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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #63091 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63091)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Craft of Athenian Pottery, by Gisela M.
-A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-
-Title: The Craft of Athenian Pottery
-       An Investigation of the Technique of Black-Figured and Red-Figured Athenian Vases
-
-
-Author: Gisela M. A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter
-
-
-
-Release Date: August 31, 2020  [eBook #63091]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY***
-
-
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-
-The Metropolitan Museum of Art
-
-Publication of the Committee on Education
-
-THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
-
-by GISELA M. A. RICHTER
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-OF THIS BOOK
-500 COPIES WERE PRINTED
-IN MAY 1923
-
-500 ADDITIONAL COPIES
-WERE PRINTED
-IN MARCH 1924
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-The Metropolitan Museum of Art
-
-THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
-
-An Investigation of the
-Technique of Black-Figured and
-Red-Figured Athenian Vases
-
-by
-
-GISELA M. A. RICHTER, LITT.D.
-
-Associate Curator, Department of Classical Art
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-
-
-New Haven
-Yale University Press
-London · Humphrey Milford · Oxford University Press
-MDCCCCXXIV
-
-Copyright 1923 by the
-Metropolitan Museum of Art
-
-Printed in the United States of America
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                     _Page_
-
-    List of Illustrations                                              vii
-
-    Preface                                                             xi
-
-    Chapter I. Technical Processes in the Making of Modern Pottery
-        and their Application to the Technique of Ancient Vases          1
-
-      Preparation of the Clay                                        1
-        Ingredients and Properties                                   1
-        Washing                                                      2
-        Wedging                                                      2
-      Fashioning the Vases                                           4
-        (1) Wheelwork                                                4
-          Types of Wheel                                             4
-          Throwing                                                   7
-          Turning                                                   10
-          Work in Sections                                          15
-          Polishing                                                 19
-          Attachment of handles                                     20
-        (2) Building                                                26
-        (3) Moulding                                                27
-      Firing the Vases                                              29
-        Production of Temperature                                   29
-        Types of Kilns                                              32
-        Packing the Kiln                                            34
-        Firing                                                      35
-        Number of Firings                                           37
-        Injuries in the Firing                                      44
-      Glazing                                                       47
-      Red Ochre Wash                                                53
-      Were Athenian Vases Made for Every-Day Use?                   59
-
-    Chapter II. Representations of Ancient Potters                      64
-
-      Fashioning the Vases                                          64
-      Decorating the Vases                                          70
-      Firing the Vases                                              75
-      Miscellaneous Scenes                                          78
-      Representations Wrongly Interpreted as Pottery Scenes         83
-      Potter’s Implements                                           84
-
-    Chapter III. References to the Pottery Craft in Ancient Literature  87
-
-      Preparation of the Clay                                       87
-      Fashioning the Vases                                          89
-        (1) Wheelwork                                               89
-        (2) Building                                                93
-      Firing the Vases                                              94
-      Red Ochre Wash                                                96
-      Porosity of Greek Pottery                                     98
-      The Status of Potters                                         98
-
-    Conclusion                                                         106
-
-    Selected Bibliography                                              109
-
-    Index                                                              111
-
-
-
-
-ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-  _Figure_                                                           _Page_
-
-     1. Wedging (a)                                                      3
-     2. Wedging (b)                                                      4
-     3. Kick-wheel with treadle                                          5
-     4. Kick-wheel with disk                                             6
-     5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle                  6
-
-          _Processes of throwing_:
-     6. Centering ball                                                   7
-     7. Pressing clay down                                               7
-     8. Squeezing clay into cone                                         7
-     9. Inserting thumb                                                  7
-    10. Making cylinder                                                  8
-    11. Making bowl                                                      8
-    12. Making jar                                                       8
-    13. Making bottle                                                    8
-
-    14. Turning a vase                                                  10
-    15. Turned foot                                                     11
-    16. Foot left as thrown                                             12
-    17. Turning marks on outside of vase                                13
-    18. Turning marks on inside of vase                                 13
-    19. Finishing marks left in handwork                                14
-    20. Unturned inside of amphora                                      15
-    21. Vase thrown in sections                                         16
-    22. Sections in place                                               17
-    23. Vase after turning                                              17
-    24. Wet cellar                                                      18
-    25. Detail of kylix showing joint                                   19
-    26. Detail of amphora showing difference between polished and
-          unpolished surfaces                                           20
-    27. Attachment of handles                                           21
-    28-33. Athenian vases showing treatment of handles          22, 23, 24
-    34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough        25
-    35. Making coils                                                    26
-    36. Vase poured in a mould                                          28
-    37. Inside of moulded vase                                          29
-    38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould                        30
-    39. Open kiln                                                       31
-    40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware                                   32
-    41. Open kiln showing saggers                                       33
-    42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware                                    34
-    43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch                    37
-    44. Design on red-figured krater.
-          (a) Preliminary sketch                                        38
-          (b) Completed painting                                        38
-    45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze        41
-    46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body
-          still adhering                                                42
-    47. Unfinished kylix                                                43
-    48. Foot of unfinished kylix                                        43
-    49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side            46
-
-          _Methods of Glazing_:
-    50. Dipping                                                         48
-    51. Pouring                                                         49
-    52. Use of the brush                                                50
-    53. Spraying                                                        51
-
-    54. Hydria showing brush marks                                      52
-    55. Detail of psykter showing relief line                           53
-    56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line (on arm)
-          going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line          57
-    57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear                         63
-
-          _Representations of ancient potters fashioning vases_:
-    58. Athenian pottery establishment                                  64
-    59. Potter throwing                                                 66
-    60. Potter throwing                                                 66
-    61. Potter attaching handles                                        67
-    62. Potter incising lines (?)                                       68
-    63. Potter joining sections (?)                                     68
-    64. Boy finishing a vase                                            69
-    65. Potter building a vase                                          70
-
-          _Representations of ancient potters decorating vases_:
-    66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work                   71
-    67. Youth decorating kylix                                          72
-    68. Potter glazing kylix                                            73
-    69. Potter painting bands on a krater                               73
-    70. Three youths, one painting a krater                             74
-    71. Pottery establishment                                           75
-
-          _Representations of ancient potters firing_:
-    72. Potter stoking fire                                             76
-    73. Potter stoking fire                                             76
-    74-79. Potters regulating draught                                   77
-    80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln                                  78
-
-          _Representations of ancient potters: miscellaneous scenes_:
-    81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks                   79
-    82. Youth working on vases (?)                                      79
-    83. Master potter(?)                                                80
-    84. Woman potter(?)                                                 81
-    85. Client in potter’s shop                                         82
-    86. Ship with cargo of pottery                                      82
-
-          _Potter’s Implements_:
-    87. Wheel-head                                                      84
-    88. Tools found at Arezzo                                           85
-    89. Stilt                                                           85
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-For our knowledge of the technique of Athenian vases we have various
-sources of information. There are a number of references to the craft in
-ancient literature; we have several actual representations of potters at
-work among extant vase paintings; and there is the important testimony of
-the vases themselves. The information gleaned from these three sources
-has been duly worked over by archaeologists, and the many accounts we
-have of the technique of Greek vases are all based more or less on this
-evidence. There is, however, another very important source of information
-ready to our hand which has not been fully utilized, namely, the study of
-the technical processes employed in the making of modern pottery. For,
-the nature and properties of clay being the same now that they were in
-Greek times, the manner of working it must have been essentially the same
-then as now. Many archaeologists have, of course, seen potters at work
-in different places, or perhaps consulted potters on specific points;
-but that is a different thing from getting a thorough knowledge of the
-craft oneself and learning once for all what is possible and what is not
-possible in clay-working.
-
-The neglect of this highly valuable source of information has led to some
-surprising theories regarding the technique of Greek vases; and these
-theories have been repeated over and over again in our books on vases,
-for the simple reason that, not having any first-hand knowledge, we have
-copied these statements from one another. A modern potter reading these
-accounts finds them remarkable literature. The present writer, realizing
-her own ignorance on the many questions of clay-working, went to a modern
-pottery school. The result of this first-hand study was not only the
-acquisition of new knowledge, but a totally new insight into the whole
-subject. The present essay is an attempt to revise the current theories
-of the technique of Athenian pottery in the light of this practical
-experience.
-
-Not only does such practical experience supply us with the knowledge
-essential for the consideration of technical problems, but it gives
-us a new appreciation of the beauty of Athenian vases. If we try to
-make such shapes ourselves we shall begin to observe many details
-which perhaps passed unnoticed before—the finely designed handles,
-the well-proportioned feet, the practical mouths; and the curves, the
-mouldings, and the subtle variations will become a constant delight
-to the eye. Moreover, we shall be impressed more than ever with the
-wonderful sense of proportion in Athenian vases. For the relation of the
-height to the width, the proportions of the neck, the body, the foot, and
-the handles to one another appear to be all nicely thought out. There is
-no hit-or-miss about it; the whole is an interrelated theme evidently
-planned carefully before making, either by the potter himself or by a
-professional designer.
-
-In short, any one who has tried his hand in the production of Greek forms
-will understand very well that the makers of such vases were proud of
-their work and that the signature of a well-known potter was at least as
-valuable as that of a popular decorator.[1]
-
-The pottery school to which I went was the New York State School of
-Ceramics at Alfred, New York. Throughout my work at the school and
-later in my investigation of Greek vases at the Metropolitan Museum,
-I had the great benefit of the advice of Professor Charles F. Binns,
-director of the school. In fact, any value which this paper may possess
-is largely due to this opportunity of appeal to someone who possesses the
-rare combination of expert knowledge in the field of practical pottery
-with a scholar’s attitude toward the problems presented by the ancient
-ware. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the many helpful suggestions
-made from time to time by Miss Maude Robinson, director of the pottery
-work at Greenwich House, New York, as well as by Miss Elsie Binns and
-Harold Nash, modern potters whom I have had the advantage of consulting
-on various questions. I am indebted to Miss Helen McClees for valuable
-assistance in the section dealing with the references to pottery craft in
-ancient literature. In my examination of Greek vases, which necessitated
-handling of the specimens, I was greatly helped by the courteous
-assistance of many museum directors.
-
-The plan of this book is as follows: The first chapter gives a concise
-account of the processes in use in the making of vases at modern pottery
-schools[2] and their application to the technique of ancient vases. The
-second chapter contains a description of the various representations we
-have of ancient potters at work. In the third chapter are collected the
-chief Greek and Latin texts referring to the ancient pottery craft. After
-this presentation of all the evidence on the technique of Athenian vases
-comes a short summary of the new conclusions arrived at, and a selected
-bibliography.
-
-The illustrations of modern pottery scenes were taken under the direction
-of Charles F. Binns at the New York State School of Ceramics, Alfred,[3]
-and of Maude Robinson at pottery studios in New York City.[4]
-
-
-
-
-I. TECHNICAL PROCESSES IN THE MAKING OF MODERN POTTERY AND THEIR
-APPLICATION TO THE TECHNIQUE OF ANCIENT VASES
-
-
-PREPARATION OF THE CLAY
-
-
-_Ingredients and properties._
-
-The making of a pot begins in the clay bed. The clay has to be found, it
-has to be transported, and above all it has to be tested to see whether
-it is adapted to the potter’s needs. For there are many different kinds
-of clay and they are as individual as human beings; so that a thorough
-understanding of them is essential to the successful potter.
-
-The chief ingredients of clay are silica, alumina, and water. Other
-possible ingredients are iron oxide, lime (calcium oxide), magnesia, and
-potash. To the iron compounds are due the different colors of the clay.
-When potters speak of the color of a clay—red, yellow, white—they refer
-to the color after burning, not in the raw state. The tones of the color
-are controlled by heat; for instance, a red clay becomes first pink, then
-in a higher fire a deeper red, and in a still higher fire a brownish red.
-
-The potter demands three properties of his clay: (1) plasticity, the
-property which enables the clay to acquire form; (2) porosity, the
-property which enables the water to escape; and (3) vitrification, the
-property which enables the clay to be fired. These three properties
-are due to the three chief component parts of the clay; namely, clay
-base, quartz, and feldspar. It will be found that some clays are not
-plastic enough, others not sufficiently porous, and others again not
-properly vitrifiable; in such cases the addition of certain substances is
-necessary to make the clay usable. The actual composition of the clay,
-therefore, is of great importance, as no amount of skilful labor will
-avail if the clay itself has not the right consistency.
-
-
-_Washing._
-
-When the right composition of the clay has been assured, the next step
-is to wash it and separate it from the many natural impurities, such as
-stones, sticks, etc., with which it is mixed. A clay not properly washed
-is a source of great vexation in the later stages of pottery making. The
-best method is that of “blunging,” that is, the dry clay is put into
-water and stirred constantly until it reaches the consistency of cream,
-technically called “slip,” whereupon it is poured through sieves, coarse
-or fine according to the desired consistency. The liquid clay or slip
-must then be dried sufficiently to become plastic and workable. This can
-be done either in filter presses in which the water is squeezed out in a
-comparatively short time, or in shallow receptacles in the open air where
-the water is allowed slowly to evaporate.
-
-
-_Wedging._
-
-But even at this stage the clay is not yet ready for use; it has first to
-go through the important process of kneading or “wedging.” This consists
-of cutting a ball of clay in two against a wire (fig. 1), slapping the
-two parts on a plaster or wooden board, one on top of the other (fig. 2),
-then lifting up the whole lump, cutting it in two again, and slapping it
-down as before. The purpose is to remove all air bubbles and to correct
-irregularities in hardness. The operation has sometimes to be repeated
-fifteen or twenty times before a good texture is secured.[5]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1. Wedging (a)]
-
-We learn from the above survey that the fine consistency of the clay in
-Athenian and in some other Greek wares is not necessarily due to its
-natural state, but to the careful washing and kneading undergone in its
-preparation for use. When different particles are found in the fired
-clay they are due to indifferent washing. And the varying shades of pink
-and red of Greek vases likewise do not presuppose different kinds of
-clay, but are due largely to the various temperatures to which the vases
-were fired. We have too often made our analyses of clays of Greek vases
-without due cognizance of these facts.
-
-
-FASHIONING THE VASES
-
-
-(1) WHEELWORK
-
-There are three principal ways of making vases—fashioning them on the
-wheel, building them, and making them from moulds. Let us examine first
-the work on the wheel, the potter’s tool par excellence.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2. Wedging (b)]
-
-
-_Types of wheel._
-
-There are various types of wheel in general use today. The wheel run by
-electric power does not concern us here since it cannot have been used
-by the Greeks. In studio potteries, a kick-wheel is often used. In this
-the operator stands and kicks with his left foot against a treadle,
-the weight of his body being supported by the right (fig. 3). Another
-fairly popular type has a large, heavy disk at the bottom revolving in a
-horizontal plane, and kept in motion by one foot of the operator (fig.
-4). A very simple type of wheel in use some time ago is illustrated in
-fig. 5. Here the motion is imparted by an assistant turning the handle.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3. Kick-wheel with treadle]
-
-Any one of these three types may have been used by the Greeks. In the
-representations of ancient potters at work (cf. pp. 64 ff.) the wheel
-appears to have been propelled either with the foot or by an assistant.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4. Kick-Wheel with disk]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle
-
-Barber, _The Pottery and Porcelain of the United States_, p. 4, fig. 2]
-
-
-_Throwing._
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 6-9. Processes of throwing
-
-Fig. 6. Centering ball
-
-Fig. 7. Pressing clay down
-
-Fig. 8. Squeezing clay into cone
-
-Fig. 9. Inserting thumb]
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 10-13. Processes of throwing
-
-Fig. 10. Making cylinder
-
-Fig. 11. Making bowl
-
-Fig. 12. Making jar
-
-Fig. 13. Making bottle]
-
-The first task in fashioning a vase on the wheel—or “throwing” it, as it
-is technically called—is to center the ball of clay on the wheel-head. It
-is accomplished by pressing the left hand against the ball of clay as it
-revolves rapidly, care being taken to keep the left forearm absolutely
-rigid (fig. 6). The right hand is used for keeping the clay wet by
-sprinkling it with water, and for pulling the clay inward, thus squeezing
-it up to a cone. The cone is pressed up and down in this manner several
-times (figs. 7 and 8). When the ball runs perfectly true, it is time to
-open it by inserting the thumb in the center (fig. 9); then by placing
-the fingers of one hand inside the hollow, and the fingers of the other
-on the outside,[6] and by raising both hands gradually several times and
-squeezing the clay lightly while so doing, a cylinder is formed (fig.
-10). The cylinder is the foundation of all other shapes. For to produce a
-bowl, one need only pull out the cylinder a little at the top (fig. 11);
-to make a globular jar, pull it out at the bottom and in at the top (fig.
-12); to fashion a long-necked vase, pull it out at the bottom and in at
-the top, leaving enough clay to spin the top into a tall, narrow cylinder
-which will serve as a neck (fig. 13); and by various other manipulations
-one can produce almost every variety of shape. To throw a vase to
-specific measurements, a careful drawing of the shape should first be
-made and calipers and measuring sticks kept close at hand for checking
-the work as it proceeds.
-
-The earliest Greek vases are made by hand; but from the Early Minoan III
-and Middle Helladic I periods (i.e., about 2200 B.C.) in certain places
-at least, vases were regularly thrown on the wheel. They could not have
-the regular and symmetrical outlines they have if they were built by
-hand, and many would show traces of vertical joints if they were made in
-moulds.
-
-That the processes of throwing were identical with those described as
-in use today, there is of course no means of determining; but they
-certainly must have been similar, as clay has not changed its nature from
-Greek times to ours. The evidence which we glean from representations
-on Greek vases of potters at work, scanty though it is, bears out this
-self-evident fact. From the above description it will be noted that in
-this work of throwing the simultaneous use of both hands is necessary—an
-important fact to remember when interpreting scenes to be related to the
-fashioning of vases.
-
-
-_Turning._
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 14. Turning a vase]
-
-After a piece has been thrown on the wheel, it has assumed its general
-shape, but that is all. The thinning of the walls, the refinements of
-foot and lip, all such finishing touches must be reserved for the next
-process. This is known among modern potters as “turning.” In this the
-clay is no longer in a wet state, but in a “leather-hard” condition,
-and it is not worked with the hands but with steel cutting tools. A
-newly shaped vase becomes leather hard after it has been kept in the air
-and the water allowed to evaporate for about twenty-four hours. Pieces
-in this state are hard enough to be handled with care and to be cut
-easily with a knife. They are not so fragile as either in the wet or in
-the “bone-dry” state, but they are still delicate and exposed to many
-dangers. Not until a vase has been fired is it safe to handle it freely.
-The cutting with the steel tools is done on the wheel (or “jigger”[7]),
-the right hand which grasps the tool being kept steady by letting it rest
-on a stick held in the left hand; the stick should have a sharpened nail
-on one end, the point of which is pressed into a wooden board at the
-height required (fig. 14). By continued cutting off of thin shavings of
-clay and by adding more clay in slip form when more is needed, the final
-outline of the shape and the various grooves and mouldings for lip and
-foot can be obtained. But it is a slow process, requiring time, care, and
-great patience. For the smoothing of the surface, scrapers, sandpaper,
-and sponge are useful.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 15. Turned foot
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.234.2]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 16. Foot left as thrown
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.232.30]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 17. Turning marks on outside of vase
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.64]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 18. Turning marks on inside of vase
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.1228]
-
-This turning or refining of the shape after throwing, was, as we might
-expect, not in universal use in ancient times. Prior to the sixth century
-B.C. it was used occasionally here and there, and often only to a limited
-extent. But there cannot be the slightest doubt that in the Athenian
-black-figured and red-figured vases extensive use was made of the turning
-tools. The grooves and mouldings for lip and foot were produced by this
-turning process, not, as modern archaeologists tell us, by the use of
-moulds.[8] For this there is abundant proof. The feet of Athenian vases
-are almost all turned at the bottom, some with remarkable care and
-finish (fig. 15), not left flat, as they would be after throwing (fig.
-16). The lids of pyxides and similar vases could not have been made to
-fit so neatly on their ledges without the use of turning. Above all,
-the wonderful finish and precision of Athenian vases could never have
-been attained by mere throwing. But there is even more convincing proof.
-Unless the marks of the turning tools are very carefully obliterated
-(with scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge), traces of them are always
-visible. And this is the case also in Athenian vases. The outside
-surfaces are generally carefully smoothed, but even there the ridges
-formed by the tools are often discernible (fig. 17); and on the inside of
-the necks or feet or lids such ridges and concentric or spiral scratches
-are quite frequent (fig. 18). They are very different, however, from
-the finishing marks left in handwork (fig. 19). To appreciate the fine,
-smooth surface which work with the turning tools produces, we need only
-examine the insides of most Athenian amphorai and hydriai; for these,
-being more or less concealed, are generally left as thrown, often showing
-the spiral ridges which rapidly revolving clay will cause (fig. 20). They
-thus form a striking contrast to the finely smoothed outside surfaces.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 19. Finishing marks left in handwork
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.834]
-
-The fact that the Athenian potter made use of the turning process
-shows incidentally that he was able to make his vases to very exact
-measurements. This is important in connection with Jay Hambidge’s theory
-that Athenian pottery was carefully designed on certain geometrical
-principles;[9] for if the Athenian potter had confined himself merely
-to throwing on the wheel that would not have been possible. It is during
-the second process of turning that an expert potter can effect many
-changes in width and height or in details, and thus make his product
-correspond exactly with his carefully planned design. Modern potters of
-standing work in the same way today. They first make a drawing of a vase,
-full size or to scale, and then proceed to follow this drawing in every
-detail, using rules and calipers for their guidance. Of course it needs
-a great deal of skill and patience to be able to work so exactly; but
-Greek potters, we can be quite sure, had a good supply of both of these
-qualities.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 20. Unturned inside of amphora
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.545]
-
-
-_Work in sections._
-
-So far we have spoken only of comparatively small vases, which can be
-thrown all in one piece. Larger vases are best thrown in sections. To
-throw large jars in one piece requires great physical strength, and it is
-very difficult to finish such jars properly on the inside and to prevent
-them from being unduly heavy. The section work is by no means easy. At
-first a drawing of the vase has to be made, either full size or to scale,
-and the heights of the different parts marked off. While throwing the
-respective pieces use must be made of measuring sticks and calipers, to
-obtain the right heights and diameters. The measurements should be those
-of the soft clay, which will of course be slightly larger than those
-of the final shape. About one-eighth is the average allowance for the
-shrinkage of the clay in drying and firing. This shrinkage will naturally
-be proportional; so that the relation of every part to the whole will
-be the same in the fired vase as in the thrown product. The joining is
-obtained by applying a thick slip of the same clay as was used for the
-vase, to act as a binder. When all the sections are in place the outside
-of the vase can be “turned.” If this and the foregoing processes are done
-skilfully the final joints will hardly be visible, even before the glaze
-is applied. Figs. 21, 22, 23 show the three chief stages in the making of
-a vase in sections.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 21. Vase thrown in sections]
-
-To obtain good results in this work it is important that it should not
-be hurried. It is best, for instance, before joining the sections, to
-let them stand on top of one another for a day or longer, in order that
-they may mature together. To retain the pieces during this time in
-leather-hard condition, they must be kept in a “wet cellar,” that is, in
-a moist place where the water in the clay will not evaporate (fig. 24).
-With this simple precaution pieces can be kept leather hard practically
-indefinitely.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 22. Sections in place]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 23. Vase after turning]
-
-Section work was used by the Greeks, as it is now. There would, in fact,
-be nothing gained in throwing the very large vases, such as some of the
-kraters and amphorai, all in one piece; and though the joints are, as a
-rule, skilfully concealed, they are plainly visible on certain examples,
-especially on the inside. Where possible the joints seem to have been
-made at the natural angles or “articulations” of the vase (that is, at
-the neck, the foot, etc.); and further to simplify the work, a thin ridge
-of clay was often added to conceal the joint.[10]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 24. Wet cellar]
-
-One of the most difficult things to throw successfully is a flat,
-wide bowl on a foot; and the larger the diameter of the bowl the more
-difficult the task, since the overhanging rim almost always sags at the
-critical moment. The fifth-century kylix has therefore always been
-rightly admired as one of the greatest feats of the Athenian potter.
-How did he prevent the bowl from sagging? Did he throw it upside down
-and hollow it out later with the turning tools? Or did he make the
-base very thick and then “turn” it down to fit on a slender foot? Both
-methods would be clumsy, as they would entail lengthy turning work. Or
-was the Athenian potter so skilful that he somehow prevented the clay
-from sagging? Not at all. He simply threw his kylix in two sections;
-the foot with a bowl about half the required diameter in one piece (or
-possibly two, with the foot separate), and the remaining part of the bowl
-as a separate section. The joints where the two parts of the bowl were
-united are clearly visible on many kylikes on the outside (fig. 25)[11];
-the inside of the kylix, being the most conspicuous part, is always so
-carefully turned that no joining can be detected.
-
-
-_Polishing._
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 25. Detail of kylix showing joint
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.167]
-
-To impart a polish, the blade of a knife is applied to the surface while
-the vase is revolving; for an inward curve a curved tool must be used.
-The operation is simple and can be accomplished in a few minutes. It is
-not often employed, however, by the modern potter, whose object is to
-keep the pores of his vase open for the better adhesion of the glaze with
-which he intends to cover the surface of his pot.
-
-The Athenian potter, on the other hand, put great stress on giving the
-surface of his vase a fine polish; probably using the simple method
-described above. The difference between a polished and an unpolished
-surface is clearly seen on some vases on which the potter has omitted
-to repolish the parts round the handles where the slip used for the
-attachment had spilled over (fig. 26).
-
-
-_Attachment of handles._
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between
-polished and unpolished surfaces
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530]
-
-The final process in the fashioning of a vase is the attachment of the
-handles. These can be made either in moulds or by hand. Any one who
-thinks that the making of handles is a simple or quick process will soon
-be undeceived. Whether working in plaster, as one would if the handle
-is made in a mould, or in clay, if it is made by hand, the potter must
-bestow infinite care on the work, as both clay and plaster are very
-liable to break; and working on so small a thing as a handle is extremely
-fussy. The writer personally found nothing so difficult in her whole
-pottery training as the making of handles. The best method of procedure
-in handwork is first to shape the handle roughly while the clay is soft
-and plastic, then wait until it becomes leather hard, and finally refine
-it to the desired form and finish with modeling tools. In moulded work,
-the handle has to be cut out in plaster and then used for making the
-mould. When the handles are finally made, they are joined to the vase
-by means of slip, in the same way that the sections were (fig. 27). As
-the handle is pressed into position the superfluous slip will of course
-spill over the edge, and this has to be carefully removed and the surface
-smoothed before the vase can be pronounced finished. The vase is then put
-in the drying room so that all the water in the clay may evaporate. Only
-when it is perfectly dry can it be fired in the kiln; otherwise it is
-liable to crack.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 27. Attachment of handles]
-
-The handles of Athenian vases show perhaps better than anything else
-the great skill and sense of beauty of the Athenian potter; and they
-will repay detailed study (cf. figs. 28-33). They are never, as so
-often on modern vases, detached pieces stuck on the vase as a kind of
-afterthought. Rather, they seem to grow out of the vase like branches
-from a tree, which gives them a wonderful, living quality. Moreover,
-the place where they were attached, the size, and the curve have been
-carefully considered both from a practical and from an aesthetic point
-of view.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 28. Amphora in the Boston Museum
-
-Acc. No. 01.17]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 29. Hydria in the Metropolitan Museum
-
-Acc. No. 06.1021.190]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 30. Kantharos in the Boston Museum
-
-Acc. No. 95.36]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 31. Volute krater in the Boston Museum
-
-Acc. No. 90.153]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 32. Bell krater in the Metropolitan Museum
-
-Acc. No. 07.286.86]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 33. Kylix in the Metropolitan Museum
-
-Acc. No. G.R.1047]
-
-Athenian handles are made by hand, not in moulds. Practically every
-pair of handles shows perceptible variations such as are unavoidable in
-handwork and distinguish it from the mechanical products of moulding. The
-handles were attached to the vase in leather-hard condition, and often
-the pressure entailed thereby resulted in a slight bulge on the inner
-side. This is particularly noticeable on kylikes where the walls of the
-pot were especially thin.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle
-left rough
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.73]
-
-It may be noted that the handles of Athenian vases are not finished
-off neatly in parts where they were not seen. For instance, the under
-parts of handles on column kraters are generally left quite rough (fig.
-34). This fact, together with that already observed, that the insides
-of amphorai and hydriai are usually unturned, shows that the Greeks, at
-least, had no such theories as those often held today that a work should
-be finished perfectly all over, even in places not ordinarily seen, and
-were quite willing to save trouble when possible. Many potters today
-bestow as much care on the inside of a narrow flask as on that of an open
-bowl. It is characteristic of the sense of proportion of the Greeks that
-their potters took infinite trouble with what was important—the shapes,
-the proportions, the decoration—but that they did not spend time and
-labor where it profited nobody.
-
-
-(2) BUILDING
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 35. Making coils]
-
-Compared to the wheelwork the building appears simple at first, but
-experience will soon show that it too needs considerable practice.
-Though the actual process has not the glamor and thrill associated with
-wheelwork, there is a certain quality in a built vase which gives it a
-value of its own. Building is generally done nowadays by means of coils
-of clay (fig. 35), which must be a little thicker than the walls of the
-vase are to be and should be as uniform as possible. To make the foot
-of the vase, the end of one of these coils is laid in the center of a
-plaster bat and the rest coiled round in spiral line. To hide the joints
-the surface is rubbed over with the fingers on both sides. In making
-the walls of the vase a coil is used for each round and the superfluous
-clay pinched off, every new coil being begun at a new point. The whole
-surface, inside and outside, is again smoothed by rubbing with the
-fingers, using very little water in the process. Only about three coils
-should be worked in at a time and then left to harden before new coils
-are added. In building up a certain shape it is best to use a templet of
-cardboard or plaster, to be sure that the profile of the vase is followed
-out correctly. To give the required finish at the end, modeling tools as
-well as further rubbing with the fingers are required.
-
-With this process in mind it is easy to distinguish between built and
-wheel-made pottery among the Greek wares. In the built pottery, however
-careful the work, there is always a certain unevenness of outline—which
-indeed gives it some of its charm. Unlike the moderns, the Greeks did not
-continue to build pottery after the invention of the wheel. Naturally the
-general adoption of the wheel was not synchronous in all ceramic centers.
-It was used considerably earlier in Crete, for instance, than in Cyprus.
-But when once its convenience was thoroughly realized, the slower and
-more monotonous method was entirely dropped. Among Athenian black-figured
-and red-figured vases there are no built pieces.
-
-
-(3) MOULDING
-
-The process of moulding vases is the one most in use nowadays, for
-the simple reason that when once the required mould has been made the
-production of any number of vases is a rapid and easy task. But though
-commercially favored, this method is looked down upon by the artistic
-potter as being purely mechanical, and there is no doubt that a moulded
-vase has all the characteristics of machine work.
-
-The material used for moulds nowadays is plaster. The clay can either
-be poured into a mould in slip form or pressed into a mould while soft
-and plastic. In the former process the mould or moulds are made in two
-or more pieces, which fit closely together leaving an opening at the
-top. By pouring the clay slip into the opening, leaving it to harden a
-little, and then pouring out again what has not hardened, a hollow vase
-is formed. After due shrinkage the mould is carefully removed from the
-vase (fig. 36). The same mould can be used indefinitely for making vases
-of the same shape; it has only to be dried between one use and the next.
-Handles can be produced in the same way and then attached.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 36. Vase poured in a mould]
-
-In pressing clay into moulds each part of the mould is used separately,
-except where only one mould is required, as in the case of an open bowl
-or tile. When the clay has been carefully pressed into every part of the
-mould, it is left to harden, and then, upon shrinkage, can be easily
-separated. If the vase has been pressed in several pieces, the parts must
-be carefully joined and the seams effaced as neatly as possible.
-
-The Greek potter did not use moulding as a labor-saving device. He
-employed it only where the work demanded it, as in the Athenian plastic
-ware. Here we sometimes even find the same mould used several times, as
-in the group of a negro and a crocodile of which chance has preserved us
-at least five replicas[12]; but the number of such repetitions is not
-great and certainly would not indicate mass production.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 37. Inside of moulded vase
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.205]
-
-The material of Greek moulds was burnt clay. That the Athenian plastic
-vases were pressed into moulds rather than poured can be seen from the
-fact that the insides of these vases are rough and show finger-marks
-(cf. fig. 37). The joints of the two parts are clearly visible on many
-examples (cf. fig. 38). Often the lip was thrown separately on the wheel
-and attached.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.203]
-
-
-FIRING THE VASES
-
-
-_Production of Temperature._
-
-In the fire the great miracle takes place and the dry clay, most friable
-and perishable of materials, becomes one of the most durable. This is
-accomplished by the softening of the feldspar grains which cement the
-whole together and thus form a dense mass. To produce the temperature
-at which this phenomenon takes place two things are necessary, fuel and
-draught, the former supplying the carbon, the latter the oxygen. The
-liberation of the carbon in the fuel and its union with the oxygen of the
-air develop combustion, during which heat is generated. Combustion can
-be complete or incomplete. It is complete when there is an excess of air
-and the carbon can combine with two molecules of oxygen to form carbon
-dioxide (CO₂). This condition is called oxidation. It is incomplete when
-there is not enough air and the carbon can get only one molecule of
-oxygen, forming carbon monoxide (CO). This condition is called reduction.
-Carbon monoxide, being very hungry for oxygen, will try to extract it
-from whatever source it can. If ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) is present in the
-clay—which is the case in red clay—the carbon monoxide will take one
-molecule of oxygen from it and convert it into ferrous oxide (CO + Fe₂O₃
-= CO₂ + 2FeO). The important feature in this process is that ferric oxide
-is red and will make the clay burn red; but ferrous oxide (FeO) is black
-and will give the clay a blackish color. If no ferric oxide is present in
-the clay, that is, if the clay is not a red clay, then reduction has no
-effect on the color of the clay and can be freely used. In Europe potters
-regularly burn under reducing conditions, while in America the general
-practice is to burn under oxidizing conditions. When the draught in the
-kiln is faulty, partial reduction will often occur, and many faults in
-the burning, especially in the glazes, are attributable to this cause.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 39. Open kiln]
-
-We shall see presently how important is a knowledge of these chemical
-changes during the process of firing when we come to consider the defects
-on Greek vases caused by injuries in the firing (cf. pp. 44 ff.).
-
-
-_Types of kilns._
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware]
-
-There are two chief types of kiln construction in use today: (1) the open
-kiln, in which the flame passes through the kiln chamber (fig. 39); (2)
-the muffle kiln, in which the flame passes around the chamber and not
-through it (fig. 40). In the open kiln the ware either comes in direct
-contact with the flame, or is stacked in saggers, i.e., boxes made of
-fire clay fitting one on top of the other (fig. 41). The muffle kiln is,
-so to speak, one large sagger, and the ware is stacked on shelves. The
-draught in the kiln can be either an up draught or a down draught; in
-either case the air supply, as well as the fuel supply, must be under
-control, so that the combustion shall be as desired. The draught can be
-regulated by means of dampers, the fuel by attention to the burners. An
-arched top is an advantage, for it imparts greater strength—an important
-item considering the strain to which the kiln is subjected—and it
-facilitates the circulation of the heat. Coal, wood, gas, or kerosene oil
-can be used for fuel. Of these, oil and gas are now the most popular;
-coal and wood are rapidly coming into disuse on account of the greater
-labor they entail.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 41. Open kiln showing saggers]
-
-
-_Packing the kiln._
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware]
-
-In packing the kiln the ware is stacked as closely as possible for
-economical reasons, so that as much as possible shall be accomplished in
-one firing. In biscuit firing the ware can be placed so that it touches
-(fig. 40); in glaze firing the pieces must be separated (fig. 42) both
-from one another and from the bottom of the saggers or shelves on which
-they stand, since the melted glaze is apt to run. Glazed pieces are
-therefore generally placed on stilts made of burnt clay, and the marks of
-these stilts will often show on the bottoms of the vases.
-
-That the chief features of modern and Athenian kilns were similar is
-clear from an examination of the ancient representations of kilns (cf.
-figs. 72-81 and pp. 76 ff.). How closely the ware was sometimes stacked
-is clearly seen in fig. 80. The fuel used by the Greeks was probably wood
-and charcoal.
-
-Almost all modern pottery is twice fired; once for the conversion of the
-clay into terracotta or biscuit, and the second time for the glaze. To
-glaze unbiscuited ware is a delicate business, and the risk of glazing a
-piece of raw clay is considered larger than the trouble of burning it a
-second time. It is done occasionally when very tough clay is used, for
-instance, in kitchen crooks and in stoneware; in that case it is best to
-apply the glaze when the clay is in leather-hard condition, for then the
-absorption is less. More than the two regular firings are often used for
-correcting mistakes in glazing, for additional coats of glaze, and for
-decorating the ware.
-
-
-_Firing._
-
-Different wares and different glazes require different temperatures.
-Thus porcelain and stoneware are fired to much higher temperatures than
-ordinary pottery, and salt and alkaline glazes need a higher fire to
-mature than the ordinary lead glazes. When the required temperature has
-been reached—which nowadays is determined either by means of a pyrometer
-or with the help of pyrometric cones which melt at a given temperature
-and which are watched through a spy-hole (cf. fig. 40 where the cones are
-set up opposite the spy-hole in the door, and fig. 42 where the cones
-have melted)—the fire is gradually extinguished and the kiln left to cool
-slowly. Twelve hours for the firing and twelve for cooling is a rough
-estimate for the firing of an ordinary kiln. It is important not to hurry
-the process of cooling, as a too rapidly cooling fire may crack the ware
-or affect the glaze injuriously.
-
-The Greeks fired their pottery at a considerably lower temperature
-than potters do today. It seems to have been about 960° centigrade
-(corresponding to about cone 010) since any increase over this
-temperature causes a change in the color of the clay together with an
-additional contraction. Mr. Tonks has made the ingenious suggestion
-that, 950° and 1065° being the melting points of silver and gold
-respectively, the Greeks may have used these metals in the same way as
-the modern potters use cones, to regulate the heat of the kiln.[13]
-
-When the kiln is finally opened comes the exciting moment of seeing
-what the fire has done with one’s products. In taking out the contents
-of the kiln, gloves and sticks are often useful for handling ware that
-is still too hot to touch. Invariably there will be surprises—what one
-has expected to be a great success often turns out a failure, and what
-one thought little of may become a rare thing of beauty. In the biscuit
-firing the adventures of the pot are comparatively few; it may crack or
-sag or warp, but as a rule the expected shape is maintained. But in the
-glaze firing so many elements enter in that even an experienced potter
-can never be sure of the result. The color may turn out a different shade
-from that desired; the glaze may unexpectedly be matt (dull) or too
-glossy; it may blister or peel or crack; it may be too thin or too thick.
-Such defects are almost invariably due to faulty composition of the clay
-or the glaze or to the conditions of firing. They can often be remedied
-by further glazings and firings; but quite often a pot on which much
-time and labor have been bestowed is hopelessly ruined. A good potter,
-however, will soon learn to bear such mishaps philosophically; and it is
-certainly true that one often learns much more from failures than from
-successes. Moreover, the element of uncertainty lends spice to the craft.
