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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #62312 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62312)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and the
-Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Concrete Construction for the Home and the Farm
-
-Author: The Atlas Portland Cement Company
-
-Release Date: June 2, 2020 [EBook #62312]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
-  Typographical errors have been silently corrected.
-  The advertisements between pages 48 and 49 in the original text have
-    been moved to the end of the text.
-
-
-
-
-=_A Request_=
-
-
-Should you find this book helpful in building with concrete, we would
-consider it a favor to have you so inform us. Likewise, we would
-appreciate a description (and a photograph if possible) of whatever you
-have built in concrete.
-
-In this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope
-we have helped you.
-
-If you do not fully understand any part of this book, or if you desire
-further information, write us and we shall be glad to do anything else
-we can.
-
-
-
-
-                               CONCRETE
-                             CONSTRUCTION
-                            _for the_ HOME
-                            _and the_ FARM
-
-                       “CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE”
-
-                                 1916
-
-                   THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY
-       30 Broad Street, New York 134 So. LaSalle Street, Chicago
-         Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines
-
-
-
-
-                            INDEX
-
-
-                =Special Index to Directions=
-
-                                                 PAGE
-    Bank-run gravel,                               13
-    Cleaning forms,                                24
-    Definition of concrete,                         9
-    Dry mixture,                                   13
-    Forms,                                      22-24
-    Gravel,                                    10, 13
-    Hand mixing,                                17-21
-    Materials,                                  9, 10
-    Measuring boxes,                               12
-    Measuring materials,                        11-13
-    Medium mixture,                                13
-    Mixing,                                     15-22
-    Natural mixture,                            13-20
-    Placing,                                   25, 26
-    Portland cement,                                9
-    Proportions,                                11-13
-    Protection of concrete after placing,          26
-    Publications issued by the Association,         8
-    Quantities of materials,                   21, 22
-    Reinforcement,                             26, 27
-    Runs,                                          15
-    Sand as an aggregate,                           9
-    Selecting lumber for forms,                    23
-    Stone as an aggregate,                         10
-    Tools,                                         15
-    Wet mixture,                                   13
-
-                    =General Index=
-                                                 PAGE
-    Acetylene gas house,                        83-87
-    Alleyways,                                     41
-    Barns,                                         62
-    Barn approach,                                 60
-    Barn floors,                                54-59
-    Barn foundations,                          61, 62
-    Barnyard pavements,                        47, 48
-    Base for machinery,                         87-89
-    Bee cellars,                               92, 93
-    Carriage house entrance,                       39
-    Carriage washing floor,                        42
-    Cellar steps and hatchway,                 90, 91
-    Chimney,                                   50, 51
-    Chimney caps,                                  97
-    Cistern covers,                                69
-    Cisterns,                            68-70, 72-73
-    Coal house,                                 83-87
-    Cold-frame,                               99, 100
-    Concrete in the country,                      5-8
-    Corn crib floor,                               53
-    Corner stones,                                105
-    Cow barn floors,                            55-58
-    Culverts,                                108, 109
-    Cyclone cellar,                             92-93
-    Dairy,                                      83-87
-    Dipping vats and tanks,                     76-80
-    Dog kennel,                                 83-87
-    Drain tile outlet,                            106
-    Drinking troughs and tanks,                74, 75
-    Driveway of concrete,                      40, 41
-    Drop gutters,                               54-59
-    Duck pond,                                     95
-    Engine base foundation,                    87, 88
-    Engine house,                               82-89
-    Entrance floor,                                39
-    Farm buildings,                             82-89
-    Feed cooker,                               50, 51
-    Feeding floors,                             43-45
-    Feeding troughs, racks and mangers,        49, 50
-    Fence posts,                                  104
-    Field rollers,                                102
-    Field spring improvement,                  70, 71
-    Floors,                        39, 42, 45, 47, 48,
-                                    53-56, 58, 79, 82,
-                                    83, 87, 98
-    Foundation gutter,                             35
-    Fruit cellars,                             92, 93
-    Garbage receiver,                             103
-    Gasoline engine base,                      87, 88
-    Gate posts,                              104, 105
-    Granary floors,                                53
-    Gutters,                                       35
-    Hatchway for cellar steps,                 90, 91
-    Hay cap weights,                              103
-    Hen house,                                     94
-    Hens’ nests,                                   94
-    Hitching post,                                104
-    Hog wallows,                                   52
-    Horse barn floors,                         58, 59
-    Hot-bed,                                  99, 100
-    Housing for driven well,                   67, 68
-    Hydraulic ram house,                           89
-    Ice house,                                  83-87
-    Lawn roller,                                  102
-    Mangers,                           49, 50, 57, 59
-    Manure pits and cisterns,                      45
-    Milk house,                                 83-87
-    Milk vat,                                  81, 82
-    Nests for hens,                                94
-    Old buildings and their repair,             36-38
-    Porch floor,                               98, 99
-    Posts for fences and gates,                   104
-    Posts, hitching,                              104
-    Poultry house,                                 94
-    Ram house,                                     89
-    Repairs to farm buildings,                  36-38
-    Retaining wall and steps,                  96, 97
-    Roadways,                                  40, 41
-    Root cellar,                               92, 93
-    Rollers,                                      102
-    Sanitary water supply,                      67-75
-    Septic tanks,                            110, 111
-    Sidewalks,                                  28-34
-    Silos,                                     65, 66
-    Small farm buildings,                       82-89
-    Smoke house,                                83-87
-    Snow fences,                               63, 64
-    Spraying tanks,                               107
-    Spring improvements,                       70, 71
-    Steps,                             90, 91, 96, 97
-    Stones, corner,                               105
-    Survey monuments,                             105
-    Swimming pool,                                112
-    Tanks,                                     74, 75
-    Tarpaulin weights,                            103
-    Tool house,                                 83-87
-    Trash burner,                                 103
-    Tree repair,                                  101
-    Troughs,                                   74, 75
-    Vegetable cellar,                          92, 93
-    Walks,                                      28-34
-    Walk specifications,                           29
-    Watering troughs,                          74, 75
-    Weights for hay caps and tarpaulins,          103
-    Well cover,                                    69
-    Well protection,                            67-70
-    Wind walls,                                63, 64
-    Window hatch,                                 112
-    Wiring forms,                                  23
-
-
-
-
-Concrete in the Country
-
-=How the American Farmer is Solving His Conservation Problem=
-
-
-Conservation is no new problem—it is as old as life itself. It becomes
-a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the
-resources scarcely supply the demands. Such is the situation in the
-United States to-day. In the early days the removal of the forests
-was necessary that much grain might be grown. The young Nation had
-to have money, and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish
-it, the natural fertility of the fields was reduced. But the money
-thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the Bank of Natural
-Resources. To-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of
-the fields bear witness that the loan is now due. Hence the problem of
-conservation. Strange as it may seem, the farmer is using one material
-not only to replace lumber but also, in a way, to restore the fertility
-of his fields—that material is concrete.
-
-The national and state governments and the railroads were the first to
-make extensive use of concrete. Not only did the beauty and mystery
-of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer, but he
-concluded that the railroads did not use it, in preference to wood,
-steel and stone, merely to decorate the landscape. He knew too much
-about railroads. So strongly did the railroads’ idea of economy (the
-dollar argument) appeal to him that the farmer of the West is now
-building practically everything about the farm of concrete. At first,
-and quite naturally, land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began
-using this new form of construction; but, since its cheapness in first
-cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known, a wave
-of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire
-country. A gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine.
-
-With little help other than looking and listening, the farmer grasped
-the idea of a concrete walk, and being a natural inventor and
-jack-of-all-trades, improved on the method by adding a small curb
-next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white
-walk. This walk was a blessing to the boy—all the time formerly given
-to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted
-to fishing. The yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying
-buildings. Wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen
-floors became a thing of the past. By simply increasing the width of
-the walk, a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar.
-This was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit
-for that most immaculate of all places—the milk house. Concrete cellar
-hatchway and steps, safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar, and
-water-tight, were made in a manner similar to walks.
-
-Brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of Portland cement and
-sand. As this kept the water out, the farmer reasoned that it would
-keep the water in, and he started to build cistern floors, walls and
-cover of Portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of
-the old brick cistern.
-
-After a little more observation, he quit digging deep cistern-pits,
-with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying
-water—he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the
-pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in
-the kitchen and the bath room.
-
-Several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was
-burned for fuel instead of coal. No consideration was then given to
-the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots. If the mud became too deep, the
-feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture. To be sure, as the
-sod wore out, the feeding-place had to be changed; but somebody had
-advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for
-the soil. Many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found
-them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned,
-in the general health of the animal, and in the shortened time of
-fattening. But two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them
-and the constant need of repairs. In concrete the thoughtful farmer
-saw the possibilities of an ideal floor—an easily cleaned, rat-proof,
-disease-proof surface upon which his hogs, sheep, cattle and poultry
-might consume the feed even to the smallest particle.
-
-So satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment
-suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding, muddy holes in the
-earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns. But
-the careful horseman held up a bit: he was afraid that stamping at
-the flies, his valuable Percherons, Shires and Morgans might stiffen
-up their legs. He experimented by placing concrete floors in his open
-sheds, which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy
-weather, just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he
-needed the sheds most, and found such floors satisfactory.
-
-To-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations
-of the time. The virgin soil of the prairies, of the cleared woodlands
-and of the broken-up ranges, for a few years produced immense crops
-of cotton and grain. To build up the decreasing productiveness of the
-fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing
-at hand. The passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price
-of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer,
-especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return
-to the soil, in the form of manure, all the fertility which had been
-removed in the growing of grain. Leaving out the matter of foods, the
-strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage.
-Manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third
-to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching,
-due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock, and later because of
-fermentation or “firing” brought about by the lack of sufficient
-moisture. This fertilizer usually sells at from 75 cents to $1.00 per
-load.
-
-The farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit
-in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be. He
-extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that
-they were so clean, so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection
-is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in
-such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease
-germs carried in unclean milk. The drop gutters carry all the liquids,
-the richest part of the manure, formerly wasted, to the manure pits.
-Consequently, one load of manure, thus properly preserved, is easily
-worth two loads as ordinarily stored. By confining the manure in
-pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete, the farm has been rid
-of the chief breeding-place of flies, gnats, mosquitos and disease.
-Moreover, such an interior court, surrounded by buildings and concrete
-wind walls, forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot.
-
-Government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm, in
-spite of the fresh food and pure air, is greater than the death-rate in
-the city. State University tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a
-doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells
-contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever. To
-prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well, many
-people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight
-concrete. Others are sinking “driven” wells and protecting them with
-concrete housings. The principle of deep wells for pure water, among
-other things, has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm.
-These engines and hydraulic rams at springs, firmly set and housed in
-concrete, supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs
-or elevated, reinforced pressure tanks. From these places of storage
-water is distributed to float-controlled, rot-proof watering tanks and
-troughs of the same material. With such a water supply animals never
-suffer for water. Even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved
-and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete.
-
-Thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful
-attention to the health, comfort and convenience of his family.
-Moreover, the care of the animals is not neglected. A concrete dipping
-vat holds the liquids which free horses, cattle, sheep and hogs of
-mange, lice, mites, ticks and fleas. The Department of Agriculture is
-stamping out the Texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use
-of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts. A hog wallow
-with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded
-by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera
-often carried down from animals affected further up stream.
-
-The continual rotting off of wooden fence posts, the constantly
-increasing cost of new ones, and the annual expense of fence repairs,
-called for the introduction of some substitute. Land is entirely
-too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts.
-Even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the
-possibilities of concrete in this line, a few venturesome farmers had
-given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only
-advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost, but more
-profitable on account of their everlasting qualities. The Department
-of Agriculture at Washington has thoroughly investigated the use and
-methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin
-describing the process. Such posts are also valuable in the culture of
-grapes and hops.[1]
-
-[1] Farmers’ Bulletin 403, Concrete Fence Posts. Sent free on
-application.
-
-The use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from
-the ground upward. The drip soon rots out timber near the ground and
-eventually crumbles away the brick foundation. At first, uselessly
-making the walls as heavy as those of brick, the farmer gave concrete
-a trial in foundations. Concrete is stronger than brick. As a wall it
-kept the basement and back barn dry. The height of the foundation wall
-increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft. Finally, after
-a study of methods, of reinforcing, the entire barn—basement, walls,
-floors, mangers, troughs, gutters, beams and even the shingles—became
-concrete. Matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors
-in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times. The oil will
-burn until smothered out with a horse blanket, but no further damage
-will be done.
-
-Poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on
-account of rats. To free the farm of these destructive animals, as a
-last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil,
-the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs
-and granaries. Corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept
-perfectly on concrete. The rats had to go; they could not get through
-such floors. And so we might continue, describing how farmers have
-successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a
-stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings.
-
-Just as there are right and wrong methods of farming, so, too, are
-there right and wrong ways of using concrete. It is the aim of this
-book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader
-to build with concrete surely and successfully.
-
-“CONCRETE IN THE COUNTRY” does not pretend to fully cover the
-subject—the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume. But
-the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types
-of concrete construction as is possible in the space available.
-
-Fuller details are given in other pamphlets, which will be furnished
-free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of
-this book.
-
-
-=Publications issued by the Association of American Portland Cement
-Manufacturers, Philadelphia, Pa.=
-
-At the office of the above Association there are available books
-dealing with concrete construction of all classes. These books describe
-the construction of silos, fence posts, tanks, troughs, concrete roads,
-and many other works. Upon request there will be sent a list of the
-publications in print. The books, with one or two exceptions, are sent
-free of cost.
-
-
-
-
-What is “Concrete”?
-
-
-Concrete—a manufactured stone—is made by mixing together Portland
-cement, sand and stone (or gravel). Various proportions of each are
-used, depending upon the use to which the concrete is put. About half
-an hour after mixing these materials together, the mass begins to
-stiffen, until, in from half-a-day to a day, it becomes so hard that
-you cannot dent it with the hand. By a month the mass is hard like
-stone—indeed, harder than most stones.
-
-
-Materials
-
-Before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing
-concrete, it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding
-as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work, and how
-best these may be selected.
-
-
-Portland Cement
-
-For domestic use, Portland Cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper
-bags. When furnished in cloth sacks, the price per barrel includes
-the cost of the sacks (four sacks making a barrel). When the sacks
-are returned in good condition, the amount charged is rebated to the
-customer. Where cement is furnished in paper bags, the price also
-includes the cost of the paper bags which, however, are not returnable.
-
-Many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags, as it
-does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and
-sending them bade to the dealer for credit.
-
-The paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs 94 pounds, and four such
-make a barrel of 376 pounds.
-
-The storage of cement is very important. It must be kept in a dry
-place. Once wet, it becomes hard and lumpy, and in such condition is
-useless. If, however, the lumps are caused by pressure in the store
-house, the cement may be used with safety. Lumps thus formed can be
-easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel.
-
-In storing cement, throw wooden blocks on the floor. Place boards
-over them and pile the cement on the boards, covering the pile with a
-canvas or a piece of roofing paper. Never, under any circumstances,
-keep cement on the bare ground, or pile it directly against the outside
-walls of buildings.
-
-
-Sand
-
-Do not use very fine sand. If there is a large quantity of fine sand
-handy, obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal
-parts; this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone.
-
-Sometimes fine sand _must_ be used, because no other can be obtained;
-but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be
-used—sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required. For
-example, in such a case, instead of using a concrete 1 part cement, 2
-parts sand, and 4 parts stone, use a concrete 1 part cement, I part
-sand, and 2 parts stone.
-
-Besides being coarse, the sand should be clean, _i. e._, free from
-vegetable matter. “But,” you say, “how shall I tell whether the sand is
-what you call clean?”
-
-The presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a
-little in the palm of the hand. If a little is emptied into a pail of
-water, the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the
-water. This can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth
-of 4 inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch
-of the top. After the jar has been well shaken, the contents should
-be allowed to settle for a couple of hours. The sand will sink to the
-bottom, but the mud, which can be easily recognized by its color, will
-form a distinct layer on top of the sand, and above both will be a
-clear depth of water. If the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in
-thickness, the sand should not be used unless it is first washed.
-
-Having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean, and
-provided you cannot readily obtain any that _is_ clean, you may use
-what you have, provided you wash it in the following manner:—
-
-Build a loose board platform from 10 to 15 feet long, with one end a
-foot higher than the other. On the lower end and on the sides, nail a
-board 2 by 6 inches on edge, to hold the sand. Spread the sand over
-this platform in a layer three or four inches thick, and wash it with
-a hose. The washing should be started at the high end, and the water
-allowed to run through the sand and over the 2 by 6-inch piece at the
-bottom. A _small_ quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand,
-but any amount over 5 per cent. does.
-
-
-Stone or Gravel
-
-This is known as the “coarse aggregate” of concrete. Great care should
-be used in its selection. The pebbles should be closely inspected
-to see that there is no clay on their surface. A layer of such clay
-prevents the “binding” of the cement. If necessary stone or gravel may
-be washed in the same way as above described for sand. Indeed, it is
-more easily done than sand, as the water flows through the larger voids
-in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand. Dust may
-be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the
-strength of the cement, but care should be taken to see that such dust
-is distributed evenly through the whole mass, and when dust is found in
-stone, slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily.
-
-As to the size of stone or gravel, this must be determined by the
-form of construction contemplated. For foundations or any large thick
-structure, use anything from ½ to 2½ inches in diameter. For thin walls
-use ¼ to 1-inch stone.
-
-The best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded
-from small to large. By this means the spaces or voids between the
-stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained.
-Moreover, this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and
-less cement.
-
-
-Pure Water Necessary in Mixing
-
-Water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and
-alkalies. It may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board
-and placed on the concrete with a bucket. If you are at all in doubt
-about the purity of the water that you contemplate using, it would be
-well to make up a block of concrete as a test, and see whether the
-cement “sets” properly.
-
-
-Proportioning the Mixture
-
-That mixture in which all the spaces (called “voids”) between the stone
-or gravel are filled with sand, and all the spaces between the sand
-are filled with cement, is the ideal mixture. This mixture is rarely
-attained, as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly,
-and in order to be absolutely safe, it is well to use a little more
-cement than will just fill the voids.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Quantities of cement, sand, and gravel in 1: 2:
-4 concrete mixture, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts
-crushed stone or gravel, and the resulting quantity of concrete, which
-is only slightly greater in size than the gravel, the sand and cement
-filling the voids in the gravel.]
-
-                               TABLE I.
-
-       SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE RESULTING
-              AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH.
-
-        Legend:
-        AA = Cement
-        BB = Sand
-        CC = Stone or Gravel
-    --------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------
-            |PROPORTIONS|
-            | BY PARTS. |             TWO-BAG BATCH.
-            +---+---+---+-------------------+------+-------------+------
-            |   |   |   |                   |      |   Size of   |Water
-            |   |   |   |                   |      |  Measuring  | in
-    KIND OF |   |   |   |     Materials.    |      |    Boxes.   | Gal-
-   CONCRETE |   |   |   |                   |      |   Inside    | lons
-    MIXTURE.|   |   |   |                   |      |Measurements.| for
-            |   |   |   +-----+------+------+      +------+------+Medium
-            |   |   |   |     |      |      | Con- |      |      |Wet
-            |AA |BB |CC |  AA |  BB  |  CC  |crete.|  BB  |  CC  |Mix-
-            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |ture.
-    --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------
-            |   |   |   |Bags.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.|      |      |Gal-
-            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |lons.
-     1:2:4  | 1 | 2 | 4 |  2  |  3¾  |  7½  |  8½  |2′×2′ | 2′×4′| 10
-    Concrete|   |   |   |     |      |      |      | 11½″ |  11½″|
-            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |
-     1:2½:5 | 1 | 2½| 5 |  5  |  4¾  |  9½  |  10  |2′×2½′| 2′×5′| 12½
-    Concrete|   |   |   |     |      |      |      | 11½″ |  11½″|
-    --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------
-
-As above explained, concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement,
-a larger amount of sand, and a still larger amount of stone (or
-gravel). To determine how much of each of these materials to use, we
-must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake. For ordinary
-work about the farm (silos, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, well curbs,
-etc., etc.) use twice as much stone as sand, and twice as much sand as
-cement. This is called a 1: 2: 4 mixture—meaning that there are in
-that mixture:
-
-    1 part of cement,
-    2 parts of sand,
-    4 parts of stone or gravel.
-
-For sidewalks, gutters, etc., a “weaker” mixture is sometimes used,
-consisting of:
-
-    1 part of cement,
-    2½ parts of sand,
-    5 parts of stone or gravel.
-
-The proportions should always be measured by volume, and the best way
-to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made “measuring box,”
-of any kind of rough boards having straight sides, but with no top
-or bottom. The size of these measuring boxes is determined by the
-proportion desired for your mixture. For such boxes you need the
-following sized lumber:
-
-    4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet rough (ends of sand and
-          stone boxes).
-    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet rough (sides of sand box).
-    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 6 feet rough (sides of stone box).
-
-Note: The two pieces 4 feet long and the two pieces 6 feet long have an
-extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in
-Fig. 3.
-
-For a 1: 2½: 5 mixture, you require the following sized lumber:
-
-    4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet (ends of sand and stone
-          boxes).
-    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches (sides of sand
-          box).
-    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 7 feet (sides of stone box).
-
-        Note: The two pieces 4 feet 6 inches long and the
-      two pieces 7 feet long have an extra foot in length
-      at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in Fig. 3.
-
-
-To illustrate the use of the measuring box, let us once more assume
-that a 1: 2: 4 mixture is required, and that the amount of finished
-concrete needed is 8½ cubic feet. By referring to the table on page
-11 it will be noted that two bags of cement are required, also 3¾
-cubic feet of sand and 7½ cubic feet of stone or gravel. Under “size
-of measuring box” it is found that the sand should just fill a box 2
-feet by 2 feet by 11½ inches, and that the stone should fill a box 2
-feet by 4 feet by 11½ inches. Lay the sand box, or frame, on the mixing
-platform and fill it. Then raise the box. Empty two bags of cement on
-the sand and mix as described under “Mixing,” see pages 14-22. Even off
-the mixture thus obtained with your shovel, place the stone measuring
-box on top of the mixture and fill it. Raise the measuring box—and you
-have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement
-and sand. It is important to measure both the sand and stone _loose_ in
-the box—never “pack” them.
-
-For purposes of explanation, size of mixture will be referred to as
-a “_batch_” of so many bags of cement. Thus, a “two-bag batch of
-concrete” would mean one requiring two bags of cement, with the sand
-and stone proportioned accordingly, as shown above.
-
-For a “four-bag batch of concrete” it would be necessary to multiply
-the amount of stone and gravel by 2, also multiplying the cubic
-contents of the measuring box by 2, and using four bags of cement
-instead of two.
-
-The table previously referred to also shows the amount of water for
-different sized batches, but it is to be noted that the quantity of
-this ingredient is only approximated. Use the amount indicated in
-the table for the first batch, and if it proves too wet for the use
-desired, reduce the amount of water; if too dry, increase the amount of
-water. Always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water, as this
-secures uniform results.
-
-
-Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel
-
-Naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right
-proportions for making concrete. Generally, however, there is far too
-much sand for the gravel, and great care should be exercised in using
-this class of material. Unless the mixture runs very even throughout
-the bank, and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts
-gravel, it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare
-the materials in the usual way.
-
-Herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of
-bank sand and gravel. The quantities can be found in the same way as in
-Table I, on page 11.
-
-                               TABLE II.
-
-           SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE
-         RESULTING AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH, USING
-         NATURAL MIXTURE OF BANK SAND AND GRAVEL.
-
-    --------+---------------+-------------------------------------------
-            |  PROPORTIONS  | TWO-BAG BATCH FOR NATURAL MIXTURE OF
-            |   BY PARTS.   |          BANK SAND AND GRAVEL.
-            +-------+-------+---------------+-------+----------+--------
-            |       |       |               |       | Size of  |
-            |       |       |  Materials.   |       |Measuring |
-    KIND OF |       |       |               |       |   Boxes. |
-    CONCRETE|       |       +-------+-------+       +----------+Water in
-    MIXTURE.|       |Natural|       |Natural| Con-  |          |Gallons
-            |Cement.|Mixture|Cement.|Mixture|crete. |Mixture of| for
-            |       |of Sand|       |of Sand|       | Sand and |Medium
-            |       |  and  |       |  and  |       |  Gravel. |Wet
-            |       |Gravel.|       |Gravel.|       |          |Mixture.
-    --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+--------
-            |       |       | Bags. |Cu. ft.|Cu. ft.|          |Gallons
-     1:2:4  |   1   |   4   |   2   |   7½  |   8½  |2′×4′×11½″| 10
-    Concrete|       |       |       |       |       |          |
-            |       |       |       |       |       |          |
-     1:2½:5 |   1   |   5   |   2   |   9½  |  10   |2′×5′×11½″| 12½
-    Concrete|       |       |       |       |       |          |
-    --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+--------
-
-There are three kinds of mixtures, in general, on concrete work:—
-
-        1st.—_Very Wet Mixture._—Concrete wet enough to be
-      mushy and run off the shovel when handling, used for
-      thin walls or for thin sections, etc.
-
-        2d.—_Medium Mixture._—Concrete just wet enough
-      to make it jelly-like, used for foundations, floors,
-      etc. To better describe this mixture it may be said
-      that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step
-      on top of the pile.
-
-        3d.—_Dry Mixture._—Concrete like damp earth, used
-      for foundations, etc., where it is important to have
-      the concrete “set” up as quickly as possible.
-
-The difference between the mixtures is, that the dryer the mixture the
-quicker will the concrete “set up”—but in the long run, when carefully
-mixed and “placed,” the results from any of the above mixtures will be
-identical. It may be said, however, that a dry mixture is the harder to
-handle, must be protected with greater care from the sun or from drying
-too quickly; and lastly, is likely—unless used by most experienced
-hands—to show voids or stone pockets in the face of the work when the
-“Forms” are removed. The less the voids in the stone or gravel, the
-greater will be the volume of the concrete. In general, the amount
-of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown in the
-table—especially when gravel is used.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Concrete Mixing Plant, showing Concrete Board,
-Tools, etc., Necessary for Mixing Concrete by Hand.]
-
-
-Tools
-
-One great advantage of concrete, so far as the farmer is concerned,
-lies in the fact that, generally speaking, it necessitates no outlay
-for tools, for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms of
-concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses—
-
-Shovels—One for each man on the job.
-
-Wheelbarrows—At least two, preferably those with sheet iron bodies.
-
-Rake.
-
-Water Barrel.
-
-Several Water Buckets.
-
-A Tamper or Rammer—This is made of wood with handles nailed to it, as
-shown in Fig. 2. The measurement is 4 inches by 2 inches by 2 feet 6
-inches.
-
-A Garden Spade.
-
-A Sand Screen, made by nailing a piece of ¼-inch mesh wire screen, 2½
-feet by 5 feet in size, to a frame made of 2-inch by 4-inch scantling.
-
-In addition to the above tools you will require a Mixing Board. This is
-simply a water-tight platform. It should be (for a two batch mixture
-and for two men to work on) about 10 feet square. Make it out of 1-inch
-boards 10 feet long, surfaced on one side, using 5 cleats to hold the
-boards together. The cleats should measure 2 inches by 4 inches by 9
-feet. If 1-inch by 6-inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained,
-these will answer very nicely, provided they are fairly free from
-knots. The object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or
-turning easy. The boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling
-to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards. The
-boards must be drawn up close in nailing, so that no cement “grout”
-will run through while mixing.
-
-For a larger job, a slightly larger mixing board will be needed.
-
-In setting up your mixing board, choose a place giving plenty of room
-near the storage piles of sand and stone. Block up your concrete board
-level, so that the cement grout will not run off on one side, and so
-that the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the
-concrete.
-
-
-Wheelbarrow “Runs”
-
-You will also have to make wheelbarrow “runs” leading from your mixing
-board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed. Do not use, for
-these runs, any old boards that are handy. Make a good run—smooth,
-and, if much above the ground, at least 20 inches wide. This one
-feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent.
-
-
-How to Mix Concrete
-
-Having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and
-runs, the next step is the actual process of mixing.
-
-The proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types
-of work have already been described on pages 11-13. In following
-the mixing instructions here given, considerable assistance will be
-obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are
-interspersed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Lifting off the Sand Measuring Box and Getting
-Cement Ready.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Spreading the Cement Over the Sand.]
-
-The Hand Mixing Method
-
-There are many ways of “hand mixing,” all having the same good results.
-The way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to
-obtain good results with a minimum of labor. In this description, and
-the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a “Two-Bag
-Batch” of 1: 2: 4 concrete.
-
-First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile, wheel on to
-the “Board,” and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about
-two feet from one of the 10-foot sides of the board, as shown by the
-diagram in Fig. 3. When the sand box is filled, lift it off and spread
-the sand over the board in a layer 3 or 4 inches thick, as shown in
-Fig. 4. Take the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly
-as possible over the sand (see Fig. 4). With the two men at points
-marked “x” and “xx” on the sketch below Fig. 4, start mixing the sand
-and cement, each man turning over the half on his side of the line AA.
-Starting at his feet and shoveling away from him, each man takes a
-full shovel load, turning the shovel over at the points marked 1 and
-2 respectively in Fig. 4. In turning the shovel, do not simply dump
-the sand and cement at the points marked 1 and 2 in the diagram under
-the cut, but shake the materials off the end and sides of the shovel,
-so that the sand and cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great
-assistance in mixing these materials. In this way the material is
-shoveled from one side of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 5
-and 6. Fig. 5 shows the first turning, and Fig. 6 the second turning.
-
-The sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the stone
-and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement out
-carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as shown
-in Fig. 7, and fill from the gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel
-the gravel on top of the sand and cement, spreading it as evenly as
-possible. With some experience, equally good results can be obtained
-by placing the gravel measuring box on top of the carefully leveled
-sand and cement mixture, and filling it, thus placing the gravel on
-top without an extra shoveling. This method is shown in Fig. 8. Add
-about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a bucket and
-dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as evenly as
-possible. (See Fig. 9). Be careful not to let too much water get near
-the edges of the pile, as it will run off, taking some cement with it.
-This caution, however, does not apply to a properly constructed mixing
-board, as the cement and water cannot get away. Starting the same as
-with the sand and cement, turn the materials over in much the same way,
-except that instead of shaking the materials off the end of the shovel,
-the whole shovel load is dumped as at points 1 or 2 in the diagram
-under Fig. 4 and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point
-of the shovel. This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet
-gravel picking up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged
-back by the shovel. (See Fig. 10). Add water to the dry spots as the
-mixing goes on until all the required water has been used. Turn the
-mass bade again, as was done with the sand and cement. With experienced
-laborers, the concrete should be well mixed after three such turnings;
-but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be turned again. After
-the final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The concrete is now
-ready for placing.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 5.—First Turning, Sand and Cement.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Second Turning, Sand and Cement.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring
-Box—First Method.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box
-When on Top of Mixed Sand and Cement—Second Method.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 9—Placing the Water on the Stone (or Gravel) which
-is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement.]
-
-
-Mixing Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel
-
-Spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will
-readily permit, add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly,
-spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel, and
-turn over, as described previously, at least three times, adding the
-rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the
-materials are being turned. It requires some experience to work up a
-natural mixture of bank sand and gravel, and if at all doubtful about
-the concrete made from it, first screen the sand from the gravel, and
-then mix in the regular way.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and
-Cement.]
-
-
-Number of Men
-
-For the above operation only two men are required, although more can
-be used to advantage. If three men are available, let two of them mix
-as described above and the third man supply the water, help mix the
-concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn
-the concrete, help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel,
-etc. Fig. 5 shows a third man on the board. In this illustration, he is
-helping mix the sand and cement by raking it—a most effective practice.
-
-If four men are available, it is best to increase the size of the batch
-mixed to a four-bag batch, doubling the quantities of all materials
-used. The cement board should also be increased to 10 by 12 feet as
-shown under “Tools.” In this case start the mixing in the middle of the
-board, and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch,
-except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it
-is turned back on to the center of the board. When more than four men
-are available, the rest may place the concrete, make new runs, load
-wheelbarrows, etc., taking the concrete away from the board as fast as
-it is mixed. In this case another small concrete board should be placed
-next to the big “board,” so that in the last turning the batch can be
-shoveled over on to the small board for placing, making room on the big
-board to mix the next batch. The small platform need be only just big
-enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete.
-
-
-How to Determine Quantities of Materials Needed
-
-First figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required
-for the work in question. Then by multiplying this number by the number
-under the proper column and required mixture shown in Table III, the
-amounts of cement, sand, and stone or gravel can be found.
-
-                              TABLE III.
-
-    -------------------+------------------------------------------------
-                       | QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL IN 1 CU. FT. OF CONCRETE
-                       +---------+--------------+-----------------------
-           MIXTURE     | Cement, |     Sand,    | Stone or Gravel,
-                       | Barrel  |   Cu. Yard   |     Cu. Yard
-    -------------------+---------+--------------+-----------------------
-    1 : 2  : 4 Concrete|   .058  |     .0163    |       .0326
-    1 : 2½ : 5 Concrete|   .048  |     .0176    |       .0352
-    -------------------+---------+--------------+-----------------------
-
-
-=Example=
-
-Suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all 935 cubic
-feet of concrete, of which 750 cubic feet is to be 1: 2: 4 concrete,
-and 185 cubic feet is to be 1: 2½: 5 concrete. Also enough sand and
-cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside, in all 400
-square yards of surface, with a 1: 1 mixture of sand and cement. One
-cubic foot of 1: 1 mortar will paint about 15 square yards of surface
-and requires 0.1856 barrels of cement and 0.0263 cubic yards of sand.
-
-
-=Solution, Etc.=
-
-Thus the necessary quantities of materials are:—
-
-    57½ barrels of Portland cement.
-    16½ cubic yards of sand.
-    31 cubic yards of stone or gravel.
-
-It is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement, if the
-dealer is at considerable distance, as this avoids any possible trouble
-that a shortage might cause. Besides, any cement left over always comes
-in handy for repair work around the house or barn.
-
-
-Forms for Concrete
-
-Concrete is a plastic material and before hardening, takes the shape of
-anything against which or in which it is placed.
-
-Naturally, the building of the Form is a most important item in the
-success of the work.
-
-These Forms hold the concrete in place, support it until it has
-hardened and give it its shape, as well as its original surface finish.
-
-
-Kinds of Forms
-
-Almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a
-Form. Concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches,
-and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a Form.
-
-Molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work. Frequently colored
-sands are used for this purpose, providing both the finished surface
-and color to the concrete ornament.
-
-Cast, wrought or galvanized iron is used, where an extremely smooth
-finish is desired, without further treatment upon the removal of the
-Forms. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can be used a
-greater number of times than those of wood. Rusty iron, however, should
-not be used.
-
-By far the greatest number of Forms are made of wood, owing to the fact
-that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained.
