν ἔργων ὄντων, γνωρίζω τὴν εἰκόνα καί φημι - ὅμοιος εἶναι αὐτῷ, οὐδ’ ἀναίνομαι πηλοπλάθος ἀκούειν. - - -_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 482 b. - -(_Repeated by Macrobius_, _Satires_, V, 21, 10.) - - They placed a krater for the gods, not of silver nor set with - stones, but of clay from Kolias. - - Κρατῆρα γὰρ ἵστασαν τοῖς θεοῖς, οὐκ ἀργυροῦν οὐδὲ λιθοκόλλητον, - ἀλλὰ γῆς Κωλιάδος. - -Though the Persians and the Romans set great store by metal vases and -regarded clay vases as fit only for a poor man’s table, the Greeks had -no such feelings, as we learn from Athenaeus and from innumerable vase -paintings of banquets. - - -_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._, 362, p. 79. - - Euphronios the potter offered ... in supplication to (Athena) - Hygieia. - - (Ε)ὐφρόνιος (ἀνέθηκεν ὁ) κεραμεύς (... ἱκεσί)αν Ὑγιεία(ι). - - -_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._ 373²¹⁵, p. 101. - - Mnesiades the potter and Andokides dedicated me. - - (Μν)ησιάδης κεραμεύς με καὶ Ἀνδοκίδης ἀνέθηκεν. - - -_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 3485. - - The lord of the land and sea, Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius - Severus Antoninus, Pius, Augustus, the potters have erected - from their own property. - - Τὸν γῆς καὶ θαλάσσης δεσπότην Αὐτοκράτορα Καίσαρα Μ. Αὐρ(ήλιον) - Σευῆρον Ἀντωνῖνον, Εὐσεβῆ, Σεβαστόν, (ἐκ τῶν) ἰδίων ἵδ(ρυσαν) - οἱ κεραμεῖς. - - -_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 9188. - - Sarcophagus of Theophilos and his son Tyrannos, a potter by - trade. - - Σωματωτήκη Θεωφίλου (καὶ τοῦ) (α)ὐ(τ)οῦ (ὑ)οῦ Τυράννου τὴν - τέχνην κερα(μέως). - - -_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, addenda 4212. - - I, Sesames the potter, have bought through the board of - magistrates this burial vault for myself and my wife Elpis and - my mother-in-law Euphrosyne and for Ianoarios and our children, - and for Soterichos my father-in-law. No one else shall be - buried here, since (the violator) shall pay to the sacred - treasurer 1500 denarii. - - Σ)ησάμας κεραμεὺς ὠνησάμην διὰ τῶν ἀρχείων τὸν πυργίσκον ἑαυτῷ - καὶ γυναικί μου Ἐλπίδι καὶ (τῇ) πενθερ(ίδι μου) Εὐφροσύνῃ κ(αὶ) - Ἰανοαρίῳ καὶ τ(έ)κνοις ἡ(μῶν) καὶ Σωτηρίχῳ τῷ πενθε(ρῷ). ἑτέρῳ - δὲ οὐδενὶ ἐξέσται (τεθ)ῆναι. ἐπεὶ ἀ(πο)(τ)είσει τῷ (ἱερωτάτῳ - ταμε(ί)ῳ δηναρία α̅φ̅ . - -These inscriptions of dedications show that potters sometimes became -people of means and influence. - - -_Plato_, _Republic_, p. 467 a. - - Did you never observe in the arts how the potters’ boys look on - and help, long before they touch the wheel? (Jowett). - - Ἢ οὐκ ᾔσθησαι τὰ περὶ τὰς τέχνας, οἷον τοὺς τῶν κεραμέων παῖδας, - ὡς πολὺν χρόνον διακονοῦντες θεωροῦσι πρὶν ἅπτεσθαι τοῦ - κεραμεύειν; - - -_Quintilian_, _Institutio Oratoria_, II, 17, 3. - - ... For what man is there so bereft, I will not say of - learning, but of sense, that he thinks that there is an art of - constructing and of weaving, and of making vases from clay, but - that rhetoric, that greatest and noblest work, as I said above, - has risen to such sublime heights without art? - - ... nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione modo, sed a sensu - remotus hominis, ut fabricandi quidem et texendi et e luto vasa - ducendi artem putet, rhetoricen autem, maximum ac pulcherrimum, - ut supra diximus, opus, in tam sublime fastigium existimet sine - arte venisse? - - -_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κεραμεύειν. - - To make pottery: commonly said instead of “to work hard.” - - Κεραμεύειν. κοινῶς ἀντὶ τοῦ κατεργάζεσθαι. - - -_Hesiod_, _Works and Days_, 25 f. - - Potter bears a grudge against potter, and carpenter against - carpenter, and beggar envies beggar, and minstrel is jealous of - minstrel. - - Καὶ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ κοτέει καὶ τέκτονι τέκτων - καὶ πτωχὸς πτωχῷ φθονέει καὶ ἀοιδὸς ἀοιδῷ. - - -_Aristotle_, _Rhetoric_, 2, 4, 21, 22. - - [We are friendly towards] our equals, and towards those who - have the same interests, if they do not clash with us, and if - their livelihood does not come from the same source, for thus - arises the proverb “Potter hates