-
-A careful consideration of the modern processes of firing pottery
-described above will help us to settle the problems connected with the
-firing of Greek vases—for the action of fire on clay remains the same
-even though the kilns in use by the Greeks were probably somewhat more
-primitive than now.
-
-The chief problems which confront us in Athenian pottery are (1) the
-number of firings, (2) the interpretation of defects on Greek vases as
-injuries in the firing.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.114]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 44. Design on red-figured krater
-
-(a) Preliminary sketch (b) Completed painting
-
-Furtwängler u. Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, I, pl. VII]
-
-
-_Number of firings._
-
-Was Athenian pottery once or twice fired?[14] That is, was it decorated
-in leather-hard or in biscuit condition? This has been one of the most
-debated questions in Greek ceramics. Archaeologists often assume offhand
-a number of firings,[15] but without stating any evidence or squarely
-facing the problems involved. Briefly, the arguments for and against are
-as follows. As is well known, a large proportion of red-figured vases of
-good period show a preliminary, colorless sketch for the design traced
-with a blunt[16] instrument directly on the clay (cf. figs. 43-44). The
-smooth grooves of this sketch show beyond doubt that the sketch was made
-while the clay was in leather-hard condition, that is, before firing. If
-the vase had been fired, even at a low temperature, the sketch would have
-had to be scratched in with a sharp tool, and would have left a ragged,
-not a smooth line.[17] Now it is not a natural procedure for an artist
-to make a rough sketch for his design, and then to leave his vase to be
-fired before completing his work. Furthermore, an examination of the
-incised lines on the black-figured vases—which clearly go over the black
-glaze—shows also that these lines must have been made while the clay was
-still leather hard. The ragged edge of the glaze along the incisions has
-sometimes been thought to indicate that they were made after firing. But
-just this effect is produced by cutting through dry glaze on unfired
-clay; and it would have been very difficult to attain the required
-delicacy, swing, and smoothness by incision into hard, fired clay. Any
-one who will try the experiment will soon become convinced of this.[18]
-So that, for the black-figured period at least, this evidence points to a
-once-fired pottery.
-
-On the other hand, it might be urged that if we assume that the
-decoration was executed in leather-hard condition, the vase painters
-whom we see depicted on Greek vases should be handling their pots
-with considerable care, and that this is hardly conveyed in the
-representations. On the Boston fragment, for instance, the painter
-is holding a kylix by its slender foot without any apparent fear of
-breaking it (fig. 67). And whoever painted the scene knew what he was
-doing, for he was in the act of decorating such a kylix himself. However,
-if the clay used by the Athenians was of a tough variety,[19] this
-would, I have been told by potters, be a perfectly possible procedure;
-and experiments made with imported Athenian clay[20] bore this out to an
-astonishing degree. Vases made of this clay could be handled quite freely
-in leather-hard condition. So that if the Athenian potter of the fifth
-century used similar clay to that of his present-day descendant, his
-handling of these pots on the vase paintings would be perfectly justified
-in the leather-hard state.
-
-There is, moreover, evidence which seems to settle this question beyond
-dispute. On a number of the Athenian vases there are dents such as can
-only have occurred while the vase was still in a leather-hard state. The
-mark of the object contact with which caused the dent is invariably over
-the black glaze (cf. fig. 45), showing clearly that the glaze must have
-been applied in leather-hard condition.[21] In some cases we find still
-adhering in the dents a little burnt clay, apparently from another vase
-contact with which caused the accident. Here it is probable that the
-accident was caused not while the vase was leather hard, but when red
-hot in the kiln, at least in those instances, as in the black-figured
-amphora in the Metropolitan Museum[22] (fig. 46), where the glaze shows
-a rough fracture due to the separation of the two pieces which had stuck
-together; for this fractured edge would have become fused and smooth upon
-subsequent firing.[23]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over
-black glaze
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 17.230.15]
-
-The fragments of unfinished vases which have been found from time to
-time[24] have been used as evidence to prove several glaze fires; for
-they show fired vases at a definite stage in the glazing, the outlines
-and inner markings painted, but the background not yet filled in. Must
-we, then, suppose that it was the regular practice—at least in the later
-red-figured period to which all the unfinished pieces belong—to fire
-before and after the painting of the background? It is difficult to see
-what would be gained by the process. If the pottery were fired before any
-decoration was applied, there would be the advantage of safer handling of
-the ware; but to have an extra firing with the decoration more than half
-completed gives no apparent gain and there is the distinct disadvantage
-of the extra expense of firing.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from
-other body still adhering
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 47. Unfinished kylix
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 48. Foot of unfinished kylix
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9]
-
-The unfinished kylix in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum may
-shed light on this problem (fig. 47). It is not so fragmentary as the
-pieces in the other museums, being complete except for portions of the
-rim. The foot is very roughly turned (fig. 48), very different from the
-average kylix foot, as if it had not been worth while to spend much
-time on this product. The decoration itself is also quite cursory. This
-suggests that the piece was merely a “test,” such as potters use often
-nowadays for making trials of their clay body, or their glaze, or their
-kiln. The kylix is, as a matter of fact, too soft fired, and the glaze
-has turned reddish in parts. May we be permitted the guess that this was
-a trial to test out a new kiln? It is only a possibility and there are
-many others. The important point is that the evidence of the unfinished
-fragments does not make it necessary to assume more than one glaze firing.
-
-The probability, therefore, is that Athenian pottery is once fired,[25]
-all ornamentation—both glaze and accessory colors[26]—being applied while
-the vase was in leather-hard condition; for in the case of the accessory
-colors also there would have been no advantage in an additional firing.
-
-
-_Injuries in the firing._
-
-The action of the fire on the potter’s products was apparently as much an
-open question in Greek times as it is now. Practical experience must have
-gone a long way then as today; but full control could not be achieved.
-In forming an estimate of what proportion of the pottery was spoiled in
-the kiln we must remember that in our museums we are apt to encounter
-the survival of the fittest—what the potter considered worth preserving,
-what the Greek client deemed adequate to his need, and what the modern
-museum curator considers good enough for exhibition. But even in this
-selection we meet with a number of kiln mishaps, which apparently were so
-common that they were hardly noticed. When our eyes have become trained
-to observe such things, we shall note that in any collection of Greek
-vases there are many cases of warping and sagging, especially in the
-overhanging lips of the hydriai and amphorai.[27] There are many cracks
-and dents,[28] many faults in the glaze. A very conspicuous fault is the
-change of the clay from a pink to a grayish color.[29] Archaeologists
-often explain this as due to over-firing.[30] The real reason is not that
-the temperature has been too high, but that the clay has been subjected
-in the kiln or in the funeral pyre, to fumes the carbon of which has been
-absorbed by the clay. In other words, there was either reduction and the
-red ferric oxide in the clay has been changed to black ferrous oxide
-(cf. pp. 30 f.), or the clay has absorbed the black carbon physically.
-When controlled, this change is very useful to the potter for obtaining
-certain effects. Thus bucchero pottery is simply red clay fired under
-completely reducing conditions; and in the Vasiliki mottled ware some
-carbonaceous pigment like tar was probably placed on the spots which were
-intended to be black, whereupon the carbon would be absorbed by the clay
-and the iron reduced.[31]
-
-The commonest injury to the glaze in the fire is its change into a
-brilliant red instead of the intended black. This can be observed on many
-vases, sometimes as a large spot (cf. fig. 49), other times as a less
-clearly defined variegation.[32] The cause was irregularity of fire, a
-jet of air passing through the kiln coming in contact with parts of the
-vases. In other words, there was an excess of oxygen (or the reverse of
-reduction) which turned the black ferrous oxide of the glaze into red
-ferric oxide.[33]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one
-side
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.607]
-
-Such red spots caused by jets of air coming in contact with the vases
-must not be confused with the very similar red spots which are due to
-the wearing off of the black glaze and the exposure underneath it of the
-ochre-tinted clay (cf. p. 58). Examination with a magnifying glass will
-show the difference: in one case the red is part of and level with the
-black glaze, in the other it is on a layer beneath the black glaze; in
-the former case the red will not come off when rubbed, in the latter it
-will.
-
-
-GLAZING
-
-Besides shaping and firing a vase, a potter must understand the art of
-glazing, to many the most alluring part of the craft; this comprises both
-the preparation of the glaze and its application to the pot. A glaze is
-a chemical compound, known as a silicate, which upon firing becomes a
-glassy substance. It has three chief ingredients: (1) an oxide of lead,
-of lime, of alkali, etc., which forms the foundation of the glaze; (2)
-alumina and boron oxide, which regulate the behavior of the glaze in the
-fire; and (3) silica, which controls the fitting of the glaze to the
-body. Modern glazes are divided into two chief categories: lead glazes
-and leadless glazes. Of these the former are by far the more numerous;
-but alkaline glazes, tin enamels, etc., are also used, especially in
-studio potteries.
-
-In the preparation of a glaze the ingredients have first to be weighed
-out carefully in the required proportions; the mixture has then to be
-ground with water and sieved; and when the right thickness is attained
-(usually about the consistency of cream), the glaze is applied to the
-vase, which should first be soaked in water to saturation to prevent too
-rapid absorption. Gum tragacanth is used as a binder to make the glaze
-stick.
-
-The glaze can be applied in various ways—by dipping (fig. 50), by pouring
-(fig. 51), by the use of the brush (fig. 52), or by spraying (fig. 53),
-the method depending chiefly on the individual choice of the potter. To
-apply a glaze properly to the clay body is a great art, and upon it, as
-much as on the preparation of the glaze, final success depends. The glaze
-mixtures when applied are whitish or grayish; it is only after firing
-that they assume the wonderful range of colors which delight us so much
-today.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 50. Method of glazing: dipping]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 51. Method of glazing: pouring]
-
-The Athenian potter had no ambition to produce brilliant color effects
-in glazing. He was content with the one variety which he had brought to
-perfection—a thin, luminous glaze of a deep, velvety black color and of
-astonishing durability. After generations of experiments we cannot yet
-say that we can successfully imitate it. Its composition is, however, no
-longer a secret. It has been shown by analysis and synthesis that the
-chief component parts of the glaze are an alkali (potash or soda), a clay
-(which would contain some silica such as flint naturally), and ferrous
-oxide.[34] The exact proportion of these parts, and above all the
-manipulation of the glaze are still unknown. At least, nothing completely
-corresponding to the Greek glaze has as yet been produced, though Mr.
-Tonks[35] and especially Mr. Binns[36] have come very near it. Whether
-the secret lies in the proportion, in the medium used for binder,[37] or
-in some undiscovered element one cannot tell. It is only certain that
-when the discovery is made, as doubtless it must be, it will be of great
-import both to archaeologists and to modern potters.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 52. Method of glazing: use of the brush]
-
-The glaze was, as I have endeavored to show (cf. pp. 37 ff.), applied to
-the vase in leather-hard condition. At that stage the clay still contains
-enough water to prevent too rapid absorption, and the glaze, therefore,
-runs in an easy, flowing manner.[38] To carry out his work the painter
-could take his time, for, as we have seen (cf. p. 16), a vase can be kept
-leather hard for an indefinite period by the simple device of placing
-it in a damp box, that is, an air-tight case with a pan of water at the
-bottom.[39]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 53. Method of glazing: spraying
-
-Cox, _Pottery for Artists, Craftsmen and Teachers_, p. 111, fig. 51]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 54. Hydria showing brush marks
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.7]
-
-How did the Greek painter apply the glaze to his pottery? We know that
-on the broader surfaces the brush was used, for brush marks are clearly
-visible in many cases.[40] When possible the backgrounds and horizontal
-bands were painted while the piece was rotating on the wheel; where a
-panel had to be reserved, the irregularity of free-hand brush work can
-readily be observed (fig. 54). For the “flat” glaze lines, in both the
-figured scenes and the ornamental motives, smaller brushes were employed.
-But what was the instrument which produced the famous “relief” lines,
-that is, those fine lines which stand out perceptibly from the surface
-and which were used for the contours and inner markings of the figures
-during the best red-figured period (fig. 55)? The quality of these lines
-has been justly admired by all who have studied them and it has been
-thought that the instrument used had much to do with the result.[41]
-After a number of experiments with fine brushes, single bristles,
-reeds, feathers, pens, etc., I have come to the conclusion that it is of
-little avail to discuss the instrument used before we can employ in our
-experiments a glaze identical with the Greek. For to get the wonderful
-flow of the Greek line, the glaze must run much more easily than any
-imitation black glaze which we have so far produced. The groove which
-runs down the middle of the relief lines hardly affords a clue; for
-slight pressure of any instrument seems to produce such a result.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 10.210.18]
-
-
-RED OCHRE WASH
-
-In three statements of ancient writers the addition of red ochre to
-Athenian pottery is referred to.[42] In Pliny, Natural History, XXXV,
-152, we read: Boutades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta
-fingere, “Boutades first added red ochre, or made pottery of red clay.”
-Isidorus, Etymologiae, XX, iv, 3, speaks of pottery vases having been
-first invented at Samos and then adds: Postea inventum et rubricam addere
-et ex rubra creta fingere, “a later invention was to add red ochre and
-to make pottery of red clay.” Suidas in his lexicon, where he describes
-Cape Kolias as a place in Attica where pottery is made, says that the
-clay from that region is the best, and adds: ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῆς
-μίλτου, “so that it is also dyed with red ochre.”
-
-Archaeologists have assumed that this red ochre was mixed with the clay
-and that to it was due the deeper color of Athenian ware as compared, for
-instance, with the geometric. Thus in practically all our books on vases
-the preparation of the clay for the manufacture of Athenian vases is
-described somewhat as follows: “The clay having been thoroughly purified
-and washed, was then kneaded and brought to a consistency suitable for
-shaping it on the wheel. It was at this stage that other substances,
-chiefly a red earth (ochre = μίλτος), were worked in with the clay to
-deepen the color.” First of all, it should be noted that if ochre is to
-be added to the clay it must be done long before the kneading stage,
-otherwise the red ochre will of course not mix evenly. The best time
-would be when the clay is dry, so that a definite proportion could be
-weighed out. But that is too obvious to need discussion. The question is,
-Does the addition of red ochre materially change the color of the clay?
-It may be interesting in this connection to record my experience in the
-matter. About three years ago I was asked to speak at a convention of
-modern potters meeting at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, on the subject
-of Greek vases. I thought that these potters would probably be specially
-interested in the technical side of Greek ceramics, and with the courage
-of ignorance I described in detail our theories regarding the manufacture
-of Greek pottery. It was the questions which the potters asked me
-afterwards which convinced me that it was time I went to a pottery
-school. One of my statements which aroused considerable interest was this
-theory that red ochre was added as an ingredient to deepen the color of
-red clay. Several men came to me after the talk and said, “I don’t see
-why the Greeks did that; for by just slightly raising the temperature
-they could easily have deepened the color.” I had no answer then, but
-when I went to the pottery school I thought I should take nothing for
-granted, but convince myself by making my own experiments. So I made some
-tests, adding certain percentages of ochre to see how it would affect the
-color. Apparently the ochre had little effect, and the pieces with and
-without ochre were about equally pink when they came out of the kiln. I
-then burned some pieces without any ochre to a little higher temperature
-and the red was considerably deepened. I was quite convinced then that
-the ochre added as an ingredient to the clay would not have the desired
-result; besides, if we needed further proof we might remember that
-analyses made of Athenian clay have shown no trace of ochre.[43]
-
-What, then, do Pliny and Suidas mean when they speak of the addition of
-red ochre to Athenian pottery? A number of archaeologists have observed
-from time to time that Athenian vases, especially of the late red-figured
-period, show traces of a reddish pigment applied over the surface.
-Reichhold in his technical description of vases in Furtwängler und
-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, frequently refers to it as “rötliche
-Lasur.”[44] Pottier ascribed it to a sort of varnish or lustre applied
-over the surface of the decorated, fired vase which on decomposition
-precipitated into a red deposit.[45] Walters thought that red ochre
-was rubbed on certain parts of the vase which had remained too pale
-after baking.[46] A detailed examination of the vases in many European
-and American museums convinced me that the use of this red pigment was
-quite general throughout the red-figured period, and to a limited extent
-in the black-figured period. On a few vases it appears in excellent
-preservation.[47] The majority of red-figured vases of all periods[48]
-and a few of the black-figured vases[49] show traces of it. When it is
-not otherwise visible, it can often be detected in the slight depressions
-of the preliminary sketch, or under the handles, or on the under side of
-the foot. As the color comes off when rubbed with a damp cloth, it is not
-surprising that it is not better preserved, after the extensive cleaning
-that most museum specimens have undergone. But the many traces which are
-still preserved can only be satisfactorily explained by assuming that it
-was the general practice—at least in the red-figured period—to apply a
-red pigment over the whole surface of the vase.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze
-line (on arm) going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.236.2]
-
-In the light of this experience let us again examine what Pliny and
-Suidas say. Pliny’s statement is sufficiently vague to make any
-interpretation possible; but Suidas’ use of the word βάπτεσθαι, “to be
-dipped,” is illuminating. The clay could not have been “dipped” in a
-powdery or liquid state, the only way of having the ochre become an
-actual ingredient in the clay. The term βάπτεσθαι implies that the clay
-must have become a solid vase, in which case the ochre was applied only
-on its surface. Indeed Athenaeus (480 E) uses the term βάπτεσθαι to
-signify the “glazing” or “silvering” of earthen vessels. So that literary
-testimony seems to agree with the evidence of the vases themselves
-that the ochre was applied on the surface. At what stage, then, was
-this ochre added? Was it before or after the black glaze? Careful
-examination has shown that it was previous to the glazing. When the
-black glaze is chipped off it generally takes the surface too, so that
-instances of the red ochre showing underneath are not numerous; but
-there are nevertheless a number of undoubted examples.[50] An especially
-convincing instance is on an amphora in the Metropolitan Museum in which
-a diluted black glaze line goes clearly over traces of the red lift in a
-preliminary sketch line (fig. 56). Furthermore, in many cases the glaze
-on the background surfaces has disintegrated and shows the red ochre
-beneath.[51]
-
-Since the black glaze was probably applied to the leather-hard clay, the
-ochre wash must also have been added in that state. The leather-hard
-vase might have been dipped in an ochre solution or the ochre applied
-with a brush or rubbed into the surface as a powder. In order to make it
-adhere properly to the clay actual experiments have shown that by far the
-best results are obtained by giving the surface a good polish after the
-application of the ochre. The ochre is thereby actually incorporated with
-the clay and forms a good firm surface. If not so polished, it is powdery
-after firing and comes off easily.
-
-Experiments further showed that (1) red ochre applied in this manner on
-the red clay in leather-hard condition produced an effect identical with
-the red “wash” observable on the Athenian vases; (2) preliminary sketch
-lines engraved lightly with a blunt tool did not remove the ochre; (3)
-the ochre in no way interfered with the adhesion of the black glaze over
-it; (4) the ochre came off only a little at a time even when rubbed hard
-while wet. It is therefore only during the long processes of wear and
-time that the red ochre application has worn off. But even when it has
-entirely disappeared, it has stained the clay a deeper color—namely,
-the orangey hues which we see now; for the actual color of the clay is
-lighter and pinker, as any fracture will show.[52]
-
-Originally, however, we learn from our investigation, the red-figured
-Athenian vases had an even deeper and richer tint than they have
-now—approaching more nearly the color of copper. The general effect,
-therefore, must have been considerably more vivid than it is today, and
-to some this thought may not at first appeal. But we should remember that
-we are discovering also in other fields that the Greeks loved bright,
-intense color, not the faded tints that so many of their works present
-today.
-
-
-WERE ATHENIAN VASES MADE FOR EVERY-DAY USE?
-
-The theory has often been advanced that the painted black-figured and
-red-figured vases were made for decoration and for votive and funeral
-purposes, but not for actual use. Percy Gardner in his Grammar of Greek
-Art (p. 160) holds this view and gives as his reason that the painted
-vases were too fragile to be easily handled and too porous to contain
-liquid. Reichhold in Furtwängler und Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei,
-Text, I, p. 82, and Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister, p. 10, is of the
-same opinion, and bases his assumption on the fact that a number of the
-vases show ancient rivet marks and could not therefore have served any
-practical purpose in such a condition; also that no ancient vases show
-signs of wear, which would have been unavoidable if they had been in
-daily use. Does our investigation of the technique of Athenian vases help
-to settle this question? Let us look first at the case in its broader
-aspects.
-
-Nobody can work long with Greek vases or other forms of Greek industrial
-art without being impressed with the wonderful combination of beauty and
-practical utility which these objects show. The Greek vases are not only
-finely proportioned, but each one is admirably adapted to its purpose.
-We need only try pouring from an oinochoë to see how easily the liquid
-flows without any danger of spilling; or from a lekythos to see how the
-oil trickles through the narrow neck, drop by drop, or in a very thin
-stream, just right for cooking or the making of salad dressing. We need
-only drink from a kylix to realize how, contrary to expectations, it is
-an easy and delightful process—the little curve of the rim preventing the
-liquid from spilling down one’s cheeks.[53] We need only closely observe
-the handles of Greek vases to see how their positions, their curves, and
-above all their extraordinary solidity render them eminently practical.
-Moreover, the study of a hundred little details, the forms of the knobs
-on pyxides, the projections for holding the lids in place, the outward
-or inward curves of the lips, the substantial feet, all combine to form
-overpowering evidence that these vases were designed for actual use. It
-is only in isolated instances, such as the loutrophoroi which have no
-bottoms or the white lekythoi which have no connection between the neck
-and body, that this rule does not hold good. Such vases, however, belong
-to clearly defined classes evidently made as votive offerings or as tomb
-furniture.
-
-That the bulk of vases were made for votive purposes, there is no real
-evidence. Among the many sixth- and fifth-century inscriptions recording
-such offerings there are few relating to pottery vases. Nor is it
-conceivable that these vases were purely ornamental. We know that private
-houses in Athens were at that period excessively simple, consisting
-mostly of a courtyard and a few rooms opening on it, so that it is not
-likely that people surrounded themselves with a lot of useless ornaments;
-nor can we believe that in a period which, at least in the sixth century,
-was still one of strenuous endeavor, these vases were exported to all
-parts of the world merely as decorative bric-à-brac. Everything we know
-of Greek life at that time points against such an assumption. Moreover,
-if the Greeks had such decorations in their homes we should expect to
-see, depicted in the vase paintings, cabinets or shelves with vases
-displayed on them; instead, when vases are shown, they are invariably
-in actual use, or hanging on a nail on the wall, ready for immediate
-service.[54]
-
-There is another consideration. Even if, from our modern point of view,
-we may hesitate to believe that a beautiful cup of Euphronios was used
-merely as a drinking vessel, where are we to draw the line? Any one who
-has worked in a museum or has excavated on fifth-century sites knows
-that besides the selected specimens exhibited in museum cases there are
-a large number of inferior examples, hastily decorated, which could
-hardly have been displayed as ornaments, but which are open to the same
-objections raised against the vases of better workmanship.
-
-And now let us examine these objections. First, the vases are supposed
-to be too porous to contain liquid. The fineness of the clay, the polish
-which was imparted to it, and perhaps the application of the ochre
-tended to reduce this porosity somewhat. In the course of time the
-deposit left by wine and oil would still further close the pores. In any
-case, experiments show that Athenian vases do hold liquids without any
-difficulty. The unglazed portions become damp, and a damp mark is left
-on the table if the foot is not glazed; but in the days before highly
-polished furniture there was no strong objection to that, and there was
-on the other hand a very real advantage. For it allows a certain amount
-of evaporation which would tend to cool the liquid—a very desirable thing
-in a warm climate without a regulated ice supply. Any one who has tried
-the experiment of keeping water in an unglazed jar in a warm room has
-found that the evaporation keeps it delightfully cool. In southern Europe
-today liquids are kept in that manner during the summer. We must also
-remember that a large number of the early wares from the Bronze Age down,
-as well as the commoner wares at all times, are either wholly unglazed
-or have unglazed portions. And surely nobody wants to contend that these
-vases were not manufactured for use.
-
-The objection that Athenian pottery is fragile is easily disposed of.
-Actual handling of the vases will show that they are anything but
-fragile, in fact that they are remarkably strong. All those portions
-which would get special wear, such as handles and rims, are almost always
-stoutly made, more so than much of the china and earthenware and glass
-we use today. Occasionally, of course, we get a very thin and delicate
-example; and that would have to be handled with special care.
-
-Then, as regards the question of wear. Terracotta is, as a matter of
-fact, one of the most indestructible materials we have, and especially so
-when glazed. Glazed earthenware, consequently, even though in constant
-use shows little trace of wear. What little we should expect, a close
-inspection of Athenian vases will reveal. The black glaze, even when
-perfectly preserved on the exterior, is much worn on the interior of
-stamnoi or kraters (cf. fig. 57), where the liquid came in constant
-contact with the glaze, and the unglazed interiors of amphorai and
-hydriai are certainly not perfectly fresh and unused looking. It is
-also noteworthy that finely and poorly decorated vases are in the same
-condition in this respect. A comparison with the Corean pottery of the
-Korai period, 935-1392 A.D.,[55] which is known to have been made to
-serve merely as tomb furniture, is helpful. The fresh and clean insides
-of these vases offer a very different appearance from that of the
-discolored interiors of Greek amphorai and hydriai—a clear proof that the
-Athenian ware did not serve the same unutilitarian purpose as the Corean.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.74]
-
-Lastly, regarding the argument about riveted vases, it is surely natural
-now and then, instead of throwing away a broken pot, to have it put
-together and make the best of it in its mended state. We do the same
-thing nowadays. At all events, the vase could still have been used to
-contain dry materials. Such Athenian vases with ancient rivet marks are
-in any case infrequent, and do not compare in number with the broken
-vases which have not been mended.
-
-Such considerations should once for all explode the theory that Athenian
-vases were not actually used; so that we can think of them, in the way
-that appeals to our imagination, as serving in the daily life of the
-Athenians and as adding to the enjoyment of that life, both by their
-beauty and by their usefulness.
-
-
-
-
-II. REPRESENTATIONS OF ANCIENT POTTERS
-
-
-An important source of knowledge for the technique of Greek vases is
-supplied by the representations of ancient potters at work and by
-potter’s implements which have survived. It may be interesting to review
-these and see what new interpretations experience at a modern pottery
-school will suggest.
-
-
-FASHIONING THE VASES
-
-    _1. Black-figured hydria in Munich._
-
-    Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, Text, p.
-    159.
-
-    Jahn, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in der Pinakothek zu
-    München, No. 731.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 58. Athenian pottery establishment
-
-Furtwängler u. Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, I, Text, p. 159]
-
-An Athenian pottery establishment. To the left a man sits on a stool and
-is holding with both hands an amphora on his lap; a boy (only the head
-and one hand are preserved) is standing before him, placing one hand
-on the body of the vase; the latter is painted black, that is, it has
-already been glazed. The man has the air of inspecting it, while the boy
-is apparently helping him hold it (since it is still in leather-hard
-condition, it requires careful handling). The next group represents a man
-throwing a tall vase on a wheel; a boy is sitting before him on a low
-stool, turning the wheel with both hands at whatever speed is required.
-The vase is so tall that the entire forearm of the potter is inserted;
-while his other hand (now missing) was doubtless placed on the outside
-of the vase, so that by the pressure of the two hands the pot might
-acquire the necessary form and thickness. The vase is painted white to
-show that it is as yet unglazed. A pair of calipers is hanging on the
-wall ready for use, to enable the potter to check the heights and widths
-of his products. To the right a youth is carefully carrying away a vase
-that has just been thrown, to dry. A similar vase is already standing on
-the other side of a column, drying in the open air or in a court. Both
-vases are painted white to indicate their unglazed condition. Next we
-see an old man walking leisurely with a stick. His dignified air is in
-strong contrast to the busy absorption of the workmen. He is evidently
-the overseer or proprietor of the pottery. To his right a tall youth is
-carrying a heavy weight on his back, apparently a sack of charcoal. He is
-bringing it to the kiln, which is being stoked by the fireman. The kiln
-has a satyr head at the top to avert the evil eye and protect the pottery
-from all danger during the firing.[56]
-
-    _2. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._
-
-    Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pls. 8, 17.
-
-    Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No.
-    869.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 59. Potter throwing
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, No. 17]
-
-A potter throwing a vase on a wheel, with both his hands placed on the
-outer surface; only the two hands of the potter and the upper part of the
-wheel with the vase are preserved.
-
-    _3. Red-figured fragment from the Akropolis in Athens._
-
-    Athenische Mittheilungen, XIV, 1889, p. 157.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 60. Potter throwing
-
-_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1889, p. 157]
-
-A potter is sitting on a stool and throwing a vase on a wheel which is
-being propelled by a boy; another man sits behind him with a krater on
-his lap.
-
-    _4. Interior of a black-figured kylix in the British Museum._
-
-    British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
-    1920, p. 182, fig. 218.
-
-    Walters, Catalogue of the Greek and Etruscan Vases, II, B.432.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 61. Potter attaching handles
-
-British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 182,
-fig. 218]
-
-A potter is sitting in front of his wheel on which a kylix is standing.
-He is apparently engaged in attaching the handles. On a shelf above are
-piled some more kylikes and a jug. The whole is very roughly painted.
-
-    _5. Corinthian black-figured pinax in the Museum of the Louvre._
-
-    Gazette archéologique, VI, 1880, p. 106, 3a.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 62. Potter incising lines (?)
-
-_Gazette archéologique_, 1880, p. 106 (3a)]
-
-A potter is sitting before his wheel propelling it with one hand. He is
-working on what appears to be a one-handled jug. He is not “throwing”
-or “turning” it, since it already has its handle attached. Perhaps he
-is incising horizontal lines on it, for which process he could easily
-propel his own wheel. On the wall hang two other jugs (with similar
-incised lines), and some plates (?) are stacked on the floor.
-
-    _6. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._
-
-    Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 14b.
-
-    Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No.
-    885.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 63. Potter joining sections (?)
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, No. 14b]
-
-A man is sitting in front of a tall globular vase on a high foot. He is
-not throwing it, for there is no indication of a wheel. Perhaps he is
-joining the sections of a tall vase, some of which are already in place,
-while one part lies on the floor waiting to be attached. But the whole
-scene is so roughly painted that it is impossible even to know definitely
-that a potter is represented.
-
-    _7. Interior of a red-figured kylix, Berlin Museum No. 2542._
-
-    Rayet et Collignon, Histoire de la céramique grecque, p. XVII,
-    fig. 7.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 64. Boy finishing vase
-
-Rayet et Collignon, _Histoire de la Céramique grecque_ p. XVII, fig. 7]
-
-A boy is sitting with a cup (kotyle) in one hand and an implement in the
-other, evidently engaged in a finishing process. Perhaps he is removing
-the surplus clay after the handles have been attached; for the vase is as
-yet unglazed and is left in the red color of the clay, in contrast to the
-black kotyle and oinochoë on the stand close by.
-
-    _8. Terracotta statuette of a potter in the British Museum._
-
-    British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
-    1920, p. 181, fig. 216.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 65. Potter building a vase
-
-British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 181,
-fig. 216]
-
-A man is represented in a crouching attitude apparently engaged in
-building a pot.
-
-
-DECORATING THE VASES
-
-    _1. Red-figured hydria in Ruvo._
-
-    Annali dell’Instituto, 1876, pl. DE.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work
-
-_Annali dell’Instituto_, 1876, pl. DE]
-
-Athena and two Victories crowning potters at work. To the left is a
-potter sitting on a low stool and engaged in decorating a volute krater;
-he is holding a brush in his closed fist in Japanese fashion, and is
-looking in surprise at the Nike who is crowning him; by his side are two
-paint pots. In front of him another workman, comfortably seated on a
-chair, is busily painting a kantharos which he holds tipped on his lap.
-He also holds the brush in his fist downwards. Another kantharos and an
-oinochoë stand on the floor, awaiting their turn to be decorated; on a
-low stand close by are two paint pots, one with its lid tipped against
-the side. The artist is completely absorbed in his work and has not
-yet discovered Athena, the patron of arts and crafts, approaching him
-with a wreath. Behind Athena a third workman is seated on a low stool,
-decorating a bell krater with a palmette design. He tips up the vase
-with one hand, holds the brush firmly in his fist, and has his paint
-pot within easy reach on the floor. A Nike is about to crown him with
-a wreath; but he, too, is entirely engrossed in his work and quite
-unconscious of the honor to be conferred on him. Completing the scene
-on the right is a girl on a low platform painting the handle of a large
-volute krater. The figure is of special interest today, for it shows that
-there were women potters then as now. Above her on the wall are suspended
-a kantharos and a lekythos. The whole scene is of great importance as the
-most representative we possess of ancient vase painters at work.
-
-    _2. Red-figured kylix in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston._
-
-    Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, pl. 4.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 67. Youth decorating kylix
-
-Hartwig, _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, 1899, pl. IV]
-
-A youth is sitting on a stool, holding a kylix by the foot and decorating
-the outside of it with what looks like a brush with long bristles,
-though it has also been identified as a feather (by Hartwig). In the hand
-that grasps the kylix is a pointed instrument which has been identified
-by Hartwig as the implement with which the preliminary sketch was drawn.
-The attitude of the painter suggests the quiet absorption required by a
-delicate task. Behind the youth is his knotted staff, and on the wall
-hang his oil flask and strigil.
-
-    _3. Fragment of a red-figured kylix, found on the Akropolis,
-    Athens._
-
-    Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, p. 154, fig. 2.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 68. Potter glazing kylix
-
-Hartwig, _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, 1899, pl. 154, fig. 2]
-
-A potter glazing the inside of a kylix as it rotates on the wheel. A
-woman appears to be crowning him with a wreath.
-
-    _4. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._
-
-    Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18.
-
-    Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No.
-    868.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 69. Potter painting bands on a krater
-
-Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18]
-
-A potter is sitting on a stool before his wheel, apparently in the act
-of painting broad black bands on a column krater while the vase is
-revolving.
-
-    _5. Red-figured bell-krater in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford._
-
-    Beazley, Journal of Hellenic Studies, XXVIII, 1908, pl. XXXII,
-    A.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 70. Three youths, one painting a krater
-
-Beazley, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, XXVIII (1908), pl. XXXII, A.]
-
-To the left a youth is sitting on a stool painting the outside of a
-bell krater. He is steadying the vase with his left arm placed inside
-the krater, while he lets the rim rest on his lap. By his side is a low
-stand with a skyphos evidently containing the paint. A second workman
-is carrying off another krater to the right. He may be going to fetch
-some water or wine in it, for it is evidently a completed, fired vase,
-otherwise he would not be carrying it by the handles. A third workman
-is moving in the same direction holding up a skyphos, perhaps to get
-more paint or some water or wine to drink. A krater standing on the
-ground completes the scene. On the wall hang some implements of the
-potter’s trade, identified by Beazley from the original as (1) a kylix
-for drinking, (2) a mortar for grinding the ingredients of the glaze,
-(3) a brush case, (4) a bowl to contain liquid glaze, (5) a strainer for
-sieving the glaze.
-
-    _6. Bœotian black-figured skyphos in the Polytechnion in
-    Athens._
-
-    Found in Lokris.
-
-    Blümner, _Athenische Mittheilungen_, XIV, 1889, p. 151.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 71. Pottery establishment
-
-Blümner, _Athenische Mittheilungen_, XIV, 1889, p. 151]
-
-The master of the pottery is sitting with a kylix in one hand, while
-with the other he is trying to beat a slave who is running off with
-three skyphoi. Three other skyphoi are on the ground, while a kantharos
-and a skyphos are near by on a shelf. Another workman is inspecting a
-skyphos he has just glazed; a paint pot and brush are on a low stand by
-his side. He takes no notice of a scene which is taking place close by,
-a man beating a slave suspended from the ceiling. The workmanship is
-very crude, and if it is a product of the pottery establishment which it
-depicts, it is a fair sample of the work we might expect from a place run
-on such methods!
-
-
-FIRING THE VASES
-
-    _1-10 Votive tablets or pinakes found at Penteskuphia near
-    Corinth, dating 650-550 B.C. (figs. 72-80). Nos. 73-78, 80 are
-    in the Berlin Museum; Nos. 72, 79 in the Museum of the Louvre._
-
-    Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, Nos. 1, 4, 12, 15, 19b,
-    21, 22, 26 (Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu
-    Berlin, I, Nos. 608, 802, 616, 893, 909, 827, 611). Gazette
-    archéologique, VI, 1880, p. 105 (1), p. 106 (1).
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 72-73. Potters stoking the fire
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, 26.
-
-_Gazette archéologique_, VI, p. 105.]
-
-
-_Representations of potter’s kilns._
-
-The kilns are domed, and have three openings, one at the bottom for the
-fuel, one on the side for the insertion of the ware and to act as a
-spy-hole, and one at the top to let out the smoke and for the regulation
-of the draught. On figs. 72-79, the firemen are busy stoking the fire,
-and climbing to the top of the kiln to manipulate the draught-hole with
-a hooked implement; for the flames are seen emerging at the top, which
-means that heat is being wasted. Fig. 80 shows the inside of a kiln, in
-horizontal section, with two openings for the fire, each opening having
-two channels into the kiln. The vases should of course stand upright,
-but the painter naturally found it difficult to depict them in the right
-perspective looking at them from the top.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 74-79. Potters regulating draught
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, Nos. 4, 12, 1, 21, 22; _Gazette
-archéologique_, VI, p. 106.]
-
-Furtwängler (Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, p. 70, note)
-was inclined to think that these ovens are not pottery kilns, but
-furnaces for metal smelting. His objections, however, do not hold. The
-ovens are not too large for pottery, and the climbing to the top for
-the regulation of the draught is a well-known proceeding. Moreover,
-the scene (fig. 80) showing the stacked vases, the little pots painted
-on figs. 75 and 78 as if to indicate the purpose of the ovens, and
-the representations of potters at work on other tablets, make the
-interpretation as pottery kilns the most likely. These pictures are of
-special importance since no actual Greek kilns have yet been discovered,
-though several Etruscan and numerous Roman ones have come to light (cf.
-Montelius, Civilisation primitive, pl. 107, 11, and Blümner, op. cit.,
-II, pp. 23 ff.).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. VIII, No. 19b]
-
-
-MISCELLANEOUS SCENES
-
-    _1. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._
-
-    Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, II, title vignette.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks
-
-Millin, _Peintures de vases_, II, title vignette]
-
-A youth is sitting in front of an oven removing with two sticks a
-two-handled vase which has been placed there for drying. He is using
-the sticks instead of his fingers because the pot is too hot to touch;
-not in order to avoid injuring the fresh glaze on the vase, as has been
-suggested (cf. Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie II, 1895, p. 52), for
-the sticks would mark the glaze as much as the fingers would. Modern
-potters often use sticks for removing hot ware from the kilns (cf. p. 36).
-
-    _2. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._
-
-    Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, I, vignette.
-
-    Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie, II, p. 52, fig. 13.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 82. Youth working on vases (?)
-
-Millin, _Peintures de vases_, I, vignette]
-
-A youth is sitting on a low tripod in front of an oven. He holds a jug by
-the handle, and seems to be working on it with an instrument. It is not
-clear what he is doing; the way he holds the vase by one handle suggests
-that the vase has been fired. On the oven are a kylix and an oinochoë,
-perhaps placed there for drying.