-
-
-Requirements of a Good Form
-
-Plan your Forms so there will be no difficult measurements to
-understand. Make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can, and
-do not drive the Forms full of nails. If you do the Forms will be
-difficult to take apart without splitting.
-
-Forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without
-bulging out of shape. When they bulge, cracks open between the planks
-and the water in the concrete, with some cement and sand, will leak
-out. This weakens the concrete, and causes hollows in the surface which
-look badly after the Forms are removed.
-
-Forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a
-second time. A part of the erection cost of Forms is saved if the Forms
-are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle. This saving
-applies to their removal, as well as to their setting. Consequently,
-the lightest Forms possible, with the largest surface area, are the
-most economical.
-
-
-How to Plan Forms
-
-[Illustration: Wiring Forms Prevents Bulging.]
-
-The first consideration in planning Forms is the use to which they are
-to be put. Neglect of this point means waste of money and time. If they
-are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat, the finish of
-the surface is of small consideration, while the alignment of the Form
-is all-important.
-
-If a tank or retaining wall is to be built, the fact that the Forms are
-not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed.
-
-In planning Forms for large structures, the oftener each section is
-used, the less the cost. You save money if they are rigid in alignment,
-and well surfaced. In other words, if you count on using your Forms
-over and over again, the more nearly perfect they are, the more often
-they can be used, and the cheaper they become.
-
-If Forms are to be used only once, as is generally the case on the
-farm, they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being
-readily taken apart, and the lumber used for something else. If often
-pays to put them together with screws. If nails are used, do not drive
-them home.
-
-
-Care Needed in Selecting Lumber for Forms
-
-The selection of lumber is of importance. If the Forms are to be used
-over many times, surfaced lumber, matched, tongued, and grooved stuff,
-free from loose knots, is an economy. If, however, they are to be used
-only once, almost any old plank will do. By nailing a board on the
-outside of the cracks or over the bad knot, and filling with a little
-clay, the Form is made tight.
-
-Green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff. Seasoned
-stuff, when wet (either by throwing water on the form before placing
-the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete) warps, and
-the shape and tightness of the Form are damaged.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Originally only surfaced lumber was used for Forms, dependence being
-placed on it for giving a finish to the work. While to-day other than
-smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion, surfaced lumber has some
-advantages. The Forms fit together better and are easier to erect. They
-are more easily cleaned. They are easier to remove. All these items
-reduce the cost of the work. The saving effected will of course depend
-on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber.
-
-
-How to Clean
-
-Particles of concrete stick to the Forms. In order to prevent this,
-give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap. Linseed,
-black or cylinder oil may be used. Never use kerosene.
-
-Before erecting, paint the Forms with the oil or soap. Then carefully
-protect them from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, immediately
-clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface. A
-short-handled hoe will take off the worst, while a wire brush is most
-effective for finishing. Be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning,
-as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete. It will
-not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use. Watch the
-surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots.
-
-If chips or blocks of wood fall inside the Forms while erecting,
-carefully remove them. The space inside the Forms is intended for the
-concrete; and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed
-there.
-
-The necessity of Forms presents a problem calling for the use of
-that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed. Forms can be
-economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be
-given. A foundation Form in place is shown in the photograph. Note the
-simple and easy method of bracing. Also note how lumber is saved from
-cutting by allowing the sides to project, as well as the studding.
-
-For this building, 18 by 24 feet, trench 18 inches wide and 2 feet
-deep—total cost of setting forms $4.00. The lumber was all on hand and
-can be used again.
-
-
-
-
-How to Place Concrete
-
-
-No time should elapse between the “mixing” and the “placing.”
-Directions for placing must of necessity be general, and the farmer
-must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete
-work, in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand. The
-important thing to remember is, that the materials should not separate
-in placing.
-
-You may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work; you
-may shovel it into wheelbarrows, wheel it to position and dump, or you
-may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus.
-
-
-Directions for Placing
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Ordinarily speaking, concrete should be deposited in layers about 6
-inches thick.
-
-After placing concrete in the Form, it should be “tamped” _lightly_
-with a wooden or iron tamper (or rammer) until the water shows on the
-top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar.
-
-In order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete, the mixture should be
-carefully “spaded” immediately after “placing”—on the side next to the
-Form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view. By “spading”
-is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete
-and the side of the Form, moving it to and fro, and up and down. This
-forces the large stones away from the boarding, or Form, and brings
-a coating of mortar next thereto, thus making the face of the work
-present an even, smooth appearance.
-
-
-The Necessary Tools
-
-On certain jobs—as, for instance, in the case of a 6-inch silo wall—a
-spade cannot very well be used, on account of the narrowness of the
-concrete section. In this event, use for surfacing, a thin wooden
-paddle, made from a board 1 inch by 4 inches, and gradually sharpened
-to a chisel edge at the end. The sharpening should be on one side only,
-and in using this paddle place the flat side against the Form, as shown
-in illustration.
-
-When the mixture is a _dry_ one, great care must be used in this
-“spading” or surfacing, in order to obtain uniform results, but in
-the case of a _wet_ mixture, spading is only required as an added
-precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work,
-and in many cases it is not necessary at all.
-
-
-Protection of Concrete after Placing
-
-Green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has
-been allowed to set for five or six days. Each day during that period
-the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it, both in
-the morning and afternoon. This is done so that the concrete on the
-outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center
-of the mass, and should be carried out carefully, especially during
-the hot summer months. Old canvas, sheeting, burlap, etc., placed so
-as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do
-very well as a protection. Wet this, as well as the concrete. Often the
-concrete Forms can be left in place a week or ten days; this protects
-the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are
-then unnecessary.
-
-
-Points to Remember
-
-It may be well, in summing up, to emphasize the following points:—
-
-    1st. The materials must be perfectly clean.
-    2d. The mixing must be in proportions carefully determined.
-    3d. The mixture must be used while absolutely fresh.
-
-Good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement, nor will
-the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean
-sand and clean stone.
-
-Among the uninitiated, there is an all too prevalent idea that anything
-is good enough for the making of concrete. Some will tell you that
-sawdust, shavings, mud, clay, etc., will do to complete the mixture,
-but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to
-anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out.
-
-
-Reinforcement
-
-_Principles involved_
-
-Concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the
-support of heavy burdens. On a solid foundation, loaded from above
-and thus under direct pressure, a concrete column will withstand the
-strain of an enormous load. A much smaller load so placed as to cause
-stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause
-it to snap off, for concrete is strong, but brittle. On the other
-hand, steel is tough and elastic. In the form of rods or wire, steel
-withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it, and thus displays
-a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete
-column. In modern construction these two valuable properties of
-concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called
-reinforced concrete. With steel properly buried in the concrete, the
-column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it, but
-one many times larger, and even though it is applied at any place along
-its length.
-
-Reinforcement, therefore, is steel in the form of rods, bars or wires,
-buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend
-to stretch or to bend the concrete. A concrete fence post is merely a
-small concrete column. Reinforced, it easily stands the strain from
-usage in a fence line.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen
-in the figure. If a load (L) is raised so that its weight is supported
-on one side by a wooden post, the post will bend. The fibre in the
-wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to
-prevent the post from breaking, and when released the post will spring
-back into its former position. In the third figure a No. 9 wire (W)
-is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground
-surface, and is supported along its length by the struts (S). If the
-same load is applied, the post will not bend, because the wire takes
-up the bending or stretching strain. This is precisely the case with
-the reinforcement in a concrete post. Supported along its length by the
-concrete, the wire (W) or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or
-stretching strains. Since the load which causes bending or stretching
-may come from any direction, concrete posts are reinforced on every
-side; otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that
-in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the
-proper side of the post.
-
-In the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more
-reinforcement than is absolutely necessary. This adds needlessly to the
-cost, for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older.
-
-
-Kinds of Reinforcement
-
-With regard to the roughness of the outside, metallic reinforcing
-materials are divided into two classes, smooth and corrugated or
-deformed. The general result of the many tests carried on in testing
-laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond, if the
-concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed, smooth surfaces give
-satisfactory results. Two kinds of reinforcement are much used—bars
-and wire.
-
-_Bars._—Round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in
-diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm. The stock on hand
-at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that
-stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement.
-Companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish
-both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads.
-
-_Wire._—The development of the wire fence has produced a material well
-suited for reinforcing purposes. Of equal size, such wire will produce
-a stronger reinforcement than the material above described. In order
-to obtain straight wire of the necessary length, the coils ordinarily
-placed on the market should not be straightened out. Straight wire
-can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire; that
-is, either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables, and of the
-length desired. The plain, ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper
-kind, for galvanization adds nothing to the strength, and the metal
-will not rust when incased in the concrete.
-
-
-
-
-Concrete Sidewalks and Floors
-
-
-Concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size, and are
-formed by casting slabs in place.
-
-The description given is an economical and practical method of laying
-sidewalks or floors, easily adapted to any use where concrete is found
-advantageous. This description will therefore apply not only to the
-building of sidewalks, but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on
-the ground.
-
-
-Lasting Qualities
-
-Concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent. To
-accomplish this, good materials must be used, and proper methods of
-mixing and placing must be followed. Only in this way can settlement
-cracks, upheaval by frost or roots of trees, contraction cracks,
-crumbling, and general failure be avoided.
-
-
-Settlement Cracks
-
-To avoid settlement cracks, thoroughly ram the ground after excavating
-for the foundation. This gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab.
-
-
-Upheaval by Frost
-
-To prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone, hard
-furnace cinders, brick bats broken to about a 2-inch size, broken tile
-or any other hard porous material, should be laid in such a way as to
-obtain perfect drainage. Never use ashes.
-
-If freezing occurs, room is in this way provided between the pieces of
-stone for the expansion of the ice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If this foundation is placed in clay soil, side outlets or blind drains
-of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are
-necessary, leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone,
-which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated
-water. Clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation,
-and if it becomes entirely full of water, the ice formed during
-freezing weather will upheave the walk.
-
-
-Upheaval by Tree Roots
-
-Upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots
-which run under the pavement at a less depth than 18 inches below the
-surface of the ground.
-
-
-Contraction Cracks
-
-Cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the
-same way as steel. It is, therefore, necessary to cut joints which will
-allow for this expansion and contraction. The concrete must be cut
-entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel, cleaver or
-other instrument, the joint formed being from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch wide.
-Blocks formed in this way should not be greater than 6 feet square (36
-square feet).
-
-
-Scaling or Crumbling of the Surface
-
-The principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper
-mixing, drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the
-use of bad materials.
-
-Cement needs water not only when mixed, but after being placed and
-tamped, and until it has entirely hardened. If concrete is not kept
-continually wet until hard, it is weakened, and the surface of such a
-walk scales or becomes soft and chalky.
-
-
-Specifications
-
-
-DRAINAGE FOUNDATION
-
-Stake out the lines of the walk, or dimensions of the floor. Excavate
-to a depth of 16 inches, ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly
-and fill in 12 inches with clean large cinders, broken stone, pebbles,
-brick bats, broken tile or other material selected. Place in position
-wooden forms made of 2 by 4’s, these 2 by 4’s to be set on edge and
-held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground, the top edge to
-be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope
-of the walk or floor.
-
-A walk should be higher in the center, or at one edge, to insure the
-water running off. This slope should be ¼ of an inch to the foot.
-
-
-SELECTION OF MATERIALS
-
-Particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and
-their mixing.
-
-The concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of
-which will pass through a ¾-inch mesh screen, and be collected on a
-¼-inch mesh; sand, free from loam and preferably coarse, and a grade of
-Portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the Standard
-Specifications as adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials
-and the American Society of Civil Engineers.
-
-
-PROPORTIONS
-
-The strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness. The
-greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or
-crushed stone, sand and Portland cement, so that all the spaces between
-the stone are filled with sand and cement.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Portland cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed
-in proportions, if the sand is not very coarse, of 1: 2: 4—which
-means, 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel or crushed
-stone, all passing a ¾-inch mesh and all collected on a ¼-inch mesh. If
-the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size
-of particles, it may be mixed in proportions of 1 part Portland cement,
-2½ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or broken stone. All proportions are
-measured by volume.
-
-Bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work, particularly where a
-good bank can be found on the farm. It is safer, if this material be
-used, to screen out the pebbles, using them as stone, measuring the
-quantities of stone and sand as described above. Concrete should not be
-laid in freezing weather.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE
-
-Mix the concrete as described on page 15 to a consistency that when
-tamped, it will not quake, but it should be sufficiently wet so that
-some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping.
-
-
-PLACING
-
-Divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms.
-The cross forms can be made of 2 by 4’s. These provide for expansion
-and contraction joints. Hold these forms in place by driving stakes
-through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where
-the concrete is to be placed. Spread the concrete over the drainage
-foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor, and in slabs not over
-6 feet square. The thickness of a walk should be 4 inches, a driveway
-6 inches, a floor over which a wagon may be driven 6 inches, and all
-other floors 4 inches.
-
-Fill in every other slab, placing enough forms to use up all the
-concrete mixed in one batch. No batch should stand longer than one half
-hour before being placed.
-
-Tamp the concrete thoroughly. Use a template, with ends resting on the
-side forms, and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown.
-The concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the
-template. If one edge of the walk is made higher than the other, use a
-straight edge resting on the side forms. Tamp the concrete to conform
-to the straight edge.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Mix another batch of concrete, remove the cross forms and place the
-concrete between each slab, forming a continuous walk. Use the template
-or straight edge and tamp as before. Immediately after placing the
-closing slab, work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire
-depth of the concrete between each slab, thus insuring a perfect
-contraction joint. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a
-jointer along the top, thus smoothing the edges. Do this before the
-concrete gets too hard. The sides of the walk may be smoothed in the
-same way by use of an edger.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of
-oakum or a stiff brush, removing the marks of the float and giving a
-good even wearing surface which will not be slippery. In using oakum
-or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone. If
-surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens
-the walk to too great an extent, allow the walk to harden a little more
-before finishing in this way. At the end of each day’s work see that
-the last slab is entirely filled and finished.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-All interior floors, such as floors of cellar, barns and stables
-require no contraction joints. They are made by laying a solid
-continuous sheet of concrete. All outside floors should have
-contraction joints forming slabs not over 6 feet square. These are
-provided the same as in sidewalks. A feeding floor is formed merely
-by sidewalk pavements set side by side. Instead of using a template
-for crowning the surface, use a straight edge, each end resting on the
-extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor. Contraction
-joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks.
-The concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same
-way as sidewalks. When completed the walk or floor must be continuously
-protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three
-days, so that it will not dry out at any time. This can be easily
-done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay, straw, or old
-carpet. This covering should be thoroughly soaked with water, and kept
-wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-While the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to
-prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on
-it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-A Foundation Gutter and Walk
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the
-building, quickly carry it away, and, by preventing “seepage,” keep the
-cellar, basement, or ground-floor dry. In sloppy, muddy weather, they
-also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings.
-
-Determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation
-of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms, or from
-local conditions, such as location of outlet into underground drain.
-Excavate a trench 1 foot 6 inches in width, 10 inches deep on each
-side, and hollowed out to 13 inches deep in the middle. Use a straight
-edge or a grade cord, together with a spirit level, to give the bottom
-of the trench the desired slope or “fall.” For each foot of length a
-slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient.
-
-Clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush.
-
-In the bottom of the trench place a 6-inch foundation of well-“tamped”
-gravel, brickbats or crushed stone.
-
-Make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions, 1: 2½: 5. Have the
-mixture just wet enough to tamp well.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Place a 4-inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter 3
-inches deep in the middle. Every five feet, make an expansion joint ⅛
-of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than 7 inches wide
-and 18 inches long, or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete
-with a straight spade. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-           =Materials Required=
-    One cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel;
-    ½ cubic yard sand;
-    6 bags of Portland cement, for a 50-foot section.
-
-
-
-
-Repairs to Farm Buildings
-
-
-Since wood always fails first at the ground, the use of concrete on
-the farm has developed from the ground up. After a farmer has had to
-replace several sills or blocks of wood, he begins to look about him
-for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced.
-Concrete is his natural selection.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Support the building by temporary struts, alongside of the post to be
-removed. Saw off post entirely above rotten part. Dig a hole directly
-under the post 2 feet deep, and slightly larger than the post itself.
-Build a box with sides only, with the same inside measurement as the
-hole already dug. The box must be long enough to reach from the ground
-to a few inches above the bottom of post.
-
-Fill hole with concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Then place the box in
-position, and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off
-post is embedded about ½ an inch in the mixture. Leave the forms in
-place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have
-been used as temporary support for the building. The concrete should be
-mixed fairly wet, and churned with a stick while being placed.
-
-The bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top, by simply
-sloping one side of the box form—giving the effect shown in the
-photograph.
-
-
-Why Concrete Should be Used to Repair Farm Buildings
-
-Repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape.
-Concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose,
-whether large or small, without first having to be cut to the shape and
-size desired. Consequently there is no cheaper known material for this
-kind of work.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Replacing an Entire Foundation with Concrete
-
-The work can be done by the farmer, with the help of his own farm
-labor, at times when more important work is not claiming his attention.
-
-Foundations of concrete are indestructible.
-
-At necessary points, remove a few stones or bricks, as the case may
-be, inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the
-building. Carefully raise the building, by this means, until it stands
-free of all foundations. Remove all the old stone or brick foundation
-to be replaced, and set in place the forms for the concrete.
-
-Small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working
-room, whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete.
-The mixture should be a wet one. (Proportions, 1: 2: 4.)
-
-Where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by “jacking,” to a
-sufficient height to give head-room, it will be found necessary to make
-the foundations 3 inches wider than the sill. Carry the forms to the
-desired height and utilize this extra 3 inches of width for placing the
-concrete in the forms. The top board of the forms may also be left off
-until you are ready to place the last of the concrete. In this case the
-last batch of the concrete should be very wet. Tamp the concrete until
-it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill, to the entire width of
-the wall.
-
-Be sure to leave a space in the concrete wall, under and on the sides
-of the underpinning support, so that the building may later be lowered
-back onto the new foundation and the timber removed. This opening must
-be slightly larger than the underpinning support. After the building
-has been lowered fill these openings with concrete. Lower the building
-after the foundation has been in two weeks.
-
-
-
-
-A Concrete Entrance Floor
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-At a point 3 feet from the building, dig a trench 6 inches wide and
-18 inches deep—the length of this trench to be 2 feet greater than
-the width of the doorway of the building. From the edge of the trench
-nearest to the building, dig away the earth between trench and building
-to a depth of 1 foot, and place here, to a depth of 6 inches, a fill
-of either coarse gravel or crushed rock. Do not, however, place any of
-this gravel fill in the trench. Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5, and lay same,
-first in the trench, and then on top of the gravel fill; sloping the
-surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway. Before
-the concrete has had time to set, provide a runway slot for the sliding
-doors—or better, build little guides or humps with the concrete,
-to hold the doors in position. If the doors happen to be swinging
-ones, place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete, for a
-“shove-fastener.”
-
-Note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door. This prevents the
-gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach
-and getting in the way of the doors. To build this curb, use 1-inch
-planks placed on top of the concrete floor, to serve as forms to hold
-concrete in place.
-
-            =Materials Required=
-    One cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel;
-     2½ cubic yards of sand;
-     5  bags of Portland cement.
-
-This entrance floor was constructed in half a day, by one man.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Farm Buildings Should be Connected by a Concrete Driveway
-
-
-By using concrete to connect up buildings, this farmer has a solid,
-substantial roadway that will last for all time—instead of the usual
-muddy, untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings.
-
-To construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm, first
-excavate a trench 12 inches deep, this trench being the exact width
-that you wish the finished driveway to be. Six feet is a convenient
-width; but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the
-corners to provide for turning of vehicles.
-
-Place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches and tamp
-it well. On top of the gravel fill, place your concrete mixture, to a
-depth of 6 inches on the sides, and 7 inches at the center.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-For this work, concrete should be mixed in proportions 1: 2½: 5, and
-wet enough to pack well.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To finish, no mortar is needed. Leave the surface rough, so as to
-afford a better footing for the horses and cattle.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    5 bags of Portland cement        }
-    ½ cubic yard of sand             }  make a section of roadway
-    1 cubic yard of crushed stone or }        6 by 10 feet
-        screened gravel              }
-
-Approximate cost, at current prices of materials, 6 cents per square
-foot of surface.
-
-
-
-
-Alleyways Between Buildings
-
-
-The farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience. About the home,
-mud is the greatest of all nuisances. In the spring and winter, the
-driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings
-become so muddy that they are often impassable. As a result the
-grassy lawns and lots are driven over, cut to pieces, and the general
-appearance of the farm is ruined. Moreover, in bad weather the chores
-cannot be done unless the “hands” wear rubber boots. The women and
-children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the
-poultry. Muddy feet track up the house walks and floors.
-
-Alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways
-with this exception—they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that
-the driveway is crowned. This carries the roof water away from the
-buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Carriage Washing Floors
-
-
-Nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig
-except water. People have at times tried to remove this mud by
-scraping, but have found that after the mud has once dried a large
-amount of the varnish comes off with it and the “looks” of the carriage
-is ruined.
-
-Convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of
-the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply. All
-of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot, and, as this
-is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing
-more nor less than a mud hole. To avoid this a concrete floor should be
-built.
-
-This floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig
-but the shafts or tongue as well. Unlike feeding and other floors, this
-floor is built with a slope toward the center, with a catch basin under
-the middle, from which a drain leads. Thus all of the water, together
-with the mud coming off the wagon, flows into the basin. This basin
-should be protected with a grating, with holes in same not less than ¼
-of an inch. This grating should be removable so that the mud, which is
-bound to flow into the basin, can be removed. A pipe less than 6 inches
-should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch
-outlet. This will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years. A
-slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of ⅛ of an inch to the
-foot should be made. To lay the floor proceed exactly as described in
-“Sidewalks,” and, as the floor is exposed to the weather, contraction
-joints must be provided, as in Feeding Floors.
-
-After the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft, make
-grooves in it, running from the basin to the edges of the floor. This
-can be done by taking a V-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the
-concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper. This strip of wood
-should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having
-the concrete stick to its surface.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements
-
-
-The saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by
-successful breeders and feeders of live stock. The trouble, heretofore,
-has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor
-construction.
-
-
-Disadvantages of Wooden Floors
-
-Wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only
-saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and
-otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal. However, in a
-short time, the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with
-disease germs. Often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog
-cholera.
-
-
-Advantages of Concrete
-
-In concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material.
-Such floors not only effect a saving in feed, a shortening in the
-time of fattening and a decrease in labor, but also afford perfect
-protection to the health of the animal. Concrete floors do not soak up
-water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs. Their
-surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils
-and dips. Rats cannot nest under them. Careful tests have shown that
-concrete floors, through the saving of grain and manure alone, pay for
-themselves in the short period of one year.
-
-
-How to Build Feeding Floors
-
-Feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side, and the
-same general rules of construction (given under SIDEWALKS, page 28)
-apply to them. Choose a site in the lot where the ground is slightly
-sloping, well drained and wind protected, and convenient to feed and
-water.
-
-
-Drainage Foundation
-
-Excavate to a depth of 12 inches for the drainage foundation, and
-around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench 12 inches
-wide and 18 inches deep. (This trench, filled with concrete, prevents
-hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting
-under it.) Fill all of this space (except the trench) to the natural
-ground level with well tamped coarse gravel, crushed rock, tile culls
-or brickbats. This fill forms the drainage foundation as described for
-sidewalks.
-
-
-Grading the Floor
-
-The floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on
-it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the
-gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit. (To shape the
-gutter, make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat
-side of a 6-foot length of a 4 by 6-inch timber.) A gentle slope,
-toward the low corner, of ¼ of an inch for each foot of length or width
-is sufficient. This is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at
-each corner of the floor, a straight edge or a grade line, and a spirit
-level.
-
-It is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above
-ground. Make light floors 4 inches and floors subject to heavy loads
-6 inches thick. For the forms use 2-inch lumber of a width equal to
-the floor thickness. Begin on a low side of the floor. Mark the grade
-height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched
-from stake to stake. Use only good materials and mix the concrete 1:
-2½: 5 according to direction on page 15.
-
-
-Placing the Concrete
-
-Always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor, so that
-the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly
-placed concrete. Fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with
-concrete. Bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge
-with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the
-other on the finished concrete. Four inches in from the edge, on each
-of the low sides, temporarily embed the rounded 4 by 6-inch gutter mold
-and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the
-slab section of the floor. Remove the mold, finish with a wooden float
-and cure the floor as described on pages 31-34. Connect the gutters
-with the manure pit by means of a trough, another gutter, or by large
-drain tile laid underground.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-On the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a
-6-inch floor 24 by 36 feet, amply large to accommodate 50 hogs.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel, 20 cubic yards @ $1.10   $22.00
-    Sand, 10 cubic yards @ $1.00                               10.00
-    Portland cement, 28 barrels @ $2.50                        70.00
-                                                             -------
-                                                             $102.00
-
-Mixing the concrete by hand, 5 men can usually finish this floor in two
-days. Depending upon the price of labor and materials and the thickness
-of the concrete, the floor will cost 6 to 12 cents for each square foot
-of surface.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Manure Pits and Cisterns
-
-
-For restoring the fertility of the fields, there is nothing better than
-barnyard manure. By the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground
-or storing it in wooden pens, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the manure’s
-strength is wasted. This loss is brought about in two ways:
-
-    First—By “leaching” or washing out, due to heavy rains.
-    Second—By heating or “firing,” caused by lack of sufficient
-            moisture.
-
-Since concrete pits are waterproof, manure can be kept in them as moist
-as necessary. Moreover, with concrete pits the supply of manure is
-increased, as all the liquid manure, from the gutters of the barns,
-barnyard pavements and feeding floors, is saved.
-
-
-How to Build
-
-Locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure
-from the outside floors. Two pits may be better than one. Excavate the
-hole to the desired size and depth. (Manure pits are seldom over 4 feet
-deep.) Dig a sump hole 3 feet square and 2 feet deep at one corner of
-the pit. Slope the floor toward this hole, from which a pump will draw
-the liquid manure. Frame forms of 1-inch siding on 2 by 4-inch studding
-spaced 2 feet, so as to mold a wall 8 inches thick. If the dirt sides
-stand firm, they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an
-inside form will be required. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 (see page 11).
-Lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece 6 inches thick. No
-contraction joints will be necessary. Without delay, set up the forms,
-brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under DIPPING
-VATS, pages 76-80. If a very large pit is needed, build it with sloping
-concrete ends sufficiently wide to accommodate a manure spreader. Let
-the inclines be gentle, and, to give the horses a firm footing, embed
-iron cleats every 18 inches in the slopes, the same as for dipping
-tanks. Cisterns for liquid manure only, may be made like ordinary
-CISTERNS, page 68. However, the solid manure rots more quickly and is
-better for the fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same
-pit. An ordinary pump, with a pipe leading to the sump hole, covered
-with a grating, is a convenient means of removing the liquid. Liquid
-manure is especially good for the vegetable and flower garden, since it
-contains no weed seed. Cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked
-with water, so as to remove the principal breeding places of the house
-and barn fly.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The manure pit shown in the photograph is located in the side of a
-little hill. It is 21 feet long, 14 feet wide, 10 feet deep on the
-hillside and 6 feet deep on the low side. The bottom is 6 inches and
-the walls 8 inches thick. Four men built the pit in two days.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Screened gravel or crushed rock  17 cubic yards at $1.10   $18.70
-    Sand                             8½ cubic yards at $1.00     8.50
-    Portland cement                  30 barrels at $2.50        75.00
-                                                              -------
-                                                              $102.20
-
-
-The Value of Manure Pits
-
-Rotten manure not only enriches the ground, but also increases the
-water-holding capacity of the soil. One load of well rotted manure from
-a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Concrete Barnyards
-
-
-The advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers
-who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire
-barnyards were surfaced with concrete.
-
-It is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn
-lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip
-to the water trough.
-
-The effect is bad on all kinds of livestock, especially on fattening
-animals and dairy cattle. “Feeders” must have an abundance of water
-to fatten quickly. Insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk
-given by dairy cows. Lack of enough exercise further decreases the
-yield. An occasional trip through this mud to the trough, so cakes the
-cows’ udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing
-them—and they must be washed, if one would have clean, wholesome milk.
-Continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying, but
-often produces that irritation on horses’ legs known as “scratches.”
-Suddenly frozen, such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable.
-Moreover, the old barnyard—with its surface worked up year after
-year—becomes a storage place, which carries over the disease germs
-from one season to another. The “droppings” are entirely lost, and,
-mixed with the earth, tend to make the lot muddier the following year.
-To keep up the fertility of the soil, all the manure produced on a farm
-should be saved and returned to the fields.
-
-
-Concrete Floors Increase Profits
-
-A concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather
-and always affords a dry spot for the animal’s bed. Every shower washes
-the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits.
-Concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife, as there is no mud to
-be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor. The use of rubber boots is
-unnecessary. On concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted.
-The way to the water trough is always dry, smooth and passable.
-Concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and
-increase the profits of farming, stock raising and dairying.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Construction
-
-The construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of FEEDING
-FLOORS, page 43, except that the work is on a larger scale. Often
-the entire lot is not paved in one season, but from year to year as
-the farmer has time. In excavating for the drainage foundation (see
-SIDEWALKS, page 29), be careful to remove all manure and straw which
-may be tramped into the ground and which may be so solid as to resemble
-earth. In time any kind of manure decays, shrinks, causes the floor to
-settle and forms water and ice pockets on its surface. Dig the trench
-for the foundation apron as for FEEDING FLOORS—there is no material so
-rat-proof as concrete.
-
-With the drainage foundation ready, set the forms in the manner
-described for SIDEWALKS. Even if the whole lot is not to be paved
-at one time, plan the grading for the entire barnyard so that the
-completed pavement may have perfect surface drainage. Build and cure
-the pavement and make provision for saving the manure the same as for
-concrete FEEDING FLOORS. Do not be too particular about giving the
-surface a smooth finish—a rougher finish affords the animals a better
-footing. The cost per square foot is no more than that of feeding
-floors—the investment yields a greater profit.
-
-
-
-
-Feeding Troughs, Racks and Mangers
-
-
-With a progressive farmer, the health of his livestock is second in
-importance only to that of his family. Concrete is a great factor in
-promoting and preserving health. With concrete troughs, animals are
-seldom “off their feed”: there are no slivers to stick into their gums.
-Even with wet feed, concrete troughs are never sour.
-
-Concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs. Such
-troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them.
-
-
-Troughs for Horses, Cattle, and Sheep
-
-In general, the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for
-horses and cattle is practically the same as for WATERING TROUGHS AND
-TANKS, page 74. An outdoor trough, suitable for feeding grain or silage
-to cattle and horses, is shown on page 48. (However, most farmers will
-prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence corner.) This trough
-is 10 feet long and 2 feet 2 inches wide, outside measurements. The
-bottom is 4 inches thick as also are the side and end walls at the top,
-but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of 6 inches at the
-bottom. This extra thickness makes not only a stronger feeding trough,
-but also one more easily cleaned out. The entire trough is reinforced
-with heavy woven wire fencing laid within 1 inch of the bottom and the
-same distance from the inside face of the side walls. The trough is
-held 1 foot 4 inches above ground by concrete benches, 2 feet 2 inches
-wide, 1 foot thick, and extending 3 feet below the ground or feeding
-floor surface.
-
-In locating troughs, follow the same principles laid down under FEEDING
-FLOORS. Dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the
-concrete (mixed 1: 2: 4) to the necessary height by means of open box
-forms similar to the one shown on page 36. Use a spirit level to get
-the tops of these supports even. Immediately set the outside trough
-form, previously made with openings in the bottom board, to match the
-concrete supports. Provide a 2-inch drain hole, corked with a greased,
-tapering wooden plug long enough to extend through the concrete. Place
-1 inch of concrete over the bottom, lay the heavy woven wire fencing
-so that it will extend up into the side walls. Tamp in the bottom the
-remaining 3 inches of concrete. Finish this concrete with a steel
-trowel. At once set in the sloping inside mold, built as one piece
-and without a bottom. Fill the space between the inside and outside
-forms with wet concrete. After the concrete is hard enough to bear
-considerable pressure of the thumb (usually five to seven hours),
-carefully remove the inside mold. No painting with neat cement (cement
-mixed with water) or plastering will be needed if the inside form is
-smooth. Do not take down the outside forms for two weeks. To make this
-same trough of suitable height for small calves or sheep, place around
-it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth. Two men can build such a
-trough in less than a day.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel  1  cubic yard at $1.10  $1.10
-    Sand                              ½ cubic yard at $1.00    .50
-    Portland cement                  1½ barrels at $2.50      3.75
-                                                             -----
-                                                             $5.35
-
-
-Feeding Troughs for Hogs
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding
-floor, according to the plan shown, and similar to WATERING
-TROUGHS, page 74.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-A Fire-protected Feed Cooker
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires.
-
-The photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed
-cooker for hogs and poultry is installed.
-
-Discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to
-thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that
-most fireproof material—concrete.
-
-The old wooden floor was first torn out, a fill of coarse gravel tamped
-in, and a 5-inch floor of concrete laid on top, mixed 1: 2½: 5.
-Immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down 8
-inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about.
-
-At the back of the cooker, on the 2 by 4-inch studding, heavy woven
-wire was securely fastened, and by temporarily placing a wooden wall 4
-inches in front, to act as a form, an 8-inch concrete wall was built.
-This wall was made 8 feet wide and 5 feet high. The foundation for the
-wall extends 3 feet below the floor level.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-On the top of this wall rests the chimney. The chimney is 12 by 14
-inches on the outside, with a single flue 8 inches round, and is 10
-feet high. This height is sufficient to clear the roof. For the inside
-form 8-inch sewer pipe was used and left in place (stovepipe or drain
-tile could also be used). Ordinary box forms were used for the outside
-forms, made as described on page 36.
-
-The chimney was reinforced with a ½-inch rod running from top to bottom
-in each corner, 1½ inches from the edge. The lower ends of these rods
-are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests.
-
-As this improvement was made by the farm hands, the cost of the floor
-was only 5 cents a square foot, while the wall and chimney cost $5.00.
-
-Not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night
-been overcome, but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most
-cleanly condition at all times.
-
-Rats, the greatest pest known to the farmer, are driven away. These
-animals cannot nest in concrete.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Hog Wallows—Automatic Dipping Tanks
-
-A wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being.
-A clean bath benefits the health of a hog, especially if the wallow is
-filled with a dipping solution. This combination not only saves the
-lives of fat hogs on hot days, but also aids greatly in preventing
-cholera. See DIPPING TANKS, page 76.
-
-Locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply. A level,
-well drained spot, where the mud will not wash into it, is best. (The
-wallow shown in the photograph is in the hog house, and is a large dish
-in the concrete floor.) Make the wallow 8 by 12-feet. Dig out the hole
-with straight sides to the depth of 2 feet 2 inches. Lay a drainage
-foundation 10 inches thick—see SIDEWALKS, page 29. Set a 10-inch board
-around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from crumbling in on
-the concrete.