potter.” - - Καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους καὶ ταὐτὰ ἐπιτηδεύοντας, ἐὰν μὴ παρενοχλῶσι μὴ - δ’ ἀπὸ ταὐτοῦ ὁ βίος. γίγνεται γὰρ οὕτω τὸ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ. - - -_Aristotle_, _Nicomachaean Ethics_, 8, 1, 6. - - For some define [friendship] as a kind of resemblance, and - claim that those who resemble each other are friends, whence - is the saying “Like to like,” and “Jackdaw to Jackdaw,” and so - on. Others, on the contrary, say that all such people are like - potters to each other. - - Οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιότητα τινὰ τιθέασιν αὐτὴν καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους - φίλους, ὅθεν τὸν ὅμοιόν φασιν ὡς τὸν ὅμοιον. καὶ κολοιὸν ποτὶ - κολοιόν, καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. οἱ δ’ ἐξ ἐναντίας κεραμεῖς πάντας τοὺς - τοιούτους ἀλλήλοις φασὶν εἶναι. - -Evidently it was fully recognized that pottery was a craft which needed -a long apprenticeship, and in such a highly specialized art we are -not surprised to read of the keen rivalry existing among potters. The -inscription by Euthymides on one of his vases, “Never has Euphronios -painted the like of this” (cf. Hoppin, Handbook of Attic Red-Figured -Vases, p. 432), is evidence of the same spirit. - -Judging from the evidence collected above it is fair to assume that -though the estimate of potters and pottery varied at different times, -in the period of Athenian vase painting it was distinctly high. Potters -had, it is true, no social status; but they were respected members of the -community, and the keen appreciation of their work had as its natural -result eager rivalry among the potters and the setting of high standards. -That their craft was regarded as a “trade” is of course nothing new. -Artists as a class have only lately been promoted to the higher social -ranks. We need only recall Albrecht Dürer’s description of the great -Procession from the Church of Our Lady at Antwerp, in which he lists the -painters and sculptors and goldsmiths with “the masons, the joiners, the -carpenters, the sailors, the fishermen, the butchers, the leatherers, -the clothmakers, the bakers, the tailors, the cordwainers,” and refers -to the group as “workmen of all kinds and many craftsmen and dealers who -work for their livelihood.” This is not so much an indignity to art as a -wholesome appreciation of all manual labor. - - - - -CONCLUSION - - -The following is a summary of the technical processes of the -black-figured and red-figured Athenian vases in the order which our study -of the subject has suggested. - - -I. THE PREPARATION OF THE CLAY - -(1) Mixing the requisite ingredients (unless the natural clay was -satisfactory). - -(2) Washing. - -(3) Wedging or kneading. - - -II. THE FASHIONING OF THE VASE - -(1) Throwing. - -(2) Turning. - -(3) Polishing. - -(4) Attaching handles. - - -III. THE DECORATION OF THE VASE - - -a. Black-figured Technique. - -(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface. - -Traces of the red ochre solution on black-figured vases are not common; -so that it is possible that its application was not a regular proceeding. - -(2) Preliminary sketch for design. - -As this was completely covered by the black glaze afterwards and there -are therefore only occasional traces of it now (cf. e.g. Furtwängler u. -Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pl. 4), it is uncertain, though -inherently probable, that such a sketch was generally made. - -(3) Painting of the design, including figures, decorative motives, and -backgrounds, in black glaze. - -(4) Incision of details. - -(5) Addition of purple and white accessory colors. - - -b. Red-figured Technique. - -(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface. - -(2) Preliminary sketch for design with a blunt instrument. - -(3) Painting of the design, the decorative motives, and the solid black -surfaces. - -The process of the figure painting was as follows: the outlines of the -figures were indicated outside the spaces intended for them, first with a -narrow line, then with a broader contour stripe; then the details within -the red silhouette, and sometimes the outlines, were painted in