-
-    _3. Archaic Greek stele in the Akropolis Museum, Athens._
-
-    Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Pheidias_, p. 367, fig. 29.
-
-    Dickins, Catalogue of the Akropolis Museum at Athens, p. 272,
-    No. 1332.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 83. Master potter (?)
-
-Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Phidias_, p. 367, fig. 29]
-
-A bearded man is represented seated, holding in his left hand two
-kylikes, one by the handle, the other by the foot. A large part of the
-stele is missing. The figure has been interpreted, with some probability,
-as a “master potter.”
-
-    _4. Greek stele in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York._
-
-    Richter, Handbook of the Classical Collection, p. 209, fig. 125.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 84. Woman potter (?)
-
-Met. Mus. Acc. No. 08.258.42]
-
-A woman is represented seated with a pyxis on her lap and a lekythos in
-one hand. On the analogy of the Akropolis stele, it is possible that here
-too we have a votive offering of a potter.
-
-    _5. Interior of a kylix in the Johns Hopkins University,
-    Baltimore._
-
-    Hartwig, Die griechischen Meisterschalen, pl. XVII, I, and
-    title vignette.
-
-    Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Red-Figured Vases, II, p. 355.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 85. Client in potter’s shop
-
-Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen_, title vignette]
-
-A client in a potter’s shop is examining the stacked ware, and holds his
-purse ready to pay for what he will select.
-
-    _6. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._
-
-    Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 3a.
-
-    Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No.
-    831b.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 86. Ship with cargo of pottery
-
-_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, 3a]
-
-Sailing-ship with a sheet wound round the mast, and a row of jugs painted
-in the field above. The latter apparently indicate the cargo of the ship,
-and the tablet is probably an offering of a merchant to the sea-god
-Poseidon for the safe conduct of his precious consignment to foreign
-lands.
-
-This is the only picture we have of the transport of Greek vases, which
-we know played so significant a part in Greek ceramic industry. Even in
-the seventh century B.C., when most important localities produced their
-own wares, such shipments must have been frequent, since, for instance,
-large numbers of Corinthian vases have been unearthed in Etruria, and
-Laconian vases are found scattered far and wide. In the sixth and fifth
-centuries B.C., when Athens supplied a large part of the Greek world
-with her pottery, the trade must have been an exceedingly active one; so
-that we must imagine ship after ship laden with pottery sailing from the
-Piraeus for distant lands.
-
-
-REPRESENTATIONS WRONGLY INTERPRETED AS POTTERY SCENES
-
-From time to time various representations have been interpreted as
-pottery scenes which probably have no such significance. The following
-are the two most important.
-
-    _1. Interior of a kylix in the Metropolitan Museum of Art._
-
-A satyr is stoking the fire of an oven on which is a skyphos. This scene
-is figured in many of the books on vases (cf. e.g. Walters, History of
-Ancient Pottery, I, p. 216, fig. 68) and interpreted as a satyr firing
-pottery; probably he is simply cooking his dinner.
-
-    _2. Interior of a kylix._
-
-    Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder, pls. CLXXX-CLXXXI.
-
-Youth holding the rim of a large krater with both hands. He is sometimes
-interpreted as a potter working on a vase; but there is no clear
-connection with pottery work.
-
-
-POTTER’S IMPLEMENTS
-
-Unfortunately very few potter’s implements of classical Greek times have
-survived. We have no Athenian wheel or kiln or turning tools. And even
-from other periods the list of such utensils is a slim one. But what has
-survived here and there from other periods is in line with the general
-trend of the evidence—that the techniques in ancient times were very
-similar to what they are today. Perhaps the most interesting pieces are
-the terracotta disks found at Gournia, Arezzo, and elsewhere,[57] which
-are wheel-heads[58] on which the pottery was thrown and turned. On the
-under side of some of these is a hole for insertion in the pivot (fig.
-87).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 87. Wheel-head
-
-British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 181,
-fig. 217]
-
-The potter’s tools found at Arezzo (fig. 88)[59] are not unlike our
-modern modeling tools and were doubtless used for various finishing
-processes.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 88. Tools found at Arezzo
-
-Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_,
-p. 1122, fig. 3036]
-
-In the British Museum (Nos. 74.7-10,302) are terracotta stilts used for
-supporting vases in the kilns, very like the stilts used by potters
-today. It is unlikely that they were used by the Athenian potters, since
-the Greek black glaze is so thin it would not be apt to run, but for the
-Roman ware with metallic glaze they were essential, and the marks they
-left are visible on the feet of the vases.[60] On one of the British
-Museum stilts (fig. 89) are remains of a greenish glaze from such a vase.
-No moulds for the Athenian plastic ware have to my knowledge been found.
-But moulds for the later wares, such as the Arretine, are of course
-plentiful. They are invariably made of burnt clay. The kilns which have
-survived all date from Roman times (cf. Blümner, op. cit., II, pp. 23
-ff.).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 89. Stilt]
-
-
-
-
-III. REFERENCES TO THE POTTERY CRAFT IN ANCIENT LITERATURE
-
-
-The information derived from ancient literature on the subject of the
-technique of Athenian vases is decidedly meagre; and naturally so. The
-only people who could have given us valuable data regarding technical
-questions were the potters themselves, and they were not writers.
-Outsiders knew as little of the technique of the craft as they do today.
-So we obtain from them only general remarks; and these on the whole bear
-out the points we have already made. Occasionally, however, they throw
-fresh light on a question, or give us information on some point on which
-the vases themselves cannot speak, such as the status of the ancient
-potters, the value placed on the vases, etc. It is important, therefore,
-to examine the chief references in Greek and Roman literature on this
-subject.
-
-
-PREPARATION OF THE CLAY
-
-
-_Geoponica_, II, 49.
-
-    3. It is most necessary for every reason to have potters (on
-    a farm), since we are convinced that it is possible to find
-    potter’s clay on any land; for either on the surface, or deep
-    down, or in out-of-the-way places on the land you will find
-    earth suitable for making pottery.
-
-    3. Ἀναγκαιότατον δὲ καὶ κεραμέας ἔχειν πάντων ἕνεκα,
-    πεπεισμένον ὅτι ἐν πάσῃ τῇ γῇ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν κεραμικὴν γῆν, ἢ γὰρ
-    ἐπιπολάσιον, ἢ ἐν βάθει, ἢ ἐν ἀποκεκρυμμένοις μέρεσι καὶ τόποις
-    τοῦ χωρίου ἐπιτηδείαν γῆν πρὸς κατασκευὴν κεράμων εὑρήσεις.
-
-The abundance of clay on Greek soil must have helped the manufacture of
-the many local varieties before Athens obtained the monopoly in the sixth
-century B.C.
-
-
-_Geoponica_, VI, 3.
-
-_On making pithoi_
-
-    1. Not all earth is suitable for pottery, but with regard to
-    potter’s clay, some prefer the yellowish red, some the white,
-    and others mix the two. 2. Some in judging of a well-made
-    pithos are satisfied if, when struck, it gives forth a sharp,
-    clear sound. 3. That, however, is not enough, but the person
-    in charge ought to be present while the work is going on, and
-    see to it that the clay has been well worked, and not let it be
-    put on the wheel before the clay shows what sort of pot it will
-    make when fired.
-
-περὶ κατασκευῆς πίθων
-
-    1. Γῆ οὐ πᾶσα ἐπιτήδειος πρὸς κεραμείαν, ἀλλὰ τῆς κεραμίτιδος
-    γῆς οἱ μὲν προκρίνουσι τὴν πυρρὰν τὸ χρῶμα, οἱ δὲ τὴν λευκήν,
-    οἱ δὲ ἀμφοτέρας συμμιγνύουσι. 2. Τινὲς μὲν οὖν ἀρκοῦνται ἐν
-    τῇ δοκιμασίᾳ τοῦ καλῶς κεκεραμευμένου πίθου, τῷ κρουσθέντα
-    αὐτὸν ἀποδοῦναι ἦχόν τινα ὀξὺν καὶ πορόν. 3. Οὐκ ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο
-    αὔταρκες, ἀλλὰ χρῆ τὸν κατασκευάζοντα παρεῖναι τῇ κεραμείᾳ, καὶ
-    ὅπως ὁ πηλὸς καλῶς εἰργασμένος εἴη προνοῆσαι, καὶ μὴ πρὶν ἐᾶσαι
-    ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάσαι, πρὶν τὸν πηλὸν διαδεῖξαι ὁποῖος
-    ἔσται ὁ πίθος ὀπτηθείς.
-
-Good potters were evidently well aware, then as now, of the importance
-of the right composition and consistency of their clay. It is also
-interesting to note that potters in modern Athens still regularly use a
-mixture of red and white clay (cf. p. 40, note 2).
-
-
-_Sophokles_, _Fragments_, 438.
-
-    First begin to work the clay with your hands.
-
-    Καὶ πρῶτον ἄρχου πηλὸν ὀργάξειν χερσῖν.
-
-
-_Hesychius_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ ὀργάσαι.
-
-    ὀργάσαι: to make ready; or as is said, to knead the clay, which
-    is to prepare it, to mix it, to wet it, to work it into a
-    plastic mass.
-
-    ὀργάσαι· ἑτοιμάσαι, καὶ τὸν πηλὸν ὀργάσαι φασίν, ὅ ἐστιν
-    ἑτοίμασαι, φυρᾶσαι, βρέξαι, ἀνάδευσαι.
-
-Ὀργάσαι in other words was the Greek expression for wedging the clay and
-getting it ready for throwing.
-
-
-FASHIONING THE VASES
-
-
-(1) WHEELWORK
-
-
-_Diodorus Siculus_, IV, 76.
-
-    Talos, the son of Daedalus’ sister, was brought up as a child
-    by Daedalus, and being cleverer than his teacher, he invented
-    the potter’s wheel.
-
-    Τῆς ἀδελφῆς τῆς Δαιδάλου γενόμενος υἱὸς Τάλως ἐπαιδεύετο παρὰ
-    Δαιδάλῳ παῖς ὢν τὴν ἡλικίαν, εὐφυέστερος δ’ ὢν τοῦ διδασκάλου
-    τὸν κεραμευτικὸν τροχὸν εὗρε.
-
-
-_Strabo_, _Geography_, VII, p. 303.
-
-    Ephoros says that Anacharsis’ inventions were the bellows, the
-    double-fluked anchor, and the potter’s wheel. I repeat this
-    statement, although I am well aware that this writer is not
-    very accurate, and especially in the account of Anacharsis,
-    for how could the potter’s wheel be an invention of his, while
-    Homer[61] who was of an earlier time knew of it?
-
-    Ὁ Ἔφορος ... εὑρήματά τε αὐτοῦ λέγει τά τε ζώπυρα καὶ τὴν
-    ἀμφίβολον ἄγκυραν καὶ τὸν κεραμικὸν τροχόν. ταῦτα δὲ λέγω σαφῶς
-    μὲν εἰδὼς ὅτι καὶ οὗτος αὐτὸς οὐ τἀληθέστατα λέγει περὶ πάντων,
-    καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἀναχάρσιδος. πῶς γὰρ ὁ τροχὸς εὕρημα αὐτοῦ,
-    ὃν οἶδεν Ὅμηρος πρεσβύτερος ὤν;
-
-
-_Pliny_, _Natural History_, VII, 198.
-
-    Coroebus the Athenian invented earthen pots, and among the
-    inventors, the Scythian Anacharsis, or as others say, Hyperbius
-    the Corinthian, discovered the potter’s wheel.
-
-    ... figlinas (invenit) Coroebus Atheniensis, in iis orbem
-    Anacharsis Scythes, ut alii, Hyperbius Corinthus.
-
-
-_Critias_, _Elegies_, I, 12-14 (Bergk).
-
-    The child of the wheel and the earth and the kiln, the famous
-    pottery, useful house servant, that city invented which set up
-    the glorious trophy at Marathon.
-
-    Τὸν δὲ τροχοῦ γαίης τε καμίνου τ’ ἔκγονον εὗρεν,
-    κλεινότατον κέραμον, χρήσιμον οἰκονόμον,
-    ἡ τὸ καλὸν Μαραθῶνι καταστήσασα τρόπαιον.
-
-It is natural that the ancients should have attributed the great
-invention of the potter’s wheel to various individuals or cities, but
-they themselves realized the anomaly of ascribing it to a comparatively
-recent period, when it was known to Homer (see below). Actual remains of
-wheel-thrown vases show that the wheel was known in Crete and Greece in
-the Early Minoan and Early Helladic III periods (before 2200 B.C.) and in
-Egypt in the third and fourth dynasties[62] (about 3000 B.C.).
-
-
-_Homer_, _Iliad_, XVIII, 599-601.
-
-    And now they would run round with deft feet exceeding lightly,
-    as when a potter sitting by his wheel that fitteth between his
-    hands maketh trial of it whether it run. (Lang, Leaf and Myers.)
-
-    Οἱ δ’ ὁτὲ μὲν θρέξασκον ἐπισταμένουσι πόδεσσιν,
-    ῥεῖα μαλ’, ὡς ὅτε τις τροχὸν ἄρμενον ἐν παλάμῃσιν.
-    ἑζόμενος κεραμεὺς πειρήσεται, αἵ κε θέῃσιν.
-
-
-_Plutarch_, _De genio Socratis_, p. 588f.
-
-    One ought not to be surprised at seeing the movement of large
-    merchant-vessels controlled by small helms, nor the whirling of
-    the potter’s wheel moving regularly at the mere touch of the
-    tips of his fingers.
-
-    Οὐ δεῖ δὲ θαυμάζειν ὁρῶντας τοῦτο μὲν ὑπὸ μικροῖς οἴαξι μεγάλων
-    περιαγωγὰς ὀλκάδων, τοῦτο δὲ τροχῶν κεραμεικῶν δίνησιν ἄκρας
-    παραψαύσει χειρὸς ὁμαλῶς περιφερομένων.
-
-
-_Persius_, _Satires_, III, 23-24.
-
-    [Advice to an idle young man of good position.]
-
-    You are wet, soft clay; at this very moment you should be
-    hastening to shape yourself on the swift wheel.
-
-    udum et molle lutum es, nunc nunc properandus et acri fingendus
-    sine fine rota.
-
-
-_Hippokrates_, Περὶ Διαίτης, I, _Littré_, VI, p. 494, §22.
-
-    Potters turn the wheel which moves neither backward nor forward
-    and at the same time imitates the rotation of the universe, and
-    on this same wheel as it whirls they make things of all kinds,
-    no one of them like another, from the same materials with the
-    same tools.
-
-    Κεραμέες τροχὸν δινέουσι, καὶ οὔτε ὀπίσω οὔτε πρώσω προχωρέει
-    καὶ ἀμφοτέρωσε ἅμα τοῦ ὅλου μιμητὴς τῆς περιφορῆς· ἐν δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ
-    ἐργάζονται περιφερομένῳ παντοδαπά, οὐδὲν ὅμοιον τὸ ἕτερον τῷ
-    ἑτέρῳ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ὀργάνουσιν.
-
-The fascination of a pot shaped on a rapidly turning wheel appealed to
-the ancients as it does to us; and the parallelism between a pot in
-the making and man shaped by life is too obvious to have escaped them.
-Hippokrates’ remark that of the vases produced on the wheel no two are
-alike is characteristic of the Greek love of variety.
-
-
-_Ecclesiasticus_, 38, 32.
-
-    So does the potter sitting at his work and turning his wheel
-    round with his feet, who is always painstaking with his task;
-    and all his work is done by number. He moulds the clay with
-    his arm, and his feet. [Literal translation of the Greek text
-    written by a Hebrew and evidently colored by his own idiom.]
-
-    Οὕτω κεραμεὺς καθήμενος ἐν ἔργῳ αὐτοῦ, καὶ συστρέφων ἐν ποσὶν
-    αὐτοῦ τροχόν, ὃς ἐν μερίμνῃ κεῖται διὰ παντὸς ἐπὶ τὸ ἔργον
-    αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐναρίθμιος πᾶσα ἡ ἐργασία αὐτοῦ.
-
-    Ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ τυπώσει πηλόν, καὶ πρὸ ποδῶν κάμψει ἰσχὺν
-    αὐτοῦ.
-
-This is the only place in ancient literature in which the action of
-the foot in wheelwork is referred to. In the second century B.C.,
-therefore, we might assume the knowledge of the kick-wheel, though it
-may well have been in use long before then, since it is a simple and
-obvious device. Where labor, however, was cheap and plentiful, as in
-fifth-century Athens, a slave boy turning the wheel for the potter, whose
-whole strength and attention could then be expended on his work, would
-be preferable; and this is the manner in which wheelwork is depicted in
-Athenian vase paintings (cf. pp. 64 ff).
-
-
-_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 480 c.
-
-    These kylikes are clay drinking-cups, and are so called from
-    being turned on the wheel.
-
-    Ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ κεράμεα ποτήρια καὶ λέγεται ἀπὸ τοῦ κυλίεσθαι τῷ
-    τροχῷ.
-
-The kylix is, of course, the wheel-made vase par excellence. Nothing so
-light and graceful or with such a fine flow of line could be produced by
-handwork.
-
-
-_Plato_, _Gorgias_, p. 514 e.
-
-    Is not this, as they say, to learn the potter’s craft by
-    undertaking a pithos, ... and does not this seem to you a
-    foolish thing to do?
-
-    Τὸ λεγόμενον δὴ τοῦτο ἐν τῷ πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν ἐπιχειρεῖν
-    μανθάνειν ... οὐκ ἀνοητόν σοι δοκεῖ ἂν εἶναι οὕτω πράττειν;
-
-
-_Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b.
-
-    For if this is your first attempt at education, you must take
-    care lest you try the experiment, not on a Carian slave, but on
-    your sons or the children of your friends, and let the proverb
-    fit you which says that the potter’s art is in the pithos.
-
-    Εἰ γὰρ νῦν πρῶτον ἄρξεσθε παιδεύειν, σκοπεῖν χρὴ μὴ οὐκ ἐν τῷ
-    Καρὶ ὑμῖν ὁ κίνδυνος κινδυνεύηται, ἀλλ’ ἐν τοῖς ὑέσι τε καὶ
-    ἐν τοῖς τῶν φίλων παισί, καὶ ἀτεκνῶς τὸ λεγόμενον κατὰ τὴν
-    παροιμίαν ὑμῖν συμβαίνῃ ἐν πίθῳ ἡ κεραμεία γιγνομένη.
-
-
-_Scholiast on Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b.
-
-    The proverb, “in the pithos is the potter’s art,” about those
-    who skip the first lessons and take hold of the greatest tasks
-    which are properly the last.
-
-    Παροιμία, ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν, ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας μαθήσεις
-    ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ τῶν μειζόνων καὶ ἤδη τῶν
-    τελειοτέρων.
-
-
-_Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum_, _Zenobius_, III, 65.
-
-    “I learn the potter’s craft on the pithos”; a proverb upon
-    those who skip the first lessons, and immediately attempt
-    greater things; as if anyone who was learning to be a potter,
-    before learning to mould plates or any other small thing,
-    should undertake a pithos.
-
-    Ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν μανθάνω: Παροιμία ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας
-    μαθήσεις ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ εὐθέως τῶν μειζόνων. Ὡς
-    εἴ τις μανθάνων κεραμεύειν, πρὶν μαθεῖν πίνακας ἢ ἄλλο τι τῶν
-    μικρῶν πλάττειν, πίθῳ ἐγχεροίη.
-
-The fact that there was a Greek proverb on the folly of attempting large
-vases before a thorough knowledge of the craft has been acquired, shows
-how common was the realization of the difficulty of the task.
-
-
-_Plutarch_, _Quaestiones conviviales_, II, p. 636 c.
-
-    Polykleitos the modeler said that the work is most difficult
-    when the clay stands the test of the nail (?).
-
-    Πολύκλειτος ὁ πλάστης εἶπε χαλεπώτατον εἶναι τοὔργον, ὅταν ἐν
-    ὄνυχι ὁ πηλὸς γένηται.
-
-If we interpret this passage as referring to a potter, and ὅταν ἐν ὄνυχι
-γένηται as meaning when the stage has been reached that the clay is hard
-enough to be scratched with the nail, this may possibly be an allusion to
-turning; which may well be called the most difficult process of pottery
-making. But this interpretation is very uncertain. The passage is usually
-taken as referring to the sculptor’s last touches on a clay model for a
-bronze statue.
-
-
-(2) BUILDING
-
-
-_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (4).
-
-    4. Potters do not use the wheel for all pithoi, but only for
-    the small ones. The larger ones they build up day by day,
-    placing them on the ground in a warm room, and thus make them
-    large.
-
-    4. Οὐ πάντας δὲ τοὺς πίθους ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάζουσιν
-    οἱ κεραμεῖς, ἀλλὰ τοὺς μικρούς. τοὺς μέντοι μείζους χαμαὶ
-    κειμένους ὁσημέραι ἐν θερμῷ οἰκήματι ἐποικοδομοῦσι, καὶ
-    μεγάλους ποιοῦσιν.
-
-
-_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 164.
-
-    164. That around which those who make pithoi put the clay and
-    shape it—this wooden core is called κάναβος.
-
-    164. Περὶ δὲ ὃ οἱ τοὺς πίθους πλάττοντες τὸν πηλὸν περιτιθέντες
-    πλάττουσι, τοῦτο τὸ ξυλήφιον κάναβος καλεῖται.
-
-Such hand-built ware does not, of course, include the large painted
-kraters and amphorai of Athenian make; for these have all the ear-marks
-of wheel-thrown pottery. Wooden cores are still used today in the making
-of cement forms. Since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the wood
-does not, care must be taken to prevent the former from cracking. The
-wooden core is therefore made in collapsible form. A wedge is made in the
-center and a core built around it. When the work is finished the wedge
-can be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in.[63]
-
-
-FIRING THE VASES
-
-
-_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (5).
-
-    5. The firing is no small part of the potter’s craft. Not too
-    little or too much fire should be built under the pots, but
-    just enough.
-
-    Οὐ μικρὸν δὲ τῆς κεραμίας ἐστὶ μέρος ἡ ὄπτησις· δεῖ δὲ μήτε
-    ἔλαττον, μήτε πλέον, ἀλλὰ μεμετρημένως τὸ πῦρ ὑποβάλλειν.
-
-
-_Vita Herodotea_ λβ = _Epigrammata Homerica_, 14.
-
-(Text of T. W. Allen, in Oxford University Classical Texts.)
-
-    Some potters, seeing him [Homer] setting out the next morning
-    while they were building a fire in a kiln of fine pottery,
-    called him to them, knowing that he was a poet, and they
-    bade him sing, promising to give him some of the pottery and
-    whatever else they had, and Homer sang to them the following
-    poem, which is called the “Kiln”:—
-
-    “If you will give me a reward I will sing to you, O potters.
-    Come hither, Athena, and stretch thy hand over the kiln, and
-    may the kotyloi blacken well and all the ... and may they be
-    well baked, and receive the price due to their value, many
-    being sold in the market, and many in the streets. May they
-    gain much.... But if you turn to shamelessness, and choose
-    falsehood, then I summon the destroyers to fall upon the kiln,
-    Crasher and Smasher and Unquenchable and Shatterer and Fierce
-    Conquerer, who would bring many evils upon this craft ... and
-    may the whole kiln be thrown into confusion, while the potters
-    lament loudly. As a horse’s jaw eats greedily, so may the kiln
-    devour all the pottery within it, making it brittle. Come
-    hither, Circe, daughter of the sun, skilled in drugs; bring
-    malignant poisons, afflict the men and ruin their work. Let
-    Cheiron bring hither many Centaurs, both those who escaped the
-    hands of Herakles, and those who perished. Let them harshly
-    smite the work and smite the kiln, and may the men themselves
-    see these grievous deeds with lamentations. But I shall be
-    happy when I see their unlucky craft. And the man who peeps
-    over, may his whole face burn on account of this, so that all
-    may know how to do what is right.”
-
-    Tῇ δὲ εἰσαύριον ἀποπορευόμενον ἰδόντες κεραμέες τινες κάμινον
-    ἐγκαίοντες κεράμου λεπτοῦ, προσεκαλέσαντο αὐτόν, πεπυσμένοι ὅτι
-    σοφὸς εἴη· καὶ ἐκέλευόν σφιν ἀεῖσαι, φάμενοι δώσειν αὐτῷ τοῦ
-    κεράμου καὶ ὅ τι ἂν ἄλλο ἔχωσιν. ὁ δὲ Ὅμηρος ἀείδει αὐτοῖς τὰ
-    ἔπεα τάδε ἃ καλέεται Κάμινος·
-
-    Εἰ μὲν δώσετε μισθὸν ἀείσω, ὦ κεραμῆες·
-    δεῦρ’ ἄγ’ Ἀθηναίη καὶ ὑπείρεχε χεῖρα καμίνου,
-    εὖ δὲ μελανθεῖεν κότυλοι καὶ πάντα μάλευρα,
-    φρυχθῆναί τε καλῶς καὶ τιμῆς ὦνον ἀρέσθαι,
-    πολλὰ μέν εἰν ἀγορῇ πωλεύμενα, πολλὰ δ’ ἀγυιᾶς,
-    πολλὰ δὲ κερδῆναι, ἡμῖν δὲ δὴ ὥς σφι νοῆσαι.
-    ἢν δ’ ἐπ’ ἀναιδείην τρεφθέντες ψεύδε’ ἄρησθε,
-    συγκαλέω δ’ ἤπειτα καμίνῳ δηλητῆρας,
-    Σύντριβ’ ὁμῶς Σμάραγόν τε καὶ Ἄσβετον ἠδέ γ’ Ἄβακτον,
-    Ὠμόδαμόν θ’ ὃς τῇδε τέχνῃ κακὰ πολλὰ πορίζοι.
-    πεῖθε πυραίθουσαν καὶ δώματα, σὺν δὲ κάμινος
-    πᾶσα κυκηθείη κεραμέων μέγα κωκυσάντων.
-    ὡς γνάθος ἱππείη βρύκει, βρύκοι δὲ κάμινος
-    πάντ’ ἐντοσθ’ αὐτῆς κεραμήϊα λεπτὰ ποιοῦσα.
-    δεῦρο καὶ ἠελίου θύγατερ πολυφάρμακε Κίρκη.
-    ἄγρια φάρμακα βάλλε, κάκου δ’ αὐτούς τε καὶ ἔργα.
-    δεῦρο δὲ καὶ Χείρων ἀγέτω πολέας Κενταύρους,
-    οἵ θ’ Ἡρακλείους χεῖρας φύγον, οἵ τ’ ἀπόλοντο·
-    τύπτοιεν τάδε ἔργα κακῶς, τύπτοι δὲ κάμινον,
-    αὐτοὶ δ’ οἰμῴζοντες ὁρῷατο ἔργα πονηρά.
-    γηθήσω δ’ ὁρόων αὐτῶν κακοδαίμονα τέχνην.
-    ὃς δὲ χ’ ὑπερκύψῃ, περὶ τούτου πᾶν τὸ πρόσωπον
-    φλεχθείη, ὡς πάντες ἐπίσταιντ’ αἴσιμα ῥέζειν.
-
-This is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in a kiln.
-
-
-_Hippokrates_, _Epidemia_, IV, 20; _Littré_, V, p. 160.
-
-    The man who fell down from the potter’s oven, since a
-    cupping-glass was not applied immediately, suffered from an
-    internal inflammation and on the twentieth day grew worse.
-
-    Ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ κεραμέου ἴπνου καταπεσὼν, ᾧ οὐ προσβλήθη αὐτίκα
-    σικύη, ἐκαύθη ἔσω, καὶ εἰκοστῇ ἐπαλιγκότησεν.
-
-This reminds us of the men we see climbing on the kilns in the
-representations on Corinthian pinakes (p. 76).
-
-
-_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 108.
-
-    It was the custom for bronze casters to hang something
-    ridiculous in front of their furnaces, or to mould something
-    upon them, in order to avert envy. These were called βασκάνια.
-
-    Πρὸ δὲ τῶν καμίνων τοῖς χαλκεῦσιν ἔθος ἦν γελοῖά τινα καταρτᾶν,
-    ἢ ἐπιπλάττειν, ἐπὶ φθόνου ἀποτροπῇ. ἐκαλεῖτο δὲ βασκάνια.
-
-Such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to pottery kilns,
-as we know from actual representations (cf. pp. 64 f.). It is natural
-that the vagaries of a kiln should be ascribed by the superstitious
-ancients to supernatural forces.
-
-
-RED OCHRE WASH
-
-
-_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546.
-
-    Be it decreed by the senate and people of the Ioulietai
-    concerning the representations of the envoys from Athens, that
-    the export of miltos shall be to Athens, and to no other place
-    from this day forward; if anyone exports it to any other place,
-    his ship and its cargo shall be confiscated and a half shall be
-    given to the informer; ... If the Athenians decree any other
-    regulations for the guarding of the miltos they shall be valid.
-
-    (Ἔδ)οξεν τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, περὶ (ὧν οἱ παρ’
-    Ἀθηναίων λέγουσι, δεδόχθα)ι τῇ βούλῃ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν,
-    εἶναι τὴ(ν ἐξαγωγὴν τῆς μίλτου Ἀθήναζε), ἄλλοσε δὲ μηδαμῇ ἀπὸ
-    τῆσδε τῆς ἡμέρας. ἐὰν δέ τι(ς ἄλλοσε ἐξάγῃ, δημόσια εἶναι
-    τ)ὸ πλοῖον καὶ τὰ χρήματα τὰ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ. τῷ δὲ φήν(αντι ἢ
-    ἐνδείξαντι εἶναι τὰ ἡμίσεα) ... (ἐὰν δέ τι ἄλ)λο ψηφίζωνται
-    Ἀθηναῖοι περὶ φυλακῆς τῆς μίλ(του ... κύρια εἶ)ναι ἃ ἂν
-    Ἀθηναῖοι ψηφίζωνται.
-
-
-_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546.
-
-    Theogenes moved: be it decreed by the senate and people of the
-    Koresians, concerning the representations of the envoys from
-    Athens, the export of miltos shall be to Athens ... as it was
-    before; and in order that the decrees of the Athenians and
-    Koresians concerning miltos may be valid, it shall be exported
-    in a ship which they shall designate and in no other ship ...
-    the tax of two per cent shall be paid to the collectors by
-    those engaged in the trade.
-
-    (Θεογ)ένης εἶπεν. δεδόχθαι (τ)ῇ βο(υλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ
-    Κορησίων. περὶ ὧν λέγουσι οἱ παρ’ Ἀθη)ναίων, εἶναι τῆς μίλτου
-    τὴν ἐξ(αγωγὴν Ἀθήναζε ... κ)αθάπερ πρότερον ἦν. ὅπως δ’ ἂν
-    κύρια ἦ(ι τ)ὰ ψηφίσματα (... Ἀθηναίων κ)αὶ Κορησίων τὰ
-    περὶ τῆς μίλτου, ἐξάγειν ἐμπλοίῳ ὧ(ι ἂν ... ἀποδείξωσιν, ἐν
-    ἄλλῳ) δὲ πλοῖῳ μηδενί ... (τελ)εῖν δὲ τὴν πεντηκοστὴν τοῖς
-    πεντηκοστολόγοις τοὺς ἐργαζομένους.
-
-It is interesting to learn how important miltos (red ochre) was to
-the Athenians. We know that it was used in building for the dressing
-of stones[64]; and if the appearance of one of the chief articles of
-commerce of Athens, viz. the pottery, was dependent on it (cf. pp. 53
-ff.), it is natural that stringent provisions should be made for its
-acquisition and monopoly.
-
-
-_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 12 (43), 152.
-
-    The addition of red ochre or moulding in red clay is the
-    invention of Butades.
-
-    Butades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere.
-
-
-_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κωλιάδος κεραμῆες.
-
-    Potters of Kolias: Kolias, a place in Attica where vases are
-    moulded. It is said that of all the kinds of clay that are
-    brought to the wheel (and the wheel on which vessels are shaped
-    is meant), that is, of all the clay fit for making vases, the
-    clay of Kolias is the best, so that it is also dyed with miltos.
-
-    Κωλιάς, τόπος τῆς Ἀττικῆς, ἔνθα σκεύη πλάττονται, λέγει οὖν ὅτι
-    ὅσοι ἐπὶ τροχοὺς φέρονται (τροχὸν δὲ τὸν σκευοπλαστικὸν λέγει)
-    τουτέστιν, ὅσαι πρὸς σκευοπλασίαν ἐπιτήδειαι, πασῶν ἡ Κωλιάδος
-    κρείσσων· ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῆς μίλτου.
-
-
-_Isidorus_, _Etymologiae_, XX, iv, 3.
-
-    It is said that pottery vases were first invented in the island
-    of Samos, being made of clay and hardened by fire, whence comes
-    the term Samian vases. A later invention was to add red ochre
-    and to make pottery of red clay.
-
-    Fictilia vasa in Samo insula prius inventa traduntur, facta ex
-    creta et indurata igni; unde et Samia vasa: postea inventum et
-    rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere.
-
-The significance of these passages has already been discussed on pp.
-53-59.
-
-
-POROSITY OF GREEK POTTERY
-
-
-_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 161 ff.
-
-    162. Aristophanes says that a clay vinegar jar has leprosy,
-    instead of saying that it is moist (sweats?).
-
-    Λεπρᾶν δὲ κεράμειον ὀξηρόν, ἀντὶ τοῦ μυδᾶν, Ἀριστοφάνης λέγει.
-
-This appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware (and even painted
-Athenian pottery is unglazed in parts) becomes moist when filled with
-liquid, on account of its porosity.
-
-
-THE STATUS OF POTTERS
-
-
-_Isokrates_, _De Permutatione_, 2.
-
-    As if one should have the insolence to call Pheidias, who made
-    the statue of Athena, a statuette maker, or to say that Zeuxis
-    and Parrhasius had plied the same trade as that of the painters
-    of pinakes.
-
-    Ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις Φειδίαν τὸν τὸ τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἕδος ἐργασάμενον
-    τολμῷη καλεῖν κοροπλάθον, ἢ Ζεῦξιν καὶ Παρράσιον τὴν αὐτὴν
-    ἔχειν φαίη τέχνην τοῖς τὰ πινάκια γράφουσιν.
-
-
-_Aristophanes_, _Ekklesiazousai_, 995 f.
-
-    Old Woman. Who is this?
-
-    Young Man. The man who paints lekythoi for the dead.
-
-    Γρ. οὗτος δ’ ἔστι τίς;
-
-    Νεανίας. ὃς τοῖς νεκροῖσι ζωγραφεῖ τὰς ληκύθους.
-
-
-_Plutarch_, _Life of Numa_, 17.
-
-    So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and
-    trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths,
-    carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters
-    (A. H. Clough).
-
-    Ἦν δὲ ἡ διανομὴ κατὰ τὰς τέχνας, αὐλητῶν, χρυσοχόων, τεκτόνων,
-    βαφέων, σκυτοτόμων, σκυτοδέψων, χαλκέων, κεραμέων.
-
-
-_Plato_, _Euthydemos_, 301, c, d.
-
-    What, said he, is the business of a good workman? Tell me, in
-    the first place, whose business is hammering?
-
-    The smith’s.
-
-    And whose the making of pots?
-
-    The potter’s.
-
-    And who has to kill and skin and mince and boil and roast?
-
-    The cook, I said.
-
-    And if a man does his business, he does rightly?
-
-    Certainly.
-
-    And the business of the cook is to cut up and skin, you have
-    admitted that?
-
-    Yes, I have, but you must not be too hard upon me.
-
-    Then if some one were to kill, mince, boil, roast the cook, he
-    would do his business, and if he were to hammer the smith, and
-    make a pot of the potter, he would do their business (Jowett).
-
-    Οἶσθα οὖν, ἔφη, ὅτι προσήκει ἑκάστοις τῶν δημιουργῶν; πρῶτον
-    τίνα χαλκεύειν προσήκει, οἶσθα;—Ἔγωγε· ὅτι χαλκέα.—τί δέ,
-    κεραμεῦειν; κεραμέα.—τί δέ, σφάττειν τε καὶ ἐκδέρειν καὶ
-    τὰ μικρὰ κρέα κατακόψαντα ἕψειν καὶ ὀπτᾶν;—Μάγειρον, ἦν δ’
-    ἐγώ.—Οὐκοῦν ἐάν τις, ἔφη, τὰ προσήκοντα πράττῃ, ὀρθῶς πράξει;
-    Μάλιστα.—Προσήκει δέ γε, ὡς φῄς, τὸν μάγειρον κατακόπτειν
-    καὶ ἐκδέρειν; ὡμολόγησας ταῦτα ἢ οὔ;—Ὡμολόγησα, ἔφην, ἀλλὰ
-    συγγνώμην μοι ἔχε—Δῆλον τοίνυν, ἦ δ’ ὅς, ὅτι ἄν τις σφάξας τὸν
-    μάγειρον καὶ κατακόψας ἑψήσῃ καὶ ὀπτήσῃ, τὰ προσήκοντα ποιήσει.
-    καὶ ἐὰν τὸν χαλκέα τις αὐτὸν χαλκεύῃ καὶ τὸν κεραμέα κεραμεύῃ,
-    καὶ οὗτος τὰ προσήκοντα πράξει.
-
-
-_Justinus_, _Historiae Philippicae_, XXII, 1, 1 and 2.
-
-    Agathocles, the tyrant of Sicily, who succeeded to the great
-    power of the elder Dionysius, came into the splendor of a
-    kingdom from a humble and base family. And too, being born in
-    Sicily of a potter, he had a boyhood not more honorable than
-    his origin.
-
-    Agathocles, Siciliae tyrannus, qui magnitudini prioris Dionysii
-    successit, ad regni maiestatem ex humili et sordido genere
-    pervenit. Quippe in Sicilia patre figulo natus non honestiorem
-    pueritiam quam principia originis habuit.
-
-Much has been written about the lowly status of Greek potters,[65] and
-the above references bear out this general idea. The craft of pottery was
-evidently placed on a par with other trades, and all such manual work
-was not considered a worthy occupation of free-born citizens, and left
-mostly to the metics, or non-citizens. We know this not only from texts
-and inscriptions on stone, but also from the non-Attic forms of the names
-of the potters, as well as the inscriptions on the vases which frequently
-show non-Attic spellings. It would be absurd, however, to infer that
-all pottery was as contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb
-lekythoi[66] and the pinakes referred to by Aristophanes and Isokrates.
-And this is borne out by the following references.
-
-
-_Plato_, _Hippias Maior_, p. 288 d.
-
-    If a skilful potter had made the vessel smooth and rounded and
-    well baked, like some of the fine two-handled jars which hold
-    six choai—if he should ask us about such a vessel as this, we
-    should be obliged to agree that it was beautiful.
-
-    Εἴπερ ἡ χύτρα κεκεραμευμένη εἴη ὑπὸ ἀγαθοῦ κεραμέως λεία καὶ
-    στρογγύλη καὶ καλῶς ὠπτημένη, οἷαι τῶν καλῶν χυτρῶν εἰσί τινες
-    δίωτοι, τῶν ἓξ χοᾶς χωρουσῶν, πάγκαλαι, εἰ τοιαύτην ἐρωτῴη
-    χύτραν, καλὴν ὁμολογητέον εἶναι.