-
-Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and place a 6-inch floor in the hole. As the
-concrete is laid, embed woven wire in it 1 inch from the bottom. Have
-the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and
-dimensions—4 inches thick at the top and 10 inches at the floor line.
-The sloping sides make cleaning easy. Keep all animals away from the
-wallow for two weeks. Three men built this wallow easily in one day.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Screened gravel or crushed rock    2½ cubic yards @ $1.10     $2.75
-    Sand                               1¼ cubic yards @ $1.00      1.25
-    Portland cement                    4½ barrels @ $2.50         11.25
-                                                                 ------
-                                                                 $15.25
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-A Corn Crib Floor of Concrete
-
-
-Rats love grain; and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat
-headquarters of the farm. By building corn cribs and granary floors of
-concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination.
-
-Lay out the building: for the foundation wall, dig a trench 12 inches
-wide and from 2 to 3 feet below ground level. Set box forms, so as to
-bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor 1½ to 2 feet
-above ground level, according to the height of the “drag” conveyor used
-by local corn-shellers.
-
-As the floor will only be 6 inches thick, fill in between the
-foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of 6 inches of top
-of forms. Soak this fill thoroughly, and tamp and roll it well, before
-placing concrete on top.
-
-Mix concrete (1: 2: 4) and fill the foundation forms. Beginning at
-one end of the building, lay the concrete floor in sections 4 feet
-wide, and continue until the entire floor is placed.
-
-In order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the
-concrete floor, insert ¾-inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent
-like capital =Z=’s at the necessary points in the green concrete
-of foundation. The bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the
-sill and to receive nuts and washers. The straps are long enough to be
-spiked to the uprights.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel, so as to render
-scooping of the grain an easy matter.
-
-Approximate cost per square foot of floor surface, 12 cents.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Concrete Barn Floors
-
-
-Investigations of the Department of Agriculture have disclosed the
-fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria, often considered
-unaccountable in their origin, are the result of the germs being
-carried by the house-fly. Screens, flypaper, and poisons are all very
-well, in a small way, but to free the place of flies means getting rid
-of the conditions which produce them. Leaving out the manure pile (see
-MANURE PITS, page 45), the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul
-floors of the cow and horse barns. The barn can be almost entirely rid
-of flies by building floors and manure pits of concrete.
-
-
-The Advantages of Concrete Floors
-
-There are no flies to make the horses stamp.
-
-Rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors.
-
-No other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor. Concrete
-floors may be finished as rough or corrugated, as may be desired.
-
-Concrete floors do not soak up water. The liquids run into the gutters
-and thence to the manure pits. The floor may be flushed with water and
-kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor.
-
-All kinds of barn floors must be bedded down. Concrete floors are
-warmer and cleaner than any other kind, for they are always dry.
-Besides, heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete.
-
-Concrete floors afford good fire protection. No fire can be started on
-concrete floors by a shiftless farm “hand” dropping cigarette stubs or
-matches on their surface.
-
-Good farm “hands” prefer to work where there are concrete floors: they
-lighten the labor. Concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the
-scoop and to ruffle the temper.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Concrete in the Cow Barn
-
-
-With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of
-floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor
-for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of
-concrete. On account of many epidemics of “catching” diseases, directly
-traceable to milk, city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman
-to decide—concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified
-milk.
-
-The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite
-rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each
-other.
-
-The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in
-feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows’
-heads toward each other. If the dairyman prefers the other arrangement,
-the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches
-provides sufficient room for a manure spreader.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-How to Build Dairy Barn Floors
-
-Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other.
-
-Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps
-of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the
-direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction
-of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends
-may be used as working space.
-
-On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4½feet from the side walls of
-the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the
-entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven
-firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall.
-By means of a carpenter’s spirit level and a grade line, see that the
-tops of these boards have an even slope (say ⅛-inch per foot) toward
-the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set
-up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting
-stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2
-inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will
-later be constructed.
-
-
-The Alleyway
-
-Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even
-off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building
-of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping ½ inch from the wall toward the
-gutter. Mix the concrete 1: 2½: 5, tamp into place, and finish the
-surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface
-thus produced gives the cows a good footing.
-
-
-The Stall Floor
-
-With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the
-stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is
-4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet
-6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than ½ inch toward
-the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion
-fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall.
-The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet
-8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger
-wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will
-be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form
-for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same
-manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas pipe stall divisions are to be
-used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping
-the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when
-the concrete has stiffened.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-The Manger
-
-[Illustration]
-
-As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the
-concrete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new
-stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already
-in place serves as the outer wall form. “Toe nail” two 1 by 6-inch
-boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the
-other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall
-floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger
-wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary
-drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new
-concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting the
-stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until
-the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger
-may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the
-floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner.
-
-
-The Feedway
-
-With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If
-possible, this should be at least 8 feet wide.
-
-As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor
-and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above
-the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped)
-to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of
-the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the
-mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the
-manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top.
-These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers
-and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5-inch floor
-of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. See
-SIDEWALKS, page 31.
-
-
-Horse Barn Floors
-
-Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for
-the cow stable. The same principles govern the floor construction.
-Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls
-are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to
-the drop gutter.
-
-As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk
-flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide
-and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3
-inches are sufficient.
-
-
-Concrete Mangers
-
-Many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete.
-“Stump suckers” lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for OUTDOOR
-FEEDING TROUGHS, page 48. A form satisfactory for building horse barn
-mangers is shown in the photograph. The feed trough can be molded as a
-part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding
-trough, but 6 inches wider and without end pieces. Saw out the manger
-forms so that the box will fit the opening. When the manger forms have
-been filled with concrete to the feed trough level, place 1 inch of
-concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay in a strip of heavy
-woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining 2 inches of the 3-inch
-bottom. Immediately set upon this concrete a bottomless box with end
-pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch manger wall and the 3-inch
-side walls of the trough. Fill both manger and trough forms and embed
-a ½-inch rod in the side walls of the trough 1 inch from the top. Make
-holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by inserting a 2-inch
-greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot length of ½-inch rod in the
-concrete above this hole.
-
-Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other
-animal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world
-over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If
-rats have no nesting place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice
-cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete
-barn walls.
-
-In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime
-instead of stamping at flies.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Farmers Build Barn Approaches of Concrete
-
-[Illustration]
-
-For purposes of drainage, concrete barns are often built on the side
-of a hill, the lower story being used for the livestock, while the
-second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage. This
-arrangement necessitates a “barn approach.” Originally these approaches
-were simply of earth, piled up in front of the door; and quite often
-the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn.
-
-By not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn,
-the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and
-ventilation on all four sides.
-
-The concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools; while a root
-cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach.
-
-Such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its
-surroundings.
-
-Economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold
-the earth in position—and concrete naturally came into use for the
-purpose.
-
-The earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut
-out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the
-ground level to a depth of 2½ or 3 feet, and 1 foot wide.
-
-Only outside forms are needed, as the earth fill in the barn approach
-acts as an inside form. These outside forms may be made up in sections
-as large as desired, of 1-inch planks, with the necessary upright
-studding.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Mix concrete 1: 2: 4.
-
-Place the concrete in the foundation, erect the forms, holding these in
-position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground.
-The concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of
-the earth fill that forms the approach. In shoveling into the form, be
-careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen
-side, as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible
-strength.
-
-
-A Concrete Barn Foundation
-
-[Illustration]
-
-On account of convenient arrangement, economy of space, and protection
-to the stock, second story barns have become very popular.
-
-At first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was
-looked upon with doubt. It might be damp. It might make a cold stable.
-Yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was
-tried, found entirely satisfactory, and to-day is being used for the
-lower story of thousands of barns every year. As this arrangement does
-not give a perfect fire protection to the stock, a ceiling of concrete
-is provided, furnishing a floor for the carriage house, hay loft and
-granary, through which rats cannot gnaw. With this floor of concrete,
-the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line, twenty
-inches wide. Fill with concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5. On this foundation
-erect the forms for the side walls, spaced in such a way as to make the
-wall 12 inches thick. These forms are made of 1-inch siding, with 2 by
-4-inch studs, spaced 18 inches apart. Fasten the forms securely at top
-and bottom as described in forms for “Small Farm Buildings,” page 82.
-While erecting the forms, place in position frames for the window and
-door openings. These frames are removed after the concrete has become
-hard and the windows and doors placed. If the concrete extends above
-the windows, place three ½-inch iron rods 3 inches above each opening,
-and extending 18 inches beyond its sides. Insert bent iron rods in the
-concrete around the corners, at intervals of every 2 feet of height.
-Having carried the wall to the desired height, provide for attaching
-the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every 5 feet in
-the concrete while it is yet soft. These should be placed with the
-head down, allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient
-distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and
-washer.
-
-If a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable, erect forms in
-the same way as for a cistern cover described on page 69. This ceiling
-will have to be carefully reinforced, and if there is any doubt about
-the quantity and position of this reinforcing, a competent engineer
-should be consulted.
-
-Entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers. If
-so built, the fire danger for that barn is forever removed. A barn of
-concrete, however, with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof. If
-the hay catches fire in such a barn, the roof is burned up.
-
-Any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can
-build a concrete roof as well.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Wind Walls and Their Importance
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To be healthy, stock need exercise—in winter as well as summer. But
-few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected
-against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place.
-
-The exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings.
-Erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often
-come. Probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in
-sections of 10 feet in length. The wall will be 3 inches thick at top,
-12 inches thick at the base, 7 feet above and 3 below ground, with the
-slope side toward exercise lot.
-
-To securely brace the sections of this wall, large posts (called
-buttresses) are needed. These posts are the full height of the wall
-and are 12 by 18 inches square. The narrow side is set with the line
-of fence, and the buttresses are placed 11 feet apart from center to
-center. The forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate
-posts, with the exception that a beveled 2 by 4-inch timber is nailed
-vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form, 3 inches from
-the back board. This leaves a slot in the finished buttress, into
-which the slab sections of the wall are later “keyed.” Through these
-2 by 4’s, at points 3 and 15 inches below the tops, bore ⅝-inch holes
-through which ½-inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to
-project into the wall proper about 18 inches.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Locate the points for the centers of the buttresses, the first buttress
-at the beginning of the wall. Dig a hole for each buttress 12 by 18
-inches and 4 feet deep and erect the buttress forms. Fill the forms
-with wet concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Do not forget to insert at the
-proper time the 3-foot lengths of ½-inch rods in the ¾-inch holes
-above mentioned. Brace the forms securely, to keep them in position.
-After the first two buttresses are in place, dig out the 1 by 4-foot
-foundation trench and, over it and between the buttresses, erect the
-box forms for the slab sections, with the sloping side next to the lot.
-These forms are made of 1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding
-securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top.
-On the working side, add the siding as needed, so as to facilitate the
-placing of the concrete.
-
-Remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for
-wall proper. In the center of wall, within 6 inches of the top, embed a
-10-foot length of ½-inch iron rod. After the wall is one week old, take
-down the wall forms, erect them between the next two buttresses, and
-proceed with the construction in the same manner.
-
-Wind walls are often made with straight sides. While this takes more
-concrete, the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this
-additional cost.
-
-The materials required for each 10-foot section of wall and 1 buttress
-are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel, 1 cubic yard
-sand, 12 bags of Portland cement. Approximate cost, $15.00.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Concrete and the Silo
-
-
-A silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state, for
-feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture—that is in
-winter and in the hot, dry months of summer. By the use of silos fodder
-is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables.
-
-Concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo, providing
-the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting,
-possessed by silos built of no other material. For instruction in
-building silos, see Bulletin No. 21 of the Association of American
-Portland Cement Manufacturers, sent free on application.
-
-Space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a
-concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo,
-and show how concrete fills them all.
-
-Silos must be air-tight. The admission of air causes the fodder to
-mould, and the stock will not eat it.
-
-Air cannot leak through a concrete silo.
-
-Silos must be water-tight. If they are not, the juices, so necessary to
-keep the fodder green, will leak out, and the fodder spoils.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Concrete, properly mixed, is water-tight.
-
-Silos must be smooth on the inside. A silo with a rough inside surface,
-catches the cornstalks, and prevents proper packing.
-
-Concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other
-materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand.
-
-The fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature. Concrete does
-not conduct heat or cold. It keeps the heat in the fodder in winter,
-and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer. Nature provides the
-fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly.
-
-Rats nesting in the silage ruin it.
-
-Concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known.
-
-In addition to these reasons, concrete silos are not attacked by the
-juices coming from the fodder. They do not rot by alternate wetting and
-drying.
-
-Fire, that greatest of farm scourges, cannot destroy the crop if stored
-in a concrete silo. A farmer may rebuild a barn, but the crops lost
-through the burning of the building are lost forever.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Sanitary Water Supply
-
-
-As the laws of health become better understood, greater precautions are
-taken to prevent sickness. For years all evidence has been pointing to
-drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal
-means of spreading sickness. Every well, spring and cistern, open
-to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which
-surface water can seep, is liable to contain disease germs. Concrete
-walls and covers are water-tight: they afford perfect protection for
-both man and beast.
-
-
-How to Protect Wells
-
-Many bored and dug wells, sunk years ago, afford such excellent water
-that their owners prefer to keep them. This is often made possible by
-the use of concrete. Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay
-through which water will not run, usually not more than 6 feet. If the
-earthen wall stands firm, only one form, fitting inside the brick wall,
-is needed. Make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the
-inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates, and long enough
-to extend 2 feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed
-and 4 inches above the ground level. If the earthen wall shows signs
-of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground to the
-necessary depth and use an outside form. Lower the forms into place and
-fill them with 1: 2: 4 concrete. In placing the concrete follow the
-directions given under UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68.
-
-The steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to
-keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing. This construction
-exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water. Concrete
-walls or housings are the only means of protection. Make the forms and
-build the housing according to the rules laid down for UNDERGROUND
-CISTERNS, pages 68-70. The housing shown in the photograph is 5
-by 6 feet by 4 feet deep, sufficiently roomy for inspecting, adjusting
-and repairing pipe connections. The walls and floor are of 1: 2: 4
-concrete 6 inches thick. One-half inch bolts project 2½ inches above
-the walls for fastening the wooden cover. A 4-inch removable cover of
-concrete, molded in two pieces, makes a more sanitary covering. The
-service pipes were laid in 4-inch drain tile slightly above the floor
-of the housing. A tile of the same size, laid on a grade, carries away
-all the leakage of the fittings. Two men built the housing in one day.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Screened gravel or crushed rock    3  cubic yards at $1.10    $3.30
-    Sand                               1½ cubic yards at $1.00     1.50
-    Portland cement                    5½ barrels at $2.50        13.75
-                                                                 ------
-                                                                 $18.55
-
-Well platforms are made like cistern covers (see page 69) except that
-they are not molded fixed in place, but loose and removable, so that
-the well can be cleaned at any time. Concrete well covers keep mice and
-frogs out of the well. Even scrub water cannot seep in.
-
-
-Underground Cisterns and Cistern Platforms
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Underground cisterns are useless if they leak. In dry weather they
-are empty, and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the
-“soft” water as “hard” as that from the well. Concrete cisterns have no
-joints to leak: they are built in one solid piece.
-
-In placing the cistern, select a site convenient to the principal
-down-spout and the kitchen. Do not forget to make allowance for 8-inch
-walls in laying out the plan. If the ground in which the pit is dug
-is sufficiently firm to stand alone, no outside form will be needed.
-Otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form
-built similar to the inside one. Make the inside form of 1-inch boards
-on 2 by 4-inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth
-walls. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay a 6-inch floor on the earth
-bottom. Immediately set the wall forms on all sides. In filling the
-wall space, be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen
-wall: dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-After the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level, set
-a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern, so as to
-hold the concrete for the platform. Saw off the uprights of the inside
-form 6 inches below the finished top of the concrete cover, and nail
-2 by 4-inch floor joists even with their tops. Floor the joists with
-1-inch boards. Braces, to keep the wooden platform from sagging, may
-be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing. To
-provide for a manhole opening, build a bottomless box 5 inches deep,
-2 feet square at the top and 18 inches square at the bottom—outside
-measurements,—or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form 5
-inches deep, 2 feet in diameter at the top and 18 inches at the bottom,
-just like a large dishpan without a bottom.
-
-Begin at one side of the platform, tamp in 1½ inches of concrete, and
-upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing. Allow the edges of the wire to
-extend within 1 inch of the outside lines of the platform. Bring the
-platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining
-3½ inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop for any reason
-until the cistern cover is completed. As the work progresses, finish
-the surface with a wooden float. Grease the manhole frame and place it
-where the opening is desired. Strengthen the floor around the manhole
-opening by laying four short ½-inch iron rods, placed criss-cross, 2
-inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from
-the edges of the hole. If the tin form is used, the manhole cover may
-be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor. Reinforce
-the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of ½-inch
-rods laid in the form of a square. Have on hand an old bridle bit or
-hitching post ring, which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete
-cover. In placing the ring in position, provide it with a knob of
-twisted wire, or with a nut and large washer, to fix it firmly in the
-concrete. If the wooden manhole form is used, carefully remove it after
-5 hours. After 3 days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin
-form, with this important exception—place heavy paper, cardboard or
-leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete
-of the cover from sticking to it. Set bolts for a pump base according
-to directions given for GASOLINE ENGINE BASES, pp. 87, 88. The
-necessary openings for down spouts and for removing water may be made
-by embedding tile, of the proper diameter and length, in the concrete
-platform or side walls.
-
-When the platform is two weeks old, remove the manhole cover, bore a
-hole in the wooden floor, saw an opening, descend and loosen the roof
-form, passing it out through the manhole.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking, provide
-a filter on the outside of the cistern wall. Construct the filter
-similar to the cistern, of dimensions 4 by 3 feet and 4 feet deep.
-While building the cistern wall, lay an 8-inch tile through it, at the
-proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter
-wall at its floor, and place a removable screen of ¼-inch mesh over the
-opening. Fill in 2 feet of coarse charcoal. Cover the charcoal with 1
-foot of sand and gravel. Lead the water from the roof into the top of
-the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab.
-
-Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep, with a 6-inch
-floor and a 5-inch platform, in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels
-of 31½ gallons.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Screened gravel or crushed rock   8 cubic yards at $1.10   $8.80
-    Sand                              4 cubic yards at $1.00    4.00
-    Portland cement                  13 barrels at $2.50       32.50
-                                                              ------
-                                                              $45.30
-
-“Soft” water is not only better for the bath, but also makes the
-washing easier and the clothes whiter. Mischievous children cannot
-remove concrete manhole covers.
-
-
-Making Spring Water Sanitary
-
-To the planter and stockman, a flowing spring is worth a great deal of
-money. Properly cared for, it will afford cold, sweet water for the
-house, the dairy, and the watering tanks. Improperly protected, it is
-not merely a mud hole, a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows, but is
-too frequently the cause of disease.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To improve a spring, first open up the channel and drain out all the
-water possible. Clean out the spring so as to increase its flow. Lay
-the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn. Wall up the well of the
-spring with concrete blocks, laid without mortar to a point just above
-the in-flow streams of the spring. Complete the walls with blocks laid
-in 1: 2 cement-sand mortar, or, using wooden forms, with a 6-inch
-solid wall of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Carry these walls high enough to keep
-surface water out of the spring well. If the spring is to be used as
-a drinking tank for stock, make the walls equal to the usual depth of
-such tanks. (See WATERING TROUGHS AND TANKS, page 74.) Lay a
-4-inch floor of 1: 2½: 5 concrete (on a drainage foundation) 10 feet
-around the field spring on all sides.
-
-At the edges of the floor, turn down a concrete “apron” or foundation,
-2 feet into the ground, the same as for FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. This
-prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it.
-
-Make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to
-the stream by a gutter in the floor, or by a drain tile under it.
-
-With such improvement, since there is no mud, the stock cannot mire and
-the udders of the dairy cows are always clean.
-
-To keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn
-for house use, provide a concrete cover like that described for
-UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. For small springs this cover is often
-made removable as shown in the photograph on page 73.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-New Style Cistern Built on Top of Ground
-
-The photograph shows a cistern, 6 by 6 by 12 feet, inside dimensions,
-with 8-inch walls, 6-inch floor, and 4-inch roof.
-
-Dig a pit 12 inches deep, and of the size of cistern desired. Cover the
-bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches. Mix
-concrete 1: 2: 4 and place it to a depth of 2 inches over the surface
-of the fill. On top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing.
-This wire should be laid in such a way as to extend 6 inches beyond
-the outside edge of foundation—the ends being bent up, so as to stand
-upright, 3 inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already
-placed. Immediately lay the remaining 4 inches of concrete floor. Give
-the surface a finish with a wooden float to within 6 inches of edges.
-
-Without delay, set the forms, made up in the required sections, resting
-the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the
-ground. Place the inside form first. After setting the inside form,
-place woven fence wire, supporting it against the inside form by means
-of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire 4 inches
-away from it. Care should be taken in placing the concrete that the
-wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall. This reinforcement
-is carried 1 foot beyond top of wall. The projecting wire mesh will
-later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls. The timber
-required for the forms will be 1-inch siding and 2 by 4 uprights,
-spaced every 18 inches.
-
-In placing the concrete in the forms, it will be easier to leave off
-the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches
-its level. Then add this planking and fill the two top feet. The
-concrete will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of
-buckets.
-
-The luxury of soft water for the bath, and its advantages for laundry
-purposes, are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins.
-Cisterns were originally built in the ground, but a thinking farmer
-used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground, no doubt taking
-the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel. While it requires more
-forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground, yet
-the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved. As the water is piped
-to the house, direct water pressure is provided, thereby giving the
-farm-house all the advantages of a city water system.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Build a wooden platform inside the cistern, in the same manner as
-directed in UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. The materials required for
-the concrete are 10 yards of crushed rock or screened gravel, 5 yards
-of sand, and 17 barrels of Portland cement.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Watering Troughs and Tanks
-
-
-All thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete.
-Such troughs never rot, rust, or leak.
-
-By using concrete, tanks of any size and shape can be made.
-
-
-Watering Tank for Horses and Cattle
-
-Most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape.
-Having decided upon the size, locate the tank in a handy, well drained,
-wind-sheltered place.
-
-To build a tank like the one shown in the picture, lay out the trough
-5 by 16 feet. Make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed
-under SIDEWALKS, page 29. Around the outside dig a 10-inch trench 2 feet
-6 inches deep. Lay all in-flow and over-flow pipes (not less than 1½
-inches in diameter) so that the ends, fitted for connections, will be
-even with the finished bottom of the tank.
-
-Build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before
-mixing any concrete. The tank is 5 by 16 feet by 2½ feet deep with an
-8-inch bottom. The walls are 5 inches thick at the top and 10 inches
-at the bottom. (The sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides
-instead of pushing directly against them.) Consequently the inside
-forms at the bottom are 5 inches shorter at each end than at the top.
-
-The forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of
-1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding spaced not more than
-2 feet apart. The sides of the forms may be made separate and put
-together in place; or, if there is sufficient help, each form may be
-entirely completed and set up as one piece. The forms are held in
-position by 2 by 4-inch liners at top and bottom, and if necessary by
-sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground. Cut strips of
-heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to
-project up into the walls.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-With the forms ready, mix a batch of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Beginning at
-one end, fill the trench, and upon the gravel foundation place a 2-inch
-layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire. Upon
-this concrete lay a section of wire. Tamp in the remaining 6 inches
-of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the
-ends will project up into the future side walls. Continue laying the
-concrete in sections until the bottom is completed. Finish the surface
-with a wooden float.
-
-Immediately set the wall forms in place, and set them level by using a
-carpenter’s level. Fill the wall space with concrete. Half way up the
-side and 1 inch from the outside, lay a ½-inch iron rod entirely around
-the tank. Again 2 inches from the top, and 1 inch from both inner and
-outer edges, lay two rods of the same size. If a tank cover is desired,
-set bolts in the concrete as directed under CORN CRIB FLOORS,
-page 53.
-
-To prevent mud holes, surround the tank with a concrete floor. (See
-FEEDING FLOORS, page 43.) Protect the green tank from drying
-out according to instructions under SIDEWALKS, pages 28-34.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel  7 cubic yards at $1.10   $7.70
-    Sand                             3½ cubic yards at 1.00    3.50
-    Portland cement                  11½ barrels at 2.50      28.75
-                                                             ------
-                                                             $39.95
-
-
-Watering Troughs for Hogs
-
-Troughs for hogs are built in two styles—wedge-shaped, like the feed
-trough shown on page 49, or like troughs for cattle except smaller.
-Use short lengths of 1-inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out of the
-trough. Set bolts, properly spaced, in the soft concrete sides, so that
-the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron
-over the bolts.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Dipping Vats and Tanks
-
-The younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of Texas
-or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago,
-killed thousands of cattle, and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and
-ranchmen in its wake. Government experts found that this deadly disease
-is caused by ticks, which infest cattle in certain localities. They
-also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals
-in chemical solutions.[2]
-
-[2] For free bulletins on dipping write the Agricultural Department,
-Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.
-
-Dipping cures not only Texas (known as “splenetic”) fever, but also
-the lip and leg disease, mange, and scab or scabies of both sheep and
-cattle. Certain solutions free horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs of lice,
-mites, fleas, and flies. The only method of applying these chemicals,
-surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal, is by giving him a
-plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid. Since the dip is the
-most costly part of the process, and since it must be applied once or
-twice every year, some permanent form of tank is needed—one that will
-not rot or rust out, leak or heave in during winter. Concrete vats,
-built ten years ago, without one cent’s worth of repair, are still as
-good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are four important points to be considered in the building of a
-dipping tank:
-
-        First—An entering slide, steep enough to shoot the
-      animal in, without a direct drop. A direct drop, the
-      entire depth of the tank, is likely to injure the
-      animal.
-
-        Second—The tank must be narrow enough to prevent
-      the animal turning around when once in, long enough
-      to keep him in from one to two minutes, and deep
-      enough not only to make him swim, but also that he
-      may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge.
-
-        Third—The slope at the leaving end must be gentle
-      and the footing roughened or cleated so that the
-      animal may easily scramble to the dripping pens.
-
-        Fourth—As the liquid dip is the most expensive
-      part of dipping, there must be provided two dripping
-      pens draining back into the tank.
-
-Select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small,
-well-fenced lot or corral. At the narrow end of the chute and in line
-with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the
-chute.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Often the chute is built on a curve, so that the animals cannot see
-where they are going.
-
-They are generally constructed with a hump in the floor. This prevents
-the animal from jumping into the dip, and gives the necessary length to
-the slide, without increasing the depth of the tank. Choose the proper
-dimensions from the diagrams and table according to whether the tank is
-to be used for horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs.
-
-The lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute, usually
-a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease. Where a longer
-treatment is desired, most ranchmen, instead of building tanks of
-greater length, provide a drop gate working in a groove, as shown in
-the photograph, by means of which the animal is kept in the tank as
-long as necessary. Likewise, rather than build a separate tank for
-sheep and hogs, stockmen insert a temporary division fence, running the
-full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank. This fence should
-be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around
-in the tank. In this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses,
-cattle, sheep, and hogs.
-
-Dig the deep part of the hole first, and then slope the earth for the
-slide and climb. Lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow
-bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom.
-Tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing
-concrete.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The side walls only will require forms. If the banks stand firm, inside
-forms alone will be needed. Make these of 1-inch boards on 2 by 4-inch
-uprights. Steel reinforcing, preferably wire cloth or hog wire, is
-placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the
-concrete wall. Floor, sides, and ends should all be thus reinforced to
-prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations.
-Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay the floor and slopes directly on
-the solid earth. No fill is necessary. The concrete for the sloping
-ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in
-position without the use of forms. With the bottom and slopes built,
-lower the side wall forms into the pit. Take care to jar no dirt upon
-the concrete already placed. Space the forms properly and cross-brace
-them firmly upon each other. Fill the wall space with concrete.
-
-In placing this concrete, be sure that it strikes the wood form instead
-of the earthen side, as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak, leaky
-wall. Carry the walls 6 inches above the surrounding ground to prevent
-flood water from running into the tank.
-
-The entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank
-without skinning them up. Finish this surface with a wooden float and
-steel trowel. Some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a
-polished steel plate, the edges of which are sunk into the concrete
-when the slide is built. To aid the animals in climbing out, embed in
-the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles
-similar to a capital “U.” Old wagon tires, cut in lengths not greater
-than 20 inches and turned up 4 inches at each end, will do. Leave 1
-inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete.
-Space the cleats 18 inches for horses and cattle and 10 inches for
-sheep and hogs.
-
-At the leaving end of the tank, lay out the two dripping pens with
-their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank, so
-that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen, when it is full,
-and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty pen. Use
-concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no replacing.
-Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and build a 6-inch
-concrete floor according to the directions given under SIDEWALKS,
-page 28, and FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. Slope the floors, ¼ inch to
-each foot in length or width, so that the dip running off the animals
-will be saved and returned to the tank. Corrugate or groove the floor
-to the depth of ½ inch, every 8 inches, in one direction. During the
-construction of the floor, mold around the outside a concrete curb,
-commonly called a splashboard, 6 inches above the floor and 4 inches
-wide. Where the dip from the floor empties into the tank, place a
-removable wire screen or strainer to keep the droppings and wool tags
-out of the vat. Cure the floors and slopes according to directions
-under FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. The wall forms may be removed after one
-week, but the tank should not be used until it is three weeks old.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-           DIMENSIONS OF GROUND PIT FOR DIPPING TANKS
-    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
-     Kind  |   W  |  N  |  D  |   L  |  E  |   B  |   A  |  I  |
-    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
-           |      |     |     |      |     |      |      |     |
-           |      |     |     |      |     |      |      |     |
-    Horses |5′ 10″|3′ 4″|8′ 8″|55′ 0″|7′ 6″|31′ 0″|16′ 6″|8′ 8″|
-    Cattle |5′  4″|3′ 4″|7′ 8″|51′ 0″|6′ 8″|31′ 0″|13′ 4″|7′ 8″|
-    Sheep  |3′  4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|46′ 0″|5′ 0″|31′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″|
-    Hogs   |3′  4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|36′ 0″|5′ 0″|21′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″|
-    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
-    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------
-     Kind  |   O  |  T  | Cement  |    Sand  |  Rock
-    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------
-           |      |     | Barrels | Cu. yds. |  Cu. yds.
-    Horses |18′ 7″|0′ 8″|   38    |    11    |    22
-    Cattle |15′ 4″|0′ 8″|   36    |    10½   |    21
-    Sheep  |11′ 6″|0′ 8″|   22    |     6½   |    13
-    Hogs   |11′ 6″|0′ 8″|   19    |     5½   |    11
-    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-At first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to
-dip, but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom
-necessary. Experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that
-dipping increases the market value of their steers $5 per head. The
-cost of dipping on the farm is only 1½ to 3 cents per head—in the
-stock yards the charge is 15 to 20 cents. One large ranchman, who lost
-28 per cent. of his herd (several thousand) in one winter with the
-mange, found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this
-disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer.
-The use of dips has become so general in the South and West that the
-Government has raised the quarantine in most sections.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-The Construction of a Concrete Milk Vat
-
-Dig a pit to a depth of 1 foot 6 inches and place wooden forms in
-such a way as to provide for tank walls 6 inches thick and 1 foot 8
-inches in height. This will bring the walls only 8 inches above ground
-level—which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Use a wet mixture of concrete, of proportions 1: 2: 4. Place as
-described on page 74; and be sure to build walls and floor at the same
-time. The floor should be 6 inches thick.
-
-The vat described has a partition 6 inches thick, dividing the tank
-into two chambers, each chamber being 6 feet 9 inches long. An iron
-grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation
-of cooling water around and under the milk cans. Arrangements must be
-made for inlets and outlets. The inlet pipe can be simply placed above
-one end of tank.
-
-The pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when
-lifting heavy cans from the tank.
-
-A hole must be provided at the other end of tank, in the bottom, and
-connecting, by an iron pipe, with the drain tile. Into this hole a
-removable upright iron pipe is fitted, the length of pipe depending
-on the depth of water desired for the cans. This allows the water to
-come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the
-proper height. The pipe must fit tightly into the hole.
-
-Time required to build:—one day with three men on the job.
-
-Approximate cost, at current prices of materials and including labor,
-$16.00.
-
-The materials required are 2 cubic yards of crushed rock or screened
-gravel, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 5 barrels of Portland cement.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-Small Farm Buildings
-
-
-Numerous small structures are required on the farm. Dog kennels, tool
-houses, coal houses, ice houses, hydraulic ram houses, smoke houses,
-acetylene gas plant houses, gasoline storage houses, milk houses and
-many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm.
-Such structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of
-concrete.
-
-When once constructed of this material durability and freedom from
-fire are assured. For such buildings as milk houses built of concrete
-instead of wood, there is the added advantage of cleanliness. Modern
-dairying demands absolute cleanliness. Concrete meets this demand.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Milk Houses
-
-Milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in, causing a very disagreeable
-odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat. Concrete does not absorb
-milk splashed on it. Such walls can be kept free from tainting odors
-by simply washing them down. In concrete dairy houses, with concrete
-vats, the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other
-material. Dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the
-place of concrete for such purposes.
-
-The illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls, floor
-and vat, all of concrete. This house is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide and
-8 feet high with a rise to the roof peak of 5 feet.
-
-LOCATION
-
-The milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a
-clean water supply. Care must be taken to provide for the outflow of
-the water from the vat. This can be done by leading a line of pipe
-from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking
-troughs for the stock.
-
-Often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet
-to the house, providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and
-sweet.
-
-FOUNDATION
-
-To build such a milk house as shown, dig a trench for the foundation 3
-feet deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the trench to the ground level with
-1: 2½: 5 concrete. The foundation should be laid out in such a way as
-to extend 3 inches beyond the inside and 3 inches beyond the outside of
-the walls of the house.
-
-WALLS
-
-As soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support
-them, erect the wall forms. These forms consist of 1-inch siding nailed
-to 2 by 4-inch studding. The studs should be spaced 2 feet apart and
-the 1-inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward
-the concrete. For small buildings it is often easier to build an
-entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position.
-The bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held
-in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven
-firmly into the ground. The distance the inside and outside forms are
-spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired. Sloping braces
-leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging
-and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms
-the correct distance apart. Bulging of forms can also be prevented by
-wiring them together as shown on page 23. On page 22 is a description
-of the general method of building forms. Especial care must be taken to
-hold the forms in position while placing the concrete. The studs in the
-side wall forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the
-walls. With the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete.