black -glaze lines; finally the background was filled in with the black glaze. - -(4) Addition of accessory colors if needed. - - -IV. THE FIRING OF THE VASE - -The most important revisions of current theories on the technique of -Athenian vases which our treatment of the subject has suggested are: - -(1) The use of turning as a regular process applied to the vases after -they were thrown. To this operation they owe much of their finish and -refinement. - -(2) The application of a red ochre pigment on the surface of the vases in -their raw state, before they were decorated or fired. It is to this red -ochre application that the present orangey color of the Athenian vases -is due, as against the pinkish hue shown in the fractures of the clay. -Originally, however, this color was even deeper, approaching that of -bright red copper. - -(3) Both the glaze and the accessory colors were applied when the vases -were in leather-hard condition, before any firing. Instead of the two, -three, or four firings often assumed by archaeologists, the evidence -points to only one fire, after total completion of the vase. - -(4) The great majority of Athenian vases were made for actual use, not -for votive, decorative, or funeral purposes, as is still often assumed. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] Reichhold’s theory in his Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister (1919), -p. 12, that the word ἐποίησεν (“made it”) in a signature refers to the -draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration, while its executor signed -ἔγραψεν (“painted it”), since the actual making of the vase “required no -artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice,” only shows his -exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases, in the copying of -which he so much excelled. - -[2] For any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length, -Charles F. Binns’s work on the Potter’s Craft is strongly recommended -(second edition, 1922). - -[3] Figs. 1, 2, 6-13, 14, 21-23, 27, 39, 41. - -[4] Figs. 3, 4, 35, 36, 40, 42, 50, 51, 52. - -[5] In commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are -produced wedging _en gros_ becomes necessary. In modern Greece it is done -by treading the clay with bare feet. - -[6] Sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a -smoother surface; especially in cases when the later process of turning -is dispensed with. - -[7] The jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are -moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile; but it can be used for other -purposes. The difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is that -in the former the speed is changeable, in the latter fixed. - -[8] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, vol. I, p. 208; Herford, Greek -Vase Painting, p. 9; etc., etc. - -[9] Cf. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry, the Greek Vase, and L. D. Caskey, -Geometry of Greek Vases. - -[10] Cf. e.g. in the Metropolitan Museum Nos. 08.258.21 and 12.236, where -the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge. - -[11] Cf. also especially Metropolitan Museum Nos. G. R. 534, 09.221.47, -09.221.48, 06.1021.168, G. R. 581, 18.145.28, etc. - -[12] Cf. Buschor, Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, 1919, I/II, -pp. 1 ff. - -[13] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. -421. - -[14] “Twice fired” technically means, as already explained (p. 35), -once for biscuit, another time for glaze; the glazing itself may have -necessitated several firings, but the piece would still be spoken of as -twice fired. - -[15] Cf. e.g. Walters, op. cit., pp. 221, 222, and Herford, op. cit., pp. -13, 14. Reichhold, op. cit., p. 152, felt convinced there was only one -firing. - -[16] Occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used; as on the -pyxis, No. 06.1117, in the Metropolitan Museum. - -[17] Archaeologists’ accounts are very misleading here, for some even -assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing. -(Cf. Herford, Handbook of Greek Vase Painting, p. 12.) - -[18] E. Pottier has come to the same conclusion; cf. his Catalogue of the -Louvre