-
-
-_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 161.
-
-    At Erythrae in the temple there are shown today two amphorai
-    consecrated on account of their thinness, a pupil and a teacher
-    having contested as to which of them could draw the clay
-    thinner.
-
-    Erythris in templo hodieque ostenduntur amphorae duae propter
-    tenuitatem consecratae discipuli magistrique certamine, uter
-    tenuiorem humum duceret.
-
-
-_Amphis_, _Ampelourgos_, I.
-
-_Meineke_, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, III, p. 302.
-
-    There is no sweeter solace in life for human ills than
-    craftsmanship; for the mind, absorbed in its study, sails past
-    all troubles and forgets them.
-
-    Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲν ἀτυχίας ἀνθρωπίνης
-    παραμύθιον γλυκύτερον ἐν βίῳ τέχνης·
-    ἐπὶ τοῦ μαθήματος γὰρ ἐστηκὼς ὁ νοῦς
-    αὐτοῦ λέληθε παραπλέων τὰς συμφοράς.
-
-
-_Pindar_, _Nemean Odes_, X, 35, 36.
-
-    And in earthenware baked in the fire, within the closure of
-    figured urns, there came among the goodly folk of Hera the
-    prize of the olive-fruit (Myers).
-
-    γαίᾳ δὲ καυθείσᾳ πυρὶ καρπὸς ἐλαίας ἔμολεν Ἥρας τὸν εὐάνορα
-    λαὸν ἐν ἀγγέων ἕρκεσιν παμποικίλοις.
-
-
-_Simonides_, _Fragments_, 155 (213) (Bergk).
-
-    And he won five garlands in succession at the Panathenaic
-    games, amphorai full of oil.
-
-    Καὶ Παναθηναίοις στεφάνους λάβε πέντ’ ἐπ’ αἔθλοις
-    ἑξῆς ἀμφιφορεῖς ἐλαίου.
-
-That finely executed pottery was held in high esteem is evident from
-the remarks of Plato, Pliny, and Pindar; and there certainly could be
-no more enthusiastic eulogy of craftsmanship than Amphis’ beautiful
-lines. Moreover, the fact that clay vases were used as prizes at the
-most important games at Athens certainly points to considerable and
-wide-spread appreciation of them.
-
-
-_Ktesias ap. Athenaeus_, p. 464 a.
-
-    And Ktesias says, “Among Persians he whom the king wishes to
-    insult uses pottery vessels.”
-
-    Καὶ γὰρ Κτησίας “παρὰ Πέρσαις” φησίν, “ὃν ἂν βασιλεὺς ἀτιμάσῃ,
-    κεραμέοις χρῆται”.
-
-
-_Plutarch_, _Life of Galba_, 12.
-
-    When he was dining with Claudius Caesar he stole a silver cup,
-    and Caesar, finding it out, invited him to dinner again on the
-    next day, but ordered his servants to bring out and put before
-    the guest nothing silver, but everything of pottery.
-
-    Δειπνῶν δὲ παρὰ Κλαυδίῳ Καίσαρι ποτήριον ἀργυροῦν ὑφείλετο.
-    πυθόμενος δὲ ὁ Καῖσαρ τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ πάλιν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον
-    ἐκάλεσεν, ἐλθόντι δὲ ἐκέλευσεν ἐκείνῳ μηδὲν ἀργυροῦν, ἀλλὰ
-    κεράμεα πάντα προσφέρειν καὶ παρατιθέναι τοὺς ὑπηρέτας.
-
-
-_Tibullus_, _Elegies_, I, 1, 37 f.
-
-    Come, ye gods, nor scorn the gifts from a poor man’s table,
-    from clean pottery vessels.
-
-    Adsitis, divi, neu vos e paupere mensa
-    dona nec e puris spernite fictilibus.
-
-
-_Juvenal_, _Satires_, III, 168.
-
-    [Even a poor man] is ashamed to dine off pottery dishes.
-
-    fictilibus cenare pudet—
-
-
-_Martial_, _Epigrams_, XIV, 98.
-
-    We advise you not overmuch to despise Arretian vases: Tuscan
-    earthenware was luxury to Porsena (W. E. Ker).
-
-    Arretina nimis ne spernas vasa monemus.
-    lautus erat Tuscis Porsena fictilibus.
-
-
-_Lucian_, _Prometheus_, 1.
-
-    Then you say I am Prometheus? If, Sir, it is because I too work
-    in clay, I recognize the similarity and acknowledge that I am
-    like him, nor do I refuse to be called a potter.
-
-    Οὐκ οὖν Προμηθέα με εἶναι φῄς; εἰ μὲν κατὰ τοῦτο, ὦ ἄριστε,
-    ὡς πηλίνων κἀμοὶ τῶν ἔργων ὄντων, γνωρίζω τὴν εἰκόνα καί φημι
-    ὅμοιος εἶναι αὐτῷ, οὐδ’ ἀναίνομαι πηλοπλάθος ἀκούειν.
-
-
-_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 482 b.
-
-(_Repeated by Macrobius_, _Satires_, V, 21, 10.)
-
-    They placed a krater for the gods, not of silver nor set with
-    stones, but of clay from Kolias.
-
-    Κρατῆρα γὰρ ἵστασαν τοῖς θεοῖς, οὐκ ἀργυροῦν οὐδὲ λιθοκόλλητον,
-    ἀλλὰ γῆς Κωλιάδος.
-
-Though the Persians and the Romans set great store by metal vases and
-regarded clay vases as fit only for a poor man’s table, the Greeks had
-no such feelings, as we learn from Athenaeus and from innumerable vase
-paintings of banquets.
-
-
-_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._, 362, p. 79.
-
-    Euphronios the potter offered ... in supplication to (Athena)
-    Hygieia.
-
-    (Ε)ὐφρόνιος (ἀνέθηκεν ὁ) κεραμεύς (... ἱκεσί)αν Ὑγιεία(ι).
-
-
-_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._ 373²¹⁵, p. 101.
-
-    Mnesiades the potter and Andokides dedicated me.
-
-    (Μν)ησιάδης κεραμεύς με καὶ Ἀνδοκίδης ἀνέθηκεν.
-
-
-_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 3485.
-
-    The lord of the land and sea, Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius
-    Severus Antoninus, Pius, Augustus, the potters have erected
-    from their own property.
-
-    Τὸν γῆς καὶ θαλάσσης δεσπότην Αὐτοκράτορα Καίσαρα Μ. Αὐρ(ήλιον)
-    Σευῆρον Ἀντωνῖνον, Εὐσεβῆ, Σεβαστόν, (ἐκ τῶν) ἰδίων ἵδ(ρυσαν)
-    οἱ κεραμεῖς.
-
-
-_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 9188.
-
-    Sarcophagus of Theophilos and his son Tyrannos, a potter by
-    trade.
-
-    Σωματωτήκη Θεωφίλου (καὶ τοῦ) (α)ὐ(τ)οῦ (ὑ)οῦ Τυράννου τὴν
-    τέχνην κερα(μέως).
-
-
-_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, addenda 4212.
-
-    I, Sesames the potter, have bought through the board of
-    magistrates this burial vault for myself and my wife Elpis and
-    my mother-in-law Euphrosyne and for Ianoarios and our children,
-    and for Soterichos my father-in-law. No one else shall be
-    buried here, since (the violator) shall pay to the sacred
-    treasurer 1500 denarii.
-
-    Σ)ησάμας κεραμεὺς ὠνησάμην διὰ τῶν ἀρχείων τὸν πυργίσκον ἑαυτῷ
-    καὶ γυναικί μου Ἐλπίδι καὶ (τῇ) πενθερ(ίδι μου) Εὐφροσύνῃ κ(αὶ)
-    Ἰανοαρίῳ καὶ τ(έ)κνοις ἡ(μῶν) καὶ Σωτηρίχῳ τῷ πενθε(ρῷ). ἑτέρῳ
-    δὲ οὐδενὶ ἐξέσται (τεθ)ῆναι. ἐπεὶ ἀ(πο)(τ)είσει τῷ (ἱερωτάτῳ
-    ταμε(ί)ῳ δηναρία α̅φ̅ .
-
-These inscriptions of dedications show that potters sometimes became
-people of means and influence.
-
-
-_Plato_, _Republic_, p. 467 a.
-
-    Did you never observe in the arts how the potters’ boys look on
-    and help, long before they touch the wheel? (Jowett).
-
-     Ἢ οὐκ ᾔσθησαι τὰ περὶ τὰς τέχνας, οἷον τοὺς τῶν κεραμέων παῖδας,
-    ὡς πολὺν χρόνον διακονοῦντες θεωροῦσι πρὶν ἅπτεσθαι τοῦ
-    κεραμεύειν;
-
-
-_Quintilian_, _Institutio Oratoria_, II, 17, 3.
-
-    ... For what man is there so bereft, I will not say of
-    learning, but of sense, that he thinks that there is an art of
-    constructing and of weaving, and of making vases from clay, but
-    that rhetoric, that greatest and noblest work, as I said above,
-    has risen to such sublime heights without art?
-
-    ... nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione modo, sed a sensu
-    remotus hominis, ut fabricandi quidem et texendi et e luto vasa
-    ducendi artem putet, rhetoricen autem, maximum ac pulcherrimum,
-    ut supra diximus, opus, in tam sublime fastigium existimet sine
-    arte venisse?
-
-
-_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κεραμεύειν.
-
-    To make pottery: commonly said instead of “to work hard.”
-
-    Κεραμεύειν. κοινῶς ἀντὶ τοῦ κατεργάζεσθαι.
-
-
-_Hesiod_, _Works and Days_, 25 f.
-
-    Potter bears a grudge against potter, and carpenter against
-    carpenter, and beggar envies beggar, and minstrel is jealous of
-    minstrel.
-
-    Καὶ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ κοτέει καὶ τέκτονι τέκτων
-    καὶ πτωχὸς πτωχῷ φθονέει καὶ ἀοιδὸς ἀοιδῷ.
-
-
-_Aristotle_, _Rhetoric_, 2, 4, 21, 22.
-
-    [We are friendly towards] our equals, and towards those who
-    have the same interests, if they do not clash with us, and if
-    their livelihood does not come from the same source, for thus
-    arises the proverb “Potter hates potter.”
-
-    Καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους καὶ ταὐτὰ ἐπιτηδεύοντας, ἐὰν μὴ παρενοχλῶσι μὴ
-    δ’ ἀπὸ ταὐτοῦ ὁ βίος. γίγνεται γὰρ οὕτω τὸ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ.
-
-
-_Aristotle_, _Nicomachaean Ethics_, 8, 1, 6.
-
-    For some define [friendship] as a kind of resemblance, and
-    claim that those who resemble each other are friends, whence
-    is the saying “Like to like,” and “Jackdaw to Jackdaw,” and so
-    on. Others, on the contrary, say that all such people are like
-    potters to each other.
-
-    Οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιότητα τινὰ τιθέασιν αὐτὴν καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους
-    φίλους, ὅθεν τὸν ὅμοιόν φασιν ὡς τὸν ὅμοιον. καὶ κολοιὸν ποτὶ
-    κολοιόν, καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. οἱ δ’ ἐξ ἐναντίας κεραμεῖς πάντας τοὺς
-    τοιούτους ἀλλήλοις φασὶν εἶναι.
-
-Evidently it was fully recognized that pottery was a craft which needed
-a long apprenticeship, and in such a highly specialized art we are
-not surprised to read of the keen rivalry existing among potters. The
-inscription by Euthymides on one of his vases, “Never has Euphronios
-painted the like of this” (cf. Hoppin, Handbook of Attic Red-Figured
-Vases, p. 432), is evidence of the same spirit.
-
-Judging from the evidence collected above it is fair to assume that
-though the estimate of potters and pottery varied at different times,
-in the period of Athenian vase painting it was distinctly high. Potters
-had, it is true, no social status; but they were respected members of the
-community, and the keen appreciation of their work had as its natural
-result eager rivalry among the potters and the setting of high standards.
-That their craft was regarded as a “trade” is of course nothing new.
-Artists as a class have only lately been promoted to the higher social
-ranks. We need only recall Albrecht Dürer’s description of the great
-Procession from the Church of Our Lady at Antwerp, in which he lists the
-painters and sculptors and goldsmiths with “the masons, the joiners, the
-carpenters, the sailors, the fishermen, the butchers, the leatherers,
-the clothmakers, the bakers, the tailors, the cordwainers,” and refers
-to the group as “workmen of all kinds and many craftsmen and dealers who
-work for their livelihood.” This is not so much an indignity to art as a
-wholesome appreciation of all manual labor.
-
-
-
-
-CONCLUSION
-
-
-The following is a summary of the technical processes of the
-black-figured and red-figured Athenian vases in the order which our study
-of the subject has suggested.
-
-
-I. THE PREPARATION OF THE CLAY
-
-(1) Mixing the requisite ingredients (unless the natural clay was
-satisfactory).
-
-(2) Washing.
-
-(3) Wedging or kneading.
-
-
-II. THE FASHIONING OF THE VASE
-
-(1) Throwing.
-
-(2) Turning.
-
-(3) Polishing.
-
-(4) Attaching handles.
-
-
-III. THE DECORATION OF THE VASE
-
-
-a. Black-figured Technique.
-
-(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.
-
-Traces of the red ochre solution on black-figured vases are not common;
-so that it is possible that its application was not a regular proceeding.
-
-(2) Preliminary sketch for design.
-
-As this was completely covered by the black glaze afterwards and there
-are therefore only occasional traces of it now (cf. e.g. Furtwängler u.
-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pl. 4), it is uncertain, though
-inherently probable, that such a sketch was generally made.
-
-(3) Painting of the design, including figures, decorative motives, and
-backgrounds, in black glaze.
-
-(4) Incision of details.
-
-(5) Addition of purple and white accessory colors.
-
-
-b. Red-figured Technique.
-
-(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.
-
-(2) Preliminary sketch for design with a blunt instrument.
-
-(3) Painting of the design, the decorative motives, and the solid black
-surfaces.
-
-The process of the figure painting was as follows: the outlines of the
-figures were indicated outside the spaces intended for them, first with a
-narrow line, then with a broader contour stripe; then the details within
-the red silhouette, and sometimes the outlines, were painted in black
-glaze lines; finally the background was filled in with the black glaze.
-
-(4) Addition of accessory colors if needed.
-
-
-IV. THE FIRING OF THE VASE
-
-The most important revisions of current theories on the technique of
-Athenian vases which our treatment of the subject has suggested are:
-
-(1) The use of turning as a regular process applied to the vases after
-they were thrown. To this operation they owe much of their finish and
-refinement.
-
-(2) The application of a red ochre pigment on the surface of the vases in
-their raw state, before they were decorated or fired. It is to this red
-ochre application that the present orangey color of the Athenian vases
-is due, as against the pinkish hue shown in the fractures of the clay.
-Originally, however, this color was even deeper, approaching that of
-bright red copper.
-
-(3) Both the glaze and the accessory colors were applied when the vases
-were in leather-hard condition, before any firing. Instead of the two,
-three, or four firings often assumed by archaeologists, the evidence
-points to only one fire, after total completion of the vase.
-
-(4) The great majority of Athenian vases were made for actual use, not
-for votive, decorative, or funeral purposes, as is still often assumed.
-
-
-
-
-FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1] Reichhold’s theory in his Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister (1919),
-p. 12, that the word ἐποίησεν (“made it”) in a signature refers to the
-draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration, while its executor signed
-ἔγραψεν (“painted it”), since the actual making of the vase “required no
-artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice,” only shows his
-exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases, in the copying of
-which he so much excelled.
-
-[2] For any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length,
-Charles F. Binns’s work on the Potter’s Craft is strongly recommended
-(second edition, 1922).
-
-[3] Figs. 1, 2, 6-13, 14, 21-23, 27, 39, 41.
-
-[4] Figs. 3, 4, 35, 36, 40, 42, 50, 51, 52.
-
-[5] In commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are
-produced wedging _en gros_ becomes necessary. In modern Greece it is done
-by treading the clay with bare feet.
-
-[6] Sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a
-smoother surface; especially in cases when the later process of turning
-is dispensed with.
-
-[7] The jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are
-moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile; but it can be used for other
-purposes. The difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is that
-in the former the speed is changeable, in the latter fixed.
-
-[8] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, vol. I, p. 208; Herford, Greek
-Vase Painting, p. 9; etc., etc.
-
-[9] Cf. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry, the Greek Vase, and L. D. Caskey,
-Geometry of Greek Vases.
-
-[10] Cf. e.g. in the Metropolitan Museum Nos. 08.258.21 and 12.236, where
-the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge.
-
-[11] Cf. also especially Metropolitan Museum Nos. G. R. 534, 09.221.47,
-09.221.48, 06.1021.168, G. R. 581, 18.145.28, etc.
-
-[12] Cf. Buschor, Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, 1919, I/II,
-pp. 1 ff.
-
-[13] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p.
-421.
-
-[14] “Twice fired” technically means, as already explained (p. 35),
-once for biscuit, another time for glaze; the glazing itself may have
-necessitated several firings, but the piece would still be spoken of as
-twice fired.
-
-[15] Cf. e.g. Walters, op. cit., pp. 221, 222, and Herford, op. cit., pp.
-13, 14. Reichhold, op. cit., p. 152, felt convinced there was only one
-firing.
-
-[16] Occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used; as on the
-pyxis, No. 06.1117, in the Metropolitan Museum.
-
-[17] Archaeologists’ accounts are very misleading here, for some even
-assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing.
-(Cf. Herford, Handbook of Greek Vase Painting, p. 12.)
-
-[18] E. Pottier has come to the same conclusion; cf. his Catalogue of the
-Louvre Vases, III, p. 674.
-
-[19] The clay of Reichhold’s pot, which he says could be dropped on the
-floor without appreciable damage (Furtwängler und Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152), must have been very tough indeed. Potters
-I have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as that. The
-leather-hard vases I have handled were fit only for the dust bin when
-they fell on the floor—a not unusual event when learning to turn.
-
-[20] I wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of A. J. B. Wace,
-director of the British School of Athens, who went to much trouble in
-sending me this clay. The clay sent is that used by the Athenian potters
-today. It is a mixed clay, composed of red earth from Chalandri and white
-earth from Koukouvaones.
-
-[21] Cf. also Nos. 06.1021.114, 07.286.78, 17.230.13 in the Metropolitan
-Museum, and other instances quoted by Reichhold in Furtwängler u.
-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152. If, as Reichhold assumes,
-the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard, they must have
-been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing; otherwise
-they would have cracked.
-
-[22] Cf. also Furtwängler u. Reichhold, loc. cit.
-
-[23] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation.
-
-[24] Five are listed by Hartwig, Jahrbuch des deutschen arch. Instituts,
-XIV, 1899, p. 164, note 21, one in Athens, one in Sèvres, one in
-Würzburg, one in Berlin, one in Bonn. A sixth piece is a fragmentary
-kylix in the Metropolitan Museum, No. 11.212.9, and a seventh one, the
-cover of a toilet box, in the British Museum, Room of Greek and Roman
-Life, No. 426.
-
-[25] An interesting parallel is furnished by Chinese porcelain for which,
-Mr. Bosch Reitz tells me, there is clear evidence that it is once fired.
-
-[26] It is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors—purple and
-white—were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well
-preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze. That they were
-fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the white
-or purple. They are neither shiny nor durable for the simple reason that
-they are not a glaze but earth colors.
-
-[27] Cf. e.g. No. 06.1021.114, in the Metropolitan Museum.
-
-[28] Cf. e.g. Nos. G. R. 530, 06.1021.82, 06.1021.114, etc., in the
-Metropolitan Museum, and No. 379 (Salle G) as a conspicuous example in
-the Louvre.
-
-[29] Cf. e.g. Nos. 07.286.47, 07.286.81, and C. R. 541 in the
-Metropolitan Museum.
-
-[30] Cf. e.g. Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153.
-
-[31] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. He does not consider that the
-accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the
-carefully designed effects in the Vasiliki ware; so that Mr. Seager’s
-ingenious theory (cf. Hawes, etc., Gournia, p. 50) would have to be given
-up.
-
-[32] Cf. e.g. 11.212.7, 12.336.1, G. R. 54, G. R. 1229, 06.1021.120,
-06.1021.191, 12.229.15, etc., in the Metropolitan Museum.
-
-[33] This explanation is also that offered by Reichhold in Furtwängler u.
-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. It is to this same cause
-that I should be inclined to attribute Reichhold’s “Lagerringe,” round
-red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings (op. cit., p. 154).
-Supports such as he describes which came into direct contact with the
-glaze are inconceivable; the glaze would have stuck to them and serious
-injury resulted. Furthermore, Athenian vases must have been placed in the
-kiln standing on their feet, and for this purpose the under surfaces of
-the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze from sticking. If
-placed in the positions Reichhold suggests, the vases would have been apt
-to warp, and no potter would run such risks.
-
-[34] Cf. Salvétat in Brongniart, Traité des arts céramiques, I, p. 550;
-and Tonks, Black Glaze on Greek Vases, American Journal of Archaeology,
-XII, second series, 1908, pp. 420 ff. Mr. Binns in a series of
-experiments has come to the same conclusion.
-
-[35] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, pp.
-423 f.
-
-[36] Mr. Binns’s experiments are as yet unpublished.
-
-[37] Under Mr. Binns’s direction I tried gum arabic, honey, water glass,
-glue, white of egg, glycerine, and oil as binders, but none gave complete
-satisfaction.
-
-[38] H. B. Walters in his Ancient Pottery, I, p. 212, says that the glaze
-runs best on a surface already baked. As a matter of fact, to make glaze
-run at all on the baked surface, the biscuit has to be soaked in water.
-
-[39] Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei,
-I, p. 152, forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were
-applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a few
-days.
-
-[40] Some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of
-brushes in the glaze. It is, however, impossible that these are hairs
-from the brushes with which the glaze was painted, as they would have
-burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected.
-
-[41] Cf. e.g. the discussions by Hartwig, Jahrbuch d. Instituts, XIV,
-1899, pp. 147 ff.; Reichhold, in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, I, Text, pp. 148 and 230; Tonks, American Journal of
-Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 425; Walters, Ancient Pottery,
-I, pp. 227 ff.
-
-[42] For full quotations of these statements cf. pp. 97, 98.
-
-[43] Cf. John, Malerei der Alten, p. 173.
-
-[44] Cf. e.g. vol. I, pp. 140, 145.
-
-[45] Cf. e.g. Pottier, Catalogue des vases antiques du Louvre, III, p.
-682.
-
-[46] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, I, p. 218.
-
-[47] Cf. e.g. in the Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich, the kylix with
-Dionysos by Exekias, No. 2044, and the Euphronios kylix, No. 2620. These
-give us an excellent idea of the original appearance of Athenian vases.
-
-[48] Cf. especially in the British Museum, E178, E149, E282, E382; and in
-the Metropolitan Museum, G. R. 604, 07.286.73, 07.286.74, 06.1021.108,
-12.236.2, 07.286.65, G. R. 589, 06.1021.121, G. R. 573, 17.230.13, where
-extensive traces can still be seen.
-
-[49] Cf. e.g. in the British Museum, B.439, B.516, B.592, B.446;
-Metropolitan Museum, 06.1021.56, G. R. 555.
-
-[50] Cf. e.g. British Museum, E.74, E.72, E.307, E.382, E.149, E.333.
-
-[51] Such red spots must not be confused with those caused by excess of
-oxidation in the firing (cf. pp. 44 ff.).
-
-[52] Imported Athenian clay (cf. p. 40) fired to the temperature to which
-the ancient Greeks fired their pottery was so light and characterless in
-color that some process to deepen the hue would appear almost imperative.
-
-[53] Many modern imitations of kylikes lack just this feature, which
-makes drinking out of them a very different story.
-
-[54] Cf. Antike Denkmäler, II, pl. 8; Journal of Hellenic Studies,
-XII, 1891, pl. XX, and XXXII, 1912, pl. VII; Furtwängler u. Reichhold,
-Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pls. 19 and 24, III, text, p. 19, fig. 7;
-Notor, La femme dans l’antiquité, p. 253; Wiener Vorlegeblätter, 1889,
-pl. XII (on Ficoroni cista); Hartwig, Griechische Meisterschalen, pl.
-LXVII, 3a and 4, pl. LXIX, 2a-c; Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire IV,
-part 2, p. 1160, fig. 6252; etc.
-
-[55] Cf. e.g. Metropolitan Museum, Nos. 15.160.2-3, 19.39.20.
-
-[56] It is interesting to compare in this connection the satyr heads on
-shields, perhaps intended to frighten the enemy (cf. Gerhard, Auserlesene
-Vasenbilder, pl. CLXXXVIII; Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli italiani
-III, p. 63, pl. 41, 1-3).
-
-[57] Cf. e.g. Zahn, Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft, 1854, p. 40,
-note 46; British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
-1920, p. 181, fig. 217 (No. 1905.6-13.1); Déchelette, Les vases
-céramiques ornés de la Gaule romaine, II, 1904, p. 338.
-
-[58] Nowadays plaster or wood is the usual material for such wheel-heads.
-
-[59] Cf. e.g. Fabroni, Storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini, 1841,
-pl. III, 9, 10; V, 7, 8, 9; p. 64, and Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire,
-under figlinum, p. 1122, fig. 3036.
-
-[60] Cf. e.g. Nos. 15.163.1, 17.120.250 in the Metropolitan Museum.
-
-[61] Cf. e.g. Iliad, XVIII, 599-601, quoted below.
-
-[62] Cf. Reisner, Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 133.
-
-[63] This information I owe to Mr. Binns.
-
-[64] Cf. G. P. Stevens in Fowler-Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, p. 102.
-
-[65] See especially Pottier, Catalogue des Vases au Musée du Louvre, III,
-pp. 690 ff.
-
-[66] There is no reason to assume, as has been done by Walters, History
-of Ancient Pottery, I, pp. 132 and others, that these lekythoi are the
-beautiful white lekythoi in our collections; it is more likely that they
-are the very roughly painted little jugs found in large quantities in
-tombs, but rarely placed with selected museum examples.
-
-
-
-
-SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
-The technique of Greek vases has naturally been a subject of study with
-most writers on Greek ceramics. The following is a selection of the most
-important works in this field:
-
-    BLÜMNER, H. Technologie u. Terminologie der Gewerbe u. Künste
-    bei den Griechen u. Römern, II, pp. 32 ff. Leipzig, 1895.
-
-    BRONGNIART, A. Traité des arts céramiques ou des poteries, I.
-    Second edition, Paris, 1854.
-
-    JAHN, O. Über ein Vasenbild welches eine Töpferei vorstellt,
-    in Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
-    Leipzig, 1854.
-
-    JAMOT, P., in Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités
-    grecques et romaines, under figlinum.
-
-    LUYNES, Duc de. De la poterie antique, in Annali
-    dell’Instituto, IV, pp. 138 ff. Milan, 1894.
-
-    PERROT, G., in Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art dans
-    l’antiquité, IX, pp. 322 ff. Paris, 1911.
-
-    POTTIER, E. Catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite au
-    Musée du Louvre, III, pp. 651 ff. Paris, 1906.
-
-    RAYET, O., et Collignon, M. Histoire de la céramique grecque,
-    Introduction. Paris, 1888.
-
-    REICHHOLD, K., in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-    Vasenmalerei, text passim but especially I, pp. 12 ff., 19 ff.,
-    45, 54, 68, 82, 140, 145 ff., 181; II, pp. 199 ff. Munich, 1904.
-
-    ROBINSON, E. Catalogue of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Vases in
-    the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, pp. 33 ff. Boston and New
-    York, 1893.
-
-    WALTERS, H. B. History of Ancient Pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and
-    Roman, I, pp. 202 ff. London, 1905.
-
-    WHEELER, J. R., in Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, pp.
-    420 ff. New York, 1909.
-
-The two following handbooks on the manufacture of modern pottery will be
-found useful also by students of ancient techniques:
-
-    BINNS, C. F. The Potter’s Craft. New York, 1910 (second
-    edition, 1922).
-
-    COX, G. Pottery for Artisans, Craftsmen, and Teachers. New
-    York, 1914.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-    Alumina, 47.
-
-
-    Binder, medium used as, 16, 47, 50.
-
-    Biscuit, 34-37, 51.
-
-    Blunging, 2.
-
-    “Bone-dry,” 11.
-
-    Brush-case, 74.
-
-    Brushes, 47, 51, 52, 70, 71-75; representations of, 70-72.
-
-    Bucchero pottery, technique of, 45.
-
-    Building, 4, 26-27, 93-94; coils, 26; literary references to,
-    93-94; terracotta statuette of man in act of(?), 70; wooden
-    core for, 93-94.
-
-
-    Calipers, 15, 16, 65.
-
-    Carbon, 30, 45; dioxide, 30; monoxide, 30.
-
-    Centering, 7, 8.
-
-    Clay, 1, 20, 40-44; color of, 1, 3, 45, 54, 55, 58, 87, 88;
-    component parts of, 1, 88; ingredients of, 1, 55, 57; literary
-    references to, 87, 88; plasticity of, 1, 2, 88; porosity
-    of, 1, 59, 61, 62; preparation of, 1, 88; varieties of, 40;
-    vitrification of, 1, 29, 30; washing of, 2, 3.
-
-    Color, 36, 54, 58, 59; accessory, 44; change of, through
-    firing, 1, 3, 31, 36, 45, 58; literary references to, _see_
-    Miltos.
-
-    Cones, pyrometric, 35, 36.
-
-
-    Decorating, 35, 39, 42, 44, 51; ancient representations of, 40,
-    70-75.
-
-    Design, 15; before or after firing, 37-44; preliminary, 37, 39,
-    58, 72.
-
-    Draught, 30, 31, 33, 76.
-
-    Drying, 10, 21.
-
-
-    Fashioning of vases, 4-29; literary references to, 89-94.
-
-    Finish, 25, 69; inside, 15; outer surface, 25; under handles,
-    25.
-
-    Firing of vases, 3, 29-47, 79; accidents through, 36, 37, 40,
-    41, 44-47; length of, 35, 36; literary references to, 94-96;
-    methods of, 34-36; number of firings, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44;
-    temperature of, 35; “twice-fired,” 35, 37, 39.
-
-    Foot, 11, 12, 17, 18, 26.
-
-    Fuel, 30, 33, 34, 65, 76.
-
-
-    Glaze, 19, 31, 34-36, 39, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 74, 78, 86;
-    application of, 39, 40-44, 47-53, 57, 72; Athenian, 48-49;
-    composition of, 47-49; discoloration of, 45-47; preparation of,
-    47; varieties of, 47; wearing qualities, 47-49.
-
-    Gum tragacanth, 47.
-
-
-    Handles, 19-25, 56, 60, 62; attachment of, 19, 21, 67, 69;
-    handmade, 20, 24; moulded, 20, 28.
-
-
-    Implements, potter’s, 10, 11, 64, 84-86.
-
-    Incision of details, 37-39.
-
-
-    Jigger, 11.
-
-    Joining, 16-19, 28, 29; representation of, on pinax(?), 68, 69.
-
-    Jolly, 11.
-
-
-    Kiln, 21, 32-37, 41, 44-46, 86; ancient representations of, 34,
-    64, 65, 76-78; literary references to, 89, 94-96; packing of,
-    34.
-
-
-    “Lagerringe,” 46.
-
-    “Lasur,” _see_ Miltos.
-
-    Leather-hard, 10, 16, 25, 37, 39, 40, 44, 50, 51, 58, 65.
-
-    Lip, 11, 12, 29, 44, 60.
-
-
-    Metics, as potters, 100; social standing of, 100.
-
-    Miltos, 47, 53-59, 61; as wash, 58, 59; laws governing export
-    of, 96, 97; literary references to, 96-98; methods of applying,
-    55-58.
-
-    Mortar, for crushing glaze, 74.
-
-    Moulding of vases, 20, 24, 27-29.
-
-    Moulds, 4, 12, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 86; material of, 27, 29, 86.
-
-
-    Oven, _see_ Kiln.
-
-    Oxidation, 30, 58.
-
-    Oxide, 1; boron, 47; calcium, 1; ferric, 30, 31, 45, 46;
-    ferrous, 30, 31, 45, 46, 49.
-
-
-    Painting, 39, 40, 42, 51, 70-75, 98; brushes for, 51-53, 70-72,
-    75.
-
-    Paint-pots, 70, 71, 74, 75.
-
-    Pinax, 65, 67-69, 73, 75-78.
-
-    Plaster, 20, 21, 26, 27, 85.
-
-    Polishing, 19, 58; tools for, 19.
-
-    Porosity, 1, 59, 61, 62; literary reference to, 98.
-
-    Potter, 14, 15, 17-19, 25, 27, 31, 40, 44, 47, 54, 55; ancient
-    representations of, 5, 9, 64-77, 80, 81; implements of, 10, 11,
-    64, 84-86; literary references to, 87-105; “master potter,” 75,
-    80; miscellaneous scenes, 78-84; shop of, 81, 82; statues of
-    Greek, 98-100, 102-105; of Roman, 99, 102; women as, 71.
-
-    Pottery, ancient representations of, 64-70, 75, 77, 78;
-    literary references to, 87-104.
-
-    Proportion, 14, 26, 59.
-
-    Pyrometer, 35.
-
-    Pyrometric cones, 35, 36.
-
-
-    Red ochre, _see_ Miltos.
-
-    Reduction, 30, 31, 45, 46; partial, 31.
-
-    “Relief” lines, 52, 53.
-
-    Rivets, 59, 63.
-
-
-    Saggers, 32, 34.
-
-    Satyr, stoking oven, 83; head, to avert evil eye, 64, 65.
-
-    Sections, work in, 15-19.
-
-    Ship, with pottery, 82, 83.
-
-    Shrinkage, 16, 28.
-
-    Silicate, 47, 49.
-
-    Slip, 2, 11, 16, 19, 21, 27, 28.
-
-    Stele, votive, 80, 81; “master potter,” 80.
-
-    Stilts, 34, 85, 86.
-
-    Stoking kiln, 65, 76.
-
-    Strainer for clay, 2; for glaze, 74.
-
-    Symmetry, Dynamic, 14.
-
-
-    Temperature of firing, 3, 29-32, 35, 36, 55.
-
-    Templet, 27.
-
-    “Test,” 43, 44.
-
-    Throwing, 7-9, 12, 29; ancient representations of, 65, 66;
-    in sections, 15-19, 69; literary references to, 88-91; to
-    measurements, 9, 14, 15.
-
-    Turning, 10-15, 19, 40, 42; literary references to, 89-92;
-    tools for, 10-12, 14, 18.
-
-
-    Use of Greek vases, 59-63; as ornaments, 60, 61; as practical
-    utensils, 59-63; as votive offerings, 60.
-
-
-    Vases, Attic, 12, 27-29, 54, 58, 59; fragility of, 59, 62;
-    measurements of, 14; porosity of, 59, 61, 62; proportions of,
-    59; value of, 87, 100, 101; wearing qualities of, 59, 62.
-
-    Vasiliki ware, technique of, 45.
-
-    Votive offerings, 60, 67, 68, 73, 75.
-
-
-    Wedging, 2, 3; literary reference to, 88.
-
-    Wheel, 4-9, 27, 29, 51, 54; ancient representations of,
-    5, 65-68, 72, 73; invention of potter’s, 27, 89; literary
-    references to, 88-91, 97, 103; types of, 4-6, 91.
-
-    Wheel-head, 7, 84, 85.
-
-
-
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-<h1 class="pgx" title="">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Craft of Athenian Pottery, by Gisela M.
-A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter</h1>
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
-and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.  If you are not
-located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
-<p>Title: The Craft of Athenian Pottery</p>
-<p>       An Investigation of the Technique of Black-Figured and Red-Figured Athenian Vases</p>
-<p>Author: Gisela M. A. (Gisela Marie Augusta) Richter</p>
-<p>Release Date: August 31, 2020  [eBook #63091]</p>
-<p>Language: English</p>
-<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
-<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY***</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<h4 class="pgx" title="">E-text prepared by ellinora<br />
-    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
-    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
-    from page images generously made available by<br />
-    Internet Archive<br />
-    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff; max-width: 80%; margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
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-    <td valign="top">
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-    </td>
-    <td class="pgx" >
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      <a href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000024550">
-      https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000024550</a><br />
-      <br />
-      Some characters might not display in this html version (<i>e.g.</i>, empty squares).
-      If so, the reader should consult the original page images noted above.