-
-DOORS AND WINDOWS
-
-A space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows. This is
-done by placing between the wall forms, frames or boxes without top or
-bottom made of 1-inch boards. When the wall form has been filled to
-the level of the bottom of the opening a frame, the size and shape of
-the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured
-around it. After the wall reaches a level 2 inches above the frame lay
-in the fresh concrete two ½-inch iron bars. These pieces should be long
-enough to extend 8 inches beyond each side of the frame. A piece of old
-wagon tire can be used instead.
-
-The sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box
-extending out from the side form. The concrete should be placed for the
-sill at the same time that the wall is being built. For buildings such
-as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary.
-
-FINISHING TOP OF WALL
-
-When the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete
-has set, shove ½-inch bolts 18 inches long down into it. Space these
-bolts 24 inches apart, 9 inches of the length being in the concrete.
-The end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof,
-and are filled to the top. While placing the concrete in the walls it
-should be continually spaded as described on page 25.
-
-[Illustration: =DETAILS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS=]
-
-BUILDING THE ROOF
-
-The roof is built by nailing 2 by 4 rafters to the inside studs of the
-side wall forms, on a line 1 inch lower than the bottom of the roof.
-The rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof, and are securely
-fastened where they meet at the ridge. To stiffen the roof form until
-the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the
-bottom (with a 1-inch strip) in the form of a capital “A.” One-inch
-boards are nailed on the rafters. The cornice shown in the sketch
-extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the
-width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and
-end walls. To hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built
-nail a 5-inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board. Bend
-the bolts projecting above the walls down to within 1 inch of the roof
-boards. Spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire
-roof, allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice. Wire the
-fencing securely to the bent bolts. Place two ½-inch steel rods near
-the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof, and fasten
-these securely to the woven wire fencing. The roof should be made 3
-inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger
-than ½ inch.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice,
-working toward the ridge. Spread the concrete out in a thin layer and
-then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so
-that the concrete is 1 inch thick below the wire. Cover the rods and
-wire with more concrete to a depth of 2 inches. When finished the
-roof will then be 3 inches thick, 1 inch below the wire and 2 inches
-over it. Always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the
-complete depth of 3 inches at once. Imbed a width of woven wire fencing
-lengthwise over the ridge of the roof 1 inch beneath the surface. The
-work must be carried on without interruption. The concrete must not be
-allowed to dry along an unfinished edge, as there is danger of a leak
-where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard. Tamp the concrete
-until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof
-with a wooden float and steel trowel.
-
-The forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete
-in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is
-hardening. A method for doing this is described on page 26 under
-SIDEWALKS.
-
-FLOOR
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can
-be laid. Excavate the ground to a depth of 4 inches below the finished
-floor level. Mix and lay the concrete as described on page 31.
-
-The concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of
-the floor. See description on page 82.
-
-ENGINE BASE
-
-Engines, cream separators, pumps and other pieces of machinery
-require solid bases. These bases must be permanent, and free from any
-vibration. A base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To form a base for the support of a small engine, first excavate a
-pit 2 feet 4 inches deep, and 1 foot larger both in length and width
-than the dimensions of the engine base. Fill the pit with a mixture of
-concrete, (1: 2½: 5), and then construct a form which will carry the
-concrete to a height 4 inches above the floor level or to the height
-desired.
-
-Bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries, these being
-sufficiently long to bend 4 inches at right angles, and to extend 1
-foot deep into the concrete, with bent end down. They should be placed
-with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of
-the bolt, and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of
-the concrete. The open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will
-allow for slight errors in locating bolts, so as to meet the holes in
-the engine base.
-
-Keep the concrete wet for 24 hours after placing, by sprinkling. After
-six days, set the engine, adjust the bolts, and fill the spaces around
-the bolts with cement mortar, mixed 1 part cement, 1 part sand. Do not
-use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old.
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Ice House]
-
-A concrete base adds years of service to the life of a gasoline engine
-or cream separator.
-
-[Illustration: Grain Elevator Approach and Engine House]
-
-METHOD APPLIES TO ALL BUILDINGS
-
-The method just described for building a milk house applies equally
-well to any of the small houses mentioned above. It is not always
-necessary to build a peaked roof; sometimes a flat roof will answer the
-purpose; but the general method in all cases is the same. The drawings
-show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the
-windows can be made to slide up and down.
-
-[Illustration: Hydraulic Ram House]
-
-ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
-
-Concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such
-buildings as smoke houses, where there is always great danger from fire.
-
-Oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms. Acetylene
-and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light. These plants are
-built either above or below ground. In either case concrete is the
-ideal material, since it is both fire and waterproof.
-
-The durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings
-as hydraulic ram houses, which must always be located near streams,
-and ice houses, where there is always moisture. Wood quickly rots, but
-moisture has no effect on concrete.
-
-For tool houses, coal houses, and buildings subjected to rough usage,
-nothing equals concrete.
-
-Concrete, for small buildings, meets the three great demands of the
-farmer—cleanliness, freedom from fire, and durability.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Concrete Cellar Steps and Hatchway
-
-Cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar.
-This cannot happen if they are made of concrete. There are no
-cracks through which the water can come. Wooden steps last no time,
-particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up
-and down. As wooden or brick areaways are always damp, the steps rot
-quickly, thus requiring constant renewal. Few things are more dangerous
-to limb, and even to life, than a step giving way under the weight of a
-heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Concrete steps are safe under any load.
-
-Owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape,
-it is particularly desirable for this purpose. Some people like steps
-with a low rise and a particularly wide tread, while others prefer a
-high rise and narrow tread. Concrete can easily be fitted to either.
-The determining feature is usually the space to be occupied. The door
-into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken, and
-therefore the height of the risers; while the room the cellarway is to
-take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread. If
-possible, the rise of each step should be from 6 to 8 inches, while the
-width of the tread should be from 9 to 12 inches.
-
-_Note_: See page 112 for Window Hatchway.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In erecting, first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired,
-plus one foot. This allows for a 6-inch wall on either side. Slope the
-ground from 1 foot back of where the top step is to come to 1 foot back
-of where the bottom step will be. To form the steps, saw out a board
-just as you would a “horse” for steps, and nail planks where the risers
-come, holding the two “horses” the proper distance apart. This is
-placed upside down, resting on the top and bottom, with the edge of the
-top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come. Fill
-this form and the space back of it with 1: 2: 4 concrete, starting
-with the bottom step, and continuing upward to the top, bringing the
-concrete in each step to the top of rise. Side forms for the 6-inch
-walls may now be placed, braced apart in the center properly, and
-resting on the back of the horses. These can be carried to any height
-desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and
-snow. Forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above
-the ground line to hold the concrete in place. Before the concrete sets
-in the side walls, bolts should be placed, with heads in the concrete,
-by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening
-the cellar doors by strap hinges. If the bottom step does not come to
-the wall line, the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a
-5-inch thickness of concrete. Here is a convenient place to locate a
-drain, to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps, and any
-which may leak through the cellar doors.
-
-The cellar hatchway shown in the photograph and in the drawing is 5
-feet wide, built according to directions above. The side walls at the
-cellar are 7 feet high and 10 feet long. The slope for the cellar doors
-is 2 feet 4 inches. There are 7 steps of 8-inch rise and 10-inch tread
-and a landing 3 feet 2 inches wide. Two men built this hatchway in 1½
-days.
-
-    =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel  2¼ cubic yards at $1.10   $2.48
-    Sand                             1⅛ cubic yards at $1.00    1.13
-    Portland cement                  3¾ barrels at $2.50        9.37
-                                                               ------
-                                                               $12.98
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Root Cellars of Concrete
-
-The increasing use of roots, as winter feed for animals, has brought
-about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this
-valuable food. A root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep
-roots from freezing or rotting. By building the cellar below ground
-the warmth is greatly increased. To do this, however, a material must
-be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot. For these
-reasons use concrete.
-
-The cellar shown in the illustration on page 91 extends 5 feet below,
-and 2 feet above ground level. The walls are 5 inches thick, and are
-made of concrete proportioned 1: 2: 4.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Choose a well drained site, and dig a pit in the earth to the desired
-depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for
-concrete steps, which will have a rise of 7 inches and a tread of 10
-inches.
-
-Build a floor of the same thickness as the walls. Set inside box form
-and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with
-the wet concrete, the same as for UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page
-68.
-
-Above the ground level an outside form must be used. The roof is built
-in the way described on page 86 except the thickness is increased to 5
-inches.
-
-Ventilators are provided in the roof, by imbedding lengths of sewer
-pipe in the concrete. Add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain.
-
-By referring to page 90, there will be found a description of how to
-build a hatchway and steps.
-
-Immediately after the side wall forms have been erected, the door frame
-should be set in its required position, before placing concrete.
-
-Similar structures are also used as bee, vegetable, fruit and cyclone
-cellars. Concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples,
-potatoes and cabbage. By adjusting the ventilator openings, the
-temperature can always be kept at just the right point. Moreover, since
-rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar, there
-is no waste causing decay, and the vegetables keep better.
-
-In cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter, lest they freeze
-to death. By no other means than underground cellars can they be safely
-brought through the winter. The bee cellar must be dry, in order that
-the bees stay in good health. In no way, can there be provided so even
-a temperature or so dry an atmosphere, as by the use of concrete. Bees
-kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel  11 cubic yards at $1.10    $12.10
-    Sand                              5½ cubic yards at $1.00     5.50
-    Portland cement                   15 barrels at $2.50        37.50
-                                                                ------
-                                                                $55.10
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Poultry Houses
-
-The high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable. But to
-have laying hens they must be carefully tended. Their houses must be
-clean, and free from draughts. Young chickens must be protected from
-rats, skunks and foxes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house. To
-clean a house of concrete, spray it with oil and burn it out. Concrete
-is fireproof. Rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk. In
-a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift,
-or in which lice and bedbugs can hide.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where
-the concrete poultry yard (see FEEDING FLOORS, page 43) may be wind
-protected. Build the house as directed under SMALL BUILDINGS, page
-82. As the walls are being placed, insert short pieces of gas pipe at
-convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests (one style of
-nest shown on page 94) and the rails for the roosts. If desired, a
-one-way-slope concrete roof may be made.
-
-Make the floor on an 8-inch fill of gravel, or of slabs built on a
-smooth floor and later set in place. Lay heavy wire fencing in the
-concrete slab 1 inch from the under side.
-
-
-Poultry Watering Troughs
-
-To rid the farm of cholera and roup, nothing aids more than concrete
-drinking troughs. Occasionally scrub the troughs, spray them with oil
-and burn them out.
-
-
-Duck Ponds
-
-Ducks and geese need water, yet if they are allowed to go to a nearby
-stream, many are lost. Poultrymen are building ponds of concrete,
-attached to the water supply in such a way as to provide fresh water at
-all times. For building, see instructions under HOG WALLOWS,
-page 52.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Retaining Wall and Steps
-
-Terraces, if too steep, will not stay sodded, and if too flat, take up
-room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn. The neatest way is to
-place a retaining wall along the terrace edge. This wall is built in
-the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described
-on page 60.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary. A most
-convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with
-the face of the wall, making it impossible to fall over one or two
-projecting steps in the dark.
-
-In building, insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to
-prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall. The
-bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the
-wall sufficient to form the first step.
-
-After the concrete for the wall is placed, remove the section of the
-form where the steps are to come, and dig out the earth to a depth
-sufficient to hold them.
-
-The remaining steps are built in the manner described on page 90.
-
-After the concrete is placed, the steps should be closed to traffic for
-at least one week.
-
-In the background of the photograph on page 72 may be seen a double
-terrace wall of concrete, each wall 5 feet high.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Concrete Chimney Caps
-
-As a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney,
-it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as
-possible. It can be made entirely so by building it of concrete. If
-this is not convenient, at least let the chimney cap be of concrete.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These caps are cast in one piece, on the ground, and in any shape
-desired.
-
-The outside form is a wooden box, with inside dimensions corresponding
-with the outside dimensions of the desired cap. Usually the cap is 6
-inches thick, and has an “over-hang” or “drip” extending on all sides
-beyond the outside of the chimney.[3] Thus, if top of chimney, over
-all, is 18 inches square, make outer form 22 inches square, an extra
-allowance of 2 inches on all sides, thus obtaining a cap that will have
-an “over-hang” of 2 inches all the way around.
-
-[3] A simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is
-described on page 50.
-
-The inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile. If more
-than one opening is desired in the cap, use two pieces of tile or as
-many as there are to be openings.
-
-Mix concrete 1: 2: 4, the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one. Place
-in the form, after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may
-be easily removed. Leave undisturbed for two days. Remove forms and
-place cap in position, attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement
-mortar, one part cement to one part sand.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Concrete Makes an Excellent Porch Floor
-
-When even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear, either
-from use or exposure to the elements, build it of concrete.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground; and, even
-if they do not rot, through constant use they become splintered and
-faulty.
-
-As concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without
-cutting, it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size
-and shape. Its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and
-exposure have been so often mentioned, it seems useless to refer to
-them again.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Remove the old wooden floor, first placing props to support the porch
-roof, with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch
-floor. The pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to
-be replaced by concrete.
-
-The floor is laid in exactly the same way as a feeding floor described
-on page 43. As the size is usually small, however, the floor can be
-laid in a single slab without joints. If a smooth surface is wished
-for, finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel.
-
-Do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing. If you do, small
-cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the
-floor.
-
-No material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a
-school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily.
-
-A porch of concrete is free from vermin, fireproof, easily scrubbed,
-and needs no repairs.
-
-
-Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames
-
-Fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every
-suburbanite, if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame. By their use early
-spring plants can also be given a good start. Since the bed must be
-placed partly in the damp ground, the only material to be considered
-for this purpose is concrete, which does not rot out and which, being
-free from cracks and joints, makes the warmest bed in cold weather.
-
-Locate the bed on the sunny side of a building, if possible, on the
-south side. Dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed, not less
-than 3 feet deep. The one shown is 39 feet long and divided into 3
-equal compartments. Make box forms of 1-inch lumber to carry the south
-(front) wall 6 inches and the north (back) wall 15 inches above ground.
-The end walls slope to the others. If the bed is not near a building,
-extend the back wall 2 feet higher to serve as a wind-break. Before
-filling the forms with concrete, test their width by laying on a sash.
-See that it laps full 2 inches at each end.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions 1: 2½: 5. Fill the forms
-without stopping for anything. Tie the walls together at the corners
-by laying old iron rods in them bent at right angles. During the
-placing of the concrete set ½-inch bolts about 2 feet apart to hold
-the wooden framing to the concrete; or make grooves in the tops of
-the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of the concrete,
-allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance. This can be
-done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden strip of
-the necessary width and thickness. Remove the forms after six days.
-Divisions may be built along with the walls or later as convenient. One
-and one-half days were required for two men to build a hot-bed 5½ by
-12¼ feet in the clear.
-
-                       =Materials Required=
-    Screened gravel or broken stone    2½ cubic yards at $1.10   $2.75
-    Sand                               1¼ cubic yards at $1.00    1.25
-    Portland cement                    3½ barrels at $2.50        8.75
-                                                                 ------
-                                                                 $12.75
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Tree Repair
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good
-shade trees. But trees are like teeth—they need attention. Boring
-insects often cause decay. The hollow becomes larger. The wind blows
-the weakened tree down. The “looks” of the place is ruined. It takes at
-least a lifetime to produce another such tree.
-
-By means of concrete, many famous old trees, seemingly about gone, are
-now saved. Open up the cavity with a hand-axe. With a mallet and chisel
-cut out every bit of the rotten wood, and stop the flow of sap by
-painting the cavity with liquid asphalt. Reinforce small cavities with
-nails as shown in the photograph, larger cavities with rods, wire and
-spikes. Carefully fill every crevice with a 1: 3 cement-sand mortar.
-By slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling, once or
-twice a season, the bark will grow entirely over the concrete.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Rollers of Concrete
-
-Frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into
-humps. If these are not rolled down at once, the lawn is rough all
-summer.
-
-Rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood. These
-were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers, purchased in the
-nearest town. To-day farmers are again making rollers, but are using
-concrete. An iron roller with a cylinder from 2 to 3 feet in length
-will cost from $15 to $20, whereas one of the same size constructed of
-concrete will cost practically nothing.
-
-Obtain a length of sewer pipe, of the size of roller wished for. A tile
-from 12 to 24 inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose. Set
-this tile on end, small end down, on a wooden platform. Through a hole
-bored in the platform insert a 1-inch round iron bar, long enough to
-project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide
-bearings and attachment for the handles. Care should be taken to get
-the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete,
-and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed. Make a wet
-mixture of concrete (1: 2: 4), and fill the tile with this mixture,
-up to the “bell” of the tile. Allow the concrete to set for ten days,
-when the roller may be placed on side, and the bell of pipe chipped off
-with a cold chisel and hammer. Attach a forked handle, as shown in the
-illustration. As the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller, the
-fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes, within which the
-axle can turn.
-
-A roller 18 inches in diameter and 2 feet long will weigh about 600
-pounds. If a lighter roller is desired, use a smaller sized sewer
-pipe; or place several small pipes inside the large one, depositing
-the concrete around them on the outside. They will form hollow spaces
-inside the roller and lessen its weight.
-
-By increasing the size pipe, or by using a steel mold and attaching
-a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle, horse rollers for
-crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Hay Caps and Tarpaulin Weights
-
-With the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent
-occurrence of showers, to secure sweet, unmolded hay it has become
-necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover. The
-best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete. Mix the
-concrete 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand, mold them like
-doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop, and set them aside
-in a damp place for 7 days before using.
-
-
-Trash Burner or Garbage Receiver
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding
-property. A concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means.
-
-Dig out the dirt to the depth of 6 inches. For forms choose two
-barrels, one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all
-sides of 6 inches. Adjust the height by cutting off their butts. Make
-an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which
-an iron door can be hung. Fill the foundation hole and the forms with
-1: 2: 4 concrete. Remove the outside form after two weeks. The fire
-will later take care of the inner form. After three weeks the burner
-may be used.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Concrete Posts
-
-When a man buys a farm, he examines first the condition of its general
-improvements. If the fences are “all run down,” he must take into
-consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them—a matter of no
-small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and
-lumber. The cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost.
-Intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last
-longest with least repairs.
-
-A railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any
-single property owner, and to avoid damage suits, the fences must at
-all times be in perfect repair. As fast as their wooden fences rot out
-and burn down, they are replacing them with concrete. Not only has the
-lasting quality of concrete recommended itself, but the ever increasing
-shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden
-posts impossible, and the cost of poor posts high.
-
-Concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden
-posts. The life of a wooden post is from 3 to 5 years, while concrete
-posts last forever. Weather and fire do not injure them. Even forest
-fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts.
-
-The United States Government, recognizing the importance of this
-subject, has issued Farm Bulletin No. 403, entitled Concrete Fence
-Posts. This bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the
-Agricultural Department, or to your Congressman.
-
-Hitching posts, made in a slightly larger box form, with a bolt and
-ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened, add neatness to
-the house surroundings. Gate posts of concrete, nothing more than heavy
-fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence, prevent sagging
-gates, so hard to open. A concrete clothes post is ready for the
-clothes line and the wash every Monday morning. The weight of the wet
-clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag. Clothes never
-have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Corner Stones and Survey Monuments
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To property owners, as well as engineers, survey monuments which last
-forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks, are of
-the utmost importance. Expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be
-avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable, permanent,
-and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks. The use of
-concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any
-other material.
-
-Get from the proper public official (usually the county engineer or
-surveyor) the exact location of corner stones. Drive four stakes in the
-ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross
-each other directly over the original monument.
-
-Remove the old monument, and, with a post auger, bore a hole deep
-enough to reach below the frost line (at least 3 feet deep), where the
-old monument stood.
-
-Fill the hole with concrete mixed 1: 2: 4, rounding the top with
-the hands so it will extend 3 or 4 inches above the level of the
-surrounding ground.
-
-While placing the last foot of concrete, imbed a harrow tooth, iron
-bolt, or gas pipe, with its top just showing above the finished
-concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross. Protect the
-monument from damage by stock for one week, by placing a box over it.
-
-
-Drain Tile Outlet Walls
-
-In developing the lowlands for farm purposes—and such lands are now
-most valuable—immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile.
-
-Where drain tile empty into an open ditch, the banks of the ditch
-around the drain tile gradually wash away, and often two and three
-lengths of tile become disjointed, allowing the water from them to
-further cut away the field land. These exposed tile are often crushed
-by livestock. Moreover, clay and shale tile freeze, crumble, and mixed
-with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet. Muskrats,
-skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place, and the drain becomes
-stopped up and drowns out the crops.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-All of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in
-building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile
-from washing out and to protect it.
-
-Choose the dry season of the year, immediately after the laying or
-cleaning of the string of tile, when little water is in the ditch.
-
-Dig a trench 12 inches wide along the edge of the open ditch 2 feet
-below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile. This trench
-should extend along the bank for from 4 to 6 feet, with wings turned
-into the bank at its ends, sufficiently long to prevent water from
-getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out.
-
-Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5—wet enough to tamp well.
-
-Fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level. Should the trench
-be full of water, place this part of the concrete dry.
-
-Set box forms, made of 1-inch siding and 2 by 4-inch studding. These
-forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top
-of the ditch banks. At the proper height to meet the string of tile,
-place a first-class drain tile (at least one size larger than the
-regular string) through the forms so that the front end will be flush
-with the outside wall after concrete is placed.
-
-Bore two small holes in the forms above this tile, and place in them
-well greased pegs of wood. After the forms are filled with concrete,
-these pegs are removed, the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap
-gate to keep animals out of the line of tile. Fill the forms with
-concrete, and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel.
-
-Remove the forms after one week, and fill in earth behind the wall to
-its top.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Spraying Tanks
-
-San José scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray
-their orchards. To get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the
-handling of warm solutions, orchardmen are building elevated concrete
-tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the
-tank bottoms. With such a plant, there is no delay—and time counts in
-the spraying season.
-
-The tank shown stands on 10 by 12-inch columns, 6 feet clear of the
-ground. It has two compartments, each 5 by 5 feet by 4 feet deep
-holding 750 gallons. The side walls are 4 inches thick. Beneath the
-4-inch bottom, on all sides, are 8 by 12-inch concrete beams.
-
-Locate the tank convenient to the water supply. Dig the column holes 12
-inches square, 3 feet deep, 11 feet out to out on the longer side and 5
-feet on the shorter. Have all forms ready before placing any concrete.
-Fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four ½-inch iron
-rods 10 feet long so that they will come right for the columns and
-extend through them. Set up the 10 by 12-inch by 6-foot column forms
-with their tops level with each other. Join them together with the
-solidly framed 8 by 12-inch beam forms.
-
-Keeping the rods 1 inch from the corners, fill concrete in the column
-forms up to the floor beams. Spread 1 inch of concrete over the bottom
-of the beam forms and lay in two ½-inch rods 1½ inches from each side
-wall. Bend these rods around those in the columns. Without delay fill
-the beam forms.
-
-Erect the forms for the tank proper as for WATERING TANKS,
-page 74. In the bottom of each tank set a 1½-inch flange pipe coupling.
-Place 1 inch of concrete, then strips of heavy woven wire, and the
-remaining 3 inches of concrete. Fill the side walls and, 1 inch from
-the outside, imbed similar wire fencing. Protect the green concrete
-according to directions under watering tanks.
-
-The materials required are: screened gravel or crushed rock, 4½ cubic
-yards; sand, 2¼ cubic yards; and Portland cement, 7½ barrels.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Culverts are Permanent When Made of Concrete
-
-The secret of good roads is good drainage. Standing water soaks into
-the road bed, softens the road surface and causes ruts. To keep well
-made roads in first-class condition, get the water to the highway drain
-tile as fast as it falls. This can be accomplished only by means of
-culverts.
-
-The perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out, which does
-not crush down and clog up the opening, which lasts forever. Concrete
-is the only material which fills the bill.
-
-The best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer. They
-can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the
-amount of water which must be removed quickly. Usually openings 12 to
-18 inches are large enough. Set the culvert as deep in the road bed as
-possible, but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the
-ditch into which the culvert drains. To keep the culvert well beneath
-the road bed, if necessary, make the side ditch deeper at the inlet
-end. Determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom. Only a
-little slope is needed. Dig the trench 6 inches deeper than the grade
-line and as wide and long as necessary. The width of the trench depends
-upon the size of the culvert to be built, and its length upon the width
-of roadway under which the water is to be carried. The concrete walls
-are each 6 inches thick, so the width of the trench will be 1 foot
-greater than the clear width of the culvert. Fill this trench with
-concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5, and, while it is still wet place in the
-center of it a U-shaped box, turned upside down, of 1-inch boards, the
-outside of which is the size of the culvert desired. Fill concrete into
-the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and
-tamp concrete over the top to a depth of 8 inches. Road culverts should
-not be less than 18 inches below the surface of the roadway.
-
-To prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into
-the culvert, small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end.
-To do this dig an 8-inch trench 3 feet deep, at each end of the culvert
-along the end of the culvert barrel. Frame a form, the width and height
-necessary, against the end of the box or pipe. Make another form, of
-the same size, but U-shaped, with the opening just large enough to
-fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel. Set this form 8
-inches inside the first. Plumb both forms and brace them securely. Nail
-boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete.
-For one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert. Allow
-the forms to remain in place for two weeks. Replace the road material
-over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has
-become solid. Since there are usually many culverts to be built, it is
-cheaper to use a collapsible form, adjustable to several sized culverts.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The box culvert shown in the illustration on page 108 has an opening 18
-inches wide and 16 inches deep. The length is 20 feet. The retaining
-walls are 8 inches thick, 2 feet high (from the barrel opening), and
-do not extend beyond the culvert walls. The bottom and the side walls
-are 6 inches thick; the top, 8 inches. Three men, with a highway
-commissioner as superintendent, built this culvert in two days.
-
-    =Materials Required=
-    Crushed rock or screened gravel    3 cubic yards at $1.10     $3.30
-    Sand                               1½ cubic yards at $1.00     1.50
-    Portland cement                    4 barrels at $2.50         10.00
-                                                                 ------
-                                                                 $14.80
-
-Concrete bridges last forever. With all the bridges and culverts of
-concrete, tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Septic Tanks
-
-The proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important
-question on the farm. Cess-pools, simply pits dug in the ground, are
-great disease spreaders. The liquids from them seep through the ground,
-carry germs from the pool to the well, render “the best drinking-water
-in the country” unfit for use, and often cause the spread of disease.
-
-The modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice.
-Cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities, where immense sums of
-money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage. It is not possible
-to provide farms with these expensive plants, nor is it necessary.
-Through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences
-of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger
-from sewage removed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Septic tanks are nothing but long underground, water-tight cisterns
-through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly. Located
-underground, they are warm and dark—ideal conditions for the
-development of the bacteria, little germs which eat up the sewage and
-render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to
-ferment. To prevent the bacteria (which live in the frothy sludge) from
-being disturbed cross-walls, called baffle boards, are placed to break
-up the current of the inflowing sewage. The purified sewage, merely
-clear water, may be discharged into the farm drain tile.
-
-Locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side
-walls underground and out of danger of flood waters. For a family of 8
-to 10, plan a tank with 8-inch walls, 5 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 10
-feet long—all dimensions in the clear. Lay out the tank and construct
-it in exactly the same manner as UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68.
-
-Before filling the forms, set in the 6-inch inlet and outlet drains
-at the same height, 2 feet 6 inches below the ground level. To aid
-further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air, use
-elbow bends, so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of
-the tile. In the side forms, at a distance of 2 and 4 feet from the
-inlet wall, set ¾-inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be
-attached. These boards reach entirely across the tank, project above
-the sewage, and extend to within 1 foot of the bottom. While building
-the manhole covers, for the needed ventilation, insert in them four
-short lengths of 1-inch gas pipe.
-
-Remove the forms the same as for underground cisterns.
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Hydrant Sink]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-Window Hatches
-
-Window hatches should be protected by a flap cover, to close in times
-of heavy rain or snow.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-An Outdoor Swimming Pool
-
-These are built exactly as an underground cistern. A pool near home
-affords a safe “swimming hole” for the children.
-
-
-
-
-                        =_How will you know?_=
-
-
-                  You are going to build—now or some
-                  time—and you want to build well and
-                             economically.
-
-                 You will choose between temporary and
-                        permanent construction.
-
-                  _Why you should build in concrete._
-
-           First, because of _permanence_. It is fireproof,
-          strong, and lasting—proof against wear-and-tear and
-         depreciation. It lasts and lasts—against wind, water,
-                               and fire.
-
-           Second, because of _cleanliness and sanitation_.
-       This means healthy stock and better products, which sell
-                           at higher prices.
-
-             Third, because of _economy_. Concrete is
-           lower in ultimate cost because, once built, it
-           requires no painting or up-keep, no repairs, no
-           attention. Being proof against fire, concrete
-           secures the lowest insurance rates.
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”
-
-                   _Why you should use ATLAS._
-
-             First, because Atlas Portland Cement is the
-           most-used cement—high in quality and always
-           uniform and reliable.
-
-             Second, because Atlas Portland Cement has
-           demonstrated its worth. Our own government
-           selected it for the Panama Canal, after careful
-           investigation and tests. Nearly seven million
-           barrels have been used so far for this project.
-           Severe government tests have been made of every
-           hundred barrels, but not a single barrel has
-           been rejected.
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”
-
-                         _Free help for you._
-
-             This book will give much valuable information
-           about concrete. But naturally, your particular
-           needs may require further information.
-
-             Let us furnish this information you need.
-           Tell us what you want to build and what you
-           would like to know. We will gladly give you
-           all the necessary help.
-
-             So far, we have sent information to over
-           two million farmers. Why shouldn’t you avail
-           yourself of this help, which is offered to you
-           without any obligation?
-
-             Whenever you buy cement, look for the Atlas
-           trade mark as your guide—the black trade mark
-           with yellow letters.
-
-                 =_The Atlas Portland Cement Company_=
-
-                _New York Chicago Philadelphia Boston_
-                  _St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines_
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”
-
-
-                              =_Warning_=
-
-             There are many brands of Portland cement,
-           and some people are confused, and as a result
-           accept any cement bearing the word “Portland.”
-
-             The word “Portland” signifies _only_ the
-          kind of cement, _but does not designate the
-          brand and quality_.
-
-             Specify “ATLAS” Portland Cement when you buy,
-           and you will get the best.
-
-                     =Atlas Portland Cement=
-
-           is always uniform in strength, color and quality.
-           It is the cement that has done most to make
-           concrete and its uses so satisfactory and well
-           known. That is why Atlas is “The Standard by
-           which all other makes are measured.”
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”
-
-
-                               =Ask Your
-                              Dealer for
-                                 ATLAS=
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                     “_The Standard by which all_
-                      _other makes are measured_”
-
-
-                     “_The Standard By Which All_
-                      _Other Makes Are Measured._”
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                                =ATLAS=
-                        used exclusively by the
-                        United States Government
-                        on the Panama Canal
-
-                                =ATLAS=
-                        used exclusively on the
-                        great Keokuk Dam across
-                        the Mississippi River
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and
-the Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and the
-Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Concrete Construction for the Home and the Farm
-
-Author: The Atlas Portland Cement Company
-
-Release Date: June 2, 2020 [EBook #62312]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="f200"><b><i>A Request</i></b></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>Should you find this book helpful in building with concrete, we would
-consider it a favor to have you so inform us. Likewise, we would
-appreciate a description (and a photograph if possible) of whatever you
-have built in concrete.</p>
-
-<p>In this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope
-we have helped you.</p>
-
-<p>If you do not fully understand any part of this book, or if you desire
-further information, write us and we shall be glad to do anything else we can.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h1>CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION<br /><i>for the</i> HOME<i> and the</i> FARM</h1>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">“CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE”</p>
-
-<p class="center">1916</p>
-
-<p class="center space-above2"><big>THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY</big><br />
-30 Broad Street, New York 134 So. LaSalle Street, Chicago<br />
-Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines</p>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="f120"><b>Special Index to Directions</b></p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Special Index." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Bank-run gravel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cleaning forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Definition of concrete,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Dry mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22-24</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Gravel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hand mixing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17-21</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a>,<a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Measuring boxes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Measuring materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11-13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Medium mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Mixing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15-22</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Natural mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13-20</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Placing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Proportions,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11-13</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Protection of concrete after placing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Publications issued by the Association,&emsp;&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Quantities of materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Reinforcement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Runs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand as an aggregate,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Selecting lumber for forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Stone as an aggregate,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Tools,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Wet mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>General Index</b></p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Special Index." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Acetylene gas house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Alleyways,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Barns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Barn approach,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54-59</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Barn foundations,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Barnyard pavements,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Base for machinery,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87-89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Bee cellars,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Carriage house entrance,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a>
-                      <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Carriage washing floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cellar steps and hatchway,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Chimney,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Chimney caps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cistern covers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cisterns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-73</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Coal house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cold-frame,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Concrete in the country,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5-8</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Corn crib floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Corner stones,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cow barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55-58</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Culverts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cyclone cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92-93</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Dairy,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Dipping vats and tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76-80</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Dog kennel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Drain tile outlet,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Drinking troughs and tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Driveway of concrete,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Drop gutters,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54-59</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Duck pond,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Engine base foundation,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Engine house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Entrance floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Feed cooker,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Feeding floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43-45</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Feeding troughs, racks and mangers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Fence posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Field rollers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Field spring improvement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-                       <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53-56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Foundation gutter,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Fruit cellars,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Garbage receiver,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Gasoline engine base,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Gate posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Granary floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Gutters,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hatchway for cellar steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hay cap weights,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hen house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hens’ nests,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hitching post,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hog wallows,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Horse barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hot-bed,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Housing for driven well,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>
-                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hydraulic ram house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Ice house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Lawn roller,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Mangers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Manure pits and cisterns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Milk house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Milk vat,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Nests for hens,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Old buildings and their repair,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36-38</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Porch floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Posts for fences and gates,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Posts, hitching,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Poultry house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Ram house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Repairs to farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36-38</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Retaining wall and steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Roadways,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Root cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Rollers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sanitary water supply,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67-75</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Septic tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sidewalks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28-34</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Silos,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Small farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Smoke house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Snow fences,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Spraying tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Spring improvements,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Stones, corner,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Survey monuments,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Swimming pool,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Tarpaulin weights,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Tool house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Trash burner,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Tree repair,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Troughs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Vegetable cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Walks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28-34</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Walk specifications,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Watering troughs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Weights for hay caps and tarpaulins,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Well cover,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Well protection,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67-70</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Wind walls,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Window hatch,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Wiring forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete in the Country</h2></div>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>How the American Farmer is Solving<br /> His Conservation Problem</b></p>
-
-<div>
-  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-c.jpg" width="50" height="58" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Conservation</span>
-is no new problem—it is as old as life itself. It becomes
-a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the
-resources scarcely supply the demands. Such is the situation in the
-United States to-day. In the early days the removal of the forests
-was necessary that much grain might be grown. The young Nation had
-to have money, and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish
-it, the natural fertility of the fields was reduced. But the money
-thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the Bank of Natural
-Resources. To-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of
-the fields bear witness that the loan is now due. Hence the problem of
-conservation. Strange as it may seem, the farmer is using one material
-not only to replace lumber but also, in a way, to restore the fertility
-of his fields—that material is concrete.</p>
-
-<p>The national and state governments and the railroads were the first to
-make extensive use of concrete. Not only did the beauty and mystery
-of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer, but he
-concluded that the railroads did not use it, in preference to wood,
-steel and stone, merely to decorate the landscape. He knew too much
-about railroads. So strongly did the railroads’ idea of economy (the
-dollar argument) appeal to him that the farmer of the West is now
-building practically everything about the farm of concrete. At first,
-and quite naturally, land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began
-using this new form of construction; but, since its cheapness in first
-cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known, a wave
-of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire
-country. A gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine.</p>
-
-<p>With little help other than looking and listening, the farmer grasped
-the idea of a concrete walk, and being a natural inventor and
-jack-of-all-trades, improved on the method by adding a small curb
-next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white
-walk. This walk was a blessing to the boy—all the time formerly given
-to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted
-to fishing. The yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying
-buildings. Wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen
-floors became a thing of the past. By simply increasing the width of
-the walk, a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar.