Vases, III, p. 674. - -[19] The clay of Reichhold’s pot, which he says could be dropped on the -floor without appreciable damage (Furtwängler und Reichhold, Griechische -Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152), must have been very tough indeed. Potters -I have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as that. The -leather-hard vases I have handled were fit only for the dust bin when -they fell on the floor—a not unusual event when learning to turn. - -[20] I wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of A. J. B. Wace, -director of the British School of Athens, who went to much trouble in -sending me this clay. The clay sent is that used by the Athenian potters -today. It is a mixed clay, composed of red earth from Chalandri and white -earth from Koukouvaones. - -[21] Cf. also Nos. 06.1021.114, 07.286.78, 17.230.13 in the Metropolitan -Museum, and other instances quoted by Reichhold in Furtwängler u. -Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152. If, as Reichhold assumes, -the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard, they must have -been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing; otherwise -they would have cracked. - -[22] Cf. also Furtwängler u. Reichhold, loc. cit. - -[23] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. - -[24] Five are listed by Hartwig, Jahrbuch des deutschen arch. Instituts, -XIV, 1899, p. 164, note 21, one in Athens, one in Sèvres, one in -Würzburg, one in Berlin, one in Bonn. A sixth piece is a fragmentary -kylix in the Metropolitan Museum, No. 11.212.9, and a seventh one, the -cover of a toilet box, in the British Museum, Room of Greek and Roman -Life, No. 426. - -[25] An interesting parallel is furnished by Chinese porcelain for which, -Mr. Bosch Reitz tells me, there is clear evidence that it is once fired. - -[26] It is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors—purple and -white—were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well -preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze. That they were -fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the white -or purple. They are neither shiny nor durable for the simple reason that -they are not a glaze but earth colors. - -[27] Cf. e.g. No. 06.1021.114, in the Metropolitan Museum. - -[28] Cf. e.g. Nos. G. R. 530, 06.1021.82, 06.1021.114, etc., in the -Metropolitan Museum, and No. 379 (Salle G) as a conspicuous example in -the Louvre. - -[29] Cf. e.g. Nos. 07.286.47, 07.286.81, and C. R. 541 in the -Metropolitan Museum. - -[30] Cf. e.g. Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische -Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. - -[31] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. He does not consider that the -accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the -carefully designed effects in the Vasiliki ware; so that Mr. Seager’s -ingenious theory (cf. Hawes, etc., Gournia, p. 50) would have to be given -up. - -[32] Cf. e.g. 11.212.7, 12.336.1, G. R. 54, G. R. 1229, 06.1021.120, -06.1021.191, 12.229.15, etc., in the Metropolitan Museum. - -[33] This explanation is also that offered by Reichhold in Furtwängler u. -Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. It is to this same cause -that I should be inclined to attribute Reichhold’s “Lagerringe,” round -red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings (op. cit., p. 154). -Supports such as he describes which came into direct contact with the -glaze are inconceivable; the glaze would have stuck to them and serious -injury resulted. Furthermore, Athenian vases must have been placed in the -kiln standing on their feet, and for this purpose the under surfaces of -the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze from sticking. If -placed in the positions Reichhold suggests, the vases would have been apt -to warp, and no potter would run such risks. - -[34] Cf. Salvétat in Brongniart, Traité des arts céramiques, I, p. 550; -and Tonks, Black Glaze on Greek Vases, American Journal of Archaeology, -XII, second series, 1908, pp. 420 ff. Mr. Binns in a series of -experiments has come to the same