-    </td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="pgx" />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM<br />
-OF ART<br />
-PUBLICATION OF<br />
-THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION</p>
-
-<p class="center">THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY<br />
-BY GISELA M. A. RICHTER</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">OF THIS BOOK<br />
-500 COPIES WERE PRINTED<br />
-IN MAY 1923</p>
-
-<p class="center">500 ADDITIONAL COPIES<br />
-WERE PRINTED<br />
-IN MARCH 1924</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM<br />
-OF ART</p>
-
-<h1>THE CRAFT OF<br />
-ATHENIAN POTTERY</h1>
-
-<p class="center">AN INVESTIGATION OF THE<br />
-TECHNIQUE OF BLACK-FIGURED AND<br />
-RED-FIGURED ATHENIAN VASES</p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">BY<br />
-<span class="smcap">GISELA M. A. RICHTER, Litt.D.</span><br />
-<span class="smaller">ASSOCIATE CURATOR, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICAL ART</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/lux.jpg" width="150" height="140" alt="LUX ET VERITAS" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="titlepage">NEW HAVEN<br />
-YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
-<span class="smaller">LONDON · HUMPHREY MILFORD · OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</span><br />
-MDCCCCXXIV</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p>
-
-<p class="titlepage smaller">COPYRIGHT 1923 BY THE<br />
-METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART</p>
-
-<p class="titlepage smaller">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<table summary="Contents">
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2"></td>
-    <td class="tdpg smaller"><i>Page</i></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">List of Illustrations</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">vii</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Preface</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PREFACE">xi</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Chapter I. Technical Processes in the Making of Modern Pottery and their Application to the Technique of Ancient Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#I_TECHNICAL">1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Preparation of the Clay</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Ingredients and Properties</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Washing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Wedging</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Fashioning the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>(1) Wheelwork</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Types of Wheel</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Throwing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Turning</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Work in Sections</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Polishing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l4">
-    <td>Attachment of handles</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>(2) Building</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>(3) Moulding</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Firing the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Production of Temperature</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Types of Kilns</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Packing the Kiln</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Firing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Number of Firings</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>Injuries in the Firing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Glazing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Red Ochre Wash</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Were Athenian Vases Made for Every-Day Use?</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Chapter II. Representations of Ancient Potters</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#II_REPRESENTATIONS">64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Fashioning the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Decorating the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Firing the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Miscellaneous Scenes</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Representations Wrongly Interpreted as Pottery Scenes</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Potter’s Implements</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_84">84</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Chapter III. References to the Pottery Craft in Ancient Literature</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#III_REFERENCES">87</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Preparation of the Clay</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Fashioning the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>(1) Wheelwork</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l3">
-    <td>(2) Building</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Firing the Vases</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Red Ochre Wash</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>Porosity of Greek Pottery</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l2">
-    <td>The Status of Potters</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Conclusion</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CONCLUSION">106</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Selected Bibliography</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#SELECTED_BIBLIOGRAPHY">109</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="l1">
-    <td colspan="2">Index</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">111</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<table summary="List of illustrations">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right smaller"><i>Figure</i></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="tdpg smaller"><i>Page</i></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">1.</td>
-    <td>Wedging (a)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig1">3</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">2.</td>
-    <td>Wedging (b)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig2">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">3.</td>
-    <td>Kick-wheel with treadle</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig3">5</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">4.</td>
-    <td>Kick-wheel with disk</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig4"> 6</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">5.</td>
-    <td>Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig5"> 6</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Processes of throwing</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">6.</td>
-    <td>Centering ball</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig6">7</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">7.</td>
-    <td>Pressing clay down</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig6">7</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">8.</td>
-    <td>Squeezing clay into cone</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig6">7</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">9.</td>
-    <td>Inserting thumb</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig6">7</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">10.</td>
-    <td>Making cylinder</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig10">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">11.</td>
-    <td>Making bowl</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig10">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">12.</td>
-    <td>Making jar</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig10">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">13.</td>
-    <td>Making bottle</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig10">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td class="right">14.</td>
-    <td>Turning a vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig14">10</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">15.</td>
-    <td>Turned foot</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig15">11</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">16.</td>
-    <td>Foot left as thrown</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig16">12</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">17.</td>
-    <td>Turning marks on outside of vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig17">13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">18.</td>
-    <td>Turning marks on inside of vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig18">13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">19.</td>
-    <td>Finishing marks left in handwork</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig19">14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">20.</td>
-    <td>Unturned inside of amphora</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig20">15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">21.</td>
-    <td>Vase thrown in sections</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig21">16</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">22.</td>
-    <td>Sections in place</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig22">17</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">23.</td>
-    <td>Vase after turning</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig23">17</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">24.</td>
-    <td>Wet cellar</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig24">18</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">25.</td>
-    <td>Detail of kylix showing joint</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig25">19</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">26.</td>
-    <td>Detail of amphora showing difference between polished and unpolished surfaces</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig26">20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">27.</td>
-    <td>Attachment of handles</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig27">21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">28-33.</td>
-    <td>Athenian vases showing treatment of handles</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig28">22, 23, 24</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">34.</td>
-    <td>Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig34">25</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">35.</td>
-    <td>Making coils</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig35">26</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">36.</td>
-    <td>Vase poured in a mould</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig36">28</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">37.</td>
-    <td>Inside of moulded vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig37">29</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">38.</td>
-    <td>Vase showing joint of two parts of mould</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig38">30</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">39.</td>
-    <td>Open kiln</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig39">31</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">40.</td>
-    <td>Muffle kiln with biscuit ware</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig40">32</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">41.</td>
-    <td>Open kiln showing saggers</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig41">33</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">42.</td>
-    <td>Muffle kiln with glazed ware</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig42">34</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">43.</td>
-    <td>Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig43">37</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">44.</td>
-    <td>Design on red-figured krater.</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td>(a) Preliminary sketch</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig44">38</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td>(b) Completed painting</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig44">38</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">45.</td>
-    <td>Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig45">41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">46.</td>
-    <td>Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body still adhering</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig46">42</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">47.</td>
-    <td>Unfinished kylix</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig47">43</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">48.</td>
-    <td>Foot of unfinished kylix</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig48">43</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">49.</td>
-    <td>Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig49">46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Methods of Glazing</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">50.</td>
-    <td>Dipping</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig50">48</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">51.</td>
-    <td>Pouring</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig51">49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">52.</td>
-    <td>Use of the brush</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig52">50</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">53.</td>
-    <td>Spraying</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig53">51</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td class="right">54.</td>
-    <td>Hydria showing brush marks</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig54">52</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">55.</td>
-    <td>Detail of psykter showing relief line</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig55">53</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">56.</td>
-    <td>Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line (on arm) going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig56">57</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">57.</td>
-    <td>Inside of krater showing extensive wear</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig57">63</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Representations of ancient potters fashioning vases</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">58.</td>
-    <td>Athenian pottery establishment</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig58">64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">59.</td>
-    <td>Potter throwing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig59">66</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">60.</td>
-    <td>Potter throwing</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig60">66</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">61.</td>
-    <td>Potter attaching handles</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig61">67</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">62.</td>
-    <td>Potter incising lines (?)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig62">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">63.</td>
-    <td>Potter joining sections (?)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig63">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">64.</td>
-    <td>Boy finishing a vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig64">69</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">65.</td>
-    <td>Potter building a vase</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig65">70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Representations of ancient potters decorating vases</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">66.</td>
-    <td>Athena and Victories crowning potters at work</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig66">71</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">67.</td>
-    <td>Youth decorating kylix</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig67">72</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">68.</td>
-    <td>Potter glazing kylix</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig68">73</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">69.</td>
-    <td>Potter painting bands on a krater</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">70.</td>
-    <td>Three youths, one painting a krater</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig70">74</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">71.</td>
-    <td>Pottery establishment</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig71">75</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Representations of ancient potters firing</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">72.</td>
-    <td>Potter stoking fire</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig72">76</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">73.</td>
-    <td>Potter stoking fire</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig72">76</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">74-79.</td>
-    <td>Potters regulating draught</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig74">77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">80.</td>
-    <td>Vases stacked in potter’s kiln</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig80">78</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Representations of ancient potters: miscellaneous scenes</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">81.</td>
-    <td>Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig81">79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">82.</td>
-    <td>Youth working on vases (?)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig82">79</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">83.</td>
-    <td>Master potter(?)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig83">80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">84.</td>
-    <td>Woman potter(?)</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig84">81</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">85.</td>
-    <td>Client in potter’s shop</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig85">82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">86.</td>
-    <td>Ship with cargo of pottery</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig86">82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="section">
-    <td colspan="3"><i>Potter’s Implements</i>:</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">87.</td>
-    <td>Wheel-head</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig87">84</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">88.</td>
-    <td>Tools found at Arezzo</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig88">85</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="right">89.</td>
-    <td>Stilt</td>
-    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#fig89">85</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="dropcap">For our knowledge of the technique of Athenian vases
-we have various sources of information. There are
-a number of references to the craft in ancient literature;
-we have several actual representations of potters
-at work among extant vase paintings; and there is the
-important testimony of the vases themselves. The information
-gleaned from these three sources has been duly worked
-over by archaeologists, and the many accounts we have of
-the technique of Greek vases are all based more or less on
-this evidence. There is, however, another very important
-source of information ready to our hand which has not been
-fully utilized, namely, the study of the technical processes
-employed in the making of modern pottery. For, the
-nature and properties of clay being the same now that they
-were in Greek times, the manner of working it must have
-been essentially the same then as now. Many archaeologists
-have, of course, seen potters at work in different places, or
-perhaps consulted potters on specific points; but that is a
-different thing from getting a thorough knowledge of the
-craft oneself and learning once for all what is possible and
-what is not possible in clay-working.</p>
-
-<p>The neglect of this highly valuable source of information
-has led to some surprising theories regarding the technique
-of Greek vases; and these theories have been repeated over
-and over again in our books on vases, for the simple reason
-that, not having any first-hand knowledge, we have copied
-these statements from one another. A modern potter reading
-these accounts finds them remarkable literature. The
-present writer, realizing her own ignorance on the many
-questions of clay-working, went to a modern pottery school.
-The result of this first-hand study was not only the acquisition
-of new knowledge, but a totally new insight into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span>
-whole subject. The present essay is an attempt to revise
-the current theories of the technique of Athenian pottery
-in the light of this practical experience.</p>
-
-<p>Not only does such practical experience supply us with
-the knowledge essential for the consideration of technical
-problems, but it gives us a new appreciation of the beauty
-of Athenian vases. If we try to make such shapes ourselves
-we shall begin to observe many details which perhaps
-passed unnoticed before—the finely designed handles, the
-well-proportioned feet, the practical mouths; and the
-curves, the mouldings, and the subtle variations will become
-a constant delight to the eye. Moreover, we shall be
-impressed more than ever with the wonderful sense of proportion
-in Athenian vases. For the relation of the height
-to the width, the proportions of the neck, the body, the foot,
-and the handles to one another appear to be all nicely
-thought out. There is no hit-or-miss about it; the whole is
-an interrelated theme evidently planned carefully before
-making, either by the potter himself or by a professional
-designer.</p>
-
-<p>In short, any one who has tried his hand in the production
-of Greek forms will understand very well that the
-makers of such vases were proud of their work and that the
-signature of a well-known potter was at least as valuable as
-that of a popular decorator.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>The pottery school to which I went was the New York
-State School of Ceramics at Alfred, New York. Throughout
-my work at the school and later in my investigation of
-Greek vases at the Metropolitan Museum, I had the great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[xiii]</span>
-benefit of the advice of Professor Charles F. Binns, director
-of the school. In fact, any value which this paper may possess
-is largely due to this opportunity of appeal to someone
-who possesses the rare combination of expert knowledge in
-the field of practical pottery with a scholar’s attitude toward
-the problems presented by the ancient ware. It is also a
-pleasure to acknowledge the many helpful suggestions made
-from time to time by Miss Maude Robinson, director of the
-pottery work at Greenwich House, New York, as well as by
-Miss Elsie Binns and Harold Nash, modern potters whom I
-have had the advantage of consulting on various questions.
-I am indebted to Miss Helen McClees for valuable assistance
-in the section dealing with the references to pottery craft
-in ancient literature. In my examination of Greek vases,
-which necessitated handling of the specimens, I was greatly
-helped by the courteous assistance of many museum
-directors.</p>
-
-<p>The plan of this book is as follows: <a href="#I_TECHNICAL">The first chapter</a>
-gives a concise account of the processes in use in the making
-of vases at modern pottery schools<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and their application to
-the technique of ancient vases. <a href="#II_REPRESENTATIONS">The second chapter</a> contains
-a description of the various representations we have of
-ancient potters at work. In <a href="#III_REFERENCES">the third chapter</a> are collected
-the chief Greek and Latin texts referring to the ancient pottery
-craft. After this presentation of all the evidence on
-the technique of Athenian vases comes <a href="#CONCLUSION">a short summary of
-the new conclusions</a> arrived at, and <a href="#SELECTED_BIBLIOGRAPHY">a selected bibliography</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The illustrations of modern pottery scenes were taken
-under the direction of Charles F. Binns at the New York
-State School of Ceramics, Alfred,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and of Maude Robinson
-at pottery studios in New York City.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="I_TECHNICAL">I. TECHNICAL PROCESSES<br />
-<span class="smaller">IN THE MAKING OF MODERN POTTERY AND THEIR
-APPLICATION TO THE TECHNIQUE OF ANCIENT VASES</span></h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<h3>PREPARATION OF THE CLAY</h3>
-
-<h4><i>Ingredients and properties.</i></h4>
-
-<p class="dropcap">The making of a pot begins in the clay bed. The
-clay has to be found, it has to be transported, and
-above all it has to be tested to see whether it is
-adapted to the potter’s needs. For there are many different
-kinds of clay and they are as individual as human beings;
-so that a thorough understanding of them is essential to
-the successful potter.</p>
-
-<p>The chief ingredients of clay are silica, alumina, and
-water. Other possible ingredients are iron oxide, lime
-(calcium oxide), magnesia, and potash. To the iron compounds
-are due the different colors of the clay. When potters
-speak of the color of a clay—red, yellow, white—they
-refer to the color after burning, not in the raw state. The
-tones of the color are controlled by heat; for instance, a red
-clay becomes first pink, then in a higher fire a deeper red,
-and in a still higher fire a brownish red.</p>
-
-<p>The potter demands three properties of his clay: (1)
-plasticity, the property which enables the clay to acquire
-form; (2) porosity, the property which enables the water
-to escape; and (3) vitrification, the property which enables
-the clay to be fired. These three properties are due to the
-three chief component parts of the clay; namely, clay base,
-quartz, and feldspar. It will be found that some clays are
-not plastic enough, others not sufficiently porous, and others
-again not properly vitrifiable; in such cases the addition of
-certain substances is necessary to make the clay usable.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span>
-The actual composition of the clay, therefore, is of great
-importance, as no amount of skilful labor will avail if the
-clay itself has not the right consistency.</p>
-
-<h4><i>Washing.</i></h4>
-
-<p>When the right composition of the clay has been assured,
-the next step is to wash it and separate it from the many
-natural impurities, such as stones, sticks, etc., with which
-it is mixed. A clay not properly washed is a source of
-great vexation in the later stages of pottery making. The
-best method is that of “blunging,” that is, the dry clay
-is put into water and stirred constantly until it reaches the
-consistency of cream, technically called “slip,” whereupon
-it is poured through sieves, coarse or fine according to the
-desired consistency. The liquid clay or slip must then be
-dried sufficiently to become plastic and workable. This can
-be done either in filter presses in which the water is squeezed
-out in a comparatively short time, or in shallow receptacles in
-the open air where the water is allowed slowly to evaporate.</p>
-
-<h4><i>Wedging.</i></h4>
-
-<p>But even at this stage the clay is not yet ready for use;
-it has first to go through the important process of kneading
-or “wedging.” This consists of cutting a ball of clay in
-two against a wire (fig. <a href="#fig1">1</a>), slapping the two parts on a
-plaster or wooden board, one on top of the other (fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>),
-then lifting up the whole lump, cutting it in two again, and
-slapping it down as before. The purpose is to remove all
-air bubbles and to correct irregularities in hardness. The
-operation has sometimes to be repeated fifteen or twenty
-times before a good texture is secured.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="350" height="500" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 1. Wedging (a)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>We learn from the above survey that the fine consistency
-of the clay in Athenian and in some other Greek wares is not
-necessarily due to its natural state, but to the careful washing
-and kneading undergone in its preparation for use.
-When different particles are found in the fired clay they
-are due to indifferent washing. And the varying shades of
-pink and red of Greek vases likewise do not presuppose
-different kinds of clay, but are due largely to the various
-temperatures to which the vases were fired. We have too
-often made our analyses of clays of Greek vases without due
-cognizance of these facts.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p>
-
-<h3>FASHIONING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<h4>(1) WHEELWORK</h4>
-
-<p>There are three principal ways of making vases—fashioning
-them on the wheel, building them, and making
-them from moulds. Let us examine first the work on the
-wheel, the potter’s tool par excellence.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 2. Wedging (b)</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5><i>Types of wheel.</i></h5>
-
-<p>There are various types of wheel in general use today.
-The wheel run by electric power does not concern us here
-since it cannot have been used by the Greeks. In studio<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span>
-potteries, a kick-wheel is often used. In this the operator
-stands and kicks with his left foot against a treadle, the
-weight of his body being supported by the right (fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>).
-Another fairly popular type has a large, heavy disk at the
-bottom revolving in a horizontal plane, and kept in motion
-by one foot of the operator (fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>). A very simple type
-of wheel in use some time ago is illustrated in fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a>. Here
-the motion is imparted by an assistant turning the handle.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 3. Kick-wheel with treadle</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Any one of these three types may have been used by the
-Greeks. In the representations of ancient potters at work
-(cf. <a href="#Page_64">pp. 64 ff.</a>) the wheel appears to have been propelled
-either with the foot or by an assistant.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 4. Kick-Wheel with disk</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle</p>
-<p class="caption">Barber, <i>The Pottery and Porcelain of the United States</i>, p. 4, fig. 2</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p>
-
-<h5><i>Throwing.</i></h5>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;" id="fig6">
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 6-9.</span> Processes of throwing</p>
-<img src="images/fig6-9.jpg" width="600" height="700" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 6. Centering ball</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 7. Pressing clay down</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 8. Squeezing clay into cone</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 9. Inserting thumb</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;" id="fig10">
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 10-13.</span> Processes of throwing</p>
-<img src="images/fig10-13.jpg" width="600" height="700" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 10. Making cylinder</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 11. Making bowl</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 12. Making jar</p>
-<p class="caption">Fig. 13. Making bottle</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first task in fashioning a vase on the wheel—or
-“throwing” it, as it is technically called—is to center the
-ball of clay on the wheel-head. It is accomplished by
-pressing the left hand against the ball of clay as it revolves
-rapidly, care being taken to keep the left forearm absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span>
-rigid (fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a>). The right hand is used for keeping
-the clay wet by sprinkling it with water, and for pulling
-the clay inward, thus squeezing it up to a cone. The cone
-is pressed up and down in this manner several times (figs.
-<a href="#fig6">7</a> and <a href="#fig6">8</a>). When the ball runs perfectly true, it is time to
-open it by inserting the thumb in the center (fig. <a href="#fig6">9</a>); then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span>
-by placing the fingers of one hand inside the hollow, and the
-fingers of the other on the outside,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and by raising both
-hands gradually several times and squeezing the clay lightly
-while so doing, a cylinder is formed (fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>). The cylinder
-is the foundation of all other shapes. For to produce a
-bowl, one need only pull out the cylinder a little at the top
-(fig. <a href="#fig10">11</a>); to make a globular jar, pull it out at the bottom
-and in at the top (fig. <a href="#fig10">12</a>); to fashion a long-necked vase,
-pull it out at the bottom and in at the top, leaving enough
-clay to spin the top into a tall, narrow cylinder which will
-serve as a neck (fig. <a href="#fig10">13</a>); and by various other manipulations
-one can produce almost every variety of shape. To
-throw a vase to specific measurements, a careful drawing of
-the shape should first be made and calipers and measuring
-sticks kept close at hand for checking the work as it
-proceeds.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest Greek vases are made by hand; but from the
-Early Minoan III and Middle Helladic I periods (i.e.,
-about 2200 B.C.) in certain places at least, vases were regularly
-thrown on the wheel. They could not have the regular
-and symmetrical outlines they have if they were built by
-hand, and many would show traces of vertical joints if
-they were made in moulds.</p>
-
-<p>That the processes of throwing were identical with those
-described as in use today, there is of course no means of
-determining; but they certainly must have been similar, as
-clay has not changed its nature from Greek times to ours.
-The evidence which we glean from representations on Greek
-vases of potters at work, scanty though it is, bears out this
-self-evident fact. From the above description it will be noted
-that in this work of throwing the simultaneous use of both
-hands is necessary—an important fact to remember when
-interpreting scenes to be related to the fashioning of vases.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p>
-
-<h5><i>Turning.</i></h5>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 14. Turning a vase</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>After a piece has been thrown on the wheel, it has
-assumed its general shape, but that is all. The thinning of
-the walls, the refinements of foot and lip, all such finishing
-touches must be reserved for the next process. This is
-known among modern potters as “turning.” In this the
-clay is no longer in a wet state, but in a “leather-hard”
-condition, and it is not worked with the hands but with
-steel cutting tools. A newly shaped vase becomes leather
-hard after it has been kept in the air and the water allowed
-to evaporate for about twenty-four hours. Pieces in this
-state are hard enough to be handled with care and to be cut
-easily with a knife. They are not so fragile as either in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span>
-wet or in the “bone-dry” state, but they are still delicate
-and exposed to many dangers. Not until a vase has been
-fired is it safe to handle it freely. The cutting with the
-steel tools is done on the wheel (or “jigger”<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>), the right
-hand which grasps the tool being kept steady by letting it
-rest on a stick held in the left hand; the stick should have
-a sharpened nail on one end, the point of which is pressed
-into a wooden board at the height required (fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>). By
-continued cutting off of thin shavings of clay and by adding
-more clay in slip form when more is needed, the final outline
-of the shape and the various grooves and mouldings for
-lip and foot can be obtained. But it is a slow process,
-requiring time, care, and great patience. For the smoothing
-of the surface, scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge are
-useful.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-
-<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 15. Turned foot</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.234.2</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 16. Foot left as thrown</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.232.30</p>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 17. Turning marks on outside of vase</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.64</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="400" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 18. Turning marks on inside of vase</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.1228</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This turning or refining of the shape after throwing, was,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>
-as we might expect, not in universal use in ancient times.
-Prior to the sixth century B.C. it was used occasionally here
-and there, and often only to a limited extent. But there
-cannot be the slightest doubt that in the Athenian black-figured
-and red-figured vases extensive use was made of the
-turning tools. The grooves and mouldings for lip and foot
-were produced by this turning process, not, as modern
-archaeologists tell us, by the use of moulds.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> For this there
-is abundant proof. The feet of Athenian vases are almost
-all turned at the bottom, some with remarkable care and
-finish (fig. <a href="#fig15">15</a>), not left flat, as they would be after throwing
-(fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>). The lids of pyxides and similar vases could not
-have been made to fit so neatly on their ledges without the
-use of turning. Above all, the wonderful finish and precision
-of Athenian vases could never have been attained by
-mere throwing. But there is even more convincing proof.
-Unless the marks of the turning tools are very carefully
-obliterated (with scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge), traces<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>
-of them are always visible. And this is the case also in
-Athenian vases. The outside surfaces are generally carefully
-smoothed, but even there the ridges formed by the
-tools are often discernible (fig. <a href="#fig17">17</a>); and on the inside of
-the necks or feet or lids such ridges and concentric or spiral
-scratches are quite frequent (fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>). They are very different,
-however, from the finishing marks left in handwork
-(fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a>). To appreciate the fine, smooth surface which
-work with the turning tools produces, we need only examine
-the insides of most Athenian amphorai and hydriai; for
-these, being more or less concealed, are generally left as
-thrown, often showing the spiral ridges which rapidly
-revolving clay will cause (fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>). They thus form a striking
-contrast to the finely smoothed outside surfaces.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 19. Finishing marks left in handwork</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.834</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fact that the Athenian potter made use of the turning
-process shows incidentally that he was able to make his
-vases to very exact measurements. This is important in
-connection with Jay Hambidge’s theory that Athenian pottery
-was carefully designed on certain geometrical principles;<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
-for if the Athenian potter had confined himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>
-merely to throwing on the wheel that would not have been
-possible. It is during the second process of turning that an
-expert potter can effect many changes in width and height
-or in details, and thus make his product correspond exactly
-with his carefully planned design. Modern potters of
-standing work in the same way today. They first make a
-drawing of a vase, full size or to scale, and then proceed to
-follow this drawing in every detail, using rules and calipers
-for their guidance. Of course it needs a great deal of skill
-and patience to be able to work so exactly; but Greek potters,
-we can be quite sure, had a good supply of both of
-these qualities.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="350" height="400" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 20. Unturned inside of amphora</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.545</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5><i>Work in sections.</i></h5>
-
-<p>So far we have spoken only of comparatively small vases,
-which can be thrown all in one piece. Larger vases are
-best thrown in sections. To throw large jars in one piece
-requires great physical strength, and it is very difficult to
-finish such jars properly on the inside and to prevent them
-from being unduly heavy. The section work is by no means<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>
-easy. At first a drawing of the vase has to be made, either
-full size or to scale, and the heights of the different parts
-marked off. While throwing the respective pieces use must
-be made of measuring sticks and calipers, to obtain the
-right heights and diameters. The measurements should be
-those of the soft clay, which will of course be slightly larger
-than those of the final shape. About one-eighth is the
-average allowance for the shrinkage of the clay in drying
-and firing. This shrinkage will naturally be proportional;
-so that the relation of every part to the whole will be the
-same in the fired vase as in the thrown product. The joining
-is obtained by applying a thick slip of the same clay as
-was used for the vase, to act as a binder. When all the sections
-are in place the outside of the vase can be “turned.”
-If this and the foregoing processes are done skilfully the
-final joints will hardly be visible, even before the glaze is
-applied. Figs. <a href="#fig21">21</a>, <a href="#fig22">22</a>, <a href="#fig23">23</a> show the three chief stages in the
-making of a vase in sections.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="500" height="200" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 21. Vase thrown in sections</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To obtain good results in this work it is important that it
-should not be hurried. It is best, for instance, before joining
-the sections, to let them stand on top of one another for
-a day or longer, in order that they may mature together.
-To retain the pieces during this time in leather-hard condition,
-they must be kept in a “wet cellar,” that is, in a moist<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>
-place where the water in the clay will not evaporate (fig.
-<a href="#fig24">24</a>). With this simple precaution pieces can be kept
-leather hard practically indefinitely.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-
-<div class="figmulti" style="width: 250px;" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 22. Sections in place</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figmulti" style="width: 250px;" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 23. Vase after turning</p>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Section work was used by the Greeks, as it is now. There
-would, in fact, be nothing gained in throwing the very
-large vases, such as some of the kraters and amphorai, all
-in one piece; and though the joints are, as a rule, skilfully
-concealed, they are plainly visible on certain examples, especially
-on the inside. Where possible the joints seem to
-have been made at the natural angles or “articulations”
-of the vase (that is, at the neck, the foot, etc.); and further
-to simplify the work, a thin ridge of clay was often added
-to conceal the joint.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="350" height="500" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 24. Wet cellar</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the most difficult things to throw successfully is a
-flat, wide bowl on a foot; and the larger the diameter of the
-bowl the more difficult the task, since the overhanging rim
-almost always sags at the critical moment. The fifth-century<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>
-kylix has therefore always been rightly admired as one of
-the greatest feats of the Athenian potter. How did he prevent
-the bowl from sagging? Did he throw it upside down
-and hollow it out later with the turning tools? Or did he
-make the base very thick and then “turn” it down to fit on
-a slender foot? Both methods would be clumsy, as they
-would entail lengthy turning work. Or was the Athenian
-potter so skilful that he somehow prevented the clay from
-sagging? Not at all. He simply threw his kylix in two sections;
-the foot with a bowl about half the required diameter
-in one piece (or possibly two, with the foot separate), and
-the remaining part of the bowl as a separate section. The
-joints where the two parts of the bowl were united are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span>
-clearly visible on many kylikes on the outside (fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>)<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>;
-the inside of the kylix, being the most conspicuous part, is
-always so carefully turned that no joining can be detected.</p>
-
-<h5><i>Polishing.</i></h5>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 25. Detail of kylix showing joint</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.167</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To impart a polish, the blade of a knife is applied to the
-surface while the vase is revolving; for an inward curve a
-curved tool must be used. The operation is simple and can
-be accomplished in a few minutes. It is not often employed,
-however, by the modern potter, whose object is to keep the
-pores of his vase open for the better adhesion of the glaze
-with which he intends to cover the surface of his pot.</p>
-
-<p>The Athenian potter, on the other hand, put great stress
-on giving the surface of his vase a fine polish; probably
-using the simple method described above. The difference
-between a polished and an unpolished surface is clearly seen
-on some vases on which the potter has omitted to repolish
-the parts round the handles where the slip used for the
-attachment had spilled over (fig. <a href="#fig26">26</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span></p>
-
-<h5><i>Attachment of handles.</i></h5>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between
-polished and unpolished surfaces</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The final process in the fashioning of a vase is the attachment
-of the handles. These can be made either in moulds
-or by hand. Any one who thinks that the making of
-handles is a simple or quick process will soon be undeceived.
-Whether working in plaster, as one would if the handle is
-made in a mould, or in clay, if it is made by hand, the potter
-must bestow infinite care on the work, as both clay and
-plaster are very liable to break; and working on so small a
-thing as a handle is extremely fussy. The writer personally
-found nothing so difficult in her whole pottery
-training as the making of handles. The best method of
-procedure in handwork is first to shape the handle roughly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>
-while the clay is soft and plastic, then wait until it becomes
-leather hard, and finally refine it to the desired form and
-finish with modeling tools. In moulded work, the handle
-has to be cut out in plaster and then used for making the
-mould. When the handles are finally made, they are
-joined to the vase by means of slip, in the same way that
-the sections were (fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>). As the handle is pressed into
-position the superfluous slip will of course spill over
-the edge, and this has to be carefully removed and the
-surface smoothed before the vase can be pronounced finished.
-The vase is then put in the drying room so that all
-the water in the clay may evaporate. Only when it is perfectly
-dry can it be fired in the kiln; otherwise it is liable
-to crack.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="350" height="375" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 27. Attachment of handles</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The handles of Athenian vases show perhaps better than
-anything else the great skill and sense of beauty of the
-Athenian potter; and they will repay detailed study (cf.
-figs. <a href="#fig28">28-33</a>). They are never, as so often on modern vases,
-detached pieces stuck on the vase as a kind of afterthought.
-Rather, they seem to grow out of the vase like branches
-from a tree, which gives them a wonderful, living quality.
-Moreover, the place where they were attached, the size, and
-the curve have been carefully considered both from a practical
-and from an aesthetic point of view.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="350" height="525" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 28. Amphora in the Boston Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. 01.17</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 29. Hydria in the Metropolitan Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. 06.1021.190</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="400" height="375" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 30. Kantharos in the Boston Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. 95.36</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="350" height="425" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 31. Volute krater in the Boston Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. 90.153</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="350" height="425" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 32. Bell krater in the Metropolitan Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. 07.286.86</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/fig33.jpg" width="500" height="200" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 33. Kylix in the Metropolitan Museum</p>
-<p class="caption">Acc. No. G.R.1047</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Athenian handles are made by hand, not in moulds.
-Practically every pair of handles shows perceptible variations
-such as are unavoidable in handwork and distinguish
-it from the mechanical products of moulding. The handles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>
-were attached to the vase in leather-hard condition, and
-often the pressure entailed thereby resulted in a slight
-bulge on the inner side. This is particularly noticeable on
-kylikes where the walls of the pot were especially thin.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.73</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It may be noted that the handles of Athenian vases are
-not finished off neatly in parts where they were not seen.
-For instance, the under parts of handles on column kraters
-are generally left quite rough (fig. <a href="#fig34">34</a>). This fact, together
-with that already observed, that the insides of amphorai
-and hydriai are usually unturned, shows that the Greeks, at
-least, had no such theories as those often held today that a
-work should be finished perfectly all over, even in places not
-ordinarily seen, and were quite willing to save trouble when
-possible. Many potters today bestow as much care on the
-inside of a narrow flask as on that of an open bowl. It is
-characteristic of the sense of proportion of the Greeks that
-their potters took infinite trouble with what was important—the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>
-shapes, the proportions, the decoration—but that they
-did not spend time and labor where it profited nobody.</p>
-
-<h4>(2) BUILDING</h4>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 35. Making coils</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Compared to the wheelwork the building appears simple
-at first, but experience will soon show that it too needs considerable
-practice. Though the actual process has not the
-glamor and thrill associated with wheelwork, there is a
-certain quality in a built vase which gives it a value of its
-own. Building is generally done nowadays by means of
-coils of clay (fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>), which must be a little thicker than
-the walls of the vase are to be and should be as uniform as
-possible. To make the foot of the vase, the end of one of
-these coils is laid in the center of a plaster bat and the rest
-coiled round in spiral line. To hide the joints the surface is
-rubbed over with the fingers on both sides. In making the
-walls of the vase a coil is used for each round and the
-superfluous clay pinched off, every new coil being begun at
-a new point. The whole surface, inside and outside, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>
-again smoothed by rubbing with the fingers, using very little
-water in the process. Only about three coils should be
-worked in at a time and then left to harden before new
-coils are added. In building up a certain shape it is best to
-use a templet of cardboard or plaster, to be sure that the
-profile of the vase is followed out correctly. To give the
-required finish at the end, modeling tools as well as further
-rubbing with the fingers are required.</p>
-
-<p>With this process in mind it is easy to distinguish between
-built and wheel-made pottery among the Greek wares. In
-the built pottery, however careful the work, there is always
-a certain unevenness of outline—which indeed gives it some
-of its charm. Unlike the moderns, the Greeks did not continue
-to build pottery after the invention of the wheel. Naturally
-the general adoption of the wheel was not synchronous
-in all ceramic centers. It was used considerably earlier
-in Crete, for instance, than in Cyprus. But when once its
-convenience was thoroughly realized, the slower and more
-monotonous method was entirely dropped. Among Athenian
-black-figured and red-figured vases there are no built
-pieces.</p>
-
-<h4>(3) MOULDING</h4>
-
-<p>The process of moulding vases is the one most in use
-nowadays, for the simple reason that when once the required
-mould has been made the production of any number of
-vases is a rapid and easy task. But though commercially
-favored, this method is looked down upon by the artistic
-potter as being purely mechanical, and there is no doubt
-that a moulded vase has all the characteristics of machine
-work.</p>
-
-<p>The material used for moulds nowadays is plaster. The
-clay can either be poured into a mould in slip form or
-pressed into a mould while soft and plastic. In the former
-process the mould or moulds are made in two or more pieces,
-which fit closely together leaving an opening at the top.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>
-By pouring the clay slip into the opening, leaving it to
-harden a little, and then pouring out again what has not
-hardened, a hollow vase is formed. After due shrinkage
-the mould is carefully removed from the vase (fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>).
-The same mould can be used indefinitely for making vases
-of the same shape; it has only to be dried between one use
-and the next. Handles can be produced in the same way
-and then attached.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 36. Vase poured in a mould</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In pressing clay into moulds each part of the mould is
-used separately, except where only one mould is required, as
-in the case of an open bowl or tile. When the clay has been
-carefully pressed into every part of the mould, it is left to
-harden, and then, upon shrinkage, can be easily separated.
-If the vase has been pressed in several pieces, the parts
-must be carefully joined and the seams effaced as neatly as
-possible.</p>
-
-<p>The Greek potter did not use moulding as a labor-saving
-device. He employed it only where the work demanded it,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>
-as in the Athenian plastic ware. Here we sometimes even
-find the same mould used several times, as in the group of a
-negro and a crocodile of which chance has preserved us at
-least five replicas<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>; but the number of such repetitions is not
-great and certainly would not indicate mass production.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="350" height="375" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 37. Inside of moulded vase</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.205</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The material of Greek moulds was burnt clay. That the
-Athenian plastic vases were pressed into moulds rather than
-poured can be seen from the fact that the insides of these
-vases are rough and show finger-marks (cf. fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a>). The
-joints of the two parts are clearly visible on many examples
-(cf. fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a>). Often the lip was thrown separately on the
-wheel and attached.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.203</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>FIRING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<h4><i>Production of Temperature.</i></h4>
-
-<p>In the fire the great miracle takes place and the dry clay,
-most friable and perishable of materials, becomes one of the
-most durable. This is accomplished by the softening of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>
-feldspar grains which cement the whole together and thus
-form a dense mass. To produce the temperature at which
-this phenomenon takes place two things are necessary, fuel
-and draught, the former supplying the carbon, the latter
-the oxygen. The liberation of the carbon in the fuel and
-its union with the oxygen of the air develop combustion,
-during which heat is generated. Combustion can be complete
-or incomplete. It is complete when there is an excess
-of air and the carbon can combine with two molecules of
-oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO₂). This condition is
-called oxidation. It is incomplete when there is not enough
-air and the carbon can get only one molecule of oxygen,
-forming carbon monoxide (CO). This condition is called
-reduction. Carbon monoxide, being very hungry for oxygen,
-will try to extract it from whatever source it can. If
-ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) is present in the clay—which is the
-case in red clay—the carbon monoxide will take one molecule
-of oxygen from it and convert it into ferrous oxide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span>
-(CO + Fe₂O₃ = CO₂ + 2FeO). The important feature
-in this process is that ferric oxide is red and will make the
-clay burn red; but ferrous oxide (FeO) is black and will
-give the clay a blackish color. If no ferric oxide is present
-in the clay, that is, if the clay is not a red clay, then reduction
-has no effect on the color of the clay and can be freely
-used. In Europe potters regularly burn under reducing
-conditions, while in America the general practice is to burn
-under oxidizing conditions. When the draught in the kiln
-is faulty, partial reduction will often occur, and many
-faults in the burning, especially in the glazes, are attributable
-to this cause.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 39. Open kiln</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p>
-
-<p>We shall see presently how important is a knowledge of
-these chemical changes during the process of firing when we
-come to consider the defects on Greek vases caused by
-injuries in the firing (cf. <a href="#Page_44">pp. 44 ff.</a>).</p>
-
-<h4><i>Types of kilns.</i></h4>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="350" height="475" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are two chief types of kiln construction in use
-today: (1) the open kiln, in which the flame passes through
-the kiln chamber (fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a>); (2) the muffle kiln, in which the
-flame passes around the chamber and not through it (fig.
-<a href="#fig40">40</a>). In the open kiln the ware either comes in direct contact
-with the flame, or is stacked in saggers, i.e., boxes made
-of fire clay fitting one on top of the other (fig. <a href="#fig41">41</a>). The
-muffle kiln is, so to speak, one large sagger, and the ware is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>
-stacked on shelves. The draught in the kiln can be either
-an up draught or a down draught; in either case the air
-supply, as well as the fuel supply, must be under control,
-so that the combustion shall be as desired. The draught
-can be regulated by means of dampers, the fuel by attention
-to the burners. An arched top is an advantage, for it
-imparts greater strength—an important item considering
-the strain to which the kiln is subjected—and it facilitates
-the circulation of the heat. Coal, wood, gas, or kerosene oil
-can be used for fuel. Of these, oil and gas are now the
-most popular; coal and wood are rapidly coming into disuse
-on account of the greater labor they entail.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="350" height="525" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 41. Open kiln showing saggers</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span></p>
-
-<h4><i>Packing the kiln.</i></h4>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In packing the kiln the ware is stacked as closely as possible
-for economical reasons, so that as much as possible
-shall be accomplished in one firing. In biscuit firing the
-ware can be placed so that it touches (fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a>); in glaze
-firing the pieces must be separated (fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a>) both from one
-another and from the bottom of the saggers or shelves on
-which they stand, since the melted glaze is apt to run.
-Glazed pieces are therefore generally placed on stilts made of
-burnt clay, and the marks of these stilts will often show on
-the bottoms of the vases.</p>
-
-<p>That the chief features of modern and Athenian kilns
-were similar is clear from an examination of the ancient
-representations of kilns (cf. figs. <a href="#fig72">72-81</a> and <a href="#Page_76">pp. 76 ff.</a>). How
-closely the ware was sometimes stacked is clearly seen in
-fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>. The fuel used by the Greeks was probably wood
-and charcoal.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span></p>
-
-<p>Almost all modern pottery is twice fired; once for the
-conversion of the clay into terracotta or biscuit, and the
-second time for the glaze. To glaze unbiscuited ware is a
-delicate business, and the risk of glazing a piece of raw
-clay is considered larger than the trouble of burning it a
-second time. It is done occasionally when very tough clay
-is used, for instance, in kitchen crooks and in stoneware; in
-that case it is best to apply the glaze when the clay is in
-leather-hard condition, for then the absorption is less.