-This was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit
-for that most immaculate of all places—the milk house. Concrete cellar
-hatchway and steps, safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar, and
-water-tight, were made in a manner similar to walks.</p>
-
-<p>Brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of Portland cement and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
-sand. As this kept the water out, the farmer reasoned that it would
-keep the water in, and he started to build cistern floors, walls and
-cover of Portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of
-the old brick cistern.</p>
-
-<p>After a little more observation, he quit digging deep cistern-pits,
-with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying
-water—he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the
-pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in
-the kitchen and the bath room.</p>
-
-<p>Several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was
-burned for fuel instead of coal. No consideration was then given to
-the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots. If the mud became too deep, the
-feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture. To be sure, as the
-sod wore out, the feeding-place had to be changed; but somebody had
-advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for
-the soil. Many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found
-them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned,
-in the general health of the animal, and in the shortened time of
-fattening. But two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them
-and the constant need of repairs. In concrete the thoughtful farmer
-saw the possibilities of an ideal floor—an easily cleaned, rat-proof,
-disease-proof surface upon which his hogs, sheep, cattle and poultry
-might consume the feed even to the smallest particle.</p>
-
-<p>So satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment
-suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding, muddy holes in the
-earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns. But
-the careful horseman held up a bit: he was afraid that stamping at
-the flies, his valuable Percherons, Shires and Morgans might stiffen
-up their legs. He experimented by placing concrete floors in his open
-sheds, which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy
-weather, just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he
-needed the sheds most, and found such floors satisfactory.</p>
-
-<p>To-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations
-of the time. The virgin soil of the prairies, of the cleared woodlands
-and of the broken-up ranges, for a few years produced immense crops
-of cotton and grain. To build up the decreasing productiveness of the
-fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing
-at hand. The passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price
-of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer,
-especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return
-to the soil, in the form of manure, all the fertility which had been
-removed in the growing of grain. Leaving out the matter of foods, the
-strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage.
-Manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third
-to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching,
-due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock, and later because of
-fermentation or “firing” brought about by the lack of sufficient moisture.
-This fertilizer usually sells at from 75 cents to $1.00 per load.</p>
-
-<p>The farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit
-in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be. He
-extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that
-they were so clean, so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
-is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in
-such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease
-germs carried in unclean milk. The drop gutters carry all the liquids,
-the richest part of the manure, formerly wasted, to the manure pits.
-Consequently, one load of manure, thus properly preserved, is easily
-worth two loads as ordinarily stored. By confining the manure in
-pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete, the farm has been rid
-of the chief breeding-place of flies, gnats, mosquitos and disease.
-Moreover, such an interior court, surrounded by buildings and concrete
-wind walls, forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot.</p>
-
-<p>Government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm, in
-spite of the fresh food and pure air, is greater than the death-rate in
-the city. State University tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a
-doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells
-contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever. To
-prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well, many
-people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight
-concrete. Others are sinking “driven” wells and protecting them with
-concrete housings. The principle of deep wells for pure water, among
-other things, has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm.
-These engines and hydraulic rams at springs, firmly set and housed in
-concrete, supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs
-or elevated, reinforced pressure tanks. From these places of storage
-water is distributed to float-controlled, rot-proof watering tanks and
-troughs of the same material. With such a water supply animals never
-suffer for water. Even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved
-and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful
-attention to the health, comfort and convenience of his family.
-Moreover, the care of the animals is not neglected. A concrete dipping
-vat holds the liquids which free horses, cattle, sheep and hogs of
-mange, lice, mites, ticks and fleas. The Department of Agriculture is
-stamping out the Texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use
-of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts. A hog wallow
-with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded
-by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera
-often carried down from animals affected further up stream.</p>
-
-<p>The continual rotting off of wooden fence posts, the constantly
-increasing cost of new ones, and the annual expense of fence repairs,
-called for the introduction of some substitute. Land is entirely
-too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts.
-Even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the
-possibilities of concrete in this line, a few venturesome farmers had
-given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only
-advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost, but more
-profitable on account of their everlasting qualities. The Department
-of Agriculture at Washington has thoroughly investigated the use and
-methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin
-describing the process. Such posts are also valuable in the culture of
-grapes and hops.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
-The use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from
-the ground upward. The drip soon rots out timber near the ground and
-eventually crumbles away the brick foundation. At first, uselessly
-making the walls as heavy as those of brick, the farmer gave concrete
-a trial in foundations. Concrete is stronger than brick. As a wall it
-kept the basement and back barn dry. The height of the foundation wall
-increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft. Finally, after
-a study of methods, of reinforcing, the entire barn—basement, walls,
-floors, mangers, troughs, gutters, beams and even the shingles—became
-concrete. Matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors
-in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times. The oil will
-burn until smothered out with a horse blanket, but no further damage
-will be done.</p>
-
-<p>Poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on
-account of rats. To free the farm of these destructive animals, as a
-last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil,
-the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs
-and granaries. Corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept
-perfectly on concrete. The rats had to go; they could not get through
-such floors. And so we might continue, describing how farmers have
-successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a
-stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings.</p>
-
-<p>Just as there are right and wrong methods of farming, so, too, are
-there right and wrong ways of using concrete. It is the aim of this
-book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader
-to build with concrete surely and successfully.</p>
-
-<p>“CONCRETE IN THE COUNTRY” does not pretend to fully cover the
-subject—the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume. But
-the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types
-of concrete construction as is possible in the space available.</p>
-
-<p>Fuller details are given in other pamphlets, which will be furnished
-free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of
-this book.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="f110"><b>Publications issued by the Association of American<br />
-Portland Cement Manufacturers,<br /> Philadelphia, Pa.</b></p>
-
-<p>At the office of the above Association there are available books
-dealing with concrete construction of all classes. These books describe
-the construction of silos, fence posts, tanks, troughs, concrete roads,
-and many other works. Upon request there will be sent a list of the
-publications in print. The books, with one or two exceptions, are sent
-free of cost.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">What is “Concrete”?</h2></div>
-
-<p>Concrete—a manufactured stone—is made by mixing together Portland
-cement, sand and stone (or gravel). Various proportions of each are
-used, depending upon the use to which the concrete is put. About half
-an hour after mixing these materials together, the mass begins to
-stiffen, until, in from half-a-day to a day, it becomes so hard that
-you cannot dent it with the hand. By a month the mass is hard like
-stone—indeed, harder than most stones.</p>
-
-<h3>Materials</h3>
-
-<p>Before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing
-concrete, it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding
-as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work, and how
-best these may be selected.</p>
-
-<h3>Portland Cement</h3>
-
-<p>For domestic use, Portland Cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper
-bags. When furnished in cloth sacks, the price per barrel includes
-the cost of the sacks (four sacks making a barrel). When the sacks
-are returned in good condition, the amount charged is rebated to the
-customer. Where cement is furnished in paper bags, the price also
-includes the cost of the paper bags which, however, are not returnable.</p>
-
-<p>Many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags, as it
-does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and
-sending them bade to the dealer for credit.</p>
-
-<p>The paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs 94 pounds, and four such
-make a barrel of 376 pounds.</p>
-
-<p>The storage of cement is very important. It must be kept in a dry
-place. Once wet, it becomes hard and lumpy, and in such condition is
-useless. If, however, the lumps are caused by pressure in the store
-house, the cement may be used with safety. Lumps thus formed can be
-easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel.</p>
-
-<p>In storing cement, throw wooden blocks on the floor. Place boards
-over them and pile the cement on the boards, covering the pile with a
-canvas or a piece of roofing paper. Never, under any circumstances,
-keep cement on the bare ground, or pile it directly against the outside
-walls of buildings.</p>
-
-<h3>Sand</h3>
-
-<p>Do not use very fine sand. If there is a large quantity of fine sand
-handy, obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal
-parts; this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes fine sand <i>must</i> be used, because no other can be obtained;
-but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be
-used—sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required. For
-example, in such a case, instead of using a concrete 1 part cement, 2
-parts sand, and 4 parts stone, use a concrete 1 part cement, I part
-sand, and 2 parts stone.</p>
-
-<p>Besides being coarse, the sand should be clean, <i>i. e.</i>, free from
-vegetable matter. “But,” you say, “how shall I tell whether the sand is
-what you call clean?”
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a
-little in the palm of the hand. If a little is emptied into a pail of
-water, the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the
-water. This can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth
-of 4 inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch
-of the top. After the jar has been well shaken, the contents should
-be allowed to settle for a couple of hours. The sand will sink to the
-bottom, but the mud, which can be easily recognized by its color, will
-form a distinct layer on top of the sand, and above both will be a
-clear depth of water. If the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in
-thickness, the sand should not be used unless it is first washed.</p>
-
-<p>Having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean, and
-provided you cannot readily obtain any that <i>is</i> clean, you may use
-what you have, provided you wash it in the following manner:—</p>
-
-<p>Build a loose board platform from 10 to 15 feet long, with one end a
-foot higher than the other. On the lower end and on the sides, nail a
-board 2 by 6 inches on edge, to hold the sand. Spread the sand over
-this platform in a layer three or four inches thick, and wash it with
-a hose. The washing should be started at the high end, and the water
-allowed to run through the sand and over the 2 by 6-inch piece at the
-bottom. A <i>small</i> quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand,
-but any amount over 5 per cent. does.</p>
-
-<h3>Stone or Gravel</h3>
-
-<p>This is known as the “coarse aggregate” of concrete. Great care should
-be used in its selection. The pebbles should be closely inspected
-to see that there is no clay on their surface. A layer of such clay
-prevents the “binding” of the cement. If necessary stone or gravel may
-be washed in the same way as above described for sand. Indeed, it is
-more easily done than sand, as the water flows through the larger voids
-in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand. Dust may
-be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the
-strength of the cement, but care should be taken to see that such dust
-is distributed evenly through the whole mass, and when dust is found in
-stone, slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily.</p>
-
-<p>As to the size of stone or gravel, this must be determined by the
-form of construction contemplated. For foundations or any large thick
-structure, use anything from ½ to 2½ inches in diameter. For thin walls
-use ¼ to 1-inch stone.</p>
-
-<p>The best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded
-from small to large. By this means the spaces or voids between the
-stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained.
-Moreover, this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and
-less cement.</p>
-
-<h3>Pure Water Necessary in Mixing</h3>
-
-<p>Water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and
-alkalies. It may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board
-and placed on the concrete with a bucket. If you are at all in doubt
-about the purity of the water that you contemplate using, it would be
-well to make up a block of concrete as a test, and see whether the
-cement “sets” properly.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Proportioning the Mixture</h3>
-
-<p>That mixture in which all the spaces (called “voids”) between the stone
-or gravel are filled with sand, and all the spaces between the sand
-are filled with cement, is the ideal mixture. This mixture is rarely
-attained, as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly,
-and in order to be absolutely safe, it is well to use a little more
-cement than will just fill the voids.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="169" />
-    <p class="blockquot">Fig. 1.—Quantities of cement, sand, and gravel in 1: 2: 4
-    concrete mixture, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts
-    crushed stone or gravel, and the resulting quantity of concrete, which
-    is only slightly greater in size than the gravel, the sand and cement
-    filling the voids in the gravel.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above2"><a name="TABLE_I" id="TABLE_I"></a>TABLE I.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Showing the Quantities of Materials and the Resulting<br />
-Amount of Concrete for Two-bag Batch.</span></p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="11">&nbsp;</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Kind of<br />Concrete&nbsp;<br />Mixture.</span></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3">&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Proportions by Parts.</span>&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="7"><span class="smcap">Two-bag Batch.</span></th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> S <br />a<br />n<br />d.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Stone<br />or<br />&nbsp;Gravel.&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3">Materials.</th> <th class="tdc">&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">Size of<br />Measuring<br />Boxes.<br />Inside<br />&nbsp;Measurements.&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Water<br />in<br />Gallons<br />for<br />Medium<br />Wet<br />Mixture.</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Cement.&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Sand.&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Stone<br />or<br />&nbsp;Gravel.&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Concrete&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Sand.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Stone<br />or<br />Gravel.</th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Bags.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc bt">&nbsp;Gallons.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">1:2:4 Concrete</td> <td class="tdc">1</td>
-      <td class="tdc">2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">4</td>
-      <td class="tdc">2</td> <td class="tdc">3¾</td>
-      <td class="tdc">7½</td> <td class="tdc">8½</td>
-      <td class="tdc">2′×2′&nbsp;11½″&nbsp;&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">2′×4′ 11½″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">10</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">1:2½:5 Concrete&nbsp;&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">1</td>
-      <td class="tdc">2½</td> <td class="tdc">5</td>
-      <td class="tdc">5</td> <td class="tdc">4¾</td>
-      <td class="tdc">9½</td> <td class="tdc">10&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;2′×2½′ 11½″&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;2′×5′ 11½″&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">12½</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>As above explained, concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement,
-a larger amount of sand, and a still larger amount of stone (or
-gravel). To determine how much of each of these materials to use, we
-must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake. For ordinary
-work about the farm (silos, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, well curbs,
-etc., etc.) use twice as much stone as sand, and twice as much sand as
-cement. This is called a 1: 2: 4 mixture—meaning that there are in
-that mixture:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">1 part of cement,</li>
-<li class="isub2">2 parts of sand,</li>
-<li class="isub2">4 parts of stone or gravel.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
-For sidewalks, gutters, etc., a “weaker” mixture is sometimes used,
-consisting of:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">1 part of cement,</li>
-<li class="isub2">2½ parts of sand,</li>
-<li class="isub2">5 parts of stone or gravel.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The proportions should always be measured by volume, and the best way
-to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made “measuring box,”
-of any kind of rough boards having straight sides, but with no top
-or bottom. The size of these measuring boxes is determined by the
-proportion desired for your mixture. For such boxes you need the
-following sized lumber:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet rough (ends of sand and stone boxes).</li>
-<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet rough (sides of sand box).</li>
-<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 6 feet rough (sides of stone box).</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Note: The two pieces 4 feet long and the two pieces 6 feet long have an
-extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in
-<a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3.</a></p>
-
-<p>For a 1: 2½: 5 mixture, you require the following sized lumber:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet (ends of sand and stone boxes).</li>
-<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches (sides of sand box).</li>
-<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 7 feet (sides of stone box).</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="blockquot"> Note: The two pieces 4 feet 6 inches long and the
-two pieces 7 feet long have an extra foot in length at each end to be
-made into a handle, as shown in <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3.</a></p>
-
-<p>To illustrate the use of the measuring box, let us once more assume
-that a 1: 2: 4 mixture is required, and that the amount of finished
-concrete needed is 8½ cubic feet. By referring to the <a href="#TABLE_I">table on page 11</a>
-it will be noted that two bags of cement are required, also 3¾
-cubic feet of sand and 7½ cubic feet of stone or gravel. Under “size
-of measuring box” it is found that the sand should just fill a box 2
-feet by 2 feet by 11½ inches, and that the stone should fill a box 2
-feet by 4 feet by 11½ inches. Lay the sand box, or frame, on the mixing
-platform and fill it. Then raise the box. Empty two bags of cement on
-the sand and mix as described under “<a href="#MIXING">Mixing</a>,” see pages 14-22.
-Even off the mixture thus obtained with your shovel, place the stone measuring
-box on top of the mixture and fill it. Raise the measuring box—and you
-have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement
-and sand. It is important to measure both the sand and stone <i>loose</i> in
-the box—never “pack” them.</p>
-
-<p>For purposes of explanation, size of mixture will be referred to as
-a “<i>batch</i>” of so many bags of cement. Thus, a “two-bag batch of
-concrete” would mean one requiring two bags of cement, with the sand
-and stone proportioned accordingly, as shown above.</p>
-
-<p>For a “four-bag batch of concrete” it would be necessary to multiply
-the amount of stone and gravel by 2, also multiplying the cubic
-contents of the measuring box by 2, and using four bags of cement
-instead of two.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#TABLE_I">table previously referred to</a> also shows the amount
-of water for different sized batches, but it is to be noted that the quantity of
-this ingredient is only approximated. Use the amount indicated in
-the table for the first batch, and if it proves too wet for the use
-desired, reduce the amount of water; if too dry, increase the amount of
-water. Always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water, as this
-secures uniform results.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel</h3>
-
-<p>Naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right
-proportions for making concrete. Generally, however, there is far too
-much sand for the gravel, and great care should be exercised in using
-this class of material. Unless the mixture runs very even throughout
-the bank, and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts
-gravel, it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare
-the materials in the usual way.</p>
-
-<p>Herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of
-bank sand and gravel. The quantities can be found in the same way as in
-<a href="#TABLE_I">Table I, on page 11</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="f120 space-above2">TABLE II.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent"><span class="smcap">Showing the Quantities of Materials and the Resulting
-Amount of Concrete for Two-bag Batch, Using Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="8">&nbsp;</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Kind of<br />Concrete&nbsp;<br />Mixture.</span></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;<span class="smcap">&nbsp;Proportions&nbsp;<br />by Parts.</span>&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Two-bag Batch for Natural Mixture<br />of Bank Sand and Gravel.</span></th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Natural<br />Mixture<br />of Sand<br />and<br />Gravel.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">Materials.</th>
-
-       <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />o<br />n<br />c<br />r<br />e<br />t<br />e.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Size of<br />Measuring<br />Boxes.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Water<br />in<br />Gallons<br />for<br />Medium<br />Wet<br />&nbsp;Mixture.</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Natural<br />Mixture<br />&nbsp;of Sand&nbsp;<br />and<br />Gravel.</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Mixture<br />of Sand<br />and<br />Gravel.</th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;Bags.&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc bt">&nbsp;Gallons.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">1:2:4 Concrete</td> <td class="tdc">1</td>
-      <td class="tdc">4</td> <td class="tdc">2</td>
-      <td class="tdc">7½</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;8½</td>
-      <td class="tdc">2′×4′&nbsp;11½″&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">10&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">1:2½:5 Concrete&nbsp;&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">1</td>
-      <td class="tdc">5</td> <td class="tdc">2</td>
-      <td class="tdc">9½</td> <td class="tdc">10</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;2′×5′ 11½″&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">12½</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>There are three kinds of mixtures, in general, on concrete work:—</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1st.—<i>Very Wet Mixture.</i>—Concrete wet enough to be
-mushy and run off the shovel when handling, used for
-thin walls or for thin sections, etc.</p>
-
-<p>2d.—<i>Medium Mixture.</i>—Concrete just wet enough
-to make it jelly-like, used for foundations, floors,
-etc. To better describe this mixture it may be said
-that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step
-on top of the pile.</p>
-
-<p>3d.—<i>Dry Mixture.</i>—Concrete like damp earth, used
-for foundations, etc., where it is important to have
-the concrete “set” up as quickly as possible.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The difference between the mixtures is, that the dryer the mixture
-the quicker will the concrete “set up”—but in the long run, when
-carefully mixed and “placed,” the results from any of the above
-mixtures will be identical. It may be said, however, that a dry mixture
-is the harder to handle, must be protected with greater care from the
-sun or from drying too quickly; and lastly, is likely—unless used by
-most experienced hands—to show voids or stone pockets in the face of
-the work when the “Forms” are removed. The less the voids in the stone
-or gravel, the greater will be the volume of the concrete. In general,
-the amount of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown
-in the table—especially when gravel is used.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_2" name="FIG_2">
-    <img src="images/i_014.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="351" /></a>
-    <p class="center">Fig. 2.—Concrete Mixing Plant, showing Concrete Board,<br />
-                         Tools, etc., Necessary for Mixing Concrete by Hand.</p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Tools</h3>
-
-<p>One great advantage of concrete, so far as the farmer is concerned,
-lies in the fact that, generally speaking, it necessitates no outlay
-for tools, for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms
-of concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses—</p>
-
-<p>Shovels—One for each man on the job.</p>
-
-<p>Wheelbarrows—At least two, preferably those with sheet iron bodies.</p>
-
-<p>Rake.</p>
-
-<p>Water Barrel.</p>
-
-<p>Several Water Buckets.</p>
-
-<p>A Tamper or Rammer—This is made of wood with handles nailed to it, as
-shown in <a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>. The measurement is 4 inches
-by 2 inches by 2 feet 6 inches.</p>
-
-<p>A Garden Spade.</p>
-
-<p>A Sand Screen, made by nailing a piece of ¼-inch mesh wire screen, 2½
-feet by 5 feet in size, to a frame made of 2-inch by 4-inch scantling.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the above tools you will require a Mixing Board. This is
-simply a water-tight platform. It should be (for a two batch mixture
-and for two men to work on) about 10 feet square. Make it out of 1-inch
-boards 10 feet long, surfaced on one side, using 5 cleats to hold the
-boards together. The cleats should measure 2 inches by 4 inches by 9
-feet. If 1-inch by 6-inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained,
-these will answer very nicely, provided they are fairly free from
-knots. The object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or
-turning easy. The boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling
-to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards. The
-boards must be drawn up close in nailing, so that no cement “grout”
-will run through while mixing.</p>
-
-<p>For a larger job, a slightly larger mixing board will be needed.</p>
-
-<p>In setting up your mixing board, choose a place giving plenty of room
-near the storage piles of sand and stone. Block up your concrete board
-level, so that the cement grout will not run off on one side, and so that
-the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the concrete.</p>
-
-<h3>Wheelbarrow “Runs”</h3>
-
-<p>You will also have to make wheelbarrow “runs” leading from your mixing
-board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed. Do not use, for
-these runs, any old boards that are handy. Make a good run—smooth,
-and, if much above the ground, at least 20 inches wide. This one
-feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="MIXING" id="MIXING"></a>How to Mix Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>Having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and
-runs, the next step is the actual process of mixing.</p>
-
-<p>The proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types
-of work have already been <a href="#Page_11">described on pages 11-13</a>. In
-following the mixing instructions here given, considerable assistance will be
-obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are interspersed.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_3" name="FIG_3">
-    <img src="images/i_016a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_016b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="191" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 3.—Lifting off the Sand Measuring Box and Getting Cement Ready.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_4" name="FIG_4">
-    <img src="images/i_016c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="360" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_016d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="203" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 4.—Spreading the Cement Over the Sand.</p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>The Hand Mixing Method</h3>
-
-<p>There are many ways of “hand mixing,” all having the same good results.
-The way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to
-obtain good results with a minimum of labor. In this description, and
-the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a “Two-Bag
-Batch” of 1: 2: 4 concrete.</p>
-
-<p>First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile, wheel on
-to the “Board,” and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about
-two feet from one of the 10-foot sides of the board, as shown by the
-diagram in <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a>. When the sand box is
-filled, lift it off and spread the sand over the board in a layer 3 or
-4 inches thick, as shown in <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>. Take
-the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly as possible
-over the sand (<a href="#FIG_4">see Fig. 4</a>). With the two
-men at points marked “x” and “xx” on the sketch below <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>,
-start mixing the sand and cement, each man turning over the half on
-his side of the line AA. Starting at his feet and shoveling away from
-him, each man takes a full shovel load, turning the shovel over at the
-points marked 1 and 2 respectively in <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>.
-In turning the shovel, do not simply dump the sand and cement
-at the points marked 1 and 2 in the diagram under the cut, but shake
-the materials off the end and sides of the shovel, so that the sand and
-cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great assistance in mixing
-these materials. In this way the material is shoveled from one side
-of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. <a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a>
-shows the first turning, and <a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6</a> the second turning.</p>
-
-<p>The sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the
-stone and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement
-out carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as
-shown in <a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a>, and fill from the
-gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel the gravel on top of the sand
-and cement, spreading it as evenly as possible. With some experience,
-equally good results can be obtained by placing the gravel measuring
-box on top of the carefully leveled sand and cement mixture, and
-filling it, thus placing the gravel on top without an extra shoveling.
-This method is shown in <a href="#FIG_8">Fig. 8</a>.
-Add about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a
-bucket and dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as
-evenly as possible. (<a href="#FIG_9">See Fig. 9</a>). Be
-careful not to let too much water get near the edges of the pile, as it
-will run off, taking some cement with it. This caution, however, does
-not apply to a properly constructed mixing board, as the cement and
-water cannot get away. Starting the same as with the sand and cement,
-turn the materials over in much the same way, except that instead of
-shaking the materials off the end of the shovel, the whole shovel load
-is dumped as at points 1 or 2 in the diagram under <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>
-and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point of the shovel.
-This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet gravel picking
-up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged back by the
-shovel. (<a href="#FIG_10">See Fig. 10</a>). Add water to the dry
-spots as the mixing goes on until all the required water has been
-used. Turn the mass bade again, as was done with the sand and cement.
-With experienced laborers, the concrete should be well mixed after
-three such turnings; but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be
-turned again. After the final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The
-concrete is now ready for placing.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_5" name="FIG_5">
-    <img src="images/i_018a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_018b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="207" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 5.—First Turning, Sand and Cement.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_6" name="FIG_6">
-    <img src="images/i_018c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="362" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_018d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="199" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 6.—Second Turning, Sand and Cement.</p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_7" name="FIG_7">
-    <img src="images/i_019a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="351" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_019b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 7.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box—First Method.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_8" name="FIG_8">
-    <img src="images/i_019c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="350" /></a>
-    <img src="images/i_019d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="206" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 8.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box When<br />
-                   on Top of Mixed Sand and Cement—Second Method.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_9" name="FIG_9">
-    <img src="images/i_020a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="360" /></a>
-    <p class="center">Fig. 9—Placing the Water on the Stone (or Gravel)<br />
-                        which is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>Mixing Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel</h3>
-
-<p>Spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will
-readily permit, add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly,
-spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel, and
-turn over, as described previously, at least three times, adding the
-rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the
-materials are being turned. It requires some experience to work up a
-natural mixture of bank sand and gravel, and if at all doubtful about
-the concrete made from it, first screen the sand from the gravel, and
-then mix in the regular way.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="FIG_10" name="FIG_10">
-    <img src="images/i_020b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="362" /></a>
-    <p class="center">Fig. 10.—Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and Cement.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Number of Men</h3>
-
-<p>For the above operation only two men are required, although more can
-be used to advantage. If three men are available, let two of them mix
-as described above and the third man supply the water, help mix the
-concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn
-the concrete, help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel,
-etc. <a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a> shows a third man on the board.
-In this illustration, he is helping mix the sand and cement by raking
-it—a most effective practice.</p>
-
-<p>If four men are available, it is best to increase the size of the batch
-mixed to a four-bag batch, doubling the quantities of all materials
-used. The cement board should also be increased to 10 by 12 feet as
-shown under “Tools.” In this case start the mixing in the middle of the
-board, and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch,
-except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it
-is turned back on to the center of the board. When more than four men
-are available, the rest may place the concrete, make new runs, load
-wheelbarrows, etc., taking the concrete away from the board as fast as
-it is mixed. In this case another small concrete board should be placed
-next to the big “board,” so that in the last turning the batch can be
-shoveled over on to the small board for placing, making room on the big
-board to mix the next batch. The small platform need be only just big
-enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete.</p>
-
-<h3>How to Determine Quantities of Materials Needed</h3>
-
-<p>First figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required
-for the work in question. Then by multiplying this number by the number
-under the proper column and required mixture shown in <a href="#TABLE_III">Table III</a>,
-the amounts of cement, sand, and stone or gravel can be found.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above2"><a name="TABLE_III" id="TABLE_III"></a>TABLE III.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Quantity of Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4">&nbsp;</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"><big><span class="smcap">Mixture.</span></big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3">&nbsp;&nbsp;<big><span class="smcap">Quantities of Material in 1 Cu. Ft. of Concrete</span></big></th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Cement,<br />Barrel</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Sand,<br />Cu. Yard</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Stone or Gravel,<br />Cu. Yard</th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">1 : 2  : 4 Concrete</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.058</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.0163</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.0326</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">1 : 2½ : 5 Concrete</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.048</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.0176</td>
-      <td class="tdc">.0352</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="center"><b>Example</b></p>
-
-<p>Suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all 935 cubic
-feet of concrete, of which 750 cubic feet is to be 1: 2: 4 concrete,
-and 185 cubic feet is to be 1: 2½: 5 concrete. Also enough sand and
-cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside, in all 400
-square yards of surface, with a 1: 1 mixture of sand and cement. One
-cubic foot of 1: 1 mortar will paint about 15 square yards of surface
-and requires 0.1856 barrels of cement and 0.0263 cubic yards of sand.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><b>Solution, Etc.</b></p>
-
-<p>Thus the necessary quantities of materials are:—</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">57½ barrels of Portland cement.</li>
-<li class="isub2">16½ cubic yards of sand.</li>
-<li class="isub2">31 cubic yards of stone or gravel.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>It is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement, if the
-dealer is at considerable distance, as this avoids any possible trouble
-that a shortage might cause. Besides, any cement left over always comes
-in handy for repair work around the house or barn.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>Forms for Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>Concrete is a plastic material and before hardening, takes the shape of
-anything against which or in which it is placed.</p>
-
-<p>Naturally, the building of the Form is a most important item in the
-success of the work.</p>
-
-<p>These Forms hold the concrete in place, support it until it has
-hardened and give it its shape, as well as its original surface finish.</p>
-
-<h4>Kinds of Forms</h4>
-
-<p>Almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a
-Form. Concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches,
-and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a Form.</p>
-
-<p>Molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work. Frequently colored
-sands are used for this purpose, providing both the finished surface
-and color to the concrete ornament.</p>
-
-<p>Cast, wrought or galvanized iron is used, where an extremely smooth
-finish is desired, without further treatment upon the removal of the
-Forms. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can be used a
-greater number of times than those of wood. Rusty iron, however, should
-not be used.</p>
-
-<p>By far the greatest number of Forms are made of wood, owing to the fact
-that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained.</p>
-
-<h4>Requirements of a Good Form</h4>
-
-<p>Plan your Forms so there will be no difficult measurements to
-understand. Make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can, and
-do not drive the Forms full of nails. If you do the Forms will be
-difficult to take apart without splitting.</p>
-
-<p>Forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without
-bulging out of shape. When they bulge, cracks open between the planks
-and the water in the concrete, with some cement and sand, will leak
-out. This weakens the concrete, and causes hollows in the surface which
-look badly after the Forms are removed.</p>
-
-<p>Forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a
-second time. A part of the erection cost of Forms is saved if the Forms
-are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle. This saving
-applies to their removal, as well as to their setting. Consequently,
-the lightest Forms possible, with the largest surface area, are the
-most economical.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4>How to Plan Forms</h4>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="WIRE_FORMS" id="WIRE_FORMS"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="274" />
-    <p class="center">Wiring Forms Prevents Bulging.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first consideration in planning Forms is the use to which they are
-to be put. Neglect of this point means waste of money and time. If they
-are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat, the finish of
-the surface is of small consideration, while the alignment of the Form
-is all-important.</p>
-
-<p>If a tank or retaining wall is to be built, the fact that the Forms are
-not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed.</p>
-
-<p>In planning Forms for large structures, the oftener each section is
-used, the less the cost. You save money if they are rigid in alignment,
-and well surfaced. In other words, if you count on using your Forms
-over and over again, the more nearly perfect they are, the more often
-they can be used, and the cheaper they become.</p>
-
-<p>If Forms are to be used only once, as is generally the case on the
-farm, they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being
-readily taken apart, and the lumber used for something else. If often
-pays to put them together with screws. If nails are used, do not drive
-them home.</p>
-
-<h4>Care Needed in Selecting Lumber for Forms</h4>
-
-<p>The selection of lumber is of importance. If the Forms are to be used
-over many times, surfaced lumber, matched, tongued, and grooved stuff,
-free from loose knots, is an economy. If, however, they are to be used
-only once, almost any old plank will do. By nailing a board on the
-outside of the cracks or over the bad knot, and filling with a little
-clay, the Form is made tight.</p>
-
-<p>Green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff. Seasoned
-stuff, when wet (either by throwing water on the form before placing
-the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete) warps, and
-the shape and tightness of the Form are damaged.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FOUNDATION" id="FOUNDATION"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="441" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Originally only surfaced lumber was used for Forms, dependence being
-placed on it for giving a finish to the work. While to-day other than
-smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion, surfaced lumber has some
-advantages. The Forms fit together better and are easier to erect. They
-are more easily cleaned. They are easier to remove. All these items
-reduce the cost of the work. The saving effected will of course depend
-on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber.</p>
-
-<h4>How to Clean</h4>
-
-<p>Particles of concrete stick to the Forms. In order to prevent this,
-give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap. Linseed,
-black or cylinder oil may be used. Never use kerosene.</p>
-
-<p>Before erecting, paint the Forms with the oil or soap. Then carefully
-protect them from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, immediately
-clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface. A
-short-handled hoe will take off the worst, while a wire brush is most
-effective for finishing. Be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning,
-as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete. It will
-not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use. Watch the
-surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots.</p>
-
-<p>If chips or blocks of wood fall inside the Forms while erecting,
-carefully remove them. The space inside the Forms is intended for the
-concrete; and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed
-there.</p>
-
-<p>The necessity of Forms presents a problem calling for the use of
-that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed. Forms can be
-economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be
-given. A foundation Form in place is <a href="#FOUNDATION">shown in the photograph</a>.
-Note the simple and easy method of bracing. Also note how lumber is saved from
-cutting by allowing the sides to project, as well as the studding.</p>
-
-<p>For this building, 18 by 24 feet, trench 18 inches wide and 2 feet
-deep—total cost of setting forms $4.00. The lumber was all on hand and
-can be used again.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">How to Place Concrete</h2></div>
-
-<p>No time should elapse between the “mixing” and the “placing.”