conclusion. - -[35] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, pp. -423 f. - -[36] Mr. Binns’s experiments are as yet unpublished. - -[37] Under Mr. Binns’s direction I tried gum arabic, honey, water glass, -glue, white of egg, glycerine, and oil as binders, but none gave complete -satisfaction. - -[38] H. B. Walters in his Ancient Pottery, I, p. 212, says that the glaze -runs best on a surface already baked. As a matter of fact, to make glaze -run at all on the baked surface, the biscuit has to be soaked in water. - -[39] Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, -I, p. 152, forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were -applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a few -days. - -[40] Some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of -brushes in the glaze. It is, however, impossible that these are hairs -from the brushes with which the glaze was painted, as they would have -burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected. - -[41] Cf. e.g. the discussions by Hartwig, Jahrbuch d. Instituts, XIV, -1899, pp. 147 ff.; Reichhold, in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische -Vasenmalerei, I, Text, pp. 148 and 230; Tonks, American Journal of -Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 425; Walters, Ancient Pottery, -I, pp. 227 ff. - -[42] For full quotations of these statements cf. pp. 97, 98. - -[43] Cf. John, Malerei der Alten, p. 173. - -[44] Cf. e.g. vol. I, pp. 140, 145. - -[45] Cf. e.g. Pottier, Catalogue des vases antiques du Louvre, III, p. -682. - -[46] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, I, p. 218. - -[47] Cf. e.g. in the Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich, the kylix with -Dionysos by Exekias, No. 2044, and the Euphronios kylix, No. 2620. These -give us an excellent idea of the original appearance of Athenian vases. - -[48] Cf. especially in the British Museum, E178, E149, E282, E382; and in -the Metropolitan Museum, G. R. 604, 07.286.73, 07.286.74, 06.1021.108, -12.236.2, 07.286.65, G. R. 589, 06.1021.121, G. R. 573, 17.230.13, where -extensive traces can still be seen. - -[49] Cf. e.g. in the British Museum, B.439, B.516, B.592, B.446; -Metropolitan Museum, 06.1021.56, G. R. 555. - -[50] Cf. e.g. British Museum, E.74, E.72, E.307, E.382, E.149, E.333. - -[51] Such red spots must not be confused with those caused by excess of -oxidation in the firing (cf. pp. 44 ff.). - -[52] Imported Athenian clay (cf. p. 40) fired to the temperature to which -the ancient Greeks fired their pottery was so light and characterless in -color that some process to deepen the hue would appear almost imperative. - -[53] Many modern imitations of kylikes lack just this feature, which -makes drinking out of them a very different story. - -[54] Cf. Antike Denkmäler, II, pl. 8; Journal of Hellenic Studies, -XII, 1891, pl. XX, and XXXII, 1912, pl. VII; Furtwängler u. Reichhold, -Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pls. 19 and 24, III, text, p. 19, fig. 7; -Notor, La femme dans l’antiquité, p. 253; Wiener Vorlegeblätter, 1889, -pl. XII (on Ficoroni cista); Hartwig, Griechische Meisterschalen, pl. -LXVII, 3a and 4, pl. LXIX, 2a-c; Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire IV, -part 2, p. 1160, fig. 6252; etc. - -[55] Cf. e.g. Metropolitan Museum, Nos. 15.160.2-3, 19.39.20. - -[56] It is interesting to compare in this connection the satyr heads on -shields, perhaps intended to frighten the enemy (cf. Gerhard, Auserlesene -Vasenbilder, pl. CLXXXVIII; Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli italiani -III, p. 63, pl. 41, 1-3). - -[57] Cf. e.g. Zahn, Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft, 1854, p. 40, -note 46; British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition), -1920, p. 181, fig. 217 (No. 1905.6-13.1); Déchelette, Les vases -céramiques ornés de la Gaule romaine, II, 1904, p. 338. - -[58] Nowadays plaster or wood is the usual material for such wheel-heads. - -[59] Cf. e.g. Fabroni, Storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini, 1841, -pl. III, 9, 10; V, 7, 8, 9; p. 64, and Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire, -under figlinum, p. 1122, fig. 