-More than the two regular firings are often used for correcting
-mistakes in glazing, for additional coats of glaze,
-and for decorating the ware.</p>
-
-<h4><i>Firing.</i></h4>
-
-<p>Different wares and different glazes require different
-temperatures. Thus porcelain and stoneware are fired to
-much higher temperatures than ordinary pottery, and salt
-and alkaline glazes need a higher fire to mature than the
-ordinary lead glazes. When the required temperature has
-been reached—which nowadays is determined either by
-means of a pyrometer or with the help of pyrometric cones
-which melt at a given temperature and which are watched
-through a spy-hole (cf. fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a> where the cones are set up
-opposite the spy-hole in the door, and fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a> where the cones
-have melted)—the fire is gradually extinguished and the
-kiln left to cool slowly. Twelve hours for the firing and
-twelve for cooling is a rough estimate for the firing of an
-ordinary kiln. It is important not to hurry the process of
-cooling, as a too rapidly cooling fire may crack the ware or
-affect the glaze injuriously.</p>
-
-<p>The Greeks fired their pottery at a considerably lower
-temperature than potters do today. It seems to have been
-about 960° centigrade (corresponding to about cone 010)
-since any increase over this temperature causes a change
-in the color of the clay together with an additional contraction.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span>
-Mr. Tonks has made the ingenious suggestion that,
-950° and 1065° being the melting points of silver and gold
-respectively, the Greeks may have used these metals in the
-same way as the modern potters use cones, to regulate the
-heat of the kiln.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
-
-<p>When the kiln is finally opened comes the exciting
-moment of seeing what the fire has done with one’s products.
-In taking out the contents of the kiln, gloves and
-sticks are often useful for handling ware that is still too hot
-to touch. Invariably there will be surprises—what one has
-expected to be a great success often turns out a failure, and
-what one thought little of may become a rare thing of
-beauty. In the biscuit firing the adventures of the pot are
-comparatively few; it may crack or sag or warp, but as a
-rule the expected shape is maintained. But in the glaze
-firing so many elements enter in that even an experienced
-potter can never be sure of the result. The color may turn
-out a different shade from that desired; the glaze may
-unexpectedly be matt (dull) or too glossy; it may blister
-or peel or crack; it may be too thin or too thick. Such
-defects are almost invariably due to faulty composition of
-the clay or the glaze or to the conditions of firing. They
-can often be remedied by further glazings and firings; but
-quite often a pot on which much time and labor have been
-bestowed is hopelessly ruined. A good potter, however, will
-soon learn to bear such mishaps philosophically; and it is
-certainly true that one often learns much more from failures
-than from successes. Moreover, the element of uncertainty
-lends spice to the craft.</p>
-
-<p>A careful consideration of the modern processes of firing
-pottery described above will help us to settle the problems
-connected with the firing of Greek vases—for the action of
-fire on clay remains the same even though the kilns in use<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span>
-by the Greeks were probably somewhat more primitive than
-now.</p>
-
-<p>The chief problems which confront us in Athenian pottery
-are (1) the number of firings, (2) the interpretation
-of defects on Greek vases as injuries in the firing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 06.1021.114</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 44. Design on red-figured krater</p>
-<p class="caption">(a) Preliminary sketch (b) Completed painting</p>
-<p class="caption">Furtwängler u. Reichhold, <i>Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, I, pl. VII</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><i>Number of firings.</i></h4>
-
-<p>Was Athenian pottery once or twice fired?<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> That is,
-was it decorated in leather-hard or in biscuit condition?
-This has been one of the most debated questions in Greek
-ceramics. Archaeologists often assume offhand a number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span>
-of firings,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> but without stating any evidence or squarely
-facing the problems involved. Briefly, the arguments for
-and against are as follows. As is well known, a large proportion
-of red-figured vases of good period show a preliminary,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span>
-colorless sketch for the design traced with a blunt<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
-instrument directly on the clay (cf. figs. <a href="#fig43">43-44</a>). The
-smooth grooves of this sketch show beyond doubt that the
-sketch was made while the clay was in leather-hard condition,
-that is, before firing. If the vase had been fired, even
-at a low temperature, the sketch would have had to be
-scratched in with a sharp tool, and would have left a
-ragged, not a smooth line.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Now it is not a natural procedure
-for an artist to make a rough sketch for his design,
-and then to leave his vase to be fired before completing his
-work. Furthermore, an examination of the incised lines on
-the black-figured vases—which clearly go over the black
-glaze—shows also that these lines must have been made
-while the clay was still leather hard. The ragged edge of
-the glaze along the incisions has sometimes been thought to
-indicate that they were made after firing. But just this
-effect is produced by cutting through dry glaze on unfired
-clay; and it would have been very difficult to attain the
-required delicacy, swing, and smoothness by incision into
-hard, fired clay. Any one who will try the experiment will
-soon become convinced of this.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> So that, for the black-figured
-period at least, this evidence points to a once-fired
-pottery.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, it might be urged that if we assume
-that the decoration was executed in leather-hard condition,
-the vase painters whom we see depicted on Greek vases
-should be handling their pots with considerable care, and
-that this is hardly conveyed in the representations. On the
-Boston fragment, for instance, the painter is holding a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span>
-kylix by its slender foot without any apparent fear of breaking
-it (fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a>). And whoever painted the scene knew
-what he was doing, for he was in the act of decorating such
-a kylix himself. However, if the clay used by the Athenians
-was of a tough variety,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> this would, I have been told
-by potters, be a perfectly possible procedure; and experiments
-made with imported Athenian clay<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> bore this out to
-an astonishing degree. Vases made of this clay could be
-handled quite freely in leather-hard condition. So that if
-the Athenian potter of the fifth century used similar clay
-to that of his present-day descendant, his handling of these
-pots on the vase paintings would be perfectly justified in
-the leather-hard state.</p>
-
-<p>There is, moreover, evidence which seems to settle this
-question beyond dispute. On a number of the Athenian
-vases there are dents such as can only have occurred while
-the vase was still in a leather-hard state. The mark of the
-object contact with which caused the dent is invariably over
-the black glaze (cf. fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>), showing clearly that the glaze
-must have been applied in leather-hard condition.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> In
-some cases we find still adhering in the dents a little burnt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>
-clay, apparently from another vase contact with which
-caused the accident. Here it is probable that the accident
-was caused not while the vase was leather hard, but when
-red hot in the kiln, at least in those instances, as in the
-black-figured amphora in the Metropolitan Museum<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> (fig.
-<a href="#fig46">46</a>), where the glaze shows a rough fracture due to the separation
-of the two pieces which had stuck together; for this
-fractured edge would have become fused and smooth upon
-subsequent firing.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/fig45.jpg" width="350" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 17.230.15</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fragments of unfinished vases which have been found
-from time to time<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> have been used as evidence to prove several
-glaze fires; for they show fired vases at a definite stage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span>
-in the glazing, the outlines and inner markings painted, but
-the background not yet filled in. Must we, then, suppose
-that it was the regular practice—at least in the later red-figured
-period to which all the unfinished pieces belong—to
-fire before and after the painting of the background?
-It is difficult to see what would be gained by the process.
-If the pottery were fired before any decoration was applied,
-there would be the advantage of safer handling of the ware;
-but to have an extra firing with the decoration more than
-half completed gives no apparent gain and there is the distinct
-disadvantage of the extra expense of firing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/fig46.jpg" width="350" height="425" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from
-other body still adhering</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 47. Unfinished kylix</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 48. Foot of unfinished kylix</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The unfinished kylix in the collection of the Metropolitan
-Museum may shed light on this problem (fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>). It is
-not so fragmentary as the pieces in the other museums,
-being complete except for portions of the rim. The foot is
-very roughly turned (fig. <a href="#fig48">48</a>), very different from the average
-kylix foot, as if it had not been worth while to spend<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>
-much time on this product. The decoration itself is also
-quite cursory. This suggests that the piece was merely a
-“test,” such as potters use often nowadays for making
-trials of their clay body, or their glaze, or their kiln. The
-kylix is, as a matter of fact, too soft fired, and the glaze has
-turned reddish in parts. May we be permitted the guess<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span>
-that this was a trial to test out a new kiln? It is only a
-possibility and there are many others. The important point
-is that the evidence of the unfinished fragments does not
-make it necessary to assume more than one glaze firing.</p>
-
-<p>The probability, therefore, is that Athenian pottery is
-once fired,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> all ornamentation—both glaze and accessory
-colors<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>—being applied while the vase was in leather-hard
-condition; for in the case of the accessory colors also there
-would have been no advantage in an additional firing.</p>
-
-<h4><i>Injuries in the firing.</i></h4>
-
-<p>The action of the fire on the potter’s products was apparently
-as much an open question in Greek times as it is now.
-Practical experience must have gone a long way then as
-today; but full control could not be achieved. In forming
-an estimate of what proportion of the pottery was spoiled
-in the kiln we must remember that in our museums we are
-apt to encounter the survival of the fittest—what the potter
-considered worth preserving, what the Greek client deemed
-adequate to his need, and what the modern museum curator
-considers good enough for exhibition. But even in this
-selection we meet with a number of kiln mishaps, which
-apparently were so common that they were hardly noticed.
-When our eyes have become trained to observe such things,
-we shall note that in any collection of Greek vases there are
-many cases of warping and sagging, especially in the overhanging
-lips of the hydriai and amphorai.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> There are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span>
-many cracks and dents,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> many faults in the glaze. A
-very conspicuous fault is the change of the clay from a pink
-to a grayish color.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Archaeologists often explain this as
-due to over-firing.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The real reason is not that the temperature
-has been too high, but that the clay has been subjected
-in the kiln or in the funeral pyre, to fumes the carbon
-of which has been absorbed by the clay. In other
-words, there was either reduction and the red ferric oxide in
-the clay has been changed to black ferrous oxide (cf. <a href="#Page_30">pp.
-30 f.</a>), or the clay has absorbed the black carbon physically.
-When controlled, this change is very useful to the potter
-for obtaining certain effects. Thus bucchero pottery is
-simply red clay fired under completely reducing conditions;
-and in the Vasiliki mottled ware some carbonaceous pigment
-like tar was probably placed on the spots which were
-intended to be black, whereupon the carbon would be
-absorbed by the clay and the iron reduced.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
-
-<p>The commonest injury to the glaze in the fire is its change
-into a brilliant red instead of the intended black. This can
-be observed on many vases, sometimes as a large spot (cf.
-fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>), other times as a less clearly defined variegation.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
-The cause was irregularity of fire, a jet of air passing
-through the kiln coming in contact with parts of the vases.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>
-In other words, there was an excess of oxygen (or the
-reverse of reduction) which turned the black ferrous oxide
-of the glaze into red ferric oxide.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="350" height="625" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.607</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p>
-
-<p>Such red spots caused by jets of air coming in contact
-with the vases must not be confused with the very similar
-red spots which are due to the wearing off of the black
-glaze and the exposure underneath it of the ochre-tinted
-clay (cf. <a href="#Page_58">p. 58</a>). Examination with a magnifying glass will
-show the difference: in one case the red is part of and
-level with the black glaze, in the other it is on a layer
-beneath the black glaze; in the former case the red will
-not come off when rubbed, in the latter it will.</p>
-
-<h3>GLAZING</h3>
-
-<p>Besides shaping and firing a vase, a potter must understand
-the art of glazing, to many the most alluring part of
-the craft; this comprises both the preparation of the glaze
-and its application to the pot. A glaze is a chemical compound,
-known as a silicate, which upon firing becomes a
-glassy substance. It has three chief ingredients: (1) an
-oxide of lead, of lime, of alkali, etc., which forms the
-foundation of the glaze; (2) alumina and boron oxide,
-which regulate the behavior of the glaze in the fire; and (3)
-silica, which controls the fitting of the glaze to the body.
-Modern glazes are divided into two chief categories: lead
-glazes and leadless glazes. Of these the former are by far
-the more numerous; but alkaline glazes, tin enamels, etc.,
-are also used, especially in studio potteries.</p>
-
-<p>In the preparation of a glaze the ingredients have first
-to be weighed out carefully in the required proportions;
-the mixture has then to be ground with water and sieved;
-and when the right thickness is attained (usually about the
-consistency of cream), the glaze is applied to the vase,
-which should first be soaked in water to saturation to prevent
-too rapid absorption. Gum tragacanth is used as a
-binder to make the glaze stick.</p>
-
-<p>The glaze can be applied in various ways—by dipping
-(fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>), by pouring (fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>), by the use of the brush (fig.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span>
-<a href="#fig52">52</a>), or by spraying (fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a>), the method depending chiefly
-on the individual choice of the potter. To apply a glaze
-properly to the clay body is a great art, and upon it, as
-much as on the preparation of the glaze, final success
-depends. The glaze mixtures when applied are whitish or
-grayish; it is only after firing that they assume the wonderful
-range of colors which delight us so much today.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/fig50.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 50. Method of glazing: dipping</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/fig51.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 51. Method of glazing: pouring</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Athenian potter had no ambition to produce brilliant
-color effects in glazing. He was content with the one
-variety which he had brought to perfection—a thin, luminous
-glaze of a deep, velvety black color and of astonishing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span>
-durability. After generations of experiments we cannot
-yet say that we can successfully imitate it. Its composition
-is, however, no longer a secret. It has been shown by
-analysis and synthesis that the chief component parts of
-the glaze are an alkali (potash or soda), a clay (which
-would contain some silica such as flint naturally), and ferrous
-oxide.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The exact proportion of these parts, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span>
-above all the manipulation of the glaze are still unknown.
-At least, nothing completely corresponding to the Greek
-glaze has as yet been produced, though Mr. Tonks<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> and
-especially Mr. Binns<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> have come very near it. Whether the
-secret lies in the proportion, in the medium used for binder,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
-or in some undiscovered element one cannot tell. It is only
-certain that when the discovery is made, as doubtless it must
-be, it will be of great import both to archaeologists and to
-modern potters.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/fig52.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 52. Method of glazing: use of the brush</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The glaze was, as I have endeavored to show (cf. <a href="#Page_37">pp. 37 ff.</a>),
-applied to the vase in leather-hard condition. At that stage
-the clay still contains enough water to prevent too rapid
-absorption, and the glaze, therefore, runs in an easy, flowing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span>
-manner.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> To carry out his work the painter could take his
-time, for, as we have seen (cf. <a href="#Page_16">p. 16</a>), a vase can be kept
-leather hard for an indefinite period by the simple device
-of placing it in a damp box, that is, an air-tight case with
-a pan of water at the bottom.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="350" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 53. Method of glazing: spraying</p>
-<p class="caption">Cox, <i>Pottery for Artists, Craftsmen and Teachers</i>, p. 111, fig. 51</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/fig54.jpg" width="350" height="425" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 54. Hydria showing brush marks</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.7</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>How did the Greek painter apply the glaze to his pottery?
-We know that on the broader surfaces the brush was used,
-for brush marks are clearly visible in many cases.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> When
-possible the backgrounds and horizontal bands were painted
-while the piece was rotating on the wheel; where a panel
-had to be reserved, the irregularity of free-hand brush work<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>
-can readily be observed (fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>). For the “flat” glaze
-lines, in both the figured scenes and the ornamental motives,
-smaller brushes were employed. But what was the instrument
-which produced the famous “relief” lines, that is,
-those fine lines which stand out perceptibly from the surface
-and which were used for the contours and inner markings
-of the figures during the best red-figured period (fig.
-<a href="#fig55">55</a>)? The quality of these lines has been justly admired by
-all who have studied them and it has been thought that the
-instrument used had much to do with the result.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> After
-a number of experiments with fine brushes, single bristles,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>
-reeds, feathers, pens, etc., I have come to the conclusion that
-it is of little avail to discuss the instrument used before we
-can employ in our experiments a glaze identical with the
-Greek. For to get the wonderful flow of the Greek line, the
-glaze must run much more easily than any imitation black
-glaze which we have so far produced. The groove which
-runs down the middle of the relief lines hardly affords a
-clue; for slight pressure of any instrument seems to produce
-such a result.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="350" height="475" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 10.210.18</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>RED OCHRE WASH</h3>
-
-<p>In three statements of ancient writers the addition of red<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span>
-ochre to Athenian pottery is referred to.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> In Pliny, Natural
-History, XXXV, 152, we read: Boutades inventum est
-rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere, “Boutades first
-added red ochre, or made pottery of red clay.” Isidorus,
-Etymologiae, XX, iv, 3, speaks of pottery vases having been
-first invented at Samos and then adds: Postea inventum et
-rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere, “a later invention
-was to add red ochre and to make pottery of red clay.”
-Suidas in his lexicon, where he describes Cape Kolias as a
-place in Attica where pottery is made, says that the clay
-from that region is the best, and adds: ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ
-τῆς μίλτου, “so that it is also dyed with red ochre.”</p>
-
-<p>Archaeologists have assumed that this red ochre was
-mixed with the clay and that to it was due the deeper color
-of Athenian ware as compared, for instance, with the
-geometric. Thus in practically all our books on vases the
-preparation of the clay for the manufacture of Athenian
-vases is described somewhat as follows: “The clay having
-been thoroughly purified and washed, was then kneaded
-and brought to a consistency suitable for shaping it on the
-wheel. It was at this stage that other substances, chiefly a
-red earth (ochre = μίλτος), were worked in with the clay to
-deepen the color.” First of all, it should be noted that if
-ochre is to be added to the clay it must be done long before
-the kneading stage, otherwise the red ochre will of course not
-mix evenly. The best time would be when the clay is dry,
-so that a definite proportion could be weighed out. But that
-is too obvious to need discussion. The question is, Does
-the addition of red ochre materially change the color of the
-clay? It may be interesting in this connection to record
-my experience in the matter. About three years ago I was
-asked to speak at a convention of modern potters meeting
-at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, on the subject of Greek
-vases. I thought that these potters would probably be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span>
-specially interested in the technical side of Greek ceramics,
-and with the courage of ignorance I described in detail our
-theories regarding the manufacture of Greek pottery. It
-was the questions which the potters asked me afterwards
-which convinced me that it was time I went to a pottery
-school. One of my statements which aroused considerable
-interest was this theory that red ochre was added as an
-ingredient to deepen the color of red clay. Several men
-came to me after the talk and said, “I don’t see why the
-Greeks did that; for by just slightly raising the temperature
-they could easily have deepened the color.” I had no
-answer then, but when I went to the pottery school I
-thought I should take nothing for granted, but convince
-myself by making my own experiments. So I made some
-tests, adding certain percentages of ochre to see how it
-would affect the color. Apparently the ochre had little
-effect, and the pieces with and without ochre were about
-equally pink when they came out of the kiln. I then
-burned some pieces without any ochre to a little higher
-temperature and the red was considerably deepened. I was
-quite convinced then that the ochre added as an ingredient
-to the clay would not have the desired result; besides, if
-we needed further proof we might remember that analyses
-made of Athenian clay have shown no trace of ochre.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
-
-<p>What, then, do Pliny and Suidas mean when they speak
-of the addition of red ochre to Athenian pottery? A number
-of archaeologists have observed from time to time that
-Athenian vases, especially of the late red-figured period,
-show traces of a reddish pigment applied over the surface.
-Reichhold in his technical description of vases in Furtwängler
-und Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, frequently
-refers to it as “rötliche Lasur.”<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Pottier ascribed
-it to a sort of varnish or lustre applied over the surface<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>
-of the decorated, fired vase which on decomposition
-precipitated into a red deposit.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> Walters thought
-that red ochre was rubbed on certain parts of the vase which
-had remained too pale after baking.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> A detailed examination
-of the vases in many European and American museums
-convinced me that the use of this red pigment was quite
-general throughout the red-figured period, and to a limited
-extent in the black-figured period. On a few vases it
-appears in excellent preservation.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The majority of red-figured
-vases of all periods<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and a few of the black-figured
-vases<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> show traces of it. When it is not otherwise visible,
-it can often be detected in the slight depressions of the
-preliminary sketch, or under the handles, or on the under
-side of the foot. As the color comes off when rubbed with
-a damp cloth, it is not surprising that it is not better preserved,
-after the extensive cleaning that most museum
-specimens have undergone. But the many traces which are
-still preserved can only be satisfactorily explained by assuming
-that it was the general practice—at least in the red-figured
-period—to apply a red pigment over the whole
-surface of the vase.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="350" height="475" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line (on arm)
-going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.236.2</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the light of this experience let us again examine what
-Pliny and Suidas say. Pliny’s statement is sufficiently
-vague to make any interpretation possible; but Suidas’ use
-of the word βάπτεσθαι, “to be dipped,” is illuminating. The
-clay could not have been “dipped” in a powdery or liquid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span>
-state, the only way of having the ochre become an actual
-ingredient in the clay. The term βάπτεσθαι implies that
-the clay must have become a solid vase, in which case the
-ochre was applied only on its surface. Indeed Athenaeus
-(480 E) uses the term βάπτεσθαι to signify the “glazing” or
-“silvering” of earthen vessels. So that literary testimony
-seems to agree with the evidence of the vases themselves that
-the ochre was applied on the surface. At what stage, then,
-was this ochre added? Was it before or after the black
-glaze? Careful examination has shown that it was previous
-to the glazing. When the black glaze is chipped off it generally
-takes the surface too, so that instances of the red ochre<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span>
-showing underneath are not numerous; but there are nevertheless
-a number of undoubted examples.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> An especially
-convincing instance is on an amphora in the Metropolitan
-Museum in which a diluted black glaze line goes clearly over
-traces of the red lift in a preliminary sketch line (fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>).
-Furthermore, in many cases the glaze on the background
-surfaces has disintegrated and shows the red ochre beneath.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
-
-<p>Since the black glaze was probably applied to the leather-hard
-clay, the ochre wash must also have been added in
-that state. The leather-hard vase might have been dipped
-in an ochre solution or the ochre applied with a brush or
-rubbed into the surface as a powder. In order to make it
-adhere properly to the clay actual experiments have shown
-that by far the best results are obtained by giving the surface
-a good polish after the application of the ochre. The
-ochre is thereby actually incorporated with the clay and
-forms a good firm surface. If not so polished, it is powdery
-after firing and comes off easily.</p>
-
-<p>Experiments further showed that (1) red ochre applied
-in this manner on the red clay in leather-hard condition produced
-an effect identical with the red “wash” observable on
-the Athenian vases; (2) preliminary sketch lines engraved
-lightly with a blunt tool did not remove the ochre; (3) the
-ochre in no way interfered with the adhesion of the black
-glaze over it; (4) the ochre came off only a little at a time
-even when rubbed hard while wet. It is therefore only during
-the long processes of wear and time that the red ochre
-application has worn off. But even when it has entirely
-disappeared, it has stained the clay a deeper color—namely,
-the orangey hues which we see now; for the actual color of
-the clay is lighter and pinker, as any fracture will show.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p>
-
-<p>Originally, however, we learn from our investigation,
-the red-figured Athenian vases had an even deeper and
-richer tint than they have now—approaching more nearly
-the color of copper. The general effect, therefore, must
-have been considerably more vivid than it is today, and to
-some this thought may not at first appeal. But we should
-remember that we are discovering also in other fields that
-the Greeks loved bright, intense color, not the faded tints
-that so many of their works present today.</p>
-
-<h3>WERE ATHENIAN VASES MADE FOR EVERY-DAY USE?</h3>
-
-<p>The theory has often been advanced that the painted
-black-figured and red-figured vases were made for decoration
-and for votive and funeral purposes, but not for
-actual use. Percy Gardner in his Grammar of Greek Art
-(p. 160) holds this view and gives as his reason that the
-painted vases were too fragile to be easily handled and
-too porous to contain liquid. Reichhold in Furtwängler
-und Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, Text, I, p. 82,
-and Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister, p. 10, is of the
-same opinion, and bases his assumption on the fact that
-a number of the vases show ancient rivet marks and could
-not therefore have served any practical purpose in such a
-condition; also that no ancient vases show signs of wear,
-which would have been unavoidable if they had been in
-daily use. Does our investigation of the technique of
-Athenian vases help to settle this question? Let us look
-first at the case in its broader aspects.</p>
-
-<p>Nobody can work long with Greek vases or other forms
-of Greek industrial art without being impressed with the
-wonderful combination of beauty and practical utility
-which these objects show. The Greek vases are not only
-finely proportioned, but each one is admirably adapted to
-its purpose. We need only try pouring from an oinochoë
-to see how easily the liquid flows without any danger of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span>
-spilling; or from a lekythos to see how the oil trickles
-through the narrow neck, drop by drop, or in a very thin
-stream, just right for cooking or the making of salad dressing.
-We need only drink from a kylix to realize how,
-contrary to expectations, it is an easy and delightful process—the
-little curve of the rim preventing the liquid from
-spilling down one’s cheeks.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> We need only closely observe
-the handles of Greek vases to see how their positions,
-their curves, and above all their extraordinary solidity
-render them eminently practical. Moreover, the study of
-a hundred little details, the forms of the knobs on pyxides,
-the projections for holding the lids in place, the outward
-or inward curves of the lips, the substantial feet, all combine
-to form overpowering evidence that these vases
-were designed for actual use. It is only in isolated
-instances, such as the loutrophoroi which have no bottoms
-or the white lekythoi which have no connection between the
-neck and body, that this rule does not hold good. Such
-vases, however, belong to clearly defined classes evidently
-made as votive offerings or as tomb furniture.</p>
-
-<p>That the bulk of vases were made for votive purposes,
-there is no real evidence. Among the many sixth- and
-fifth-century inscriptions recording such offerings there
-are few relating to pottery vases. Nor is it conceivable
-that these vases were purely ornamental. We know that
-private houses in Athens were at that period excessively
-simple, consisting mostly of a courtyard and a few rooms
-opening on it, so that it is not likely that people surrounded
-themselves with a lot of useless ornaments; nor
-can we believe that in a period which, at least in the sixth
-century, was still one of strenuous endeavor, these vases
-were exported to all parts of the world merely as decorative
-bric-à-brac. Everything we know of Greek life at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span>
-that time points against such an assumption. Moreover,
-if the Greeks had such decorations in their homes we should
-expect to see, depicted in the vase paintings, cabinets or
-shelves with vases displayed on them; instead, when vases
-are shown, they are invariably in actual use, or hanging on
-a nail on the wall, ready for immediate service.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
-
-<p>There is another consideration. Even if, from our
-modern point of view, we may hesitate to believe that a
-beautiful cup of Euphronios was used merely as a drinking
-vessel, where are we to draw the line? Any one who
-has worked in a museum or has excavated on fifth-century
-sites knows that besides the selected specimens exhibited
-in museum cases there are a large number of inferior examples,
-hastily decorated, which could hardly have been displayed
-as ornaments, but which are open to the same
-objections raised against the vases of better workmanship.</p>
-
-<p>And now let us examine these objections. First, the
-vases are supposed to be too porous to contain liquid. The
-fineness of the clay, the polish which was imparted to it,
-and perhaps the application of the ochre tended to reduce
-this porosity somewhat. In the course of time the deposit
-left by wine and oil would still further close the pores. In
-any case, experiments show that Athenian vases do hold
-liquids without any difficulty. The unglazed portions
-become damp, and a damp mark is left on the table if the
-foot is not glazed; but in the days before highly polished
-furniture there was no strong objection to that, and there
-was on the other hand a very real advantage. For it allows
-a certain amount of evaporation which would tend to cool
-the liquid—a very desirable thing in a warm climate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span>
-without a regulated ice supply. Any one who has tried
-the experiment of keeping water in an unglazed jar in a
-warm room has found that the evaporation keeps it delightfully
-cool. In southern Europe today liquids are kept in
-that manner during the summer. We must also remember
-that a large number of the early wares from the Bronze
-Age down, as well as the commoner wares at all times, are
-either wholly unglazed or have unglazed portions. And
-surely nobody wants to contend that these vases were not
-manufactured for use.</p>
-
-<p>The objection that Athenian pottery is fragile is easily
-disposed of. Actual handling of the vases will show that
-they are anything but fragile, in fact that they are remarkably
-strong. All those portions which would get special
-wear, such as handles and rims, are almost always stoutly
-made, more so than much of the china and earthenware and
-glass we use today. Occasionally, of course, we get a very
-thin and delicate example; and that would have to be
-handled with special care.</p>
-
-<p>Then, as regards the question of wear. Terracotta is, as
-a matter of fact, one of the most indestructible materials we
-have, and especially so when glazed. Glazed earthenware,
-consequently, even though in constant use shows little trace
-of wear. What little we should expect, a close inspection
-of Athenian vases will reveal. The black glaze, even when
-perfectly preserved on the exterior, is much worn on the
-interior of stamnoi or kraters (cf. fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>), where the liquid
-came in constant contact with the glaze, and the unglazed
-interiors of amphorai and hydriai are certainly not perfectly
-fresh and unused looking. It is also noteworthy that
-finely and poorly decorated vases are in the same condition
-in this respect. A comparison with the Corean pottery of
-the Korai period, 935-1392 A.D.,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> which is known to have
-been made to serve merely as tomb furniture, is helpful.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span>
-The fresh and clean insides of these vases offer a very different
-appearance from that of the discolored interiors of
-Greek amphorai and hydriai—a clear proof that the Athenian
-ware did not serve the same unutilitarian purpose as the
-Corean.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/fig57.jpg" width="350" height="325" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.74</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Lastly, regarding the argument about riveted vases, it is
-surely natural now and then, instead of throwing away a
-broken pot, to have it put together and make the best of it
-in its mended state. We do the same thing nowadays. At
-all events, the vase could still have been used to contain dry
-materials. Such Athenian vases with ancient rivet marks
-are in any case infrequent, and do not compare in number
-with the broken vases which have not been mended.</p>
-
-<p>Such considerations should once for all explode the theory
-that Athenian vases were not actually used; so that we can
-think of them, in the way that appeals to our imagination,
-as serving in the daily life of the Athenians and as adding
-to the enjoyment of that life, both by their beauty and by
-their usefulness.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="II_REPRESENTATIONS">II. REPRESENTATIONS OF ANCIENT POTTERS</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="dropcap">An important source of knowledge for the technique
-of Greek vases is supplied by the representations of
-ancient potters at work and by potter’s implements
-which have survived. It may be interesting to review these
-and see what new interpretations experience at a modern
-pottery school will suggest.</p>
-
-<h3>FASHIONING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>1. Black-figured hydria in Munich.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, Text, p. 159.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Jahn, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in der Pinakothek zu
-München, No. 731.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/fig58.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 58. Athenian pottery establishment</p>
-<p class="caption">Furtwängler u. Reichhold, <i>Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, I, Text, p. 159</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>An Athenian pottery establishment. To the left a
-man sits on a stool and is holding with both hands an
-amphora on his lap; a boy (only the head and one hand are
-preserved) is standing before him, placing one hand on the
-body of the vase; the latter is painted black, that is, it has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span>
-already been glazed. The man has the air of inspecting it,
-while the boy is apparently helping him hold it (since it is
-still in leather-hard condition, it requires careful handling).
-The next group represents a man throwing a
-tall vase on a wheel; a boy is sitting before him on a
-low stool, turning the wheel with both hands at whatever
-speed is required. The vase is so tall that the entire forearm
-of the potter is inserted; while his other hand (now
-missing) was doubtless placed on the outside of the vase, so
-that by the pressure of the two hands the pot might acquire
-the necessary form and thickness. The vase is painted
-white to show that it is as yet unglazed. A pair of calipers
-is hanging on the wall ready for use, to enable the potter to
-check the heights and widths of his products. To the right
-a youth is carefully carrying away a vase that has just been
-thrown, to dry. A similar vase is already standing on the
-other side of a column, drying in the open air or in a court.
-Both vases are painted white to indicate their unglazed condition.
-Next we see an old man walking leisurely with a
-stick. His dignified air is in strong contrast to the busy
-absorption of the workmen. He is evidently the overseer or
-proprietor of the pottery. To his right a tall youth is carrying
-a heavy weight on his back, apparently a sack of charcoal.
-He is bringing it to the kiln, which is being stoked by
-the fireman. The kiln has a satyr head at the top to avert
-the evil eye and protect the pottery from all danger during
-the firing.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>2. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin
-Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pls. 8, 17.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No.
-869.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/fig59.jpg" width="350" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 59. Potter throwing</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. 8, No. 17</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter throwing a vase on a wheel, with both his hands
-placed on the outer surface; only the two hands of the
-potter and the upper part of the wheel with the vase are
-preserved.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>3. Red-figured fragment from the Akropolis in
-Athens.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Athenische Mittheilungen, XIV, 1889, p. 157.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/fig60.jpg" width="500" height="225" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 60. Potter throwing</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Athenische Mittheilungen</i>, 1889, p. 157</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter is sitting on a stool and throwing a vase on a
-wheel which is being propelled by a boy; another man sits
-behind him with a krater on his lap.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>4. Interior of a black-figured kylix in the British
-Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition), 1920,
-p. 182, fig. 218.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Walters, Catalogue of the Greek and Etruscan Vases, II, B.432.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig61">
-<img src="images/fig61.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 61. Potter attaching handles</p>
-<p class="caption">British Museum, <i>Guide to Greek and Roman Life</i>
-(2d Edition), p. 182, fig. 218</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter is sitting in front of his wheel on which a kylix is
-standing. He is apparently engaged in attaching the handles.
-On a shelf above are piled some more kylikes and a
-jug. The whole is very roughly painted.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>5. Corinthian black-figured pinax in the Museum of
-the Louvre.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Gazette archéologique, VI, 1880, p. 106, 3a.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig62">
-<img src="images/fig62.jpg" width="350" height="275" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 62. Potter incising lines (?)</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Gazette archéologique</i>, 1880, p. 106 (3a)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter is sitting before his wheel propelling it with one
-hand. He is working on what appears to be a one-handled
-jug. He is not “throwing” or “turning” it, since it
-already has its handle attached. Perhaps he is incising
-horizontal lines on it, for which process he could easily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>
-propel his own wheel. On the wall hang two other jugs
-(with similar incised lines), and some plates (?) are stacked
-on the floor.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>6. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 14b.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung in Berlin, I, No.
-885.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig63">
-<img src="images/fig63.jpg" width="350" height="575" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 63. Potter joining sections (?)</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. 8, No. 14b</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span></p>
-
-<p>A man is sitting in front of a tall globular vase on a high
-foot. He is not throwing it, for there is no indication of a
-wheel. Perhaps he is joining the sections of a tall vase,
-some of which are already in place, while one part lies on
-the floor waiting to be attached. But the whole scene is so
-roughly painted that it is impossible even to know definitely
-that a potter is represented.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>7. Interior of a red-figured kylix, Berlin Museum
-No. 2542.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Rayet et Collignon, Histoire de la céramique grecque, p. XVII, fig. 7.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig64">
-<img src="images/fig64.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 64. Boy finishing vase</p>
-<p class="caption">Rayet et Collignon, <i>Histoire de la Céramique grecque</i>
-p. XVII, fig. 7</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A boy is sitting with a cup (kotyle) in one hand and an
-implement in the other, evidently engaged in a finishing
-process. Perhaps he is removing the surplus clay after the
-handles have been attached; for the vase is as yet unglazed
-and is left in the red color of the clay, in contrast to the
-black kotyle and oinochoë on the stand close by.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>8. Terracotta statuette of a potter in the British
-Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
-1920, p. 181, fig. 216.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig65">
-<img src="images/fig65.jpg" width="200" height="400" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 65. Potter building a vase</p>
-<p class="caption">British Museum, <i>Guide to Greek and Roman Life</i>
-(2d Edition), p. 181, fig. 216</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p>
-
-<p>A man is represented in a crouching attitude apparently
-engaged in building a pot.</p>
-
-<h3>DECORATING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>1. Red-figured hydria in Ruvo.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Annali dell’Instituto, 1876, pl. DE.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig66">
-<img src="images/fig66.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Annali dell’Instituto</i>, 1876, pl. DE</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Athena and two Victories crowning potters at work. To
-the left is a potter sitting on a low stool and engaged in
-decorating a volute krater; he is holding a brush in his
-closed fist in Japanese fashion, and is looking in surprise at
-the Nike who is crowning him; by his side are two paint
-pots. In front of him another workman, comfortably
-seated on a chair, is busily painting a kantharos which he
-holds tipped on his lap. He also holds the brush in his fist
-downwards. Another kantharos and an oinochoë stand on
-the floor, awaiting their turn to be decorated; on a low stand
-close by are two paint pots, one with its lid tipped against
-the side. The artist is completely absorbed in his work and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span>
-has not yet discovered Athena, the patron of arts and
-crafts, approaching him with a wreath. Behind Athena a
-third workman is seated on a low stool, decorating a bell
-krater with a palmette design. He tips up the vase with one
-hand, holds the brush firmly in his fist, and has his paint pot
-within easy reach on the floor. A Nike is about to crown
-him with a wreath; but he, too, is entirely engrossed in his
-work and quite unconscious of the honor to be conferred on
-him. Completing the scene on the right is a girl on a low
-platform painting the handle of a large volute krater.
-The figure is of special interest today, for it shows that
-there were women potters then as now. Above her on the
-wall are suspended a kantharos and a lekythos. The whole
-scene is of great importance as the most representative we
-possess of ancient vase painters at work.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>2. Red-figured kylix in the Museum of Fine Arts,
-Boston.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, pl. 4.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig67">
-<img src="images/fig67.jpg" width="350" height="400" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 67. Youth decorating kylix</p>
-<p class="caption">Hartwig, <i>Jahrbuch des Instituts</i>, 1899, pl. IV</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A youth is sitting on a stool, holding a kylix by the foot
-and decorating the outside of it with what looks like a brush<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span>
-with long bristles, though it has also been identified as a
-feather (by Hartwig). In the hand that grasps the kylix
-is a pointed instrument which has been identified by Hartwig
-as the implement with which the preliminary sketch was
-drawn. The attitude of the painter suggests the quiet
-absorption required by a delicate task. Behind the youth
-is his knotted staff, and on the wall hang his oil flask and
-strigil.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>3. Fragment of a red-figured kylix, found on the
-Akropolis, Athens.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Hartwig, Jahrbuch des Instituts, XIV, 1899, p. 154, fig. 2.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig68">
-<img src="images/fig68.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 68. Potter glazing kylix</p>
-<p class="caption">Hartwig, <i>Jahrbuch des Instituts</i>, 1899, pl. 154, fig. 2</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter glazing the inside of a kylix as it rotates on the
-wheel. A woman appears to be crowning him with a
-wreath.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>4. Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No.
-868.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig69">
-<img src="images/fig69.jpg" width="400" height="200" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 69. Potter painting bands on a krater</p>
-<p class="caption">Antike Denkmäler, I, pl. 8, No. 18</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A potter is sitting on a stool before his wheel, apparently
-in the act of painting broad black bands on a column krater
-while the vase is revolving.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>5. Red-figured bell-krater in the Ashmolean
-Museum, Oxford.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Beazley, Journal of Hellenic Studies, XXVIII, 1908, pl. XXXII, A.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig70">
-<img src="images/fig70.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 70. Three youths, one painting a krater</p>
-<p class="caption">Beazley, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, XXVIII (1908), pl. XXXII, A.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To the left a youth is sitting on a stool painting the outside
-of a bell krater. He is steadying the vase with his left
-arm placed inside the krater, while he lets the rim rest on
-his lap. By his side is a low stand with a skyphos evidently
-containing the paint. A second workman is carrying off
-another krater to the right. He may be going to fetch some
-water or wine in it, for it is evidently a completed, fired
-vase, otherwise he would not be carrying it by the handles.