-Directions for placing must of necessity be general, and the farmer
-must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete
-work, in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand. The
-important thing to remember is, that the materials should not separate
-in placing.</p>
-
-<p>You may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work; you
-may shovel it into wheelbarrows, wheel it to position and dump, or you
-may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus.</p>
-
-<h3>Directions for Placing</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="382" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Ordinarily speaking, concrete should be deposited in layers about 6
-inches thick.</p>
-
-<p>After placing concrete in the Form, it should be “tamped” <i>lightly</i>
-with a wooden or iron tamper (or rammer) until the water shows on the
-top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar.</p>
-
-<p>In order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete, the mixture should be
-carefully “spaded” immediately after “placing”—on the side next to the
-Form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view. By “spading”
-is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete
-and the side of the Form, moving it to and fro, and up and down. This
-forces the large stones away from the boarding, or Form, and brings
-a coating of mortar next thereto, thus making the face of the work
-present an even, smooth appearance.</p>
-
-<h3>The Necessary Tools</h3>
-
-<p>On certain jobs—as, for instance, in the case of a 6-inch silo wall—a
-spade cannot very well be used, on account of the narrowness of the
-concrete section. In this event, use for surfacing, a thin wooden
-paddle, made from a board 1 inch by 4 inches, and gradually sharpened
-to a chisel edge at the end. The sharpening should be on one side only,
-and in using this paddle place the flat side against the Form, as shown
-in illustration.</p>
-
-<p>When the mixture is a <i>dry</i> one, great care must be used in this
-“spading” or surfacing, in order to obtain uniform results, but in
-the case of a <i>wet</i> mixture, spading is only required as an added
-precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work,
-and in many cases it is not necessary at all.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Protection of Concrete after Placing</h3>
-
-<p>Green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has
-been allowed to set for five or six days. Each day during that period
-the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it, both in
-the morning and afternoon. This is done so that the concrete on the
-outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center
-of the mass, and should be carried out carefully, especially during
-the hot summer months. Old canvas, sheeting, burlap, etc., placed so
-as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do
-very well as a protection. Wet this, as well as the concrete. Often the
-concrete Forms can be left in place a week or ten days; this protects
-the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are
-then unnecessary.</p>
-
-<h3>Points to Remember</h3>
-
-<p>It may be well, in summing up, to emphasize the following points:—</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub2">1st. The materials must be perfectly clean.</li>
-<li class="isub2">2d. The mixing must be in proportions carefully determined.</li>
-<li class="isub2">3d. The mixture must be used while absolutely fresh.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement, nor will
-the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean
-sand and clean stone.</p>
-
-<p>Among the uninitiated, there is an all too prevalent idea that anything
-is good enough for the making of concrete. Some will tell you that
-sawdust, shavings, mud, clay, etc., will do to complete the mixture,
-but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to
-anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out.</p>
-
-<h3>Reinforcement</h3>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Principles involved</i></p>
-
-<p>Concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the
-support of heavy burdens. On a solid foundation, loaded from above
-and thus under direct pressure, a concrete column will withstand the
-strain of an enormous load. A much smaller load so placed as to cause
-stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause
-it to snap off, for concrete is strong, but brittle. On the other
-hand, steel is tough and elastic. In the form of rods or wire, steel
-withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it, and thus displays
-a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete
-column. In modern construction these two valuable properties of
-concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called
-reinforced concrete. With steel properly buried in the concrete, the
-column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it, but
-one many times larger, and even though it is applied at any place along
-its length.</p>
-
-<p>Reinforcement, therefore, is steel in the form of rods, bars or wires,
-buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend
-to stretch or to bend the concrete. A concrete fence post is merely a
-small concrete column. Reinforced, it easily stands the strain from
-usage in a fence line.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="265" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen
-in the figure. If a load (L) is raised so that its weight is supported
-on one side by a wooden post, the post will bend. The fibre in the
-wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to
-prevent the post from breaking, and when released the post will spring
-back into its former position. In the third figure a No. 9 wire (W)
-is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground
-surface, and is supported along its length by the struts (S). If the
-same load is applied, the post will not bend, because the wire takes
-up the bending or stretching strain. This is precisely the case with
-the reinforcement in a concrete post. Supported along its length by the
-concrete, the wire (W) or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or
-stretching strains. Since the load which causes bending or stretching
-may come from any direction, concrete posts are reinforced on every
-side; otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that
-in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the
-proper side of the post.</p>
-
-<p>In the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more
-reinforcement than is absolutely necessary. This adds needlessly to the
-cost, for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older.</p>
-
-<h3>Kinds of Reinforcement</h3>
-
-<p>With regard to the roughness of the outside, metallic reinforcing
-materials are divided into two classes, smooth and corrugated or
-deformed. The general result of the many tests carried on in testing
-laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond, if the
-concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed, smooth surfaces give
-satisfactory results. Two kinds of reinforcement are much used—bars
-and wire.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bars.</i>—Round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in
-diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm. The stock on hand
-at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that
-stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement.
-Companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish
-both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wire.</i>—The development of the wire fence has produced a material well
-suited for reinforcing purposes. Of equal size, such wire will produce
-a stronger reinforcement than the material above described. In order
-to obtain straight wire of the necessary length, the coils ordinarily
-placed on the market should not be straightened out. Straight wire
-can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire; that
-is, either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables, and of the
-length desired. The plain, ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper
-kind, for galvanization adds nothing to the strength, and the metal
-will not rust when incased in the concrete.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="SIDEWALKS" id="SIDEWALKS"></a>
-Concrete Sidewalks and Floors</h2></div>
-
-<p>Concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size, and are
-formed by casting slabs in place.</p>
-
-<p>The description given is an economical and practical method of laying
-sidewalks or floors, easily adapted to any use where concrete is found
-advantageous. This description will therefore apply not only to the
-building of sidewalks, but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on
-the ground.</p>
-
-<h3>Lasting Qualities</h3>
-
-<p>Concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent. To
-accomplish this, good materials must be used, and proper methods of
-mixing and placing must be followed. Only in this way can settlement
-cracks, upheaval by frost or roots of trees, contraction cracks,
-crumbling, and general failure be avoided.</p>
-
-<h3>Settlement Cracks</h3>
-
-<p>To avoid settlement cracks, thoroughly ram the ground after excavating
-for the foundation. This gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab.</p>
-
-<h3>Upheaval by Frost</h3>
-
-<p>To prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone, hard
-furnace cinders, brick bats broken to about a 2-inch size, broken tile
-or any other hard porous material, should be laid in such a way as to
-obtain perfect drainage. Never use ashes.</p>
-
-<p>If freezing occurs, room is in this way provided between the pieces of
-stone for the expansion of the ice.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If this foundation is placed in clay soil, side outlets or blind drains
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
-of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are
-necessary, leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone,
-which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated
-water. Clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation,
-and if it becomes entirely full of water, the ice formed during
-freezing weather will upheave the walk.</p>
-
-<h3>Upheaval by Tree Roots</h3>
-
-<p>Upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots
-which run under the pavement at a less depth than 18 inches below the
-surface of the ground.</p>
-
-<h3>Contraction Cracks</h3>
-
-<p>Cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the
-same way as steel. It is, therefore, necessary to cut joints which will
-allow for this expansion and contraction. The concrete must be cut
-entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel, cleaver or
-other instrument, the joint formed being from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch wide.
-Blocks formed in this way should not be greater than 6 feet square (36
-square feet).</p>
-
-<h3>Scaling or Crumbling of the Surface</h3>
-
-<p>The principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper
-mixing, drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the
-use of bad materials.</p>
-
-<p>Cement needs water not only when mixed, but after being placed and
-tamped, and until it has entirely hardened. If concrete is not kept
-continually wet until hard, it is weakened, and the surface of such a
-walk scales or becomes soft and chalky.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Specifications</h2></div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Drainage Foundation</span></h3>
-
-<p>Stake out the lines of the walk, or dimensions of the floor. Excavate
-to a depth of 16 inches, ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly
-and fill in 12 inches with clean large cinders, broken stone, pebbles,
-brick bats, broken tile or other material selected. Place in position
-wooden forms made of 2 by 4’s, these 2 by 4’s to be set on edge and
-held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground, the top edge to
-be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope
-of the walk or floor.</p>
-
-<p>A walk should be higher in the center, or at one edge, to insure the
-water running off. This slope should be ¼ of an inch to the foot.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Selection of Materials</span></h3>
-
-<p>Particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and
-their mixing.</p>
-
-<p>The concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of
-which will pass through a ¾-inch mesh screen, and be collected on a
-¼-inch mesh; sand, free from loam and preferably coarse, and a grade of
-Portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the Standard
-Specifications as adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials
-and the American Society of Civil Engineers.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Proportions</span></h3>
-
-<p>The strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness. The
-greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-crushed stone, sand and Portland cement, so that all the spaces between
-the stone are filled with sand and cement.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_030.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="457" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Portland cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed
-in proportions, if the sand is not very coarse, of 1: 2: 4—which
-means, 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel or crushed
-stone, all passing a ¾-inch mesh and all collected on a ¼-inch mesh. If
-the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size
-of particles, it may be mixed in proportions of 1 part Portland cement,
-2½ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or broken stone. All proportions are
-measured by volume.</p>
-
-<p>Bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work, particularly where a
-good bank can be found on the farm. It is safer, if this material be
-used, to screen out the pebbles, using them as stone, measuring the
-quantities of stone and sand as described above. Concrete should not be
-laid in freezing weather.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Consistency of Concrete</span></h3>
-
-<p>Mix the concrete as described on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> to a consistency
-that when tamped, it will not quake, but it should be sufficiently wet so that
-some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Placing</span></h3>
-
-<p>Divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms.
-The cross forms can be made of 2 by 4’s. These provide for expansion
-and contraction joints. Hold these forms in place by driving stakes
-through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where
-the concrete is to be placed. Spread the concrete over the drainage
-foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor, and in slabs not over
-6 feet square. The thickness of a walk should be 4 inches, a driveway
-6 inches, a floor over which a wagon may be driven 6 inches, and all
-other floors 4 inches.</p>
-
-<p>Fill in every other slab, placing enough forms to use up all the
-concrete mixed in one batch. No batch should stand longer than one half
-hour before being placed.</p>
-
-<p>Tamp the concrete thoroughly. Use a template, with ends resting on the
-side forms, and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
-The concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the
-template. If one edge of the walk is made higher than the other, use a
-straight edge resting on the side forms. Tamp the concrete to conform
-to the straight edge.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_032a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="400" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Mix another batch of concrete, remove the cross forms and place the
-concrete between each slab, forming a continuous walk. Use the template
-or straight edge and tamp as before. Immediately after placing the
-closing slab, work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire
-depth of the concrete between each slab, thus insuring a perfect
-contraction joint. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_032b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="407" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_033a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-</div>
-
-<p>A neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a
-jointer along the top, thus smoothing the edges. Do this before the
-concrete gets too hard. The sides of the walk may be smoothed in the
-same way by use of an edger.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_033b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<p>When the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of
-oakum or a stiff brush, removing the marks of the float and giving a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
-good even wearing surface which will not be slippery. In using oakum
-or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone. If
-surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens
-the walk to too great an extent, allow the walk to harden a little more
-before finishing in this way. At the end of each day’s work see that
-the last slab is entirely filled and finished.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_034a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
-</div>
-
-<p>All interior floors, such as floors of cellar, barns and stables
-require no contraction joints. They are made by laying a solid
-continuous sheet of concrete. All outside floors should have
-contraction joints forming slabs not over 6 feet square. These are
-provided the same as in sidewalks. A feeding floor is formed merely
-by sidewalk pavements set side by side. Instead of using a template
-for crowning the surface, use a straight edge, each end resting on the
-extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor. Contraction
-joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks.
-The concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same
-way as sidewalks. When completed the walk or floor must be continuously
-protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three
-days, so that it will not dry out at any time. This can be easily
-done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay, straw, or old
-carpet. This covering should be thoroughly soaked with water, and kept
-wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_034b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="138" />
-</div>
-
-<p>While the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to
-prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on it.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_035a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">A Foundation Gutter and Walk</h2></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_035b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="356" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the
-building, quickly carry it away, and, by preventing “seepage,” keep the
-cellar, basement, or ground-floor dry. In sloppy, muddy weather, they
-also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings.</p>
-
-<p>Determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation
-of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms, or from
-local conditions, such as location of outlet into underground drain.
-Excavate a trench 1 foot 6 inches in width, 10 inches deep on each
-side, and hollowed out to 13 inches deep in the middle. Use a straight
-edge or a grade cord, together with a spirit level, to give the bottom
-of the trench the desired slope or “fall.” For each foot of length a
-slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient.</p>
-
-<p>Clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush.</p>
-
-<p>In the bottom of the trench place a 6-inch foundation of well-“tamped”
-gravel, brickbats or crushed stone.</p>
-
-<p>Make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions, 1: 2½: 5. Have the
-mixture just wet enough to tamp well.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Place a 4-inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter 3
-inches deep in the middle. Every five feet, make an expansion joint ⅛
-of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than 7 inches wide
-and 18 inches long, or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete
-with a straight spade. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_036b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="423" />
-</div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">One cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">½ cubic yard sand;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">6 bags of Portland cement, for a 50-foot section.</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Repairs to Farm Buildings</h2></div>
-
-<p>Since wood always fails first at the ground, the use of concrete on
-the farm has developed from the ground up. After a farmer has had to
-replace several sills or blocks of wood, he begins to look about him
-for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced.
-Concrete is his natural selection.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_037a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_037b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="323" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Support the building by temporary struts, alongside of the post to be
-removed. Saw off post entirely above rotten part. Dig a hole directly
-under the post 2 feet deep, and slightly larger than the post itself.
-Build a box with sides only, with the same inside measurement as the
-hole already dug. The box must be long enough to reach from the ground
-to a few inches above the bottom of post.</p>
-
-<p>Fill hole with concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Then place the box in
-position, and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off
-post is embedded about ½ an inch in the mixture. Leave the forms in
-place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have
-been used as temporary support for the building. The concrete should be
-mixed fairly wet, and churned with a stick while being placed.</p>
-
-<p>The bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top, by simply
-sloping one side of the box form—giving the effect shown in the
-photograph.</p>
-
-<h3>Why Concrete Should be Used to Repair Farm Buildings</h3>
-
-<p>Repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape.
-Concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
-whether large or small, without first having to be cut to the shape and
-size desired. Consequently there is no cheaper known material for this
-kind of work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Replacing an Entire Foundation with Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>The work can be done by the farmer, with the help of his own farm
-labor, at times when more important work is not claiming his attention.</p>
-
-<h3>Foundations of concrete are indestructible.</h3>
-
-<p>At necessary points, remove a few stones or bricks, as the case may
-be, inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the
-building. Carefully raise the building, by this means, until it stands
-free of all foundations. Remove all the old stone or brick foundation
-to be replaced, and set in place the forms for the concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working
-room, whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete.
-The mixture should be a wet one. (Proportions, 1: 2: 4.)</p>
-
-<p>Where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by “jacking,” to a
-sufficient height to give head-room, it will be found necessary to make
-the foundations 3 inches wider than the sill. Carry the forms to the
-desired height and utilize this extra 3 inches of width for placing the
-concrete in the forms. The top board of the forms may also be left off
-until you are ready to place the last of the concrete. In this case the
-last batch of the concrete should be very wet. Tamp the concrete until
-it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill, to the entire width of
-the wall.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">Be sure to leave a space in the concrete
-wall, under and on the sides of the underpinning support, so that
-the building may later be lowered back onto the new foundation and
-the timber removed. This opening must be slightly larger than the
-underpinning support. After the building has been lowered fill these
-openings with concrete. Lower the building after the foundation has
-been in two weeks.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">A Concrete Entrance Floor</h2></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_039a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_039b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="227" />
-</div>
-
-<p>At a point 3 feet from the building, dig a trench 6 inches wide and
-18 inches deep—the length of this trench to be 2 feet greater than
-the width of the doorway of the building. From the edge of the trench
-nearest to the building, dig away the earth between trench and building
-to a depth of 1 foot, and place here, to a depth of 6 inches, a fill
-of either coarse gravel or crushed rock. Do not, however, place any of
-this gravel fill in the trench. Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5, and lay same,
-first in the trench, and then on top of the gravel fill; sloping the
-surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway. Before
-the concrete has had time to set, provide a runway slot for the sliding
-doors—or better, build little guides or humps with the concrete,
-to hold the doors in position. If the doors happen to be swinging
-ones, place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete, for a
-“shove-fastener.”</p>
-
-<p>Note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door. This prevents the
-gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach
-and getting in the way of the doors. To build this curb, use 1-inch
-planks placed on top of the concrete floor, to serve as forms to hold
-concrete in place.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">One cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">2½ cubic yards of sand;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">5 bags of Portland cement.</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>This entrance floor was constructed in half a day, by one man.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_040a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Farm Buildings Should be
-Connected by a Concrete Driveway</h2></div>
-
-<p>By using concrete to connect up buildings, this farmer has a solid,
-substantial roadway that will last for all time—instead of the usual
-muddy, untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings.</p>
-
-<p>To construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm, first
-excavate a trench 12 inches deep, this trench being the exact width
-that you wish the finished driveway to be. Six feet is a convenient
-width; but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the
-corners to provide for turning of vehicles.</p>
-
-<p>Place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches and tamp
-it well. On top of the gravel fill, place your concrete mixture, to a
-depth of 6 inches on the sides, and 7 inches at the center.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_040b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="219" />
-</div>
-
-<p>For this work, concrete should be mixed in proportions 1: 2½: 5, and
-wet enough to pack well.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To finish, no mortar is needed. Leave the surface rough, so as to
-afford a better footing for the horses and cattle.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">5 bags of Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td>
-      <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">make a section of roadway 6 by 10 feet</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">½ cubic yard of sand</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">1 cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>Approximate cost, at current prices of materials, 6 cents per square
-foot of surface.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Alleyways Between Buildings</h2></div>
-
-<p>The farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience. About the home,
-mud is the greatest of all nuisances. In the spring and winter, the
-driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings
-become so muddy that they are often impassable. As a result the
-grassy lawns and lots are driven over, cut to pieces, and the general
-appearance of the farm is ruined. Moreover, in bad weather the chores
-cannot be done unless the “hands” wear rubber boots. The women and
-children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the
-poultry. Muddy feet track up the house walks and floors.</p>
-
-<p>Alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways
-with this exception—they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that
-the driveway is crowned. This carries the roof water away from the
-buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Carriage Washing Floors</h2></div>
-
-<p>Nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig
-except water. People have at times tried to remove this mud by
-scraping, but have found that after the mud has once dried a large
-amount of the varnish comes off with it and the “looks” of the carriage
-is ruined.</p>
-
-<p>Convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of
-the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply. All
-of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot, and, as this
-is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing
-more nor less than a mud hole. To avoid this a concrete floor should be
-built.</p>
-
-<p>This floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig
-but the shafts or tongue as well. Unlike feeding and other floors, this
-floor is built with a slope toward the center, with a catch basin under
-the middle, from which a drain leads. Thus all of the water, together
-with the mud coming off the wagon, flows into the basin. This basin
-should be protected with a grating, with holes in same not less than ¼
-of an inch. This grating should be removable so that the mud, which is
-bound to flow into the basin, can be removed. A pipe less than 6 inches
-should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch
-outlet. This will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years. A
-slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of ⅛ of an inch to the
-foot should be made. To lay the floor proceed exactly as described in
-“<a href="#SIDEWALKS">Sidewalks</a>,” and, as the floor is exposed to the
-weather, contraction joints must be provided, as in Feeding Floors.</p>
-
-<p>After the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft, make
-grooves in it, running from the basin to the edges of the floor. This
-can be done by taking a V-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the
-concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper. This strip of wood
-should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having
-the concrete stick to its surface.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="407" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="FEED_FLOOR" id="FEED_FLOOR"></a>
-Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements</h2></div>
-
-<p>The saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by
-successful breeders and feeders of live stock. The trouble, heretofore,
-has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor
-construction.</p>
-
-<h3>Disadvantages of Wooden Floors</h3>
-
-<p>Wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only
-saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and
-otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal. However, in a
-short time, the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with
-disease germs. Often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog
-cholera.</p>
-
-<h3>Advantages of Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>In concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material.
-Such floors not only effect a saving in feed, a shortening in the
-time of fattening and a decrease in labor, but also afford perfect
-protection to the health of the animal. Concrete floors do not soak up
-water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs. Their
-surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils
-and dips. Rats cannot nest under them. Careful tests have shown that
-concrete floors, through the saving of grain and manure alone, pay for
-themselves in the short period of one year.</p>
-
-<h3>How to Build Feeding Floors</h3>
-
-<p>Feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side, and the
-same general rules of construction (given under <a href="#SIDEWALKS">
-<span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>,page 28) apply to them. Choose
-a site in the lot where the ground is slightly sloping, well drained and
-wind protected, and convenient to feed and water.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Drainage Foundation</h3>
-
-<p>Excavate to a depth of 12 inches for the drainage foundation, and
-around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench 12 inches
-wide and 18 inches deep. (This trench, filled with concrete, prevents
-hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting
-under it.) Fill all of this space (except the trench) to the natural
-ground level with well tamped coarse gravel, crushed rock, tile culls
-or brickbats. This fill forms the drainage foundation as described for
-sidewalks.</p>
-
-<h3>Grading the Floor</h3>
-
-<p>The floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on
-it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the
-gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit. (To shape the
-gutter, make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat
-side of a 6-foot length of a 4 by 6-inch timber.) A gentle slope,
-toward the low corner, of ¼ of an inch for each foot of length or width
-is sufficient. This is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at each
-corner of the floor, a straight edge or a grade line, and a spirit level.</p>
-
-<p>It is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above
-ground. Make light floors 4 inches and floors subject to heavy loads
-6 inches thick. For the forms use 2-inch lumber of a width equal to
-the floor thickness. Begin on a low side of the floor. Mark the grade
-height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched
-from stake to stake. Use only good materials and mix the concrete 1:
-2½: 5 according to direction on page 15.</p>
-
-<h3>Placing the Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>Always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor, so that
-the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly
-placed concrete. Fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with
-concrete. Bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge
-with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the
-other on the finished concrete. Four inches in from the edge, on each
-of the low sides, temporarily embed the rounded 4 by 6-inch gutter mold
-and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the
-slab section of the floor. Remove the mold, finish with a wooden float
-and cure the floor as <a href="#Page_31">described on pages 31-34</a>.
-Connect the gutters with the manure pit by means of a trough, another
-gutter, or by large drain tile laid underground.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="223" />
-</div>
-
-<p>On the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a
-6-inch floor 24 by 36 feet, amply large to accommodate 50 hogs.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel, 20 cubic yards @ $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$22.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand, 10 cubic yards @ $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement, 28 barrels @ $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">70.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$102.00</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p class="space-below2">Mixing the concrete by hand, 5 men can usually
-finish this floor in two days. Depending upon the price of labor and
-materials and the thickness of the concrete, the floor will cost 6 to
-12 cents for each square foot of surface.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="MANURE_PIT" id="MANURE_PIT"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="MANURE" id="MANURE"></a>
-Manure Pits and Cisterns</h2></div>
-
-<p>For restoring the fertility of the fields, there is nothing better than
-barnyard manure. By the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground
-or storing it in wooden pens, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the manure’s
-strength is wasted. This loss is brought about in two ways:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub1">First—By “leaching” or washing out, due to heavy rains.</li>
-<li class="isub1">Second—By heating or “firing,” caused by lack of sufficient moisture.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Since concrete pits are waterproof, manure can be kept in them as moist
-as necessary. Moreover, with concrete pits the supply of manure is
-increased, as all the liquid manure, from the gutters of the barns,
-barnyard pavements and feeding floors, is saved.</p>
-
-<h3>How to Build</h3>
-
-<p>Locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure
-from the outside floors. Two pits may be better than one. Excavate the
-hole to the desired size and depth. (Manure pits are seldom over 4 feet
-deep.) Dig a sump hole 3 feet square and 2 feet deep at one corner of
-the pit. Slope the floor toward this hole, from which a pump will draw
-the liquid manure. Frame forms of 1-inch siding on 2 by 4-inch studding
-spaced 2 feet, so as to mold a wall 8 inches thick. If the dirt sides
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
-stand firm, they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an
-inside form will be required. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 (<a href="#Page_11">see page 11</a>).
-Lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece 6 inches thick.
-No contraction joints will be necessary. Without delay, set up the
-forms, brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under
-<a href="#DIPPING"><span class="smcap">Dipping Vats</span></a>, pages 76-80. If a
-very large pit is needed, build it with sloping concrete ends sufficiently wide to
-accommodate a manure spreader. Let the inclines be gentle, and, to give the horses
-a firm footing, embed iron cleats every 18 inches in the slopes, the
-same as for dipping tanks. Cisterns for liquid manure only, may be made
-like ordinary <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Cisterns</span></a>, page 68.
-However, the solid manure rots more quickly and is better for the
-fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same pit. An ordinary
-pump, with a pipe leading to the sump hole, covered with a grating, is
-a convenient means of removing the liquid. Liquid manure is especially
-good for the vegetable and flower garden, since it contains no weed
-seed. Cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked with water, so as
-to remove the principal breeding places of the house and barn fly.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <a href="#MANURE_PIT">manure pit shown in the photograph</a> is located
-in the side of a little hill. It is 21 feet long, 14 feet wide, 10 feet deep
-on the hillside and 6 feet deep on the low side. The bottom is 6 inches and
-the walls 8 inches thick. Four men built the pit in two days.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">17 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$18.70</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">8½ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">8.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">30 barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">75.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$102.20</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<h3>The Value of Manure Pits</h3>
-
-<p>Rotten manure not only enriches the ground, but also increases the
-water-holding capacity of the soil. One load of well rotted manure from
-a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete Barnyards</h2></div>
-
-<p>The advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers
-who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire
-barnyards were surfaced with concrete.</p>
-
-<p>It is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn
-lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip
-to the water trough.</p>
-
-<p>The effect is bad on all kinds of livestock, especially on fattening
-animals and dairy cattle. “Feeders” must have an abundance of water
-to fatten quickly. Insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk
-given by dairy cows. Lack of enough exercise further decreases the
-yield. An occasional trip through this mud to the trough, so cakes the
-cows’ udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing
-them—and they must be washed, if one would have clean, wholesome milk.
-Continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying, but
-often produces that irritation on horses’ legs known as “scratches.”
-Suddenly frozen, such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable.
-Moreover, the old barnyard—with its surface worked up year after
-year—becomes a storage place, which carries over the disease germs
-from one season to another. The “droppings” are entirely lost, and,
-mixed with the earth, tend to make the lot muddier the following year.
-To keep up the fertility of the soil, all the manure produced on a farm
-should be saved and returned to the fields.</p>
-
-<h3>Concrete Floors Increase Profits</h3>
-
-<p>A concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather
-and always affords a dry spot for the animal’s bed. Every shower washes
-the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits.
-Concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife, as there is no mud to
-be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor. The use of rubber boots is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
-unnecessary. On concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted.
-The way to the water trough is always dry, smooth and passable.
-Concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and
-increase the profits of farming, stock raising and dairying.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="HOG_TROUGH" id="HOG_TROUGH"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Construction</h3>
-
-<p>The construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of
-<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43, except that
-the work is on a larger scale. Often the entire lot is not paved in one season, but from
-year to year as the farmer has time. In excavating for the drainage
-foundation (<a href="#SIDEWALKS">see <span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 29),
-be careful to remove all manure and straw which may be tramped into the ground and which
-may be so solid as to resemble earth. In time any kind of manure decays,
-shrinks, causes the floor to settle and forms water and ice pockets on
-its surface. Dig the trench for the foundation apron as for
-<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>—there
-is no material so rat-proof as concrete.</p>
-
-<p>With the drainage foundation ready, set the forms in the manner
-described for <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>.
-Even if the whole lot is not to be paved at one time, plan the grading
-for the entire barnyard so that the completed pavement may have perfect
-surface drainage. Build and cure the pavement and make provision for
-saving the manure the same as for concrete <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>.
-Do not be too particular about giving the surface a smooth finish—a
-rougher finish affords the animals a better footing. The cost per
-square foot is no more than that of feeding floors—the investment
-yields a greater profit.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="FEED_TROUGH" id="FEED_TROUGH"></a>
-Feeding Troughs, Racks and Mangers</h2></div>
-
-<p>With a progressive farmer, the health of his livestock is second in
-importance only to that of his family. Concrete is a great factor in
-promoting and preserving health. With concrete troughs, animals are
-seldom “off their feed”: there are no slivers to stick into their gums.
-Even with wet feed, concrete troughs are never sour.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs. Such
-troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Troughs for Horses, Cattle, and Sheep</h3>
-
-<p>In general, the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for
-horses and cattle is practically the same as for <span class="smcap">Watering
-Troughs and Tanks</span>, page 74. An outdoor trough, suitable for feeding
-grain or silage to cattle and horses, is shown on <a href="#Page_48">page 48</a>.
-(However, most farmers will prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence
-corner.) This trough is 10 feet long and 2 feet 2 inches wide, outside
-measurements. The bottom is 4 inches thick as also are the side and end
-walls at the top, but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of
-6 inches at the bottom. This extra thickness makes not only a stronger
-feeding trough, but also one more easily cleaned out. The entire trough
-is reinforced with heavy woven wire fencing laid within 1 inch of the
-bottom and the same distance from the inside face of the side walls.
-The trough is held 1 foot 4 inches above ground by concrete benches,
-2 feet 2 inches wide, 1 foot thick, and extending 3 feet below the ground
-or feeding floor surface.</p>
-
-<p>In locating troughs, follow the same principles laid down under
-<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>.
-Dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the concrete
-(mixed 1: 2: 4) to the necessary height by means of open box forms
-similar to the one shown on <a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>. Use a
-spirit level to get the tops of these supports even. Immediately set
-the outside trough form, previously made with openings in the bottom
-board, to match the concrete supports. Provide a 2-inch drain hole,
-corked with a greased, tapering wooden plug long enough to extend
-through the concrete. Place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom, lay
-the heavy woven wire fencing so that it will extend up into the side
-walls. Tamp in the bottom the remaining 3 inches of concrete. Finish
-this concrete with a steel trowel. At once set in the sloping inside
-mold, built as one piece and without a bottom. Fill the space between
-the inside and outside forms with wet concrete. After the concrete is
-hard enough to bear considerable pressure of the thumb (usually five
-to seven hours), carefully remove the inside mold. No painting with
-neat cement (cement mixed with water) or plastering will be needed if
-the inside form is smooth. Do not take down the outside forms for two
-weeks. To make this same trough of suitable height for small calves or
-sheep, place around it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth. Two men
-can build such a trough in less than a day.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">1 cubic yard at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$1.10</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;½ cubic yard at $1.00&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr">.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">1½ barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">3.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$5.35</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Feeding Troughs for Hogs</h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="228" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding
-floor, according to the plan shown, and similar to <a href="#WATER_TROUGH">
-<span class="smcap">Watering Troughs</span></a>, page 74.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_050a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>A Fire-protected Feed Cooker</h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_050b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="326" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires.</p>
-
-<p>The photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed
-cooker for hogs and poultry is installed.</p>
-
-<p>Discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to
-thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that
-most fireproof material—concrete.</p>
-
-<p>The old wooden floor was first torn out, a fill of coarse gravel tamped
-in, and a 5-inch floor of concrete laid on top, mixed 1: 2½: 5.
-Immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down 8
-inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>At the back of the cooker, on the 2 by 4-inch studding, heavy woven
-wire was securely fastened, and by temporarily placing a wooden wall 4
-inches in front, to act as a form, an 8-inch concrete wall was built.
-This wall was made 8 feet wide and 5 feet high. The foundation for the
-wall extends 3 feet below the floor level.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<p>On the top of this wall rests the chimney. The chimney is 12 by 14
-inches on the outside, with a single flue 8 inches round, and is 10
-feet high. This height is sufficient to clear the roof. For the inside
-form 8-inch sewer pipe was used and left in place (stovepipe or drain
-tile could also be used). Ordinary box forms were used for the outside
-forms, made as described on <a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The chimney was reinforced with a ½-inch rod running from top to bottom
-in each corner, 1½ inches from the edge. The lower ends of these rods
-are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests.</p>
-
-<p>As this improvement was made by the farm hands, the cost of the floor
-was only 5 cents a square foot, while the wall and chimney cost $5.00.</p>
-
-<p>Not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night
-been overcome, but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most
-cleanly condition at all times.</p>
-
-<p>Rats, the greatest pest known to the farmer, are driven away. These
-animals cannot nest in concrete.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="HOG_WALLOW" id="HOG_WALLOW"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Hog Wallows—Automatic Dipping Tanks</h3>
-
-<p>A wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being.
-A clean bath benefits the health of a hog, especially if the wallow is
-filled with a dipping solution. This combination not only saves the
-lives of fat hogs on hot days, but also aids greatly in preventing
-cholera. See <span class="smcap">Dipping Tanks</span>, page 76.</p>
-
-<p>Locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply. A level,
-well drained spot, where the mud will not wash into it, is best. (The
-wallow <a href="#HOG_WALLOW">shown in the photograph</a> is in the hog house, and
-is a large dish in the concrete floor.) Make the wallow 8 by 12-feet. Dig out the
-hole with straight sides to the depth of 2 feet 2 inches. Lay a drainage
-foundation 10 inches thick—see <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>,
-page 29. Set a 10-inch board around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from
-crumbling in on the concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and place a 6-inch floor in the hole. As the
-concrete is laid, embed woven wire in it 1 inch from the bottom. Have
-the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and
-dimensions—4 inches thick at the top and 10 inches at the floor line.
-The sloping sides make cleaning easy. Keep all animals away from the
-wallow for two weeks. Three men built this wallow easily in one day.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">2½ cubic yards @ $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$2.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">1¼ cubic yards @ $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">1.25</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">4½ barrels @ $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">11.25</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$15.25</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_053a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" />
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="CORN_CRIB" id="CORN_CRIB"></a>A Corn Crib Floor of Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>Rats love grain; and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat
-headquarters of the farm. By building corn cribs and granary floors of
-concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination.</p>
-
-<p>Lay out the building: for the foundation wall, dig a trench 12 inches
-wide and from 2 to 3 feet below ground level. Set box forms, so as to
-bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor 1½ to 2 feet
-above ground level, according to the height of the “drag” conveyor used
-by local corn-shellers.</p>
-
-<p>As the floor will only be 6 inches thick, fill in between the
-foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of 6 inches of top
-of forms. Soak this fill thoroughly, and tamp and roll it well, before
-placing concrete on top.</p>
-
-<p>Mix concrete (1: 2: 4) and fill the foundation forms. Beginning at
-one end of the building, lay the concrete floor in sections 4 feet
-wide, and continue until the entire floor is placed.</p>
-
-<p>In order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the
-concrete floor, insert ¾-inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent
-like capital <b>Z</b>’s at the necessary points in the green concrete
-of foundation. The bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the
-sill and to receive nuts and washers. The straps are long enough to be
-spiked to the uprights.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_053b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="229" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel, so as to render
-scooping of the grain an easy matter.</p>
-
-<p>Approximate cost per square foot of floor surface, 12 cents.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete Barn Floors</h2></div>
-
-<p>Investigations of the Department of Agriculture have disclosed the
-fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria, often considered
-unaccountable in their origin, are the result of the germs being
-carried by the house-fly. Screens, flypaper, and poisons are all very
-well, in a small way, but to free the place of flies means getting rid
-of the conditions which produce them. Leaving out the manure pile
-(<a href="#MANURE">see <span class="smcap">Manure Pits</span></a>, page 45),
-the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul floors of the cow and
-horse barns. The barn can be almost entirely rid of flies by building floors
-and manure pits of concrete.</p>
-
-<h3>The Advantages of Concrete Floors</h3>
-
-<p>There are no flies to make the horses stamp.</p>
-
-<p>Rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors.</p>
-
-<p>No other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor. Concrete
-floors may be finished as rough or corrugated, as may be desired.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete floors do not soak up water. The liquids run into the gutters
-and thence to the manure pits. The floor may be flushed with water and
-kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor.</p>
-
-<p>All kinds of barn floors must be bedded down. Concrete floors are
-warmer and cleaner than any other kind, for they are always dry.