3036. - -[60] Cf. e.g. Nos. 15.163.1, 17.120.250 in the Metropolitan Museum. - -[61] Cf. e.g. Iliad, XVIII, 599-601, quoted below. - -[62] Cf. Reisner, Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 133. - -[63] This information I owe to Mr. Binns. - -[64] Cf. G. P. Stevens in Fowler-Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, p. 102. - -[65] See especially Pottier, Catalogue des Vases au Musée du Louvre, III, -pp. 690 ff. - -[66] There is no reason to assume, as has been done by Walters, History -of Ancient Pottery, I, pp. 132 and others, that these lekythoi are the -beautiful white lekythoi in our collections; it is more likely that they -are the very roughly painted little jugs found in large quantities in -tombs, but rarely placed with selected museum examples. - - - - -SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -The technique of Greek vases has naturally been a subject of study with -most writers on Greek ceramics. The following is a selection of the most -important works in this field: - - BLÜMNER, H. Technologie u. Terminologie der Gewerbe u. Künste - bei den Griechen u. Römern, II, pp. 32 ff. Leipzig, 1895. - - BRONGNIART, A. Traité des arts céramiques ou des poteries, I. - Second edition, Paris, 1854. - - JAHN, O. Über ein Vasenbild welches eine Töpferei vorstellt, - in Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. - Leipzig, 1854. - - JAMOT, P., in Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités - grecques et romaines, under figlinum. - - LUYNES, Duc de. De la poterie antique, in Annali - dell’Instituto, IV, pp. 138 ff. Milan, 1894. - - PERROT, G., in Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art dans - l’antiquité, IX, pp. 322 ff. Paris, 1911. - - POTTIER, E. Catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite au - Musée du Louvre, III, pp. 651 ff. Paris, 1906. - - RAYET, O., et Collignon, M. Histoire de la céramique grecque, - Introduction. Paris, 1888. - - REICHHOLD, K., in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische - Vasenmalerei, text passim but especially I, pp. 12 ff., 19 ff., - 45, 54, 68, 82, 140, 145 ff., 181; II, pp. 199 ff. Munich, 1904. - - ROBINSON, E. Catalogue of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Vases in - the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, pp. 33 ff. Boston and New - York, 1893. - - WALTERS, H. B. History of Ancient Pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and - Roman, I, pp. 202 ff. London, 1905. - - WHEELER, J. R., in Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, pp. - 420 ff. New York, 1909. - -The two following handbooks on the manufacture of modern pottery will be -found useful also by students of ancient techniques: - - BINNS, C. F. The Potter’s Craft. New York, 1910 (second - edition, 1922). - - COX, G. Pottery for Artisans, Craftsmen, and Teachers. New - York, 1914. - - - - -INDEX - - - Alumina, 47. - - - Binder, medium used as, 16, 47, 50. - - Biscuit, 34-37, 51. - - Blunging, 2. - - “Bone-dry,” 11. - - Brush-case, 74. - - Brushes, 47, 51, 52, 70, 71-75; representations of, 70-72. - - Bucchero pottery, technique of, 45. - - Building, 4, 26-27, 93-94; coils, 26; literary references to, - 93-94; terracotta statuette of man in act of(?), 70; wooden - core for, 93-94. - - - Calipers, 15, 16, 65. - - Carbon, 30, 45; dioxide, 30; monoxide, 30. - - Centering, 7, 8. - - Clay, 1, 20, 40-44; color of, 1, 3, 45, 54, 55, 58, 87, 88; - component parts of, 1, 88; ingredients of, 1, 55, 57; literary - references to, 87, 88; plasticity of, 1, 2, 88; porosity - of, 1, 59, 61, 62; preparation of, 1, 88; varieties of, 40; - vitrification of, 1, 29, 30; washing of, 2, 3. - - Color, 36, 54, 58, 59; accessory, 44; change of, through - firing, 1, 3, 31, 36, 45, 58; literary references to, _see_ - Miltos. - - Cones, pyrometric, 35, 36. - - - Decorating, 35, 39, 42, 44, 51; ancient representations of, 40, - 70-75. - - Design, 15; before or after firing, 37-44; preliminary, 37, 39, - 58, 72. - - Draught, 30, 31, 33, 76. - - Drying, 10, 21. - - - Fashioning of vases, 4-29; literary references to, 89-94. - - Finish, 25, 69; inside, 15; outer surface, 25; under handles, - 25. - - Firing of vases, 