-A third workman is moving in the same direction holding
-up a skyphos, perhaps to get more paint or some water or
-wine to drink. A krater standing on the ground completes
-the scene. On the wall hang some implements of the potter’s
-trade, identified by Beazley from the original as (1)
-a kylix for drinking, (2) a mortar for grinding the ingredients
-of the glaze, (3) a brush case, (4) a bowl to contain
-liquid glaze, (5) a strainer for sieving the glaze.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>6. Bœotian black-figured skyphos in the Polytechnion
-in Athens.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Found in Lokris.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Blümner, <i>Athenische Mittheilungen</i>, XIV, 1889, p. 151.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig71">
-<img src="images/fig71.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 71. Pottery establishment</p>
-<p class="caption">Blümner, <i>Athenische Mittheilungen</i>, XIV, 1889, p. 151</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The master of the pottery is sitting with a kylix in one
-hand, while with the other he is trying to beat a slave who
-is running off with three skyphoi. Three other skyphoi are
-on the ground, while a kantharos and a skyphos are near by
-on a shelf. Another workman is inspecting a skyphos he
-has just glazed; a paint pot and brush are on a low stand
-by his side. He takes no notice of a scene which is taking
-place close by, a man beating a slave suspended from
-the ceiling. The workmanship is very crude, and if it is a
-product of the pottery establishment which it depicts, it is
-a fair sample of the work we might expect from a place run
-on such methods!</p>
-
-<h3>FIRING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>1-10 Votive tablets or pinakes found at Penteskuphia
-near Corinth, dating 650-550 B.C. (figs. <a href="#fig72">72-80</a>).
-Nos. 73-78, 80 are in the Berlin Museum; Nos.
-72, 79 in the Museum of the Louvre.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, Nos. 1, 4, 12, 15, 19b, 21, 22, 26
-(Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, Nos.
-608, 802, 616, 893, 909, 827, 611). Gazette archéologique, VI, 1880, p.
-105 (1), p. 106 (1).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig72">
-<img src="images/fig72-73.jpg" width="700" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Figs. 72-73. Potters stoking the fire</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. 8, 26.</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Gazette archéologique</i>, VI, p. 105.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><i>Representations of potter’s kilns.</i></h4>
-
-<p>The kilns are domed, and have three openings, one at the
-bottom for the fuel, one on the side for the insertion of the
-ware and to act as a spy-hole, and one at the top to let out
-the smoke and for the regulation of the draught. On figs.
-<a href="#fig72">72-79</a>, the firemen are busy stoking the fire, and climbing to
-the top of the kiln to manipulate the draught-hole with a
-hooked implement; for the flames are seen emerging at the
-top, which means that heat is being wasted. Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a> shows
-the inside of a kiln, in horizontal section, with two openings
-for the fire, each opening having two channels into the kiln.
-The vases should of course stand upright, but the painter
-naturally found it difficult to depict them in the right perspective
-looking at them from the top.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;" id="fig74">
-<p class="caption">Figs. 74-79. Potters regulating draught</p>
-<img src="images/fig74-79.jpg" width="550" height="700" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. 8, Nos. 4, 12, 1, 21, 22; <i>Gazette archéologique</i>,
-VI, p. 106.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span></p>
-
-<p>Furtwängler (Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin,
-I, p. 70, note) was inclined to think that these ovens
-are not pottery kilns, but furnaces for metal smelting.
-His objections, however, do not hold. The ovens are not
-too large for pottery, and the climbing to the top for the
-regulation of the draught is a well-known proceeding.
-Moreover, the scene (fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>) showing the stacked vases, the
-little pots painted on figs. <a href="#fig74">75</a> and <a href="#fig74">78</a> as if to indicate the
-purpose of the ovens, and the representations of potters at
-work on other tablets, make the interpretation as pottery
-kilns the most likely. These pictures are of special importance
-since no actual Greek kilns have yet been discovered,
-though several Etruscan and numerous Roman ones have
-come to light (cf. Montelius, Civilisation primitive, pl. 107,
-11, and Blümner, op. cit., II, pp. 23 ff.).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig80">
-<img src="images/fig80.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. VIII, No. 19b</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>MISCELLANEOUS SCENES</h3>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>1. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, II, title vignette.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig81">
-<img src="images/fig81.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks</p>
-<p class="caption">Millin, <i>Peintures de vases</i>, II, title vignette</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A youth is sitting in front of an oven removing with two
-sticks a two-handled vase which has been placed there for
-drying. He is using the sticks instead of his fingers because
-the pot is too hot to touch; not in order to avoid injuring
-the fresh glaze on the vase, as has been suggested (cf.
-Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie II, 1895, p. 52), for
-the sticks would mark the glaze as much as the fingers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>
-would. Modern potters often use sticks for removing hot
-ware from the kilns (cf. <a href="#Page_36">p. 36</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>2. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, I, vignette.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie, II, p. 52, fig. 13.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig82">
-<img src="images/fig82.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 82. Youth working on vases (?)</p>
-<p class="caption">Millin, <i>Peintures de vases</i>, I, vignette</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A youth is sitting on a low tripod in front of an oven.
-He holds a jug by the handle, and seems to be working on it
-with an instrument. It is not clear what he is doing; the
-way he holds the vase by one handle suggests that the vase
-has been fired. On the oven are a kylix and an oinochoë,
-perhaps placed there for drying.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>3. Archaic Greek stele in the Akropolis Museum,
-Athens.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Lechat, <i>La Sculpture attique avant Pheidias</i>, p. 367, fig. 29.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Dickins, Catalogue of the Akropolis Museum at Athens, p. 272, No.
-1332.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig83">
-<img src="images/fig83.jpg" width="350" height="525" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 83. Master potter (?)</p>
-<p class="caption">Lechat, <i>La Sculpture attique avant Phidias</i>, p. 367, fig. 29</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A bearded man is represented seated, holding in his left
-hand two kylikes, one by the handle, the other by the foot.
-A large part of the stele is missing. The figure has been
-interpreted, with some probability, as a “master potter.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>4. Greek stele in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
-New York.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Richter, Handbook of the Classical Collection, p. 209, fig. 125.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig84">
-<img src="images/fig84.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 84. Woman potter (?)</p>
-<p class="caption">Met. Mus. Acc. No. 08.258.42</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A woman is represented seated with a pyxis on her lap
-and a lekythos in one hand. On the analogy of the
-Akropolis stele, it is possible that here too we have a votive
-offering of a potter.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>5. Interior of a kylix in the Johns Hopkins University,
-Baltimore.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Hartwig, Die griechischen Meisterschalen, pl. XVII, I, and title
-vignette.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Red-Figured Vases, II, p. 355.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig85">
-<img src="images/fig85.jpg" width="350" height="350" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 85. Client in potter’s shop</p>
-<p class="caption">Hartwig, <i>Die griechischen Meisterschalen</i>, title vignette</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A client in a potter’s shop is examining the stacked ware,
-and holds his purse ready to pay for what he will select.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>6. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin
-Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 3a.</p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No.
-831b.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig86">
-<img src="images/fig86.jpg" width="350" height="450" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 86. Ship with cargo of pottery</p>
-<p class="caption"><i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, I, pl. 8, 3a</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span></p>
-
-<p>Sailing-ship with a sheet wound round the mast, and a
-row of jugs painted in the field above. The latter apparently
-indicate the cargo of the ship, and the tablet is probably
-an offering of a merchant to the sea-god Poseidon for the
-safe conduct of his precious consignment to foreign lands.</p>
-
-<p>This is the only picture we have of the transport of Greek
-vases, which we know played so significant a part in Greek
-ceramic industry. Even in the seventh century B.C.,
-when most important localities produced their own wares,
-such shipments must have been frequent, since, for instance,
-large numbers of Corinthian vases have been unearthed in
-Etruria, and Laconian vases are found scattered far and
-wide. In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., when Athens
-supplied a large part of the Greek world with her pottery,
-the trade must have been an exceedingly active one; so that
-we must imagine ship after ship laden with pottery sailing
-from the Piraeus for distant lands.</p>
-
-<h3>REPRESENTATIONS WRONGLY INTERPRETED AS POTTERY SCENES</h3>
-
-<p>From time to time various representations have been interpreted
-as pottery scenes which probably have no such
-significance. The following are the two most important.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>1. Interior of a kylix in the Metropolitan Museum
-of Art.</i></p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>A satyr is stoking the fire of an oven on which is a skyphos.
-This scene is figured in many of the books on vases (cf. e.g.
-Walters, History of Ancient Pottery, I, p. 216, fig. 68) and
-interpreted as a satyr firing pottery; probably he is simply
-cooking his dinner.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquote">
-
-<p class="center"><i>2. Interior of a kylix.</i></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder, pls. CLXXX-CLXXXI.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Youth holding the rim of a large krater with both hands.
-He is sometimes interpreted as a potter working on a vase;
-but there is no clear connection with pottery work.</p>
-
-<h3>POTTER’S IMPLEMENTS</h3>
-
-<p>Unfortunately very few potter’s implements of classical
-Greek times have survived. We have no Athenian wheel or
-kiln or turning tools. And even from other periods the list
-of such utensils is a slim one. But what has survived here
-and there from other periods is in line with the general
-trend of the evidence—that the techniques in ancient times
-were very similar to what they are today. Perhaps the
-most interesting pieces are the terracotta disks found at
-Gournia, Arezzo, and elsewhere,<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> which are wheel-heads<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span>
-which the pottery was thrown and turned. On the under
-side of some of these is a hole for insertion in the pivot
-(fig. <a href="#fig87">87</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig87">
-<img src="images/fig87.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 87. Wheel-head</p>
-<p class="caption">British Museum, <i>Guide to Greek and Roman Life</i>
-(2d Edition), p. 181, fig. 217</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The potter’s tools found at Arezzo (fig. <a href="#fig88">88</a>)<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> are not unlike
-our modern modeling tools and were doubtless used for
-various finishing processes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig88">
-<img src="images/fig88.jpg" width="350" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 88. Tools found at Arezzo</p>
-<p class="caption">Daremberg et Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques
-et romaines</i>, p. 1122, fig. 3036</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span></p>
-
-<p>In the British Museum (Nos. 74.7-10,302) are terracotta
-stilts used for supporting vases in the kilns, very like the
-stilts used by potters today. It is unlikely that they were
-used by the Athenian potters, since the Greek black glaze is
-so thin it would not be apt to run, but for the Roman ware
-with metallic glaze they were essential, and the marks they
-left are visible on the feet of the vases.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> On one of the
-British Museum stilts (fig. <a href="#fig89">89</a>) are remains of a greenish
-glaze from such a vase. No moulds for the Athenian plastic
-ware have to my knowledge been found. But moulds for
-the later wares, such as the Arretine, are of course plentiful.
-They are invariably made of burnt clay. The kilns
-which have survived all date from Roman times (cf. Blümner,
-op. cit., II, pp. 23 ff.).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig89">
-<img src="images/fig89.jpg" width="350" height="300" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Fig. 89. Stilt</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="III_REFERENCES">III. REFERENCES TO THE POTTERY CRAFT IN ANCIENT LITERATURE</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="dropcap">The information derived from ancient literature on
-the subject of the technique of Athenian vases is
-decidedly meagre; and naturally so. The only
-people who could have given us valuable data regarding
-technical questions were the potters themselves, and they
-were not writers. Outsiders knew as little of the technique
-of the craft as they do today. So we obtain from them only
-general remarks; and these on the whole bear out the points
-we have already made. Occasionally, however, they throw
-fresh light on a question, or give us information on some
-point on which the vases themselves cannot speak, such as
-the status of the ancient potters, the value placed on the
-vases, etc. It is important, therefore, to examine the chief
-references in Greek and Roman literature on this subject.</p>
-
-<h3>PREPARATION OF THE CLAY</h3>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Geoponica</i>, <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, 49.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>3. It is most necessary for
-every reason to have potters (on
-a farm), since we are convinced
-that it is possible to find potter’s
-clay on any land; for either on
-the surface, or deep down, or in
-out-of-the-way places on the land
-you will find earth suitable for
-making pottery.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>3. Ἀναγκαιότατον δὲ καὶ κεραμέας
-ἔχειν πάντων ἕνεκα, πεπεισμένον ὅτι
-ἐν πάσῃ τῇ γῇ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν κεραμικὴν
-γῆν, ἢ γὰρ ἐπιπολάσιον, ἢ ἐν βάθει, ἢ
-ἐν ἀποκεκρυμμένοις μέρεσι καὶ τόποις
-τοῦ χωρίου ἐπιτηδείαν γῆν πρὸς κατασκευὴν
-κεράμων εὑρήσεις.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>The abundance of clay on Greek soil must have helped the
-manufacture of the many local varieties before Athens
-obtained the monopoly in the sixth century B.C.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Geoponica</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, 3.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p class="center"><i>On making pithoi</i></p>
-
-<p>1. Not all earth is suitable
-for pottery, but with regard to
-potter’s clay, some prefer the yellowish
-red, some the white, and
-others mix the two. 2. Some in
-judging of a well-made pithos are
-satisfied if, when struck, it gives
-forth a sharp, clear sound.
-3. That, however, is not enough,
-but the person in charge ought to
-be present while the work is going
-on, and see to it that the clay has
-been well worked, and not let it
-be put on the wheel before the
-clay shows what sort of pot it
-will make when fired.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p class="center">περὶ κατασκευῆς πίθων</p>
-
-<p>1. Γῆ οὐ πᾶσα ἐπιτήδειος πρὸς κεραμείαν,
-ἀλλὰ τῆς κεραμίτιδος γῆς
-οἱ μὲν προκρίνουσι τὴν πυρρὰν τὸ χρῶμα,
-οἱ δὲ τὴν λευκήν, οἱ δὲ ἀμφοτέρας
-συμμιγνύουσι. 2. Τινὲς μὲν οὖν ἀρκοῦνται
-ἐν τῇ δοκιμασίᾳ τοῦ καλῶς
-κεκεραμευμένου πίθου, τῷ κρουσθέντα
-αὐτὸν ἀποδοῦναι ἦχόν τινα ὀξὺν καὶ
-πορόν. 3. Οὐκ ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο αὔταρκες,
-ἀλλὰ χρῆ τὸν κατασκευάζοντα παρεῖναι
-τῇ κεραμείᾳ, καὶ ὅπως ὁ πηλὸς καλῶς
-εἰργασμένος εἴη προνοῆσαι, καὶ
-μὴ πρὶν ἐᾶσαι ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάσαι,
-πρὶν τὸν πηλὸν διαδεῖξαι ὁποῖος
-ἔσται ὁ πίθος ὀπτηθείς.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Good potters were evidently well aware, then as now, of
-the importance of the right composition and consistency of
-their clay. It is also interesting to note that potters in
-modern Athens still regularly use a mixture of red and
-white clay (cf. <a href="#Footnote_20">p. 40, note 2</a>).</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Sophokles</i>, <i>Fragments</i>, 438.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>First begin to work the clay
-with your hands.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Καὶ πρῶτον ἄρχου πηλὸν ὀργάξειν
-χερσῖν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Hesychius</i>, <i>Lexicon</i>, <i>s. v.</i> ὀργάσαι.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>ὀργάσαι: to make ready; or as
-is said, to knead the clay, which
-is to prepare it, to mix it, to wet
-it, to work it into a plastic mass.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>ὀργάσαι· ἑτοιμάσαι, καὶ τὸν πηλὸν
-ὀργάσαι φασίν, ὅ ἐστιν ἑτοίμασαι, φυρᾶσαι,
-βρέξαι, ἀνάδευσαι.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Ὀργάσαι in other words was the Greek expression for
-wedging the clay and getting it ready for throwing.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span></p>
-
-<h3>FASHIONING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<h4>(1) WHEELWORK</h4>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Diodorus Siculus</i>, <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, 76.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Talos, the son of Daedalus’
-sister, was brought up as a child
-by Daedalus, and being cleverer
-than his teacher, he invented the
-potter’s wheel.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Τῆς ἀδελφῆς τῆς Δαιδάλου γενόμενος
-υἱὸς Τάλως ἐπαιδεύετο παρὰ
-Δαιδάλῳ παῖς ὢν τὴν ἡλικίαν, εὐφυέστερος
-δ’ ὢν τοῦ διδασκάλου τὸν κεραμευτικὸν
-τροχὸν εὗρε.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Strabo</i>, <i>Geography</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, p. 303.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Ephoros says that Anacharsis’
-inventions were the bellows, the
-double-fluked anchor, and the potter’s
-wheel. I repeat this statement,
-although I am well aware
-that this writer is not very accurate,
-and especially in the account
-of Anacharsis, for how could the
-potter’s wheel be an invention of
-his, while Homer<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> who was of an
-earlier time knew of it?</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ὁ Ἔφορος ... εὑρήματά τε
-αὐτοῦ λέγει τά τε ζώπυρα καὶ τὴν ἀμφίβολον
-ἄγκυραν καὶ τὸν κεραμικὸν
-τροχόν. ταῦτα δὲ λέγω σαφῶς μὲν εἰδὼς
-ὅτι καὶ οὗτος αὐτὸς οὐ τἀληθέστατα
-λέγει περὶ πάντων, καὶ δὴ καὶ
-τὸ τοῦ Ἀναχάρσιδος. πῶς γὰρ ὁ τροχὸς
-εὕρημα αὐτοῦ, ὃν οἶδεν Ὅμηρος
-πρεσβύτερος ὤν;</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pliny</i>, <i>Natural History</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, 198.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Coroebus the Athenian invented
-earthen pots, and among the inventors,
-the Scythian Anacharsis,
-or as others say, Hyperbius
-the Corinthian, discovered the
-potter’s wheel.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>... figlinas (invenit) Coroebus
-Atheniensis, in iis orbem Anacharsis
-Scythes, ut alii, Hyperbius
-Corinthus.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Critias</i>, <i>Elegies</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, 12-14 (Bergk).</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>The child of the wheel and the
-earth and the kiln, the famous
-pottery, useful house servant, that
-city invented which set up the
-glorious trophy at Marathon.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Τὸν δὲ τροχοῦ γαίης τε καμίνου τ’ ἔκγονον εὗρεν,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">κλεινότατον κέραμον, χρήσιμον οἰκονόμον,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἡ τὸ καλὸν Μαραθῶνι καταστήσασα τρόπαιον.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>It is natural that the ancients should have attributed the
-great invention of the potter’s wheel to various individuals
-or cities, but they themselves realized the anomaly of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span>
-ascribing it to a comparatively recent period, when it was
-known to Homer (see below). Actual remains of wheel-thrown
-vases show that the wheel was known in Crete and
-Greece in the Early Minoan and Early Helladic III periods
-(before 2200 B.C.) and in Egypt in the third and fourth
-dynasties<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> (about 3000 B.C.).</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Homer</i>, <i>Iliad</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>, 599-601.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>And now they would run round
-with deft feet exceeding lightly,
-as when a potter sitting by his
-wheel that fitteth between his
-hands maketh trial of it whether
-it run. (Lang, Leaf and Myers.)</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Οἱ δ’ ὁτὲ μὲν θρέξασκον ἐπισταμένουσι πόδεσσιν,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ῥεῖα μαλ’, ὡς ὅτε τις τροχὸν ἄρμενον ἐν παλάμῃσιν.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἑζόμενος κεραμεὺς πειρήσεται, αἵ κε θέῃσιν.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plutarch</i>, <i>De genio Socratis</i>, p. 588f.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>One ought not to be surprised
-at seeing the movement of large
-merchant-vessels controlled by
-small helms, nor the whirling of
-the potter’s wheel moving regularly
-at the mere touch of the tips
-of his fingers.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οὐ δεῖ δὲ θαυμάζειν ὁρῶντας τοῦτο
-μὲν ὑπὸ μικροῖς οἴαξι μεγάλων περιαγωγὰς
-ὀλκάδων, τοῦτο δὲ τροχῶν κεραμεικῶν
-δίνησιν ἄκρας παραψαύσει
-χειρὸς ὁμαλῶς περιφερομένων.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Persius</i>, <i>Satires</i>, <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, 23-24.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>[Advice to an idle young man of
-good position.]</p>
-
-<p>You are wet, soft clay; at this
-very moment you should be hastening
-to shape yourself on the
-swift wheel.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>udum et molle lutum es, nunc
-nunc properandus et acri
-fingendus sine fine rota.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Hippokrates</i>, Περὶ Διαίτης, I, <i>Littré</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, p. 494, §22.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Potters turn the wheel which
-moves neither backward nor forward
-and at the same time imitates
-the rotation of the universe,
-and on this same wheel as it
-whirls they make things of all
-kinds, no one of them like
-another, from the same materials
-with the same tools.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Κεραμέες τροχὸν δινέουσι, καὶ οὔτε
-ὀπίσω οὔτε πρώσω προχωρέει καὶ ἀμφοτέρωσε
-ἅμα τοῦ ὅλου μιμητὴς τῆς
-περιφορῆς· ἐν δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ ἐργάζονται
-περιφερομένῳ παντοδαπά, οὐδὲν ὅμοιον
-τὸ ἕτερον τῷ ἑτέρῳ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν τοῖσιν
-αὐτοῖσιν ὀργάνουσιν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span></p>
-
-<p>The fascination of a pot shaped on a rapidly turning
-wheel appealed to the ancients as it does to us; and the
-parallelism between a pot in the making and man shaped by
-life is too obvious to have escaped them. Hippokrates’
-remark that of the vases produced on the wheel no two are
-alike is characteristic of the Greek love of variety.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Ecclesiasticus</i>, 38, 32.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>So does the potter sitting at his
-work and turning his wheel round
-with his feet, who is always painstaking
-with his task; and all his
-work is done by number. He
-moulds the clay with his arm, and
-his feet. [Literal translation of
-the Greek text written by a
-Hebrew and evidently colored by
-his own idiom.]</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οὕτω κεραμεὺς καθήμενος ἐν ἔργῳ
-αὐτοῦ, καὶ συστρέφων ἐν ποσὶν αὐτοῦ
-τροχόν, ὃς ἐν μερίμνῃ κεῖται διὰ παντὸς
-ἐπὶ τὸ ἔργον αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐναρίθμιος
-πᾶσα ἡ ἐργασία αὐτοῦ.</p>
-
-<p>Ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ τυπώσει πηλόν,
-καὶ πρὸ ποδῶν κάμψει ἰσχὺν αὐτοῦ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>This is the only place in ancient literature in which the
-action of the foot in wheelwork is referred to. In the
-second century B.C., therefore, we might assume the knowledge
-of the kick-wheel, though it may well have been in use
-long before then, since it is a simple and obvious device.
-Where labor, however, was cheap and plentiful, as in fifth-century
-Athens, a slave boy turning the wheel for the potter,
-whose whole strength and attention could then be expended
-on his work, would be preferable; and this is the manner
-in which wheelwork is depicted in Athenian vase paintings
-(cf. <a href="#Page_64">pp. 64 ff</a>).</p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Athenaeus</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XI</span>, p. 480 c.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>These kylikes are clay drinking-cups,
-and are so called from being
-turned on the wheel.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ κεράμεα ποτήρια καὶ
-λέγεται ἀπὸ τοῦ κυλίεσθαι τῷ τροχῷ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span></p>
-
-<p>The kylix is, of course, the wheel-made vase par excellence.
-Nothing so light and graceful or with such a fine
-flow of line could be produced by handwork.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plato</i>, <i>Gorgias</i>, p. 514 e.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Is not this, as they say, to learn
-the potter’s craft by undertaking
-a pithos, ... and does not this
-seem to you a foolish thing to do?</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Τὸ λεγόμενον δὴ τοῦτο ἐν τῷ πίθῳ
-τὴν κεραμείαν ἐπιχειρεῖν μανθάνειν ...
-οὐκ ἀνοητόν σοι δοκεῖ
-ἂν εἶναι οὕτω πράττειν;</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plato</i>, <i>Laches</i>, p. 187 b.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>For if this is your first attempt
-at education, you must take care
-lest you try the experiment, not
-on a Carian slave, but on your
-sons or the children of your
-friends, and let the proverb fit
-you which says that the potter’s
-art is in the pithos.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Εἰ γὰρ νῦν πρῶτον ἄρξεσθε παιδεύειν,
-σκοπεῖν χρὴ μὴ οὐκ ἐν τῷ Καρὶ
-ὑμῖν ὁ κίνδυνος κινδυνεύηται, ἀλλ’
-ἐν τοῖς ὑέσι τε καὶ ἐν τοῖς τῶν φίλων
-παισί, καὶ ἀτεκνῶς τὸ λεγόμενον κατὰ
-τὴν παροιμίαν ὑμῖν συμβαίνῃ ἐν πίθῳ
-ἡ κεραμεία γιγνομένη.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Scholiast on Plato</i>, <i>Laches</i>, p. 187 b.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>The proverb, “in the pithos is
-the potter’s art,” about those
-who skip the first lessons and take
-hold of the greatest tasks which
-are properly the last.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Παροιμία, ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν,
-ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας μαθήσεις ὑπερβαινόντων,
-ἁπτομένων δὲ τῶν μειζόνων καὶ
-ἤδη τῶν τελειοτέρων.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum</i>, <i>Zenobius</i>, <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, 65.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>“I learn the potter’s craft on
-the pithos”; a proverb upon
-those who skip the first lessons,
-and immediately attempt greater
-things; as if anyone who was
-learning to be a potter, before
-learning to mould plates or any
-other small thing, should undertake
-a pithos.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν μανθάνω:
-Παροιμία ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας μαθήσεις
-ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ εὐθέως
-τῶν μειζόνων. Ὡς εἴ τις μανθάνων
-κεραμεύειν, πρὶν μαθεῖν πίνακας
-ἢ ἄλλο τι τῶν μικρῶν πλάττειν, πίθῳ
-ἐγχεροίη.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span></p>
-
-<p>The fact that there was a Greek proverb on the folly of
-attempting large vases before a thorough knowledge of the
-craft has been acquired, shows how common was the realization
-of the difficulty of the task.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plutarch</i>, <i>Quaestiones conviviales</i>, <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, p. 636 c.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Polykleitos the modeler said
-that the work is most difficult
-when the clay stands the test of
-the nail (?).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Πολύκλειτος ὁ πλάστης εἶπε χαλεπώτατον
-εἶναι τοὔργον, ὅταν ἐν ὄνυχι
-ὁ πηλὸς γένηται.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>If we interpret this passage as referring to a potter, and
-ὅταν ἐν ὄνυχι γένηται as meaning when the stage has been
-reached that the clay is hard enough to be scratched with
-the nail, this may possibly be an allusion to turning; which
-may well be called the most difficult process of pottery
-making. But this interpretation is very uncertain. The
-passage is usually taken as referring to the sculptor’s last
-touches on a clay model for a bronze statue.</p>
-
-<h4>(2) BUILDING</h4>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Geoponica</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, 3 (4).</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>4. Potters do not use the wheel
-for all pithoi, but only for the
-small ones. The larger ones they
-build up day by day, placing them
-on the ground in a warm room,
-and thus make them large.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>4. Οὐ πάντας δὲ τοὺς πίθους ἐπὶ
-τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάζουσιν οἱ κεραμεῖς,
-ἀλλὰ τοὺς μικρούς. τοὺς μέντοι μείζους
-χαμαὶ κειμένους ὁσημέραι ἐν
-θερμῷ οἰκήματι ἐποικοδομοῦσι, καὶ
-μεγάλους ποιοῦσιν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pollux</i>, <i>Onomasticon</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, 164.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>164. That around which those
-who make pithoi put the clay and
-shape it—this wooden core is
-called κάναβος.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>164. Περὶ δὲ ὃ οἱ τοὺς πίθους πλάττοντες
-τὸν πηλὸν περιτιθέντες πλάττουσι,
-τοῦτο τὸ ξυλήφιον κάναβος καλεῖται.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p>
-
-<p>Such hand-built ware does not, of course, include the
-large painted kraters and amphorai of Athenian make; for
-these have all the ear-marks of wheel-thrown pottery.
-Wooden cores are still used today in the making of cement
-forms. Since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the
-wood does not, care must be taken to prevent the former
-from cracking. The wooden core is therefore made in
-collapsible form. A wedge is made in the center and a core
-built around it. When the work is finished the wedge can
-be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
-
-<h3>FIRING THE VASES</h3>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Geoponica</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, 3 (5).</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>5. The firing is no small part
-of the potter’s craft. Not too
-little or too much fire should be
-built under the pots, but just
-enough.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οὐ μικρὸν δὲ τῆς κεραμίας ἐστὶ
-μέρος ἡ ὄπτησις· δεῖ δὲ μήτε ἔλαττον,
-μήτε πλέον, ἀλλὰ μεμετρημένως τὸ
-πῦρ ὑποβάλλειν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Vita Herodotea</i> λβ = <i>Epigrammata Homerica</i>, 14.</p>
-
-<p class="center">(Text of T. W. Allen, in Oxford University Classical Texts.)</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Some potters, seeing him
-[Homer] setting out the next
-morning while they were building
-a fire in a kiln of fine pottery,
-called him to them, knowing that
-he was a poet, and they bade him
-sing, promising to give him some
-of the pottery and whatever else
-they had, and Homer sang to them
-the following poem, which is
-called the “Kiln”:—</p>
-
-<p>“If you will give me a reward
-I will sing to you, O potters.
-Come hither, Athena, and stretch
-thy hand over the kiln, and may
-the kotyloi blacken well and all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>
-the ... and may they be well
-baked, and receive the price due
-to their value, many being sold
-in the market, and many in the
-streets. May they gain much....
-But if you turn to shamelessness,
-and choose falsehood, then I summon
-the destroyers to fall upon
-the kiln, Crasher and Smasher and
-Unquenchable and Shatterer and
-Fierce Conquerer, who would
-bring many evils upon this craft
-... and may the whole kiln be
-thrown into confusion, while the
-potters lament loudly. As a
-horse’s jaw eats greedily, so may
-the kiln devour all the pottery
-within it, making it brittle.
-Come hither, Circe, daughter of
-the sun, skilled in drugs; bring
-malignant poisons, afflict the men
-and ruin their work. Let Cheiron
-bring hither many Centaurs, both
-those who escaped the hands of
-Herakles, and those who perished.
-Let them harshly smite the work
-and smite the kiln, and may the
-men themselves see these grievous
-deeds with lamentations. But I
-shall be happy when I see their
-unlucky craft. And the man who
-peeps over, may his whole face
-burn on account of this, so that
-all may know how to do what is
-right.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Tῇ δὲ εἰσαύριον ἀποπορευόμενον
-ἰδόντες κεραμέες τινες κάμινον ἐγκαίοντες
-κεράμου λεπτοῦ, προσεκαλέσαντο
-αὐτόν, πεπυσμένοι ὅτι σοφὸς εἴη· καὶ
-ἐκέλευόν σφιν ἀεῖσαι, φάμενοι δώσειν
-αὐτῷ τοῦ κεράμου καὶ ὅ τι ἂν ἄλλο
-ἔχωσιν. ὁ δὲ Ὅμηρος ἀείδει αὐτοῖς
-τὰ ἔπεα τάδε ἃ καλέεται Κάμινος·</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Εἰ μὲν δώσετε μισθὸν ἀείσω, ὦ κεραμῆες·</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">δεῦρ’ ἄγ’ Ἀθηναίη καὶ ὑπείρεχε χεῖρα καμίνου,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">εὖ δὲ μελανθεῖεν κότυλοι καὶ πάντα μάλευρα,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">φρυχθῆναί τε καλῶς καὶ τιμῆς ὦνον ἀρέσθαι,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">πολλὰ μέν εἰν ἀγορῇ πωλεύμενα, πολλὰ δ’ ἀγυιᾶς,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">πολλὰ δὲ κερδῆναι, ἡμῖν δὲ δὴ ὥς σφι νοῆσαι.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἢν δ’ ἐπ’ ἀναιδείην τρεφθέντες ψεύδε’ ἄρησθε,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">συγκαλέω δ’ ἤπειτα καμίνῳ δηλητῆρας,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Σύντριβ’ ὁμῶς Σμάραγόν τε καὶ Ἄσβετον ἠδέ γ’ Ἄβακτον,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Ὠμόδαμόν θ’ ὃς τῇδε τέχνῃ κακὰ πολλὰ πορίζοι.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">πεῖθε πυραίθουσαν καὶ δώματα, σὺν δὲ κάμινος</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">πᾶσα κυκηθείη κεραμέων μέγα κωκυσάντων.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ὡς γνάθος ἱππείη βρύκει, βρύκοι δὲ κάμινος</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">πάντ’ ἐντοσθ’ αὐτῆς κεραμήϊα λεπτὰ ποιοῦσα.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">δεῦρο καὶ ἠελίου θύγατερ πολυφάρμακε Κίρκη.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἄγρια φάρμακα βάλλε, κάκου δ’ αὐτούς τε καὶ ἔργα.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">δεῦρο δὲ καὶ Χείρων ἀγέτω πολέας Κενταύρους,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">οἵ θ’ Ἡρακλείους χεῖρας φύγον, οἵ τ’ ἀπόλοντο·</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">τύπτοιεν τάδε ἔργα κακῶς, τύπτοι δὲ κάμινον,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">αὐτοὶ δ’ οἰμῴζοντες ὁρῷατο ἔργα πονηρά.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">γηθήσω δ’ ὁρόων αὐτῶν κακοδαίμονα τέχνην.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ὃς δὲ χ’ ὑπερκύψῃ, περὶ τούτου πᾶν τὸ πρόσωπον</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">φλεχθείη, ὡς πάντες ἐπίσταιντ’ αἴσιμα ῥέζειν.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>This is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in
-a kiln.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Hippokrates</i>, <i>Epidemia</i>, <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, 20; <i>Littré</i>, <span class="allsmcap">V</span>, p. 160.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>The man who fell down from
-the potter’s oven, since a cupping-glass
-was not applied immediately,
-suffered from an internal
-inflammation and on the twentieth
-day grew worse.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ κεραμέου ἴπνου καταπεσὼν,
-ᾧ οὐ προσβλήθη αὐτίκα σικύη,
-ἐκαύθη ἔσω, καὶ εἰκοστῇ ἐπαλιγκότησεν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>This reminds us of the men we see climbing on the kilns
-in the representations on Corinthian pinakes (<a href="#Page_76">p. 76</a>).</p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pollux</i>, <i>Onomasticon</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, 108.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>It was the custom for bronze
-casters to hang something ridiculous
-in front of their furnaces, or
-to mould something upon them, in
-order to avert envy. These were
-called βασκάνια.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Πρὸ δὲ τῶν καμίνων τοῖς χαλκεῦσιν
-ἔθος ἦν γελοῖά τινα καταρτᾶν, ἢ ἐπιπλάττειν,
-ἐπὶ φθόνου ἀποτροπῇ. ἐκαλεῖτο
-δὲ βασκάνια.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to
-pottery kilns, as we know from actual representations (cf. <a href="#Page_64">pp.
-64 f.</a>). It is natural that the vagaries of a kiln should be
-ascribed by the superstitious ancients to supernatural forces.</p>
-
-<h3>RED OCHRE WASH</h3>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, 1, 546.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Be it decreed by the senate and
-people of the Ioulietai concerning
-the representations of the envoys
-from Athens, that the export of
-miltos shall be to Athens, and
-to no other place from this
-day forward; if anyone exports
-it to any other place, his
-ship and its cargo shall be confiscated
-and a half shall be given
-to the informer; ... If the
-Athenians decree any other regulations
-for the guarding of the
-miltos they shall be valid.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>(Ἔδ)οξεν τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ
-τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, περὶ (ὧν οἱ παρ’ Ἀθηναίων
-λέγουσι, δεδόχθα)ι τῇ βούλῃ
-καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, εἶναι τὴ(ν
-ἐξαγωγὴν τῆς μίλτου Ἀθήναζε),
-ἄλλοσε δὲ μηδαμῇ ἀπὸ τῆσδε τῆς ἡμέρας.
-ἐὰν δέ τι(ς ἄλλοσε ἐξάγῃ, δημόσια
-εἶναι τ)ὸ πλοῖον καὶ τὰ χρήματα
-τὰ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ. τῷ δὲ φήν(αντι ἢ
-ἐνδείξαντι εἶναι τὰ ἡμίσεα) ...
-(ἐὰν δέ τι ἄλ)λο ψηφίζωνται Ἀθηναῖοι
-περὶ φυλακῆς τῆς μίλ(του ... κύρια
-εἶ)ναι ἃ ἂν Ἀθηναῖοι ψηφίζωνται.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, 1, 546.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Theogenes moved: be it decreed
-by the senate and people of
-the Koresians, concerning the
-representations of the envoys
-from Athens, the export of miltos
-shall be to Athens ... as it was
-before; and in order that the
-decrees of the Athenians and
-Koresians concerning miltos may
-be valid, it shall be exported in a
-ship which they shall designate
-and in no other ship ... the
-tax of two per cent shall be paid
-to the collectors by those engaged
-in the trade.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>(Θεογ)ένης εἶπεν. δεδόχθαι (τ)ῇ
-βο(υλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Κορησίων.
-περὶ ὧν λέγουσι οἱ παρ’ Ἀθη)ναίων,
-εἶναι τῆς μίλτου τὴν ἐξ(αγωγὴν Ἀθήναζε
-... κ)αθάπερ πρότερον ἦν.
-ὅπως δ’ ἂν κύρια ἦ(ι τ)ὰ ψηφίσματα
-(... Ἀθηναίων κ)αὶ Κορησίων τὰ
-περὶ τῆς μίλτου, ἐξάγειν ἐμπλοίῳ ὧ(ι
-ἂν ... ἀποδείξωσιν, ἐν ἄλλῳ) δὲ
-πλοῖῳ μηδενί ...