-Besides, heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete floors afford good fire protection. No fire can be started on
-concrete floors by a shiftless farm “hand” dropping cigarette stubs or
-matches on their surface.</p>
-
-<p>Good farm “hands” prefer to work where there are concrete floors: they
-lighten the labor. Concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the
-scoop and to ruffle the temper.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_055a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete in the Cow Barn</h2></div>
-
-<p>With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of
-floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor
-for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of
-concrete. On account of many epidemics of “catching” diseases, directly
-traceable to milk, city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman
-to decide—concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified milk.</p>
-
-<p>The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite
-rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each other.</p>
-
-<p>The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in
-feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows’
-heads toward each other. If the dairyman prefers the other arrangement,
-the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches
-provides sufficient room for a manure spreader.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_055b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="256" />
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>How to Build Dairy Barn Floors</h3>
-
-<p>Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other.</p>
-
-<p>Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps
-of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the
-direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction
-of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends
-may be used as working space.</p>
-
-<p>On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4½feet from the side walls of
-the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the
-entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven
-firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall.
-By means of a carpenter’s spirit level and a grade line, see that the
-tops of these boards have an even slope (say ⅛-inch per foot) toward
-the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set
-up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting
-stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2
-inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will
-later be constructed.</p>
-
-<h3>The Alleyway</h3>
-
-<p>Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even
-off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building
-of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping ½ inch from the wall toward the
-gutter. Mix the concrete 1: 2½: 5, tamp into place, and finish the
-surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface
-thus produced gives the cows a good footing.</p>
-
-<h3>The Stall Floor</h3>
-
-<p>With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the
-stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet
-6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than ½ inch toward
-the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion
-fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall.
-The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet
-8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger
-wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will
-be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form
-for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same
-manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas pipe stall divisions are to be
-used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping
-the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when
-the concrete has stiffened.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_057a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>The Manger</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_057b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="287" />
-</div>
-
-<p>As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the
-concrete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new
-stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already
-in place serves as the outer wall form. “Toe nail” two 1 by 6-inch
-boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the
-other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall
-floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger
-wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary
-drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new
-concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until
-the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger
-may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the
-floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner.</p>
-
-<h3>The Feedway</h3>
-
-<p>With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If
-possible, this should be at least 8 feet wide.</p>
-
-<p>As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor
-and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above
-the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped)
-to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of
-the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the
-mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the
-manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top.
-These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers
-and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5-inch floor
-of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. See
-<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 31.</p>
-
-<h3>Horse Barn Floors</h3>
-
-<p>Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for
-the cow stable. The same principles govern the floor construction.
-Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls
-are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to
-the drop gutter.</p>
-
-<p>As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk
-flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide
-and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3
-inches are sufficient.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>Concrete Mangers</h3>
-
-<p>Many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete.
-“Stump suckers” lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CONCRETE_MANGER" id="CONCRETE_MANGER"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="446" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for
-<a href="#FEED_TROUGH"><span class="smcap">Outdoor Feeding Troughs</span></a>, page 48.
-A form satisfactory for building horse barn mangers is <a href="#CONCRETE_MANGER">shown in
-the photograph</a>. The feed trough can be molded as a part of the manger by using a box
-form like an ordinary wooden feeding trough, but 6 inches wider and without end
-pieces. Saw out the manger forms so that the box will fit the opening.
-When the manger forms have been filled with concrete to the feed trough
-level, place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay
-in a strip of heavy woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining
-2 inches of the 3-inch bottom. Immediately set upon this concrete a
-bottomless box with end pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch
-manger wall and the 3-inch side walls of the trough. Fill both manger
-and trough forms and embed a ½-inch rod in the side walls of the trough
-1 inch from the top. Make holes in the manger wall for the hitching
-strap by inserting a 2-inch greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot
-length of ½-inch rod in the concrete above this hole.</p>
-
-<p>Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other
-animal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world
-over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If
-rats have no nesting place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice
-cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete
-barn walls.</p>
-
-<p>In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime
-instead of stamping at flies.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_060a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Farmers Build Barn Approaches of Concrete</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_060b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="305" />
-</div>
-
-<p>For purposes of drainage, concrete barns are often built on the side
-of a hill, the lower story being used for the livestock, while the
-second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage. This
-arrangement necessitates a “barn approach.” Originally these approaches
-were simply of earth, piled up in front of the door; and quite often
-the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn.</p>
-
-<p>By not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn,
-the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and
-ventilation on all four sides.</p>
-
-<p>The concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools; while a root
-cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach.</p>
-
-<p>Such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its
-surroundings.</p>
-
-<p>Economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold
-the earth in position—and concrete naturally came into use for the purpose.</p>
-
-<p>The earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut
-out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the
-ground level to a depth of 2½ or 3 feet, and 1 foot wide.</p>
-
-<p>Only outside forms are needed, as the earth fill in the barn approach
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
-acts as an inside form. These outside forms may be made up in sections
-as large as desired, of 1-inch planks, with the necessary upright studding.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_061a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Mix concrete 1: 2: 4.</p>
-
-<p>Place the concrete in the foundation, erect the forms, holding these in
-position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground.
-The concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of
-the earth fill that forms the approach. In shoveling into the form, be
-careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen side,
-as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible strength.</p>
-
-<h3>A Concrete Barn Foundation</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_061b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="316" />
-</div>
-
-<p>On account of convenient arrangement, economy of space, and protection
-to the stock, second story barns have become very popular.</p>
-
-<p>At first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was
-looked upon with doubt. It might be damp. It might make a cold stable.
-Yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was
-tried, found entirely satisfactory, and to-day is being used for the
-lower story of thousands of barns every year. As this arrangement does
-not give a perfect fire protection to the stock, a ceiling of concrete
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-is provided, furnishing a floor for the carriage house, hay loft and
-granary, through which rats cannot gnaw. With this floor of concrete,
-the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="420" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line, twenty
-inches wide. Fill with concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5. On this foundation
-erect the forms for the side walls, spaced in such a way as to make the
-wall 12 inches thick. These forms are made of 1-inch siding, with 2 by
-4-inch studs, spaced 18 inches apart. Fasten the forms securely at top
-and bottom as described in forms for “<a href="#SMALL">Small Farm Buildings</a>,”
-page 82. While erecting the forms, place in position frames for the window and
-door openings. These frames are removed after the concrete has become
-hard and the windows and doors placed. If the concrete extends above
-the windows, place three ½-inch iron rods 3 inches above each opening,
-and extending 18 inches beyond its sides. Insert bent iron rods in the
-concrete around the corners, at intervals of every 2 feet of height.
-Having carried the wall to the desired height, provide for attaching
-the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every 5 feet in
-the concrete while it is yet soft. These should be placed with the
-head down, allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient
-distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and washer.</p>
-
-<p>If a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable, erect forms in
-the same way as for a cistern cover described on <a href="#Page_69">page 69</a>.
-This ceiling will have to be carefully reinforced, and if there is any doubt
-about the quantity and position of this reinforcing, a competent engineer
-should be consulted.</p>
-
-<p>Entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers. If
-so built, the fire danger for that barn is forever removed. A barn of
-concrete, however, with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof. If
-the hay catches fire in such a barn, the roof is burned up.</p>
-
-<p>Any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can
-build a concrete roof as well.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_063a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Wind Walls and Their Importance</h2></div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="421" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To be healthy, stock need exercise—in winter as well as summer. But
-few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected
-against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place.</p>
-
-<p>The exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings.
-Erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often
-come. Probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in
-sections of 10 feet in length. The wall will be 3 inches thick at top,
-12 inches thick at the base, 7 feet above and 3 below ground, with the
-slope side toward exercise lot.</p>
-
-<p>To securely brace the sections of this wall, large posts (called
-buttresses) are needed. These posts are the full height of the wall
-and are 12 by 18 inches square. The narrow side is set with the line
-of fence, and the buttresses are placed 11 feet apart from center to
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-center. The forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate
-posts, with the exception that a beveled 2 by 4-inch timber is nailed
-vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form, 3 inches from
-the back board. This leaves a slot in the finished buttress, into
-which the slab sections of the wall are later “keyed.” Through these
-2 by 4’s, at points 3 and 15 inches below the tops, bore ⅝-inch holes
-through which ½-inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to
-project into the wall proper about 18 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Locate the points for the centers of the buttresses, the first buttress
-at the beginning of the wall. Dig a hole for each buttress 12 by 18
-inches and 4 feet deep and erect the buttress forms. Fill the forms
-with wet concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Do not forget to insert at the
-proper time the 3-foot lengths of ½-inch rods in the ¾-inch holes
-above mentioned. Brace the forms securely, to keep them in position.
-After the first two buttresses are in place, dig out the 1 by 4-foot
-foundation trench and, over it and between the buttresses, erect the
-box forms for the slab sections, with the sloping side next to the lot.
-These forms are made of 1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding
-securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top.
-On the working side, add the siding as needed, so as to facilitate the
-placing of the concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for
-wall proper. In the center of wall, within 6 inches of the top, embed a
-10-foot length of ½-inch iron rod. After the wall is one week old, take
-down the wall forms, erect them between the next two buttresses, and
-proceed with the construction in the same manner.</p>
-
-<p>Wind walls are often made with straight sides. While this takes more
-concrete, the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this
-additional cost.</p>
-
-<p>The materials required for each 10-foot section of wall and 1 buttress
-are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel, 1 cubic yard
-sand, 12 bags of Portland cement. Approximate cost, $15.00.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="481" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete and the Silo</h2></div>
-
-<p>A silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state, for
-feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture—that is in
-winter and in the hot, dry months of summer. By the use of silos fodder
-is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo, providing
-the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting,
-possessed by silos built of no other material. For instruction in
-building silos, see Bulletin No. 21 of the Association of American
-Portland Cement Manufacturers, sent free on application.</p>
-
-<p>Space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a
-concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo,
-and show how concrete fills them all.</p>
-
-<p>Silos must be air-tight. The admission of air causes the fodder to
-mould, and the stock will not eat it.</p>
-
-<p>Air cannot leak through a concrete silo.</p>
-
-<p>Silos must be water-tight. If they are not, the juices, so necessary to
-keep the fodder green, will leak out, and the fodder spoils.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="428" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Concrete, properly mixed, is water-tight.</p>
-
-<p>Silos must be smooth on the inside. A silo with a rough inside surface,
-catches the cornstalks, and prevents proper packing.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other
-materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand.</p>
-
-<p>The fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature. Concrete does
-not conduct heat or cold. It keeps the heat in the fodder in winter,
-and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer. Nature provides the
-fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly.</p>
-
-<p>Rats nesting in the silage ruin it.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to these reasons, concrete silos are not attacked by the
-juices coming from the fodder. They do not rot by alternate wetting and
-drying.</p>
-
-<p>Fire, that greatest of farm scourges, cannot destroy the crop if stored
-in a concrete silo. A farmer may rebuild a barn, but the crops lost
-through the burning of the building are lost forever.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="WELL_HOUSING" id="WELL_HOUSING"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Sanitary Water Supply</h2></div>
-
-<p>As the laws of health become better understood, greater precautions are
-taken to prevent sickness. For years all evidence has been pointing to
-drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal
-means of spreading sickness. Every well, spring and cistern, open
-to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which
-surface water can seep, is liable to contain disease germs. Concrete
-walls and covers are water-tight: they afford perfect protection for
-both man and beast.</p>
-
-<h3>How to Protect Wells</h3>
-
-<p>Many bored and dug wells, sunk years ago, afford such excellent water
-that their owners prefer to keep them. This is often made possible by
-the use of concrete. Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay
-through which water will not run, usually not more than 6 feet. If the
-earthen wall stands firm, only one form, fitting inside the brick wall,
-is needed. Make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the
-inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates, and long enough
-to extend 2 feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed
-and 4 inches above the ground level. If the earthen wall shows signs
-of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground to the
-necessary depth and use an outside form. Lower the forms into place and
-fill them with 1: 2: 4 concrete. In placing the concrete follow the
-directions given under <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>,
-page 68.</p>
-
-<p>The steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to
-keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing. This construction
-exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water. Concrete
-walls or housings are the only means of protection. Make the forms and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
-build the housing according to the rules laid down for <a href="#CISTERNS">
-<span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, pages 68-70.
-The housing <a href="#WELL_HOUSING">shown in the photograph</a> is 5 by 6 feet
-by 4 feet deep, sufficiently roomy for inspecting, adjusting and repairing pipe
-connections. The walls and floor are of 1: 2: 4 concrete 6 inches
-thick. One-half inch bolts project 2½ inches above the walls for
-fastening the wooden cover. A 4-inch removable cover of concrete,
-molded in two pieces, makes a more sanitary covering. The service pipes
-were laid in 4-inch drain tile slightly above the floor of the housing.
-A tile of the same size, laid on a grade, carries away all the leakage
-of the fittings. Two men built the housing in one day.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">3 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$3.30</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">1½ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">1.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">5½ barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">13.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$18.55</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>Well platforms are made like cistern covers (<a href="#Page_69">see page 69</a>)
-except that they are not molded fixed in place, but loose and removable, so that
-the well can be cleaned at any time. Concrete well covers keep mice and
-frogs out of the well. Even scrub water cannot seep in.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="CISTERNS" id="CISTERNS"></a>Underground Cisterns and Cistern Platforms</h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_069a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="247" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Underground cisterns are useless if they leak. In dry weather they
-are empty, and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the
-“soft” water as “hard” as that from the well. Concrete cisterns have no
-joints to leak: they are built in one solid piece.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In placing the cistern, select a site convenient to the principal
-down-spout and the kitchen. Do not forget to make allowance for 8-inch
-walls in laying out the plan. If the ground in which the pit is dug
-is sufficiently firm to stand alone, no outside form will be needed.
-Otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form
-built similar to the inside one. Make the inside form of 1-inch boards
-on 2 by 4-inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth
-walls. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay a 6-inch floor on the earth
-bottom. Immediately set the wall forms on all sides. In filling the
-wall space, be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen
-wall: dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="431" />
-</div>
-
-<p>After the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level, set
-a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern, so as to
-hold the concrete for the platform. Saw off the uprights of the inside
-form 6 inches below the finished top of the concrete cover, and nail
-2 by 4-inch floor joists even with their tops. Floor the joists with
-1-inch boards. Braces, to keep the wooden platform from sagging, may
-be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing. To
-provide for a manhole opening, build a bottomless box 5 inches deep,
-2 feet square at the top and 18 inches square at the bottom—outside
-measurements,—or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form 5
-inches deep, 2 feet in diameter at the top and 18 inches at the bottom,
-just like a large dishpan without a bottom.</p>
-
-<p>Begin at one side of the platform, tamp in 1½ inches of concrete, and
-upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing. Allow the edges of the wire to
-extend within 1 inch of the outside lines of the platform. Bring the
-platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining
-3½ inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop for any reason
-until the cistern cover is completed. As the work progresses, finish
-the surface with a wooden float. Grease the manhole frame and place it
-where the opening is desired. Strengthen the floor around the manhole
-opening by laying four short ½-inch iron rods, placed criss-cross, 2
-inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from
-the edges of the hole. If the tin form is used, the manhole cover may
-be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor. Reinforce
-the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of ½-inch
-rods laid in the form of a square. Have on hand an old bridle bit or
-hitching post ring, which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete
-cover. In placing the ring in position, provide it with a knob of
-twisted wire, or with a nut and large washer, to fix it firmly in the
-concrete. If the wooden manhole form is used, carefully remove it after
-5 hours. After 3 days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
-form, with this important exception—place heavy paper, cardboard or
-leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete of
-the cover from sticking to it. Set bolts for a pump base according to
-directions given for <a href="#ENGINE"><span class="smcap">Gasoline Engine Bases</span></a>,
-pp. 87, 88. The necessary openings for down spouts and for removing
-water may be made by embedding tile, of the proper diameter and
-length, in the concrete platform or side walls.</p>
-
-<p>When the platform is two weeks old, remove the manhole cover, bore a
-hole in the wooden floor, saw an opening, descend and loosen the roof
-form, passing it out through the manhole.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="450" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking, provide
-a filter on the outside of the cistern wall. Construct the filter
-similar to the cistern, of dimensions 4 by 3 feet and 4 feet deep.
-While building the cistern wall, lay an 8-inch tile through it, at the
-proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter
-wall at its floor, and place a removable screen of ¼-inch mesh over the
-opening. Fill in 2 feet of coarse charcoal. Cover the charcoal with 1
-foot of sand and gravel. Lead the water from the roof into the top of
-the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab.</p>
-
-<p>Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep, with a 6-inch
-floor and a 5-inch platform, in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels
-of 31½ gallons.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;8 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$8.80</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;4 cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">4.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">13 barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">32.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$45.30</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>“Soft” water is not only better for the bath, but also makes the
-washing easier and the clothes whiter. Mischievous children cannot
-remove concrete manhole covers.</p>
-
-<h3>Making Spring Water Sanitary</h3>
-
-<p>To the planter and stockman, a flowing spring is worth a great deal of
-money. Properly cared for, it will afford cold, sweet water for the
-house, the dairy, and the watering tanks. Improperly protected, it is
-not merely a mud hole, a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows, but is
-too frequently the cause of disease.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="WATER_SOURCE" id="WATER_SOURCE"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_071a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To improve a spring, first open up the channel and drain out all the
-water possible. Clean out the spring so as to increase its flow. Lay
-the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn. Wall up the well of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
-spring with concrete blocks, laid without mortar to a point just above
-the in-flow streams of the spring. Complete the walls with blocks laid
-in 1: 2 cement-sand mortar, or, using wooden forms, with a 6-inch
-solid wall of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Carry these walls high enough to keep
-surface water out of the spring well. If the spring is to be used as
-a drinking tank for stock, make the walls equal to the usual depth of
-such tanks. (<a href="#WATER_TROUGH">See <span class="smcap">Watering Troughs and Tanks</span></a>,
-page 74.) Lay a 4-inch floor of 1: 2½: 5 concrete (on a drainage foundation)
-10 feet around the field spring on all sides.</p>
-
-<p>At the edges of the floor, turn down a concrete “apron” or foundation,
-2 feet into the ground, the same as for <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>,
-page 43. This prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it.</p>
-
-<p>Make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to
-the stream by a gutter in the floor, or by a drain tile under it.</p>
-
-<p>With such improvement, since there is no mud, the stock cannot mire and
-the udders of the dairy cows are always clean.</p>
-
-<p>To keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn
-for house use, provide a concrete cover like that described for
-<a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, page 69.
-For small springs this cover is often made removable as <a href="#WELL_COVER">
-shown in the photograph</a> on page 73.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_071b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="167" />
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>New Style Cistern Built on Top of Ground</h3>
-
-<p>The photograph shows a cistern, 6 by 6 by 12 feet, inside dimensions,
-with 8-inch walls, 6-inch floor, and 4-inch roof.</p>
-
-<p>Dig a pit 12 inches deep, and of the size of cistern desired. Cover the
-bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches. Mix
-concrete 1: 2: 4 and place it to a depth of 2 inches over the surface
-of the fill. On top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing.
-This wire should be laid in such a way as to extend 6 inches beyond
-the outside edge of foundation—the ends being bent up, so as to stand
-upright, 3 inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already
-placed. Immediately lay the remaining 4 inches of concrete floor. Give
-the surface a finish with a wooden float to within 6 inches of edges.</p>
-
-<p>Without delay, set the forms, made up in the required sections, resting
-the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the
-ground. Place the inside form first. After setting the inside form,
-place woven fence wire, supporting it against the inside form by means
-of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire 4 inches
-away from it. Care should be taken in placing the concrete that the
-wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall. This reinforcement
-is carried 1 foot beyond top of wall. The projecting wire mesh will
-later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls. The timber
-required for the forms will be 1-inch siding and 2 by 4 uprights,
-spaced every 18 inches.</p>
-
-<p>In placing the concrete in the forms, it will be easier to leave off
-the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches
-its level. Then add this planking and fill the two top feet. The concrete
-will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of buckets.</p>
-
-<p>The luxury of soft water for the bath, and its advantages for laundry
-purposes, are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins.
-Cisterns were originally built in the ground, but a thinking farmer
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
-used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground, no doubt taking
-the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel. While it requires more
-forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground, yet
-the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved. As the water is piped
-to the house, direct water pressure is provided, thereby giving the
-farm-house all the advantages of a city water system.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="WELL_COVER" id="WELL_COVER"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_073a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Build a wooden platform inside the cistern, in the same manner as
-directed in <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>,
-page 69. The materials required for the concrete are 10 yards of crushed rock
-or screened gravel, 5 yards of sand, and 17 barrels of Portland cement.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_073b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="394" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="399" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="WATER_TROUGH" id="WATER_TROUGH"></a>
-Watering Troughs and Tanks</h2></div>
-
-<p>All thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete.
-Such troughs never rot, rust, or leak.</p>
-
-<p>By using concrete, tanks of any size and shape can be made.</p>
-
-<h3>Watering Tank for Horses and Cattle</h3>
-
-<p>Most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape.
-Having decided upon the size, locate the tank in a handy, well drained,
-wind-sheltered place.</p>
-
-<p>To build a tank like the one shown in the picture, lay out the trough
-5 by 16 feet. Make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed
-under <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 29.
-Around the outside dig a 10-inch trench 2 feet 6 inches deep. Lay all
-in-flow and over-flow pipes (not less than 1½ inches in diameter) so
-that the ends, fitted for connections, will be even with the finished
-bottom of the tank.</p>
-
-<p>Build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before
-mixing any concrete. The tank is 5 by 16 feet by 2½ feet deep with an
-8-inch bottom. The walls are 5 inches thick at the top and 10 inches
-at the bottom. (The sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides
-instead of pushing directly against them.) Consequently the inside
-forms at the bottom are 5 inches shorter at each end than at the top.</p>
-
-<p>The forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of
-1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding spaced not more than
-2 feet apart. The sides of the forms may be made separate and put
-together in place; or, if there is sufficient help, each form may be
-entirely completed and set up as one piece. The forms are held in
-position by 2 by 4-inch liners at top and bottom, and if necessary by
-sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground. Cut strips of
-heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to
-project up into the walls.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-</div>
-
-<p>With the forms ready, mix a batch of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Beginning at
-one end, fill the trench, and upon the gravel foundation place a 2-inch
-layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire. Upon
-this concrete lay a section of wire. Tamp in the remaining 6 inches
-of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the
-ends will project up into the future side walls. Continue laying the
-concrete in sections until the bottom is completed. Finish the surface
-with a wooden float.</p>
-
-<p>Immediately set the wall forms in place, and set them level by using a
-carpenter’s level. Fill the wall space with concrete. Half way up the
-side and 1 inch from the outside, lay a ½-inch iron rod entirely around
-the tank. Again 2 inches from the top, and 1 inch from both inner and
-outer edges, lay two rods of the same size. If a tank cover is desired,
-set bolts in the concrete as directed under <a href="#CORN_CRIB">
-<span class="smcap">Corn Crib Floors</span></a>, page 53.</p>
-
-<p>To prevent mud holes, surround the tank with a concrete floor. (See
-<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43.)
-Protect the green tank from drying out according to instructions under
-<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, pages 28-34.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;7 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$7.70</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;3½ cubic yards at  1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">3.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">11½ barrels at  2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">28.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$39.95</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Watering Troughs for Hogs</h3>
-
-<p>Troughs for hogs are built in two styles—wedge-shaped, like the feed
-trough <a href="#HOG_TROUGH">shown on page 49</a>, or like troughs for cattle
-except smaller. Use short lengths of 1-inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out
-of the trough. Set bolts, properly spaced, in the soft concrete sides, so that
-the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron
-over the bolts.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="DIPPING" id="DIPPING"></a>Dipping Vats and Tanks</h3>
-
-<p>The younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of Texas
-or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago,
-killed thousands of cattle, and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and
-ranchmen in its wake. Government experts found that this deadly disease
-is caused by ticks, which infest cattle in certain localities. They
-also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals
-in chemical solutions.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<p>Dipping cures not only Texas (known as “splenetic”) fever, but also
-the lip and leg disease, mange, and scab or scabies of both sheep and
-cattle. Certain solutions free horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs of lice,
-mites, fleas, and flies. The only method of applying these chemicals,
-surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal, is by giving him a
-plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid. Since the dip is the
-most costly part of the process, and since it must be applied once or
-twice every year, some permanent form of tank is needed—one that will
-not rot or rust out, leak or heave in during winter. Concrete vats,
-built ten years ago, without one cent’s worth of repair, are still as
-good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_077a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="397" />
-</div>
-
-<p>There are four important points to be considered in the building of a
-dipping tank:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>First—An entering slide, steep enough to shoot the animal in,
-without a direct drop. A direct drop, the entire depth of the tank, is
-likely to injure the animal.</p>
-
-<p>Second—The tank must be narrow enough to prevent the animal turning
-around when once in, long enough to keep him in from one to two
-minutes, and deep enough not only to make him swim, but also that he
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
-may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge.</p>
-
-<p>Third—The slope at the leaving end must be gentle and the footing
-roughened or cleated so that the animal may easily scramble to the
-dripping pens.</p>
-
-<p>Fourth—As the liquid dip is the most expensive part of dipping,
-there must be provided two dripping pens draining back into the tank.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small,
-well-fenced lot or corral. At the narrow end of the chute and in line
-with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the chute.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <a name="DROP_GATE" id="DROP_GATE"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_077b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="337" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Often the chute is built on a curve, so that the animals cannot see
-where they are going.</p>
-
-<p>They are generally constructed with a hump in the floor. This prevents
-the animal from jumping into the dip, and gives the necessary length to
-the slide, without increasing the depth of the tank. Choose the proper
-dimensions from the <a href="#DIP_TANK">diagrams and table</a> according
-to whether the tank is to be used for horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs.</p>
-
-<p>The lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute, usually
-a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease. Where a longer
-treatment is desired, most ranchmen, instead of building tanks of
-greater length, provide a drop gate working in a groove, as
-<a href="#DROP_GATE">shown in the photograph</a>, by means of which the animal is
-kept in the tank as long as necessary. Likewise, rather than build a separate tank
-for sheep and hogs, stockmen insert a temporary division fence, running the
-full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank. This fence should
-be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around
-in the tank. In this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses,
-cattle, sheep, and hogs.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Dig the deep part of the hole first, and then slope the earth for the
-slide and climb. Lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow
-bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom.
-Tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing
-concrete.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="453" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The side walls only will require forms. If the banks stand firm, inside
-forms alone will be needed. Make these of 1-inch boards on 2 by 4-inch
-uprights. Steel reinforcing, preferably wire cloth or hog wire, is
-placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the
-concrete wall. Floor, sides, and ends should all be thus reinforced to
-prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations.
-Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay the floor and slopes directly on
-the solid earth. No fill is necessary. The concrete for the sloping
-ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in
-position without the use of forms. With the bottom and slopes built,
-lower the side wall forms into the pit. Take care to jar no dirt upon
-the concrete already placed. Space the forms properly and cross-brace
-them firmly upon each other. Fill the wall space with concrete.</p>
-
-<p>In placing this concrete, be sure that it strikes the wood form instead
-of the earthen side, as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak, leaky
-wall. Carry the walls 6 inches above the surrounding ground to prevent
-flood water from running into the tank.</p>
-
-<p>The entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank
-without skinning them up. Finish this surface with a wooden float and
-steel trowel. Some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a
-polished steel plate, the edges of which are sunk into the concrete
-when the slide is built. To aid the animals in climbing out, embed in
-the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles
-similar to a capital “U.” Old wagon tires, cut in lengths not greater
-than 20 inches and turned up 4 inches at each end, will do. Leave 1
-inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete.
-Space the cleats 18 inches for horses and cattle and 10 inches for
-sheep and hogs.</p>
-
-<p>At the leaving end of the tank, lay out the two dripping pens with
-their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank,
-so that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen, when it
-is full, and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty
-pen. Use concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no
-replacing. Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and
-build a 6-inch concrete floor according to the directions given under
-<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 28,
-and <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43.
-Slope the floors, ¼ inch to each foot in length or width, so that the
-dip running off the animals will be saved and returned to the tank.
-Corrugate or groove the floor to the depth of ½ inch, every 8 inches,
-in one direction. During the construction of the floor, mold around
-the outside a concrete curb, commonly called a splashboard, 6 inches
-above the floor and 4 inches wide. Where the dip from the floor empties
-into the tank, place a removable wire screen or strainer to keep the
-droppings and wool tags out of the vat. Cure the floors and slopes
-according to directions under <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>,
-page 43. The wall forms may be removed after one week, but the tank should
-not be used until it is three weeks old.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_079a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="168" />
-    <img src="images/i_079b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="146" />
-</div>
-<div><a name="DIP_TANK" id="DIP_TANK">&nbsp;</a></div>
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
-<caption><b>DIMENSIONS OF GROUND PIT FOR DIPPING TANKS</b></caption>
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="14">&nbsp;</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Kind</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>W</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>N</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>D</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>L</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>E</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>B</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>A</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>I</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>O</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><big>T</big></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Cement&nbsp;</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Sand</th>
-      <th class="tdc bb">Rock</th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Barrels</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;Cu. yds.&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;Cu. yds.&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Horses </td>
-      <td class="tdc"> 5′ 10″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 3′ 4″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 8′ 8″ </td>
-      <td class="tdc"> 55′ 0″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 7′ 6″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 31′ 0″ </td>
-      <td class="tdc"> 16′ 6″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 8′ 8″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 18′ 7″ </td>
-      <td class="tdc"> 0′ 8″ </td>  <td class="tdc">38</td> <td class="tdc">11</td>
-      <td class="tdc">22</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cattle</td>
-      <td class="tdc">5′ &nbsp;&nbsp;4″</td> <td class="tdc">3′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">7′ 8″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">51′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">6′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">31′ 0″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">13′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">7′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">15′ 4″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">36</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;10½</td>
-      <td class="tdc">21</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sheep</td>
-      <td class="tdc">3′ &nbsp;&nbsp;4″</td> <td class="tdc">2′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">46′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">31′ 0″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">10′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">11′ 6″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">22</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6½</td>
-      <td class="tdc">13</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hogs</td>
-      <td class="tdc">3′ &nbsp;&nbsp;4″</td> <td class="tdc">2′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">36′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">21′ 0″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">10′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">11′ 6″</td>
-      <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">19</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5½</td>
-      <td class="tdc">11</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="14">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_080a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_080b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="407" />
-</div>
-
-<p>At first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to
-dip, but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom
-necessary. Experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that
-dipping increases the market value of their steers $5 per head. The
-cost of dipping on the farm is only 1½ to 3 cents per head—in the
-stock yards the charge is 15 to 20 cents. One large ranchman, who lost
-28 per cent. of his herd (several thousand) in one winter with the
-mange, found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this
-disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer.
-The use of dips has become so general in the South and West that the
-Government has raised the quarantine in most sections.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_081a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="MILK_VAT" id="MILK_VAT"></a>The Construction of a Concrete Milk Vat</h3>
-
-<p>Dig a pit to a depth of 1 foot 6 inches and place wooden forms in
-such a way as to provide for tank walls 6 inches thick and 1 foot 8
-inches in height. This will bring the walls only 8 inches above ground
-level—which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_081b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="446" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Use a wet mixture of concrete, of proportions 1: 2: 4. Place as
-described on <a href="#Page_74">page 74</a>; and be sure to build walls
-and floor at the same time. The floor should be 6 inches thick.</p>
-
-<p>The vat described has a partition 6 inches thick, dividing the tank
-into two chambers, each chamber being 6 feet 9 inches long. An iron
-grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation
-of cooling water around and under the milk cans. Arrangements must be
-made for inlets and outlets. The inlet pipe can be simply placed above
-one end of tank.</p>
-
-<p>The pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when
-lifting heavy cans from the tank.</p>
-
-<p>A hole must be provided at the other end of tank, in the bottom, and
-connecting, by an iron pipe, with the drain tile. Into this hole a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-removable upright iron pipe is fitted, the length of pipe depending
-on the depth of water desired for the cans. This allows the water to
-come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the
-proper height. The pipe must fit tightly into the hole.</p>
-
-<p>Time required to build:—one day with three men on the job.</p>
-
-<p>Approximate cost, at current prices of materials and including labor,
-$16.00.</p>
-
-<p>The materials required are 2 cubic yards of crushed rock or screened
-gravel, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 5 barrels of Portland cement.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_082a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="SMALL" id="SMALL"></a>Small Farm Buildings</h2></div>
-
-<p>Numerous small structures are required on the farm. Dog kennels, tool
-houses, coal houses, ice houses, hydraulic ram houses, smoke houses,
-acetylene gas plant houses, gasoline storage houses, milk houses and
-many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm. Such
-structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of concrete.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">When once constructed of this material
-durability and freedom from fire are assured. For such buildings as
-milk houses built of concrete instead of wood, there is the added
-advantage of cleanliness. Modern dairying demands absolute cleanliness.
-Concrete meets this demand.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_082b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="231" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="442" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Milk Houses</h3>
-
-<p>Milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in, causing a very disagreeable
-odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat. Concrete does not absorb
-milk splashed on it. Such walls can be kept free from tainting odors
-by simply washing them down. In concrete dairy houses, with concrete
-vats, the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other
-material. Dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the
-place of concrete for such purposes.</p>
-
-<p>The illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls, floor
-and vat, all of concrete. This house is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide and
-8 feet high with a rise to the roof peak of 5 feet.</p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Location</span></h4>
-
-<p>The milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a
-clean water supply. Care must be taken to provide for the outflow of
-the water from the vat. This can be done by leading a line of pipe
-from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking
-troughs for the stock.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet
-to the house, providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and sweet.</p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Foundation</span></h4>
-
-<p>To build such a milk house as shown, dig a trench for the foundation 3
-feet deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the trench to the ground level with
-1: 2½: 5 concrete. The foundation should be laid out in such a way as
-to extend 3 inches beyond the inside and 3 inches beyond the outside of
-the walls of the house.</p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Walls</span></h4>
-
-<p>As soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support
-them, erect the wall forms. These forms consist of 1-inch siding nailed
-to 2 by 4-inch studding. The studs should be spaced 2 feet apart and
-the 1-inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward
-the concrete. For small buildings it is often easier to build an
-entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position.