3, 29-47, 79; accidents through, 36, 37, 40, - 41, 44-47; length of, 35, 36; literary references to, 94-96; - methods of, 34-36; number of firings, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44; - temperature of, 35; “twice-fired,” 35, 37, 39. - - Foot, 11, 12, 17, 18, 26. - - Fuel, 30, 33, 34, 65, 76. - - - Glaze, 19, 31, 34-36, 39, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 74, 78, 86; - application of, 39, 40-44, 47-53, 57, 72; Athenian, 48-49; - composition of, 47-49; discoloration of, 45-47; preparation of, - 47; varieties of, 47; wearing qualities, 47-49. - - Gum tragacanth, 47. - - - Handles, 19-25, 56, 60, 62; attachment of, 19, 21, 67, 69; - handmade, 20, 24; moulded, 20, 28. - - - Implements, potter’s, 10, 11, 64, 84-86. - - Incision of details, 37-39. - - - Jigger, 11. - - Joining, 16-19, 28, 29; representation of, on pinax(?), 68, 69. - - Jolly, 11. - - - Kiln, 21, 32-37, 41, 44-46, 86; ancient representations of, 34, - 64, 65, 76-78; literary references to, 89, 94-96; packing of, - 34. - - - “Lagerringe,” 46. - - “Lasur,” _see_ Miltos. - - Leather-hard, 10, 16, 25, 37, 39, 40, 44, 50, 51, 58, 65. - - Lip, 11, 12, 29, 44, 60. - - - Metics, as potters, 100; social standing of, 100. - - Miltos, 47, 53-59, 61; as wash, 58, 59; laws governing export - of, 96, 97; literary references to, 96-98; methods of applying, - 55-58. - - Mortar, for crushing glaze, 74. - - Moulding of vases, 20, 24, 27-29. - - Moulds, 4, 12, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 86; material of, 27, 29, 86. - - - Oven, _see_ Kiln. - - Oxidation, 30, 58. - - Oxide, 1; boron, 47; calcium, 1; ferric, 30, 31, 45, 46; - ferrous, 30, 31, 45, 46, 49. - - - Painting, 39, 40, 42, 51, 70-75, 98; brushes for, 51-53, 70-72, - 75. - - Paint-pots, 70, 71, 74, 75. - - Pinax, 65, 67-69, 73, 75-78. - - Plaster, 20, 21, 26, 27, 85. - - Polishing, 19, 58; tools for, 19. - - Porosity, 1, 59, 61, 62; literary reference to, 98. - - Potter, 14, 15, 17-19, 25, 27, 31, 40, 44, 47, 54, 55; ancient - representations of, 5, 9, 64-77, 80, 81; implements of, 10, 11, - 64, 84-86; literary references to, 87-105; “master potter,” 75, - 80; miscellaneous scenes, 78-84; shop of, 81, 82; statues of - Greek, 98-100, 102-105; of Roman, 99, 102; women as, 71. - - Pottery, ancient representations of, 64-70, 75, 77, 78; - literary references to, 87-104. - - Proportion, 14, 26, 59. - - Pyrometer, 35. - - Pyrometric cones, 35, 36. - - - Red ochre, _see_ Miltos. - - Reduction, 30, 31, 45, 46; partial, 31. - - “Relief” lines, 52, 53. - - Rivets, 59, 63. - - - Saggers, 32, 34. - - Satyr, stoking oven, 83; head, to avert evil eye, 64, 65. - - Sections, work in, 15-19. - - Ship, with pottery, 82, 83. - - Shrinkage, 16, 28. - - Silicate, 47, 49. - - Slip, 2, 11, 16, 19, 21, 27, 28. - - Stele, votive, 80, 81; “master potter,” 80. - - Stilts, 34, 85, 86. - - Stoking kiln, 65, 76. - - Strainer for clay, 2; for glaze, 74. - - Symmetry, Dynamic, 14. - - - Temperature of firing, 3, 29-32, 35, 36, 55. - - Templet, 27. - - “Test,” 43, 44. - - Throwing, 7-9, 12, 29; ancient representations of, 65, 66; - in sections, 15-19, 69; literary references to, 88-91; to - measurements, 9, 14, 15. - - Turning, 10-15, 19, 40, 42; literary references to, 89-92; - tools for, 10-12, 14, 18. - - - Use of Greek vases, 59-63; as ornaments, 60, 61; as practical - utensils, 59-63; as votive offerings, 60. - - - Vases, Attic, 12, 27-29, 54, 58, 59; fragility of, 59, 62; - measurements of, 14; porosity of, 59, 61, 62; proportions of, - 59; value of, 87, 100, 101; wearing qualities of, 59, 62. - - Vasiliki ware, technique of, 45. - - Votive offerings, 60, 67, 68, 73, 75. - - - Wedging, 2, 3; literary reference to, 88. - - Wheel, 4-9, 27, 29, 51, 54; ancient representations of, - 5, 65-68, 72, 73; invention of potter’s, 27, 89; literary - references to, 88-91, 97, 103; types of, 4-6, 91. - - Wheel-head, 7, 84, 85. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY*** - - -******* This file should be named 63091-0.txt or 63091-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/3/0/9/63091 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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