-(τελ)εῖν δὲ τὴν πεντηκοστὴν τοῖς πεντηκοστολόγοις
-τοὺς ἐργαζομένους.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>It is interesting to learn how important miltos (red
-ochre) was to the Athenians. We know that it was used in
-building for the dressing of stones<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>; and if the appearance
-of one of the chief articles of commerce of Athens, viz. the
-pottery, was dependent on it (cf. <a href="#Page_53">pp. 53 ff.</a>), it is natural that
-stringent provisions should be made for its acquisition and
-monopoly.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pliny</i>, <i>Natural History</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XXXV</span>, 12 (43), 152.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>The addition of red ochre or
-moulding in red clay is the invention
-of Butades.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Butades inventum est rubricam
-addere aut ex rubra creta fingere.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Suidas</i>, <i>Lexicon</i>, <i>s. v.</i> Κωλιάδος κεραμῆες.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Potters of Kolias: Kolias, a
-place in Attica where vases are
-moulded. It is said that of all
-the kinds of clay that are brought
-to the wheel (and the wheel on
-which vessels are shaped is
-meant), that is, of all the clay
-fit for making vases, the clay of
-Kolias is the best, so that it is
-also dyed with miltos.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Κωλιάς, τόπος τῆς Ἀττικῆς, ἔνθα
-σκεύη πλάττονται, λέγει οὖν ὅτι ὅσοι
-ἐπὶ τροχοὺς φέρονται (τροχὸν δὲ τὸν
-σκευοπλαστικὸν λέγει) τουτέστιν, ὅσαι
-πρὸς σκευοπλασίαν ἐπιτήδειαι, πασῶν
-ἡ Κωλιάδος κρείσσων· ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι
-ὑπὸ τῆς μίλτου.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Isidorus</i>, <i>Etymologiae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XX</span>, iv, 3.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>It is said that pottery vases
-were first invented in the island
-of Samos, being made of clay
-and hardened by fire, whence
-comes the term Samian vases. A
-later invention was to add red
-ochre and to make pottery of red
-clay.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Fictilia vasa in Samo insula
-prius inventa traduntur, facta ex
-creta et indurata igni; unde et
-Samia vasa: postea inventum et
-rubricam addere et ex rubra creta
-fingere.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>The significance of these passages has already been
-discussed on <a href="#Page_53">pp. 53-59</a>.</p>
-
-<h3>POROSITY OF GREEK POTTERY</h3>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pollux</i>, <i>Onomasticon</i>, <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, 161 ff.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>162. Aristophanes says that a
-clay vinegar jar has leprosy, instead
-of saying that it is moist
-(sweats?).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Λεπρᾶν δὲ κεράμειον ὀξηρόν,
-ἀντὶ τοῦ μυδᾶν, Ἀριστοφάνης λέγει.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>This appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware (and
-even painted Athenian pottery is unglazed in parts)
-becomes moist when filled with liquid, on account of its
-porosity.</p>
-
-<h3>THE STATUS OF POTTERS</h3>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Isokrates</i>, <i>De Permutatione</i>, 2.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>As if one should have the insolence
-to call Pheidias, who made
-the statue of Athena, a statuette
-maker, or to say that Zeuxis and
-Parrhasius had plied the same
-trade as that of the painters of
-pinakes.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις Φειδίαν τὸν τὸ τῆς
-Ἀθηνᾶς ἕδος ἐργασάμενον τολμῷη
-καλεῖν κοροπλάθον, ἢ Ζεῦξιν καὶ Παρράσιον
-τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχειν φαίη τέχνην τοῖς
-τὰ πινάκια γράφουσιν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Aristophanes</i>, <i>Ekklesiazousai</i>, 995 f.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Old Woman. Who is this?</p>
-
-<p>Young Man. The man who
-paints lekythoi for the dead.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Γρ. οὗτος δ’ ἔστι τίς;</p>
-
-<p>Νεανίας. ὃς τοῖς νεκροῖσι ζωγραφεῖ
-τὰς ληκύθους.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plutarch</i>, <i>Life of Numa</i>, 17.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>So, distinguishing the whole
-people by the several arts and
-trades, he formed the companies
-of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters,
-dyers, shoemakers, skinners,
-braziers, and potters (A. H.
-Clough).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ἦν δὲ ἡ διανομὴ κατὰ τὰς τέχνας,
-αὐλητῶν, χρυσοχόων, τεκτόνων, βαφέων,
-σκυτοτόμων, σκυτοδέψων, χαλκέων,
-κεραμέων.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plato</i>, <i>Euthydemos</i>, 301, c, d.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>What, said he, is the business
-of a good workman? Tell me, in
-the first place, whose business is
-hammering?</p>
-
-<p>The smith’s.</p>
-
-<p>And whose the making of pots?</p>
-
-<p>The potter’s.</p>
-
-<p>And who has to kill and skin
-and mince and boil and roast?</p>
-
-<p>The cook, I said.</p>
-
-<p>And if a man does his business,
-he does rightly?</p>
-
-<p>Certainly.</p>
-
-<p>And the business of the cook is
-to cut up and skin, you have
-admitted that?</p>
-
-<p>Yes, I have, but you must not
-be too hard upon me.</p>
-
-<p>Then if some one were to kill,
-mince, boil, roast the cook, he
-would do his business, and if he
-were to hammer the smith, and
-make a pot of the potter, he
-would do their business (Jowett).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οἶσθα οὖν, ἔφη, ὅτι προσήκει ἑκάστοις
-τῶν δημιουργῶν; πρῶτον τίνα
-χαλκεύειν προσήκει, οἶσθα;—Ἔγωγε·
-ὅτι χαλκέα.—τί δέ, κεραμεῦειν;
-κεραμέα.—τί δέ, σφάττειν τε καὶ ἐκδέρειν
-καὶ τὰ μικρὰ κρέα κατακόψαντα
-ἕψειν καὶ ὀπτᾶν;—Μάγειρον, ἦν δ’
-ἐγώ.—Οὐκοῦν ἐάν τις, ἔφη, τὰ προσήκοντα
-πράττῃ, ὀρθῶς πράξει; Μάλιστα.—Προσήκει
-δέ γε, ὡς φῄς, τὸν
-μάγειρον κατακόπτειν καὶ ἐκδέρειν;
-ὡμολόγησας ταῦτα ἢ οὔ;—Ὡμολόγησα,
-ἔφην, ἀλλὰ συγγνώμην μοι ἔχε—Δῆλον
-τοίνυν, ἦ δ’ ὅς, ὅτι ἄν τις
-σφάξας τὸν μάγειρον καὶ κατακόψας
-ἑψήσῃ καὶ ὀπτήσῃ, τὰ προσήκοντα
-ποιήσει. καὶ ἐὰν τὸν χαλκέα τις αὐτὸν
-χαλκεύῃ καὶ τὸν κεραμέα κεραμεύῃ,
-καὶ οὗτος τὰ προσήκοντα πράξει.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Justinus</i>, <i>Historiae Philippicae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XXII</span>, 1, 1 and 2.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Agathocles, the tyrant of
-Sicily, who succeeded to the great
-power of the elder Dionysius,
-came into the splendor of a kingdom
-from a humble and base
-family. And too, being born in
-Sicily of a potter, he had a boyhood
-not more honorable than his
-origin.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Agathocles, Siciliae tyrannus,
-qui magnitudini prioris Dionysii
-successit, ad regni maiestatem ex
-humili et sordido genere pervenit.
-Quippe in Sicilia patre figulo
-natus non honestiorem pueritiam
-quam principia originis habuit.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span></p>
-
-<p>Much has been written about the lowly status of Greek
-potters,<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> and the above references bear out this general idea.
-The craft of pottery was evidently placed on a par with
-other trades, and all such manual work was not considered
-a worthy occupation of free-born citizens, and left mostly
-to the metics, or non-citizens. We know this not only from
-texts and inscriptions on stone, but also from the non-Attic
-forms of the names of the potters, as well as the inscriptions
-on the vases which frequently show non-Attic spellings.
-It would be absurd, however, to infer that all pottery was as
-contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb lekythoi<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
-and the pinakes referred to by Aristophanes and Isokrates.
-And this is borne out by the following references.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plato</i>, <i>Hippias Maior</i>, p. 288 d.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>If a skilful potter had made
-the vessel smooth and rounded
-and well baked, like some of the
-fine two-handled jars which hold
-six choai—if he should ask us
-about such a vessel as this, we
-should be obliged to agree that it
-was beautiful.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Εἴπερ ἡ χύτρα κεκεραμευμένη εἴη
-ὑπὸ ἀγαθοῦ κεραμέως λεία καὶ στρογγύλη
-καὶ καλῶς ὠπτημένη, οἷαι τῶν
-καλῶν χυτρῶν εἰσί τινες δίωτοι, τῶν
-ἓξ χοᾶς χωρουσῶν, πάγκαλαι, εἰ
-τοιαύτην ἐρωτῴη χύτραν, καλὴν ὁμολογητέον
-εἶναι.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pliny</i>, <i>Natural History</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XXXV</span>, 161.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>At Erythrae in the temple there
-are shown today two amphorai
-consecrated on account of their
-thinness, a pupil and a teacher
-having contested as to which of
-them could draw the clay thinner.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Erythris in templo hodieque ostenduntur
-amphorae duae propter
-tenuitatem consecratae discipuli
-magistrique certamine, uter tenuiorem
-humum duceret.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Amphis</i>, <i>Ampelourgos</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Meineke</i>, <i>Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum</i>, <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, p. 302.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>There is no sweeter solace in
-life for human ills than craftsmanship;
-for the mind, absorbed
-in its study, sails past all troubles
-and forgets them.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲν ἀτυχίας ἀνθρωπίνης</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">παραμύθιον γλυκύτερον ἐν βίῳ τέχνης·</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἐπὶ τοῦ μαθήματος γὰρ ἐστηκὼς ὁ νοῦς</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">αὐτοῦ λέληθε παραπλέων τὰς συμφοράς.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Pindar</i>, <i>Nemean Odes</i>, <span class="allsmcap">X</span>, 35, 36.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>And in earthenware baked in
-the fire, within the closure of figured
-urns, there came among the
-goodly folk of Hera the prize of
-the olive-fruit (Myers).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>γαίᾳ δὲ καυθείσᾳ πυρὶ καρπὸς ἐλαίας
-ἔμολεν Ἥρας τὸν εὐάνορα λαὸν
-ἐν ἀγγέων ἕρκεσιν παμποικίλοις.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Simonides</i>, <i>Fragments</i>, 155 (213) (Bergk).</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>And he won five garlands in
-succession at the Panathenaic
-games, amphorai full of oil.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Καὶ Παναθηναίοις στεφάνους λάβε πέντ’ ἐπ’ αἔθλοις</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">ἑξῆς ἀμφιφορεῖς ἐλαίου.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>That finely executed pottery was held in high esteem is
-evident from the remarks of Plato, Pliny, and Pindar; and
-there certainly could be no more enthusiastic eulogy of
-craftsmanship than Amphis’ beautiful lines. Moreover,
-the fact that clay vases were used as prizes at the most
-important games at Athens certainly points to considerable
-and wide-spread appreciation of them.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Ktesias ap. Athenaeus</i>, p. 464 a.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>And Ktesias says, “Among
-Persians he whom the king wishes
-to insult uses pottery vessels.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Καὶ γὰρ Κτησίας “παρὰ Πέρσαις”
-φησίν, “ὃν ἂν βασιλεὺς ἀτιμάσῃ, κεραμέοις
-χρῆται”.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plutarch</i>, <i>Life of Galba</i>, 12.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>When he was dining with
-Claudius Caesar he stole a silver
-cup, and Caesar, finding it out,
-invited him to dinner again on
-the next day, but ordered his
-servants to bring out and put
-before the guest nothing silver,
-but everything of pottery.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Δειπνῶν δὲ παρὰ Κλαυδίῳ Καίσαρι
-ποτήριον ἀργυροῦν ὑφείλετο. πυθόμενος
-δὲ ὁ Καῖσαρ τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ πάλιν αὐτὸν
-ἐπὶ δεῖπνον ἐκάλεσεν, ἐλθόντι δὲ
-ἐκέλευσεν ἐκείνῳ μηδὲν ἀργυροῦν,
-ἀλλὰ κεράμεα πάντα προσφέρειν καὶ
-παρατιθέναι τοὺς ὑπηρέτας.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Tibullus</i>, <i>Elegies</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, 1, 37 f.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Come, ye gods, nor scorn the
-gifts from a poor man’s table,
-from clean pottery vessels.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Adsitis, divi, neu vos e paupere mensa</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">dona nec e puris spernite fictilibus.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Juvenal</i>, <i>Satires</i>, <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, 168.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>[Even a poor man] is ashamed
-to dine off pottery dishes.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>fictilibus cenare pudet—</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Martial</i>, <i>Epigrams</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XIV</span>, 98.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>We advise you not overmuch
-to despise Arretian vases: Tuscan
-earthenware was luxury to
-Porsena (W. E. Ker).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Arretina nimis ne spernas vasa monemus.</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">lautus erat Tuscis Porsena fictilibus.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Lucian</i>, <i>Prometheus</i>, 1.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Then you say I am Prometheus?
-If, Sir, it is because I
-too work in clay, I recognize the
-similarity and acknowledge that
-I am like him, nor do I refuse
-to be called a potter.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οὐκ οὖν Προμηθέα με εἶναι φῄς;
-εἰ μὲν κατὰ τοῦτο, ὦ ἄριστε, ὡς πηλίνων
-κἀμοὶ τῶν ἔργων ὄντων, γνωρίζω
-τὴν εἰκόνα καί φημι ὅμοιος εἶναι αὐτῷ,
-οὐδ’ ἀναίνομαι πηλοπλάθος ἀκούειν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Athenaeus</i>, <span class="allsmcap">XI</span>, p. 482 b.</p>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>Repeated by Macrobius</i>, <i>Satires</i>, <span class="allsmcap">V</span>, 21, 10.)</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>They placed a krater for the
-gods, not of silver nor set with
-stones, but of clay from Kolias.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Κρατῆρα γὰρ ἵστασαν τοῖς θεοῖς,
-οὐκ ἀργυροῦν οὐδὲ λιθοκόλλητον,
-ἀλλὰ γῆς Κωλιάδος.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>Though the Persians and the Romans set great store by
-metal vases and regarded clay vases as fit only for a poor
-man’s table, the Greeks had no such feelings, as we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>
-learn from Athenaeus and from innumerable vase paintings
-of banquets.</p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, <i>Suppl.</i>, 362, p. 79.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Euphronios the potter offered
-... in supplication to
-(Athena) Hygieia.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>(Ε)ὐφρόνιος (ἀνέθηκεν ὁ) κεραμεύς
-(... ἱκεσί)αν Ὑγιεία(ι).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, <i>Suppl.</i> 373²¹⁵, p. 101.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Mnesiades the potter and Andokides
-dedicated me.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>(Μν)ησιάδης κεραμεύς με καὶ
-Ἀνδοκίδης ἀνέθηκεν.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, 3485.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>The lord of the land and sea,
-Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius
-Severus Antoninus, Pius, Augustus,
-the potters have erected from
-their own property.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Τὸν γῆς καὶ θαλάσσης δεσπότην
-Αὐτοκράτορα Καίσαρα Μ. Αὐρ(ήλιον)
-Σευῆρον Ἀντωνῖνον, Εὐσεβῆ,
-Σεβαστόν, (ἐκ τῶν) ἰδίων ἵδ(ρυσαν)
-οἱ κεραμεῖς.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, 9188.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Sarcophagus of Theophilos and
-his son Tyrannos, a potter by
-trade.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Σωματωτήκη Θεωφίλου (καὶ τοῦ)
-(α)ὐ(τ)οῦ (ὑ)οῦ Τυράννου τὴν τέχνην
-κερα(μέως).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, addenda 4212.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>I, Sesames the potter, have
-bought through the board of
-magistrates this burial vault for
-myself and my wife Elpis and
-my mother-in-law Euphrosyne
-and for Ianoarios and our children,
-and for Soterichos my
-father-in-law. No one else shall be
-buried here, since (the violator)
-shall pay to the sacred treasurer
-1500 denarii.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Σ)ησάμας κεραμεὺς ὠνησάμην διὰ
-τῶν ἀρχείων τὸν πυργίσκον ἑαυτῷ καὶ
-γυναικί μου Ἐλπίδι καὶ (τῇ) πενθερ(ίδι
-μου) Εὐφροσύνῃ κ(αὶ) Ἰανοαρίῳ
-καὶ τ(έ)κνοις ἡ(μῶν) καὶ Σωτηρίχῳ
-τῷ πενθε(ρῷ). ἑτέρῳ δὲ οὐδενὶ
-ἐξέσται (τεθ)ῆναι. ἐπεὶ ἀ(πο)(τ)είσει
-τῷ (ἱερωτάτῳ ταμε(ί)ῳ δηναρία
-α̅φ̅.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>These inscriptions of dedications show that potters sometimes
-became people of means and influence.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Plato</i>, <i>Republic</i>, p. 467 a.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Did you never observe in the
-arts how the potters’ boys look
-on and help, long before they
-touch the wheel? (Jowett).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Ἢ οὐκ ᾔσθησαι τὰ περὶ τὰς τέχνας,
-οἷον τοὺς τῶν κεραμέων παῖδας, ὡς
-πολὺν χρόνον διακονοῦντες θεωροῦσι
-πρὶν ἅπτεσθαι τοῦ κεραμεύειν;</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span></p>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Quintilian</i>, <i>Institutio Oratoria</i>, <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, 17, 3.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>... For what man is there so
-bereft, I will not say of learning,
-but of sense, that he thinks that
-there is an art of constructing
-and of weaving, and of making
-vases from clay, but that rhetoric,
-that greatest and noblest work,
-as I said above, has risen to such
-sublime heights without art?</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>... nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione
-modo, sed a sensu remotus
-hominis, ut fabricandi quidem et
-texendi et e luto vasa ducendi
-artem putet, rhetoricen autem,
-maximum ac pulcherrimum, ut
-supra diximus, opus, in tam sublime
-fastigium existimet sine arte
-venisse?</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Suidas</i>, <i>Lexicon</i>, <i>s. v.</i> Κεραμεύειν.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>To make pottery: commonly
-said instead of “to work hard.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Κεραμεύειν. κοινῶς ἀντὶ τοῦ κατεργάζεσθαι.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Hesiod</i>, <i>Works and Days</i>, 25 f.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>Potter bears a grudge against
-potter, and carpenter against carpenter,
-and beggar envies beggar,
-and minstrel is jealous of minstrel.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-  <div class="stanza">
-    <div class="verse indent0">Καὶ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ κοτέει καὶ τέκτονι τέκτων</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">καὶ πτωχὸς πτωχῷ φθονέει καὶ ἀοιδὸς ἀοιδῷ.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Aristotle</i>, <i>Rhetoric</i>, 2, 4, 21, 22.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>[We are friendly towards] our
-equals, and towards those who
-have the same interests, if they
-do not clash with us, and if their
-livelihood does not come from the
-same source, for thus arises the
-proverb “Potter hates potter.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους καὶ ταὐτὰ ἐπιτηδεύοντας,
-ἐὰν μὴ παρενοχλῶσι μὴ δ’
-ἀπὸ ταὐτοῦ ὁ βίος. γίγνεται γὰρ
-οὕτω τὸ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Aristotle</i>, <i>Nicomachaean Ethics</i>, 8, 1, 6.</p>
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<p>For some define [friendship]
-as a kind of resemblance, and
-claim that those who resemble
-each other are friends, whence
-is the saying “Like to like,”
-and “Jackdaw to Jackdaw,” and
-so on. Others, on the contrary,
-say that all such people are like
-potters to each other.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="right">
-
-<p>Οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιότητα τινὰ τιθέασιν
-αὐτὴν καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους φίλους, ὅθεν
-τὸν ὅμοιόν φασιν ὡς τὸν ὅμοιον. καὶ
-κολοιὸν ποτὶ κολοιόν, καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα.
-οἱ δ’ ἐξ ἐναντίας κεραμεῖς πάντας τοὺς
-τοιούτους ἀλλήλοις φασὶν εἶναι.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span></p>
-
-<p>Evidently it was fully recognized that pottery was a
-craft which needed a long apprenticeship, and in such a
-highly specialized art we are not surprised to read of the
-keen rivalry existing among potters. The inscription by
-Euthymides on one of his vases, “Never has Euphronios
-painted the like of this” (cf. Hoppin, Handbook of Attic
-Red-Figured Vases, p. 432), is evidence of the same spirit.</p>
-
-<p>Judging from the evidence collected above it is fair to
-assume that though the estimate of potters and pottery
-varied at different times, in the period of Athenian vase
-painting it was distinctly high. Potters had, it is true, no
-social status; but they were respected members of the community,
-and the keen appreciation of their work had as its
-natural result eager rivalry among the potters and the setting
-of high standards. That their craft was regarded as a
-“trade” is of course nothing new. Artists as a class have
-only lately been promoted to the higher social ranks. We
-need only recall Albrecht Dürer’s description of the great
-Procession from the Church of Our Lady at Antwerp, in
-which he lists the painters and sculptors and goldsmiths
-with “the masons, the joiners, the carpenters, the sailors,
-the fishermen, the butchers, the leatherers, the clothmakers,
-the bakers, the tailors, the cordwainers,” and refers to the
-group as “workmen of all kinds and many craftsmen and
-dealers who work for their livelihood.” This is not so much
-an indignity to art as a wholesome appreciation of all
-manual labor.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="dropcap">The following is a summary of the technical processes
-of the black-figured and red-figured Athenian vases
-in the order which our study of the subject has
-suggested.</p>
-
-<h3>I. THE PREPARATION OF THE CLAY</h3>
-
-<p class="hanging">(1) Mixing the requisite ingredients (unless the natural
-clay was satisfactory).</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(2) Washing.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(3) Wedging or kneading.</p>
-
-<h3>II. THE FASHIONING OF THE VASE</h3>
-
-<p class="hanging">(1) Throwing.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(2) Turning.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(3) Polishing.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(4) Attaching handles.</p>
-
-<h3>III. THE DECORATION OF THE VASE</h3>
-
-<h4>a. Black-figured Technique.</h4>
-
-<p class="hanging">(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.</p>
-
-<p class="indented">Traces of the red ochre solution on black-figured
-vases are not common; so that it is possible that its
-application was not a regular proceeding.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(2) Preliminary sketch for design.</p>
-
-<p class="indented">As this was completely covered by the black glaze
-afterwards and there are therefore only occasional
-traces of it now (cf. e.g. Furtwängler u. Reichhold,
-Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pl. 4), it is uncertain,
-though inherently probable, that such a sketch was
-generally made.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span></p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(3) Painting of the design, including figures, decorative
-motives, and backgrounds, in black glaze.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(4) Incision of details.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(5) Addition of purple and white accessory colors.</p>
-
-<h4>b. Red-figured Technique.</h4>
-
-<p class="hanging">(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(2) Preliminary sketch for design with a blunt instrument.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(3) Painting of the design, the decorative motives, and
-the solid black surfaces.</p>
-
-<p class="indented">The process of the figure painting was as follows:
-the outlines of the figures were indicated outside
-the spaces intended for them, first with a narrow line,
-then with a broader contour stripe; then the details
-within the red silhouette, and sometimes the outlines,
-were painted in black glaze lines; finally the background
-was filled in with the black glaze.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">(4) Addition of accessory colors if needed.</p>
-
-<h3>IV. THE FIRING OF THE VASE</h3>
-
-<p>The most important revisions of current theories on the
-technique of Athenian vases which our treatment of the
-subject has suggested are:</p>
-
-<p>(1) The use of turning as a regular process applied to the
-vases after they were thrown. To this operation they owe
-much of their finish and refinement.</p>
-
-<p>(2) The application of a red ochre pigment on the surface
-of the vases in their raw state, before they were decorated
-or fired. It is to this red ochre application that the
-present orangey color of the Athenian vases is due, as
-against the pinkish hue shown in the fractures of the clay.
-Originally, however, this color was even deeper, approaching
-that of bright red copper.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span></p>
-
-<p>(3) Both the glaze and the accessory colors were applied
-when the vases were in leather-hard condition, before any
-firing. Instead of the two, three, or four firings often
-assumed by archaeologists, the evidence points to only one
-fire, after total completion of the vase.</p>
-
-<p>(4) The great majority of Athenian vases were made for
-actual use, not for votive, decorative, or funeral purposes,
-as is still often assumed.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="footnotes">
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">FOOTNOTES</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Reichhold’s theory in his Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister (1919),
-p. 12, that the word ἐποίησεν (“made it”) in a signature refers to the
-draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration, while its executor signed
-ἔγραψεν (“painted it”), since the actual making of the vase “required
-no artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice,” only shows
-his exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases, in the
-copying of which he so much excelled.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> For any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length,
-Charles F. Binns’s work on the Potter’s Craft is strongly recommended
-(second edition, 1922).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Figs. <a href="#fig1">1</a>, <a href="#fig3">2</a>,
-<a href="#fig6">6-13</a>, <a href="#fig14">14</a>, <a href="#fig21">21-23</a>, <a href="#fig27">27</a>,
-<a href="#fig39">39</a>, <a href="#fig41">41</a>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Figs. <a href="#fig3">3</a>, <a href="#fig4">4</a>,
-<a href="#fig35">35</a>, <a href="#fig36">36</a>, <a href="#fig40">40</a>, <a href="#fig42">42</a>,
-<a href="#fig50">50</a>, <a href="#fig51">51</a>, <a href="#fig52">52</a>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> In commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are
-produced wedging <i>en gros</i> becomes necessary. In modern Greece it is
-done by treading the clay with bare feet.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a
-smoother surface; especially in cases when the later process of turning
-is dispensed with.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> The jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are
-moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile; but it can be used for other
-purposes. The difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is
-that in the former the speed is changeable, in the latter fixed.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, vol. I, p. 208; Herford, Greek
-Vase Painting, p. 9; etc., etc.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Cf. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry, the Greek Vase, and L. D.
-Caskey, Geometry of Greek Vases.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Cf. e.g. in the Metropolitan Museum Nos. 08.258.21 and 12.236,
-where the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Cf. also especially Metropolitan Museum Nos. G. R. 534, 09.221.47,
-09.221.48, 06.1021.168, G. R. 581, 18.145.28, etc.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Cf. Buschor, Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, 1919, I/II,
-pp. 1 ff.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p.
-421.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> “Twice fired” technically means, as already explained (<a href="#Page_35">p. 35</a>),
-once for biscuit, another time for glaze; the glazing itself may have
-necessitated several firings, but the piece would still be spoken of as
-twice fired.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Cf. e.g. Walters, op. cit., pp. 221, 222, and Herford, op. cit., pp. 13,
-14. Reichhold, op. cit., p. 152, felt convinced there was only one firing.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used; as on
-the pyxis, No. 06.1117, in the Metropolitan Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Archaeologists’ accounts are very misleading here, for some even
-assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing.
-(Cf. Herford, Handbook of Greek Vase Painting, p. 12.)</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> E. Pottier has come to the same conclusion; cf. his Catalogue of
-the Louvre Vases, III, p. 674.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> The clay of Reichhold’s pot, which he says could be dropped on
-the floor without appreciable damage (Furtwängler und Reichhold,
-Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152), must have been very tough indeed.
-Potters I have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as
-that. The leather-hard vases I have handled were fit only for the
-dust bin when they fell on the floor—a not unusual event when learning
-to turn.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> I wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of A. J. B. Wace,
-director of the British School of Athens, who went to much trouble in
-sending me this clay. The clay sent is that used by the Athenian
-potters today. It is a mixed clay, composed of red earth from
-Chalandri and white earth from Koukouvaones.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Cf. also Nos. 06.1021.114, 07.286.78, 17.230.13 in the Metropolitan
-Museum, and other instances quoted by Reichhold in Furtwängler
-u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152. If, as Reichhold
-assumes, the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard, they
-must have been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing;
-otherwise they would have cracked.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Cf. also Furtwängler u. Reichhold, loc. cit.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> This is Mr. Binns’s explanation.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Five are listed by Hartwig, Jahrbuch des deutschen arch. Instituts,
-XIV, 1899, p. 164, note 21, one in Athens, one in Sèvres, one in
-Würzburg, one in Berlin, one in Bonn. A sixth piece is a fragmentary
-kylix in the Metropolitan Museum, No. 11.212.9, and a seventh one,
-the cover of a toilet box, in the British Museum, Room of Greek and
-Roman Life, No. 426.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> An interesting parallel is furnished by Chinese porcelain for which,
-Mr. Bosch Reitz tells me, there is clear evidence that it is once fired.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> It is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors—purple and
-white—were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well
-preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze. That they
-were fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the
-white or purple. They are neither shiny nor durable for the simple
-reason that they are not a glaze but earth colors.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Cf. e.g. No. 06.1021.114, in the Metropolitan Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Cf. e.g. Nos. G. R. 530, 06.1021.82, 06.1021.114, etc., in the Metropolitan
-Museum, and No. 379 (Salle G) as a conspicuous example in
-the Louvre.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Cf. e.g. Nos. 07.286.47, 07.286.81, and C. R. 541 in the Metropolitan
-Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Cf. e.g. Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. He does not consider that the
-accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the
-carefully designed effects in the Vasiliki ware; so that Mr. Seager’s
-ingenious theory (cf. Hawes, etc., Gournia, p. 50) would have to be
-given up.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Cf. e.g. 11.212.7, 12.336.1, G. R. 54, G. R. 1229, 06.1021.120,
-06.1021.191, 12.229.15, etc., in the Metropolitan Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> This explanation is also that offered by Reichhold in Furtwängler
-u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. It is to this same
-cause that I should be inclined to attribute Reichhold’s “Lagerringe,”
-round red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings (op. cit., p.
-154). Supports such as he describes which came into direct contact
-with the glaze are inconceivable; the glaze would have stuck to them
-and serious injury resulted. Furthermore, Athenian vases must have
-been placed in the kiln standing on their feet, and for this purpose the
-under surfaces of the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze
-from sticking. If placed in the positions Reichhold suggests, the
-vases would have been apt to warp, and no potter would run such risks.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Cf. Salvétat in Brongniart, Traité des arts céramiques, I, p. 550;
-and Tonks, Black Glaze on Greek Vases, American Journal of Archaeology,
-XII, second series, 1908, pp. 420 ff. Mr. Binns in a series of
-experiments has come to the same conclusion.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, pp.
-423 f.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Mr. Binns’s experiments are as yet unpublished.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Under Mr. Binns’s direction I tried gum arabic, honey, water
-glass, glue, white of egg, glycerine, and oil as binders, but none gave
-complete satisfaction.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> H. B. Walters in his Ancient Pottery, I, p. 212, says that the
-glaze runs best on a surface already baked. As a matter of fact, to
-make glaze run at all on the baked surface, the biscuit has to be soaked
-in water.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei,
-I, p. 152, forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were
-applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a
-few days.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of
-brushes in the glaze. It is, however, impossible that these are hairs
-from the brushes with which the glaze was painted, as they would
-have burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Cf. e.g. the discussions by Hartwig, Jahrbuch d. Instituts, XIV,
-1899, pp. 147 ff.; Reichhold, in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, I, Text, pp. 148 and 230; Tonks, American Journal of
-Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 425; Walters, Ancient Pottery,
-I, pp. 227 ff.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> For full quotations of these statements cf. <a href="#Page_97">pp. 97, 98</a>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Cf. John, Malerei der Alten, p. 173.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Cf. e.g. vol. I, pp. 140, 145.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Cf. e.g. Pottier, Catalogue des vases antiques du Louvre, III, p. 682.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, I, p. 218.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Cf. e.g. in the Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich, the kylix with Dionysos
-by Exekias, No. 2044, and the Euphronios kylix, No. 2620. These
-give us an excellent idea of the original appearance of Athenian vases.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Cf. especially in the British Museum, E178, E149, E282, E382;
-and in the Metropolitan Museum, G. R. 604, 07.286.73, 07.286.74,
-06.1021.108, 12.236.2, 07.286.65, G. R. 589, 06.1021.121, G. R. 573,
-17.230.13, where extensive traces can still be seen.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Cf. e.g. in the British Museum, B.439, B.516, B.592, B.446; Metropolitan
-Museum, 06.1021.56, G. R. 555.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Cf. e.g. British Museum, E.74, E.72, E.307, E.382, E.149, E.333.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Such red spots must not be confused with those caused by excess of
-oxidation in the firing (cf. <a href="#Page_44">pp. 44 ff.</a>).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Imported Athenian clay (cf. <a href="#Page_40">p. 40</a>) fired to the temperature to which
-the ancient Greeks fired their pottery was so light and characterless in
-color that some process to deepen the hue would appear almost
-imperative.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Many modern imitations of kylikes lack just this feature, which
-makes drinking out of them a very different story.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Cf. Antike Denkmäler, II, pl. 8; Journal of Hellenic Studies,
-XII, 1891, pl. XX, and XXXII, 1912, pl. VII; Furtwängler u. Reichhold,
-Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pls. 19 and 24, III, text, p. 19, fig.
-7; Notor, La femme dans l’antiquité, p. 253; Wiener Vorlegeblätter,
-1889, pl. XII (on Ficoroni cista); Hartwig, Griechische Meisterschalen,
-pl. LXVII, 3a and 4, pl. LXIX, 2a-c; Daremberg et Saglio,
-Dictionnaire IV, part 2, p. 1160, fig. 6252; etc.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Cf. e.g. Metropolitan Museum, Nos. 15.160.2-3, 19.39.20.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> It is interesting to compare in this connection the satyr heads on
-shields, perhaps intended to frighten the enemy (cf. Gerhard, Auserlesene
-Vasenbilder, pl. CLXXXVIII; Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli
-italiani III, p. 63, pl. 41, 1-3).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Cf. e.g. Zahn, Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft, 1854, p. 40, note
-46; British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
-1920, p. 181, fig. 217 (No. 1905.6-13.1); Déchelette, Les vases céramiques
-ornés de la Gaule romaine, II, 1904, p. 338.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Nowadays plaster or wood is the usual material for such wheel-heads.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Cf. e.g. Fabroni, Storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini, 1841, pl.
-III, 9, 10; V, 7, 8, 9; p. 64, and Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire,
-under figlinum, p. 1122, fig. 3036.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Cf. e.g. Nos. 15.163.1, 17.120.250 in the Metropolitan Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Cf. e.g. Iliad, XVIII, 599-601, quoted below.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Cf. Reisner, Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 133.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> This information I owe to Mr. Binns.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Cf. G. P. Stevens in Fowler-Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, p. 102.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> See especially Pottier, Catalogue des Vases au Musée du Louvre,
-III, pp. 690 ff.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> There is no reason to assume, as has been done by Walters, History
-of Ancient Pottery, I, pp. 132 and others, that these lekythoi are the
-beautiful white lekythoi in our collections; it is more likely that they
-are the very roughly painted little jugs found in large quantities in
-tombs, but rarely placed with selected museum examples.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="SELECTED_BIBLIOGRAPHY">SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="dropcap">The technique of Greek vases has naturally been a
-subject of study with most writers on Greek ceramics.
-The following is a selection of the most important
-works in this field:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote hanging">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blümner, H.</span> Technologie u. Terminologie der Gewerbe u.
-Künste bei den Griechen u. Römern, II, pp. 32 ff. Leipzig,
-1895.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Brongniart, A.</span> Traité des arts céramiques ou des poteries,
-I. Second edition, Paris, 1854.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Jahn, O.</span> Über ein Vasenbild welches eine Töpferei vorstellt,
-in Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
-Leipzig, 1854.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Jamot, P.</span>, in Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des
-antiquités grecques et romaines, under figlinum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Luynes</span>, Duc de. De la poterie antique, in Annali dell’Instituto,
-IV, pp. 138 ff. Milan, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Perrot, G.</span>, in Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art dans
-l’antiquité, IX, pp. 322 ff. Paris, 1911.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pottier, E.</span> Catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite
-au Musée du Louvre, III, pp. 651 ff. Paris, 1906.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rayet, O.</span>, et Collignon, M. Histoire de la céramique
-grecque, Introduction. Paris, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Reichhold, K.</span>, in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
-Vasenmalerei, text passim but especially I, pp. 12 ff.,
-19 ff., 45, 54, 68, 82, 140, 145 ff., 181; II, pp. 199 ff.
-Munich, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Robinson, E.</span> Catalogue of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman
-Vases in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, pp. 33 ff.
-Boston and New York, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Walters, H. B.</span> History of Ancient Pottery, Greek,
-Etruscan, and Roman, I, pp. 202 ff. London, 1905.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wheeler, J. R.</span>, in Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archaeology,
-pp. 420 ff. New York, 1909.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span></p>
-
-<p>The two following handbooks on the manufacture of
-modern pottery will be found useful also by students of
-ancient techniques:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquote hanging">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Binns, C. F.</span> The Potter’s Craft. New York, 1910 (second
-edition, 1922).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cox, G.</span> Pottery for Artisans, Craftsmen, and Teachers.
-New York, 1914.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
-
-</div>
-
-<ul>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Alumina, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Binder, medium used as, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Biscuit, <a href="#Page_34">34-37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blunging, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Bone-dry,” <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brush-case, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brushes, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71-75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">representations of, <a href="#Page_70">70-72</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bucchero pottery, technique of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Building, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26-27</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">coils, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">terracotta statuette of man in act of(?), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wooden core for, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Calipers, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carbon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">dioxide, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">monoxide, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Centering, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clay, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40-44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">color of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">component parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ingredients of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">plasticity of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">porosity of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">preparation of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">varieties of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">vitrification of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">washing of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Color, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">accessory, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">change of, through firing, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <i>see</i> <a href="#Miltos">Miltos</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cones, pyrometric, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Decorating, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70-75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Design, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">before or after firing, <a href="#Page_37">37-44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">preliminary, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Draught, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drying, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Fashioning of vases, <a href="#Page_4">4-29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_89">89-94</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finish, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">inside, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">outer surface, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">under handles, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Firing of vases, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29-47</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">accidents through, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">length of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_94">94-96</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">methods of, <a href="#Page_34">34-36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">number of firings, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">temperature of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">“twice-fired,” <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fuel, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Glaze, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">application of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40-44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Athenian, <a href="#Page_48">48-49</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">composition of, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discoloration of, <a href="#Page_45">45-47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">preparation of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">varieties of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wearing qualities, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span>Gum tragacanth, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Handles, <a href="#Page_19">19-25</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">attachment of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">handmade, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">moulded, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Implements, potter’s, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-86</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Incision of details, <a href="#Page_37">37-39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Jigger, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joining, <a href="#Page_16">16-19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">representation of, on pinax(?), <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jolly, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst" id="Kiln">Kiln, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76-78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94-96</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">packing of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">“Lagerringe,” <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Lasur,” <i>see</i> <a href="#Miltos">Miltos</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leather-hard, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lip, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Metics, as potters, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">social standing of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="Miltos">Miltos, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as wash, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">laws governing export of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">methods of applying, <a href="#Page_55">55-58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mortar, for crushing glaze, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moulding of vases, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moulds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">material of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Oven, <i>see</i> <a href="#Kiln">Kiln</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oxidation, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oxide, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">boron, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">calcium, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ferric, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ferrous, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Painting, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70-75</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">brushes for, <a href="#Page_51">51-53</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70-72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paint-pots, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pinax, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67-69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75-78</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plaster, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Polishing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">tools for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Porosity, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary reference to, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Potter, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">implements of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_87">87-105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">“master potter,” <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">miscellaneous scenes, <a href="#Page_78">78-84</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">shop of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">statues of Greek, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Roman, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">women as, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pottery, ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_64">64-70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_87">87-104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Proportion, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pyrometer, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span>Pyrometric cones, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Red ochre, <i>see</i> <a href="#Miltos">Miltos</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reduction, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">partial, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Relief” lines, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rivets, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Saggers, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Satyr, stoking oven, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">head, to avert evil eye, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sections, work in, <a href="#Page_15">15-19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ship, with pottery, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shrinkage, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silicate, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slip, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stele, votive, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">“master potter,” <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stilts, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stoking kiln, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Strainer for clay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">for glaze, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Symmetry, Dynamic, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Temperature of firing, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29-32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Templet, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Test,” <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Throwing, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in sections, <a href="#Page_15">15-19</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">to measurements, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turning, <a href="#Page_10">10-15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_89">89-92</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">tools for, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Use of Greek vases, <a href="#Page_59">59-63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as ornaments, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as practical utensils, <a href="#Page_59">59-63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">as votive offerings, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Vases, Attic, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fragility of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">measurements of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">porosity of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">proportions of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">value of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wearing qualities of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vasiliki ware, technique of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Votive offerings, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Wedging, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary reference to, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wheel, <a href="#Page_4">4-9</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ancient representations of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65-68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">invention of potter’s, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">literary references to, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">types of, <a href="#Page_4">4-6</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wheel-head, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="pgx" />
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