-The bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held
-in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven
-firmly into the ground. The distance the inside and outside forms are
-spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired. Sloping braces
-leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging
-and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms
-the correct distance apart. Bulging of forms can also be prevented by
-wiring them together as shown on <a href="#WIRE_FORMS">page 23</a>.
-On <a href="#Page_22">page 22</a> is a description of the general
-method of building forms. Especial care must be taken to hold the forms
-in position while placing the concrete. The studs in the side wall
-forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the walls. With
-the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete.</p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Doors and Windows</span></h4>
-
-<p>A space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows. This is
-done by placing between the wall forms, frames or boxes without top or
-bottom made of 1-inch boards. When the wall form has been filled to
-the level of the bottom of the opening a frame, the size and shape of
-the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured
-around it. After the wall reaches a level 2 inches above the frame lay
-in the fresh concrete two ½-inch iron bars. These pieces should be long
-enough to extend 8 inches beyond each side of the frame. A piece of old
-wagon tire can be used instead.</p>
-
-<p>The sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box
-extending out from the side form. The concrete should be placed for the
-sill at the same time that the wall is being built. For buildings such
-as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary.</p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Finishing Top of Wall</span></h4>
-
-<p>When the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete
-has set, shove ½-inch bolts 18 inches long down into it. Space these
-bolts 24 inches apart, 9 inches of the length being in the concrete.
-The end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof,
-and are filled to the top. While placing the concrete in the walls it
-should be continually spaded as described on <a href="#Page_25">page 25</a>.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="327" />
-    <p class="f120"><b>DETAILS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS</b></p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Building the Roof</span></h4>
-
-<p>The roof is built by nailing 2 by 4 rafters to the inside studs of the
-side wall forms, on a line 1 inch lower than the bottom of the roof.
-The rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof, and are securely
-fastened where they meet at the ridge. To stiffen the roof form until
-the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the
-bottom (with a 1-inch strip) in the form of a capital “A.” One-inch
-boards are nailed on the rafters. The cornice shown in the sketch
-extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the
-width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and
-end walls. To hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built
-nail a 5-inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board. Bend
-the bolts projecting above the walls down to within 1 inch of the roof
-boards. Spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire
-roof, allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice. Wire the
-fencing securely to the bent bolts. Place two ½-inch steel rods near
-the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof, and fasten
-these securely to the woven wire fencing. The roof should be made 3
-inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger
-than ½ inch.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice,
-working toward the ridge. Spread the concrete out in a thin layer and
-then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so
-that the concrete is 1 inch thick below the wire. Cover the rods and
-wire with more concrete to a depth of 2 inches. When finished the
-roof will then be 3 inches thick, 1 inch below the wire and 2 inches
-over it. Always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the
-complete depth of 3 inches at once. Imbed a width of woven wire fencing
-lengthwise over the ridge of the roof 1 inch beneath the surface. The
-work must be carried on without interruption. The concrete must not be
-allowed to dry along an unfinished edge, as there is danger of a leak
-where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard. Tamp the concrete
-until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof
-with a wooden float and steel trowel.</p>
-
-<p>The forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete
-in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is
-hardening. A method for doing this is described on <a href="#Page_26">page 26</a>
-under <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Floor</span></h4>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_087a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="414" />
-</div>
-
-<p>When the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can
-be laid. Excavate the ground to a depth of 4 inches below the finished
-floor level. Mix and lay the concrete as described on <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of
-the floor. <a href="#MILK_VAT">See description on page 82</a>.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="ENGINE" id="ENGINE"></a><span class="smcap">Engine Base</span></h4>
-
-<p>Engines, cream separators, pumps and other pieces of machinery
-require solid bases. These bases must be permanent, and free from any
-vibration. A base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_087b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="188" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To form a base for the support of a small engine, first excavate a
-pit 2 feet 4 inches deep, and 1 foot larger both in length and width
-than the dimensions of the engine base. Fill the pit with a mixture of
-concrete, (1: 2½: 5), and then construct a form which will carry the
-concrete to a height 4 inches above the floor level or to the height
-desired.</p>
-
-<p>Bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries, these being
-sufficiently long to bend 4 inches at right angles, and to extend 1
-foot deep into the concrete, with bent end down. They should be placed
-with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of
-the bolt, and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of
-the concrete. The open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will
-allow for slight errors in locating bolts, so as to meet the holes in
-the engine base.</p>
-
-<p>Keep the concrete wet for 24 hours after placing, by sprinkling. After
-six days, set the engine, adjust the bolts, and fill the spaces around
-the bolts with cement mortar, mixed 1 part cement, 1 part sand. Do not
-use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_088a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-    <p class="f120">Concrete Ice House</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A concrete base adds years of service to the life of a <a href="#ENGINE">gasoline engine</a>
-or cream separator.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_088b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-    <p class="f120">Grain Elevator Approach and Engine House</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Method Applies to All Buildings</span></h4>
-
-<p>The method just described for building a milk house applies equally
-well to any of the small houses mentioned above. It is not always
-necessary to build a peaked roof; sometimes a flat roof will answer the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
-purpose; but the general method in all cases is the same. The drawings
-show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the
-windows can be made to slide up and down.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="408" />
-    <p class="f120">Hydraulic Ram House</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">Advantages of Concrete</span></h4>
-
-<p>Concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such
-buildings as smoke houses, where there is always great danger from fire.</p>
-
-<p>Oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms. Acetylene
-and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light. These plants are
-built either above or below ground. In either case concrete is the
-ideal material, since it is both fire and waterproof.</p>
-
-<p>The durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings
-as hydraulic ram houses, which must always be located near streams,
-and ice houses, where there is always moisture. Wood quickly rots, but
-moisture has no effect on concrete.</p>
-
-<p>For tool houses, coal houses, and buildings subjected to rough usage,
-nothing equals concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete, for small buildings, meets the three great demands of the
-farmer—cleanliness, freedom from fire, and durability.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CELLAR01" id="CELLAR01"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_090a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Concrete Cellar Steps and Hatchway</h3>
-
-<p>Cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar.
-This cannot happen if they are made of concrete. There are no
-cracks through which the water can come. Wooden steps last no time,
-particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up
-and down. As wooden or brick areaways are always damp, the steps rot
-quickly, thus requiring constant renewal. Few things are more dangerous
-to limb, and even to life, than a step giving way under the weight of a
-heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CELLAR02" id="CELLAR02"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_090b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="314" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Concrete steps are safe under any load.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape,
-it is particularly desirable for this purpose. Some people like steps
-with a low rise and a particularly wide tread, while others prefer a
-high rise and narrow tread. Concrete can easily be fitted to either.
-The determining feature is usually the space to be occupied. The door
-into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken, and
-therefore the height of the risers; while the room the cellarway is to
-take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread. If
-possible, the rise of each step should be from 6 to 8 inches, while the
-width of the tread should be from 9 to 12 inches.</p>
-
-<p><i>Note</i>: <a href="#Page_112">See page 112</a> for Window Hatchway.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_091.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" />
-</div>
-
-<p>In erecting, first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired,
-plus one foot. This allows for a 6-inch wall on either side. Slope the
-ground from 1 foot back of where the top step is to come to 1 foot back
-of where the bottom step will be. To form the steps, saw out a board
-just as you would a “horse” for steps, and nail planks where the risers
-come, holding the two “horses” the proper distance apart. This is
-placed upside down, resting on the top and bottom, with the edge of the
-top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come. Fill
-this form and the space back of it with 1: 2: 4 concrete, starting
-with the bottom step, and continuing upward to the top, bringing the
-concrete in each step to the top of rise. Side forms for the 6-inch
-walls may now be placed, braced apart in the center properly, and
-resting on the back of the horses. These can be carried to any height
-desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and
-snow. Forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above
-the ground line to hold the concrete in place. Before the concrete sets
-in the side walls, bolts should be placed, with heads in the concrete,
-by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening
-the cellar doors by strap hinges. If the bottom step does not come to
-the wall line, the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a
-5-inch thickness of concrete. Here is a convenient place to locate a
-drain, to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps, and any
-which may leak through the cellar doors.</p>
-
-<p>The cellar hatchway shown in the <a href="#CELLAR01">photograph</a>
-and in the <a href="#CELLAR02">drawing</a> is 5 feet wide, built according
-to directions above. The side walls at the cellar are 7 feet high and
-10 feet long. The slope for the cellar doors is 2 feet 4 inches. There
-are 7 steps of 8-inch rise and 10-inch tread and a landing 3 feet 2
-inches wide. Two men built this hatchway in 1½ days.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;2¼ cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$2.48</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;1⅛ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">1.13</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;3¾ barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">9.37</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$12.98</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_092a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Root Cellars of Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>The increasing use of roots, as winter feed for animals, has brought
-about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this
-valuable food. A root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep
-roots from freezing or rotting. By building the cellar below ground
-the warmth is greatly increased. To do this, however, a material must
-be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot. For these
-reasons use concrete.</p>
-
-<p>The cellar shown in the illustration on page 91 extends 5 feet below,
-and 2 feet above ground level. The walls are 5 inches thick, and are
-made of concrete proportioned 1: 2: 4.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_092b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="236" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Choose a well drained site, and dig a pit in the earth to the desired
-depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for concrete
-steps, which will have a rise of 7 inches and a tread of 10 inches.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Build a floor of the same thickness as the walls. Set inside box form
-and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with
-the wet concrete, the same as for <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>,
-page 68.</p>
-
-<p>Above the ground level an outside form must be used. The roof is built
-in the way described on <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a> except the thickness
-is increased to 5 inches.</p>
-
-<p>Ventilators are provided in the roof, by imbedding lengths of sewer
-pipe in the concrete. Add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain.</p>
-
-<p>By <a href="#Page_90">referring to page 90</a>, there will be found
-a description of how to build a hatchway and steps.</p>
-
-<p>Immediately after the side wall forms have been erected, the door frame
-should be set in its required position, before placing concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Similar structures are also used as bee, vegetable, fruit and cyclone
-cellars. Concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples,
-potatoes and cabbage. By adjusting the ventilator openings, the
-temperature can always be kept at just the right point. Moreover, since
-rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar, there
-is no waste causing decay, and the vegetables keep better.</p>
-
-<p>In cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter, lest they freeze
-to death. By no other means than underground cellars can they be safely
-brought through the winter. The bee cellar must be dry, in order that
-the bees stay in good health. In no way, can there be provided so even
-a temperature or so dry an atmosphere, as by the use of concrete. Bees
-kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;11 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$12.10</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;5½ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">5.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;15 barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">37.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$55.10</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="270" />
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_094a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Poultry Houses</h3>
-
-<p>The high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable. But to
-have laying hens they must be carefully tended. Their houses must be
-clean, and free from draughts. Young chickens must be protected from
-rats, skunks and foxes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="NEST" id="NEST"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_094b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house. To
-clean a house of concrete, spray it with oil and burn it out. Concrete
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-is fireproof. Rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk. In
-a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift,
-or in which lice and bedbugs can hide.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_095a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where
-the concrete poultry yard (<a href="#FEED_FLOOR">see <span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>,
-page 43) may be wind protected. Build the house as directed under
-<a href="#SMALL"><span class="smcap">Small Buildings</span></a>, page 82.
-As the walls are being placed, insert short pieces of gas pipe at
-convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests (one style of
-nest <a href="#NEST">shown on page 94</a>) and the rails for the
-roosts. If desired, a one-way-slope concrete roof may be made.</p>
-
-<p>Make the floor on an 8-inch fill of gravel, or of slabs built on a
-smooth floor and later set in place. Lay heavy wire fencing in the
-concrete slab 1 inch from the under side.</p>
-
-<h3>Poultry Watering Troughs</h3>
-
-<p>To rid the farm of cholera and roup, nothing aids more than concrete
-drinking troughs. Occasionally scrub the troughs, spray them with oil
-and burn them out.</p>
-
-<h3>Duck Ponds</h3>
-
-<p class="space-below2">Ducks and geese need water, yet if they are
-allowed to go to a nearby stream, many are lost. Poultrymen are
-building ponds of concrete, attached to the water supply in such a way
-as to provide fresh water at all times. For building, see instructions
-under <span class="smcap">Hog Wallows</span>, page 52.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_095b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="150" />
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_096a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Retaining Wall and Steps</h3>
-
-<p>Terraces, if too steep, will not stay sodded, and if too flat, take up
-room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn. The neatest way is to
-place a retaining wall along the terrace edge. This wall is built in
-the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described
-on <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_096b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="384" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary. A most
-convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with
-the face of the wall, making it impossible to fall over one or two
-projecting steps in the dark.</p>
-
-<p>In building, insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to
-prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall. The
-bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the
-wall sufficient to form the first step.</p>
-
-<p>After the concrete for the wall is placed, remove the section of the
-form where the steps are to come, and dig out the earth to a depth
-sufficient to hold them.</p>
-
-<p>The remaining steps are built in the manner described on <a href="#Page_90">page 90</a>.</p>
-
-<p>After the concrete is placed, the steps should be closed to traffic for
-at least one week.</p>
-
-<p>In the background of the <a href="#WATER_SOURCE">photograph on page 72</a>
-may be seen a double terrace wall of concrete, each wall 5 feet high.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_097a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Concrete Chimney Caps</h3>
-
-<p>As a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney,
-it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as
-possible. It can be made entirely so by building it of concrete. If
-this is not convenient, at least let the chimney cap be of concrete.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="278" />
-</div>
-
-<p>These caps are cast in one piece, on the ground, and in any shape
-desired.</p>
-
-<p>The outside form is a wooden box, with inside dimensions corresponding
-with the outside dimensions of the desired cap. Usually the cap is 6
-inches thick, and has an “over-hang” or “drip” extending on all sides
-beyond the outside of the chimney.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Thus, if top of chimney, over
-all, is 18 inches square, make outer form 22 inches square, an extra
-allowance of 2 inches on all sides, thus obtaining a cap that will have
-an “over-hang” of 2 inches all the way around.</p>
-
-<p>The inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile. If more
-than one opening is desired in the cap, use two pieces of tile or as
-many as there are to be openings.</p>
-
-<p>Mix concrete 1: 2: 4, the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one. Place
-in the form, after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may
-be easily removed. Leave undisturbed for two days. Remove forms and
-place cap in position, attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement
-mortar, one part cement to one part sand.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_098a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="455" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Concrete Makes an Excellent Porch Floor</h3>
-
-<p>When even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear, either
-from use or exposure to the elements, build it of concrete.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_098b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground; and, even
-if they do not rot, through constant use they become splintered and
-faulty.</p>
-
-<p>As concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without
-cutting, it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-and shape. Its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and
-exposure have been so often mentioned, it seems useless to refer to
-them again.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Remove the old wooden floor, first placing props to support the porch
-roof, with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch
-floor. The pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to
-be replaced by concrete.</p>
-
-<p>The floor is laid in exactly the same way as a <a href="#FEED_FLOOR">feeding floor
-described on page 43</a>. As the size is usually small, however, the floor can be
-laid in a single slab without joints. If a smooth surface is wished
-for, finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel.</p>
-
-<p>Do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing. If you do, small
-cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the floor.</p>
-
-<p>No material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a
-school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily.</p>
-
-<p>A porch of concrete is free from vermin, fireproof, easily scrubbed,
-and needs no repairs.</p>
-
-<h3>Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames</h3>
-
-<p>Fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every
-suburbanite, if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame. By their use early
-spring plants can also be given a good start. Since the bed must be
-placed partly in the damp ground, the only material to be considered
-for this purpose is concrete, which does not rot out and which, being
-free from cracks and joints, makes the warmest bed in cold weather.</p>
-
-<p>Locate the bed on the sunny side of a building, if possible, on the
-south side. Dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed, not less
-than 3 feet deep. The one shown is 39 feet long and divided into 3
-equal compartments. Make box forms of 1-inch lumber to carry the south
-(front) wall 6 inches and the north (back) wall 15 inches above ground.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
-The end walls slope to the others. If the bed is not near a building,
-extend the back wall 2 feet higher to serve as a wind-break. Before
-filling the forms with concrete, test their width by laying on a sash.
-See that it laps full 2 inches at each end.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_100a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-below1">Mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions 1:
-2½: 5. Fill the forms without stopping for anything. Tie the walls
-together at the corners by laying old iron rods in them bent at right
-angles. During the placing of the concrete set ½-inch bolts about 2
-feet apart to hold the wooden framing to the concrete; or make grooves
-in the tops of the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of
-the concrete, allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance. This
-can be done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden
-strip of the necessary width and thickness. Remove the forms after
-six days. Divisions may be built along with the walls or later as
-convenient. One and one-half days were required for two men to build a
-hot-bed 5½ by 12¼ feet in the clear.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or broken stone&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;2½ cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$2.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;1¼ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">1.25</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;3½ barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">8.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$12.75</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_100b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="239" />
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CAVITY" id="CAVITY"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_101a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Tree Repair</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_101b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="372" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good
-shade trees. But trees are like teeth—they need attention. Boring
-insects often cause decay. The hollow becomes larger. The wind blows
-the weakened tree down. The “looks” of the place is ruined. It takes at
-least a lifetime to produce another such tree.</p>
-
-<p>By means of concrete, many famous old trees, seemingly about gone, are
-now saved. Open up the cavity with a hand-axe. With a mallet and chisel
-cut out every bit of the rotten wood, and stop the flow of sap by
-painting the cavity with liquid asphalt. Reinforce small cavities with
-nails as <a href="#CAVITY">shown in the photograph</a>, larger cavities with rods,
-wire and spikes. Carefully fill every crevice with a 1: 3 cement-sand mortar.
-By slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling, once or
-twice a season, the bark will grow entirely over the concrete.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="402" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Rollers of Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>Frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into
-humps. If these are not rolled down at once, the lawn is rough all summer.</p>
-
-<p>Rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood. These
-were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers, purchased in the
-nearest town. To-day farmers are again making rollers, but are using
-concrete. An iron roller with a cylinder from 2 to 3 feet in length
-will cost from $15 to $20, whereas one of the same size constructed of
-concrete will cost practically nothing.</p>
-
-<p>Obtain a length of sewer pipe, of the size of roller wished for. A tile
-from 12 to 24 inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose. Set
-this tile on end, small end down, on a wooden platform. Through a hole
-bored in the platform insert a 1-inch round iron bar, long enough to
-project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide
-bearings and attachment for the handles. Care should be taken to get
-the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete,
-and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed. Make a wet
-mixture of concrete (1: 2: 4), and fill the tile with this mixture,
-up to the “bell” of the tile. Allow the concrete to set for ten days,
-when the roller may be placed on side, and the bell of pipe chipped off
-with a cold chisel and hammer. Attach a forked handle, as shown in the
-illustration. As the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller, the
-fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes, within which the
-axle can turn.</p>
-
-<p>A roller 18 inches in diameter and 2 feet long will weigh about 600
-pounds. If a lighter roller is desired, use a smaller sized sewer
-pipe; or place several small pipes inside the large one, depositing
-the concrete around them on the outside. They will form hollow spaces
-inside the roller and lessen its weight.</p>
-
-<p>By increasing the size pipe, or by using a steel mold and attaching
-a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle, horse rollers for
-crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_103a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="312" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Hay Caps and Tarpaulin Weights</h3>
-
-<p>With the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent
-occurrence of showers, to secure sweet, unmolded hay it has become
-necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover. The
-best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete. Mix the
-concrete 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand, mold them like
-doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop, and set them aside
-in a damp place for 7 days before using.</p>
-
-<h3>Trash Burner or Garbage Receiver</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_103b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="298" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding
-property. A concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means.</p>
-
-<p>Dig out the dirt to the depth of 6 inches. For forms choose two
-barrels, one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all
-sides of 6 inches. Adjust the height by cutting off their butts. Make
-an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which
-an iron door can be hung. Fill the foundation hole and the forms with
-1: 2: 4 concrete. Remove the outside form after two weeks. The fire
-will later take care of the inner form. After three weeks the burner
-may be used.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Concrete Posts</h3>
-
-<p>When a man buys a farm, he examines first the condition of its general
-improvements. If the fences are “all run down,” he must take into
-consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them—a matter of no
-small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and
-lumber. The cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost.
-Intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last
-longest with least repairs.</p>
-
-<p>A railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any
-single property owner, and to avoid damage suits, the fences must at
-all times be in perfect repair. As fast as their wooden fences rot out
-and burn down, they are replacing them with concrete. Not only has the
-lasting quality of concrete recommended itself, but the ever increasing
-shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden
-posts impossible, and the cost of poor posts high.</p>
-
-<p>Concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden
-posts. The life of a wooden post is from 3 to 5 years, while concrete
-posts last forever. Weather and fire do not injure them. Even forest
-fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts.</p>
-
-<p>The United States Government, recognizing the importance of this
-subject, has issued Farm Bulletin No. 403, entitled Concrete Fence
-Posts. This bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the
-Agricultural Department, or to your Congressman.</p>
-
-<p>Hitching posts, made in a slightly larger box form, with a bolt and
-ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened, add neatness to
-the house surroundings. Gate posts of concrete, nothing more than heavy
-fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence, prevent sagging
-gates, so hard to open. A concrete clothes post is ready for the
-clothes line and the wash every Monday morning. The weight of the wet
-clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag. Clothes never
-have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_105a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Corner Stones and Survey Monuments</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_105b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="305" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To property owners, as well as engineers, survey monuments which last
-forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks, are of
-the utmost importance. Expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be
-avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable, permanent,
-and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks. The use of
-concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any
-other material.</p>
-
-<p>Get from the proper public official (usually the county engineer or
-surveyor) the exact location of corner stones. Drive four stakes in the
-ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross
-each other directly over the original monument.</p>
-
-<p>Remove the old monument, and, with a post auger, bore a hole deep
-enough to reach below the frost line (at least 3 feet deep), where the
-old monument stood.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Fill the hole with concrete mixed 1: 2: 4, rounding the top with
-the hands so it will extend 3 or 4 inches above the level of the
-surrounding ground.</p>
-
-<p>While placing the last foot of concrete, imbed a harrow tooth, iron
-bolt, or gas pipe, with its top just showing above the finished
-concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross. Protect the
-monument from damage by stock for one week, by placing a box over it.</p>
-
-<h3>Drain Tile Outlet Walls</h3>
-
-<p>In developing the lowlands for farm purposes—and such lands are now
-most valuable—immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile.</p>
-
-<p>Where drain tile empty into an open ditch, the banks of the ditch
-around the drain tile gradually wash away, and often two and three
-lengths of tile become disjointed, allowing the water from them to
-further cut away the field land. These exposed tile are often crushed
-by livestock. Moreover, clay and shale tile freeze, crumble, and mixed
-with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet. Muskrats,
-skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place, and the drain becomes
-stopped up and drowns out the crops.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="332" />
-</div>
-
-<p>All of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in
-building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile
-from washing out and to protect it.</p>
-
-<p>Choose the dry season of the year, immediately after the laying or
-cleaning of the string of tile, when little water is in the ditch.</p>
-
-<p>Dig a trench 12 inches wide along the edge of the open ditch 2 feet
-below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile. This trench
-should extend along the bank for from 4 to 6 feet, with wings turned
-into the bank at its ends, sufficiently long to prevent water from
-getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out.</p>
-
-<p>Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5—wet enough to tamp well.</p>
-
-<p>Fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level. Should the trench
-be full of water, place this part of the concrete dry.</p>
-
-<p>Set box forms, made of 1-inch siding and 2 by 4-inch studding. These
-forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top
-of the ditch banks. At the proper height to meet the string of tile,
-place a first-class drain tile (at least one size larger than the
-regular string) through the forms so that the front end will be flush
-with the outside wall after concrete is placed.</p>
-
-<p>Bore two small holes in the forms above this tile, and place in them
-well greased pegs of wood. After the forms are filled with concrete,
-these pegs are removed, the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap
-gate to keep animals out of the line of tile. Fill the forms with
-concrete, and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel.</p>
-
-<p>Remove the forms after one week, and fill in earth behind the wall to its top.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Spraying Tanks</h3>
-
-<p>San José scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray
-their orchards. To get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the
-handling of warm solutions, orchardmen are building elevated concrete
-tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the
-tank bottoms. With such a plant, there is no delay—and time counts in
-the spraying season.</p>
-
-<p>The tank shown stands on 10 by 12-inch columns, 6 feet clear of the
-ground. It has two compartments, each 5 by 5 feet by 4 feet deep
-holding 750 gallons. The side walls are 4 inches thick. Beneath the
-4-inch bottom, on all sides, are 8 by 12-inch concrete beams.</p>
-
-<p>Locate the tank convenient to the water supply. Dig the column holes 12
-inches square, 3 feet deep, 11 feet out to out on the longer side and 5
-feet on the shorter. Have all forms ready before placing any concrete.
-Fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four ½-inch iron
-rods 10 feet long so that they will come right for the columns and
-extend through them. Set up the 10 by 12-inch by 6-foot column forms
-with their tops level with each other. Join them together with the
-solidly framed 8 by 12-inch beam forms.</p>
-
-<p>Keeping the rods 1 inch from the corners, fill concrete in the column
-forms up to the floor beams. Spread 1 inch of concrete over the bottom
-of the beam forms and lay in two ½-inch rods 1½ inches from each side
-wall. Bend these rods around those in the columns. Without delay fill
-the beam forms.</p>
-
-<p>Erect the forms for the tank proper as for <a href="#WATER_TROUGH">
-<span class="smcap">Watering Tanks</span></a>, page 74. In the bottom
-of each tank set a 1½-inch flange pipe coupling. Place 1 inch of
-concrete, then strips of heavy woven wire, and the remaining 3 inches
-of concrete. Fill the side walls and, 1 inch from the outside,
-imbed similar wire fencing. Protect the green concrete according to
-directions under watering tanks.</p>
-
-<p>The materials required are: screened gravel or crushed rock, 4½ cubic
-yards; sand, 2¼ cubic yards; and Portland cement, 7½ barrels.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Culverts are Permanent When Made of Concrete</h3>
-
-<p>The secret of good roads is good drainage. Standing water soaks into
-the road bed, softens the road surface and causes ruts. To keep well
-made roads in first-class condition, get the water to the highway drain
-tile as fast as it falls. This can be accomplished only by means of
-culverts.</p>
-
-<p>The perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out, which does
-not crush down and clog up the opening, which lasts forever. Concrete
-is the only material which fills the bill.</p>
-
-<p>The best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer. They
-can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the
-amount of water which must be removed quickly. Usually openings 12 to
-18 inches are large enough. Set the culvert as deep in the road bed as
-possible, but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the
-ditch into which the culvert drains. To keep the culvert well beneath
-the road bed, if necessary, make the side ditch deeper at the inlet
-end. Determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom. Only a
-little slope is needed. Dig the trench 6 inches deeper than the grade
-line and as wide and long as necessary. The width of the trench depends
-upon the size of the culvert to be built, and its length upon the width
-of roadway under which the water is to be carried. The concrete walls
-are each 6 inches thick, so the width of the trench will be 1 foot
-greater than the clear width of the culvert. Fill this trench with
-concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5, and, while it is still wet place in the
-center of it a U-shaped box, turned upside down, of 1-inch boards, the
-outside of which is the size of the culvert desired. Fill concrete into
-the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and
-tamp concrete over the top to a depth of 8 inches. Road culverts should
-not be less than 18 inches below the surface of the roadway.</p>
-
-<p>To prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
-the culvert, small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end.
-To do this dig an 8-inch trench 3 feet deep, at each end of the culvert
-along the end of the culvert barrel. Frame a form, the width and height
-necessary, against the end of the box or pipe. Make another form, of
-the same size, but U-shaped, with the opening just large enough to
-fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel. Set this form 8
-inches inside the first. Plumb both forms and brace them securely. Nail
-boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete.
-For one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert. Allow
-the forms to remain in place for two weeks. Replace the road material
-over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has
-become solid. Since there are usually many culverts to be built, it is
-cheaper to use a collapsible form, adjustable to several sized culverts.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The box culvert shown in the illustration on page 108 has an opening 18
-inches wide and 16 inches deep. The length is 20 feet. The retaining
-walls are 8 inches thick, 2 feet high (from the barrel opening), and
-do not extend beyond the culvert walls. The bottom and the side walls
-are 6 inches thick; the top, 8 inches. Three men, with a highway
-commissioner as superintendent, built this culvert in two days.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th>
-    </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;3 cubic yards at $1.10</td>
-      <td class="tdr">$3.30</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;1½ cubic yards at $1.00</td>
-      <td class="tdr">1.50</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;4 barrels at $2.50</td>
-      <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr bt">&nbsp;&nbsp;$14.80</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>Concrete bridges last forever. With all the bridges and culverts of
-concrete, tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_110a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Septic Tanks</h3>
-
-<p>The proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important
-question on the farm. Cess-pools, simply pits dug in the ground, are
-great disease spreaders. The liquids from them seep through the ground,
-carry germs from the pool to the well, render “the best drinking-water
-in the country” unfit for use, and often cause the spread of disease.</p>
-
-<p>The modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice.
-Cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities, where immense sums of
-money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage. It is not possible
-to provide farms with these expensive plants, nor is it necessary.
-Through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences
-of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger
-from sewage removed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_110b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="242" />
-    <img src="images/i_111a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="282" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Septic tanks are nothing but long underground, water-tight cisterns
-through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly. Located
-underground, they are warm and dark—ideal conditions for the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
-development of the bacteria, little germs which eat up the sewage and
-render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to
-ferment. To prevent the bacteria (which live in the frothy sludge) from
-being disturbed cross-walls, called baffle boards, are placed to break
-up the current of the inflowing sewage. The purified sewage, merely
-clear water, may be discharged into the farm drain tile.</p>
-
-<p>Locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side
-walls underground and out of danger of flood waters. For a family of 8
-to 10, plan a tank with 8-inch walls, 5 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 10
-feet long—all dimensions in the clear. Lay out the tank and construct
-it in exactly the same manner as <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">
-Underground Cisterns</span></a>, page 68.</p>
-
-<p>Before filling the forms, set in the 6-inch inlet and outlet drains
-at the same height, 2 feet 6 inches below the ground level. To aid
-further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air, use
-elbow bends, so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of
-the tile. In the side forms, at a distance of 2 and 4 feet from the
-inlet wall, set ¾-inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be
-attached. These boards reach entirely across the tank, project above
-the sewage, and extend to within 1 foot of the bottom. While building
-the manhole covers, for the needed ventilation, insert in them four
-short lengths of 1-inch gas pipe.</p>
-
-<p>Remove the forms the same as for <a href="#CISTERNS">underground cisterns</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_111b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="300" />
-    <p class="f120 space-below2">Concrete Hydrant Sink</p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_112a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>Window Hatches</h3>
-
-<p class="space-below2">Window hatches should be protected by a flap cover,
-to close in times of heavy rain or snow.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_112b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="421" />
-</div>
-
-<h3>An Outdoor Swimming Pool</h3>
-
-<p>These are built exactly as an <a href="#CISTERNS">underground cistern</a>.
-A pool near home affords a safe “swimming hole” for the children.</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="f200"><b><i>How will you know?</i></b></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>You are going to build—now or some time—and you want to build well
-and economically.</p>
-
-<p>You will choose between temporary and permanent construction.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Why you should build in concrete.</i></p>
-
-<p>First, because of <i>permanence</i>. It is fireproof, strong, and
-lasting—proof against wear-and-tear and depreciation. It lasts and
-lasts—against wind, water, and fire.</p>
-
-<p>Second, because of <i>cleanliness and sanitation</i>. This means healthy
-stock and better products, which sell at higher prices.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>Third, because of <i>economy</i>. Concrete is lower in ultimate cost
-because, once built, it requires no painting or up-keep, no repairs,
-no attention. Being proof against fire, concrete secures the lowest
-insurance rates.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<p class="f150 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Why you should use ATLAS.</i></p>
-
-<p>First, because Atlas Portland Cement is the most-used cement—high in
-quality and always uniform and reliable.</p>
-
-<p>Second, because Atlas Portland Cement has demonstrated its worth.
-Our own government selected it for the Panama Canal, after careful
-investigation and tests. Nearly seven million barrels have been used so
-far for this project. Severe government tests have been made of every
-hundred barrels, but not a single barrel has been rejected.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="f120 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Free help for you.</i></p>
-
-<p>This book will give much valuable information about concrete. But
-naturally, your particular needs may require further information.</p>
-
-<p>Let us furnish this information you need. Tell us what you want to
-build and what you would like to know. We will gladly give you all the
-necessary help.</p>
-
-<p>So far, we have sent information to over two million farmers. Why
-shouldn’t you avail yourself of this help, which is offered to you
-without any obligation?</p>
-
-<p>Whenever you buy cement, look for the Atlas trade mark as your
-guide—the black trade mark with yellow letters.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="f150"><b><i>The Atlas Portland Cement Company</i></b></p>
-<p class="center"><i>New York&nbsp; Chicago&nbsp; Philadelphia&nbsp; Boston</i><br />
-<i>St. Louis&nbsp; Minneapolis&nbsp; Des Moines</i></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="f200"><b><i>Warning</i></b></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>There are many brands of Portland cement, and some people are
-confused, and as a result accept any cement bearing the word “Portland.”</p>
-
-<p>The word “Portland” signifies <i>only</i> the kind of cement, <i>but does
-not designate the brand and quality</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Specify “ATLAS” Portland Cement when you buy, and you will get the best.</p>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>Atlas Portland Cement</b></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">is always uniform in strength, color and quality. It is the
-cement that has done most to make concrete and its uses so satisfactory and
-well known. That is why Atlas is “The Standard by which all other makes
-are measured.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="f200"><b>Ask Your<br />Dealer for<br />ATLAS</b></p>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all<br />other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all<br />other makes are measured.</i>”</p>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="f300"><b>ATLAS</b></p>
-<p class="center">used exclusively by the<br />United States Government<br />on the Panama Canal</p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="f300"><b>ATLAS</b></p>
-<p class="center">used exclusively on the<br />great Keokuk Dam across<br />
-the Mississippi River</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<div class="footnotes space-below2">
-<p class="f150"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
-Farmers’ Bulletin 403, Concrete Fence Posts. Sent free on application.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
-For free bulletins on dipping write the Agricultural Department,
-Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
-A simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is described on
-<a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="transnote bbox">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p>
-<p class="indent">The advertisements between pages 48 and 49 in the original text have
-                  been moved to the end of the text.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
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