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diff --git a/old/62312-0.txt b/old/62312-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c28ee75..0000000 --- a/old/62312-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4763 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and the -Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Concrete Construction for the Home and the Farm - -Author: The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -Release Date: June 2, 2020 [EBook #62312] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical errors have been silently corrected. - The advertisements between pages 48 and 49 in the original text have - been moved to the end of the text. - - - - -=_A Request_= - - -Should you find this book helpful in building with concrete, we would -consider it a favor to have you so inform us. Likewise, we would -appreciate a description (and a photograph if possible) of whatever you -have built in concrete. - -In this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope -we have helped you. - -If you do not fully understand any part of this book, or if you desire -further information, write us and we shall be glad to do anything else -we can. - - - - - CONCRETE - CONSTRUCTION - _for the_ HOME - _and the_ FARM - - “CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE” - - 1916 - - THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY - 30 Broad Street, New York 134 So. LaSalle Street, Chicago - Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines - - - - - INDEX - - - =Special Index to Directions= - - PAGE - Bank-run gravel, 13 - Cleaning forms, 24 - Definition of concrete, 9 - Dry mixture, 13 - Forms, 22-24 - Gravel, 10, 13 - Hand mixing, 17-21 - Materials, 9, 10 - Measuring boxes, 12 - Measuring materials, 11-13 - Medium mixture, 13 - Mixing, 15-22 - Natural mixture, 13-20 - Placing, 25, 26 - Portland cement, 9 - Proportions, 11-13 - Protection of concrete after placing, 26 - Publications issued by the Association, 8 - Quantities of materials, 21, 22 - Reinforcement, 26, 27 - Runs, 15 - Sand as an aggregate, 9 - Selecting lumber for forms, 23 - Stone as an aggregate, 10 - Tools, 15 - Wet mixture, 13 - - =General Index= - PAGE - Acetylene gas house, 83-87 - Alleyways, 41 - Barns, 62 - Barn approach, 60 - Barn floors, 54-59 - Barn foundations, 61, 62 - Barnyard pavements, 47, 48 - Base for machinery, 87-89 - Bee cellars, 92, 93 - Carriage house entrance, 39 - Carriage washing floor, 42 - Cellar steps and hatchway, 90, 91 - Chimney, 50, 51 - Chimney caps, 97 - Cistern covers, 69 - Cisterns, 68-70, 72-73 - Coal house, 83-87 - Cold-frame, 99, 100 - Concrete in the country, 5-8 - Corn crib floor, 53 - Corner stones, 105 - Cow barn floors, 55-58 - Culverts, 108, 109 - Cyclone cellar, 92-93 - Dairy, 83-87 - Dipping vats and tanks, 76-80 - Dog kennel, 83-87 - Drain tile outlet, 106 - Drinking troughs and tanks, 74, 75 - Driveway of concrete, 40, 41 - Drop gutters, 54-59 - Duck pond, 95 - Engine base foundation, 87, 88 - Engine house, 82-89 - Entrance floor, 39 - Farm buildings, 82-89 - Feed cooker, 50, 51 - Feeding floors, 43-45 - Feeding troughs, racks and mangers, 49, 50 - Fence posts, 104 - Field rollers, 102 - Field spring improvement, 70, 71 - Floors, 39, 42, 45, 47, 48, - 53-56, 58, 79, 82, - 83, 87, 98 - Foundation gutter, 35 - Fruit cellars, 92, 93 - Garbage receiver, 103 - Gasoline engine base, 87, 88 - Gate posts, 104, 105 - Granary floors, 53 - Gutters, 35 - Hatchway for cellar steps, 90, 91 - Hay cap weights, 103 - Hen house, 94 - Hens’ nests, 94 - Hitching post, 104 - Hog wallows, 52 - Horse barn floors, 58, 59 - Hot-bed, 99, 100 - Housing for driven well, 67, 68 - Hydraulic ram house, 89 - Ice house, 83-87 - Lawn roller, 102 - Mangers, 49, 50, 57, 59 - Manure pits and cisterns, 45 - Milk house, 83-87 - Milk vat, 81, 82 - Nests for hens, 94 - Old buildings and their repair, 36-38 - Porch floor, 98, 99 - Posts for fences and gates, 104 - Posts, hitching, 104 - Poultry house, 94 - Ram house, 89 - Repairs to farm buildings, 36-38 - Retaining wall and steps, 96, 97 - Roadways, 40, 41 - Root cellar, 92, 93 - Rollers, 102 - Sanitary water supply, 67-75 - Septic tanks, 110, 111 - Sidewalks, 28-34 - Silos, 65, 66 - Small farm buildings, 82-89 - Smoke house, 83-87 - Snow fences, 63, 64 - Spraying tanks, 107 - Spring improvements, 70, 71 - Steps, 90, 91, 96, 97 - Stones, corner, 105 - Survey monuments, 105 - Swimming pool, 112 - Tanks, 74, 75 - Tarpaulin weights, 103 - Tool house, 83-87 - Trash burner, 103 - Tree repair, 101 - Troughs, 74, 75 - Vegetable cellar, 92, 93 - Walks, 28-34 - Walk specifications, 29 - Watering troughs, 74, 75 - Weights for hay caps and tarpaulins, 103 - Well cover, 69 - Well protection, 67-70 - Wind walls, 63, 64 - Window hatch, 112 - Wiring forms, 23 - - - - -Concrete in the Country - -=How the American Farmer is Solving His Conservation Problem= - - -Conservation is no new problem—it is as old as life itself. It becomes -a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the -resources scarcely supply the demands. Such is the situation in the -United States to-day. In the early days the removal of the forests -was necessary that much grain might be grown. The young Nation had -to have money, and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish -it, the natural fertility of the fields was reduced. But the money -thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the Bank of Natural -Resources. To-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of -the fields bear witness that the loan is now due. Hence the problem of -conservation. Strange as it may seem, the farmer is using one material -not only to replace lumber but also, in a way, to restore the fertility -of his fields—that material is concrete. - -The national and state governments and the railroads were the first to -make extensive use of concrete. Not only did the beauty and mystery -of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer, but he -concluded that the railroads did not use it, in preference to wood, -steel and stone, merely to decorate the landscape. He knew too much -about railroads. So strongly did the railroads’ idea of economy (the -dollar argument) appeal to him that the farmer of the West is now -building practically everything about the farm of concrete. At first, -and quite naturally, land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began -using this new form of construction; but, since its cheapness in first -cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known, a wave -of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire -country. A gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine. - -With little help other than looking and listening, the farmer grasped -the idea of a concrete walk, and being a natural inventor and -jack-of-all-trades, improved on the method by adding a small curb -next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white -walk. This walk was a blessing to the boy—all the time formerly given -to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted -to fishing. The yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying -buildings. Wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen -floors became a thing of the past. By simply increasing the width of -the walk, a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar. -This was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit -for that most immaculate of all places—the milk house. Concrete cellar -hatchway and steps, safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar, and -water-tight, were made in a manner similar to walks. - -Brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of Portland cement and -sand. As this kept the water out, the farmer reasoned that it would -keep the water in, and he started to build cistern floors, walls and -cover of Portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of -the old brick cistern. - -After a little more observation, he quit digging deep cistern-pits, -with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying -water—he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the -pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in -the kitchen and the bath room. - -Several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was -burned for fuel instead of coal. No consideration was then given to -the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots. If the mud became too deep, the -feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture. To be sure, as the -sod wore out, the feeding-place had to be changed; but somebody had -advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for -the soil. Many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found -them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned, -in the general health of the animal, and in the shortened time of -fattening. But two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them -and the constant need of repairs. In concrete the thoughtful farmer -saw the possibilities of an ideal floor—an easily cleaned, rat-proof, -disease-proof surface upon which his hogs, sheep, cattle and poultry -might consume the feed even to the smallest particle. - -So satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment -suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding, muddy holes in the -earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns. But -the careful horseman held up a bit: he was afraid that stamping at -the flies, his valuable Percherons, Shires and Morgans might stiffen -up their legs. He experimented by placing concrete floors in his open -sheds, which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy -weather, just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he -needed the sheds most, and found such floors satisfactory. - -To-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations -of the time. The virgin soil of the prairies, of the cleared woodlands -and of the broken-up ranges, for a few years produced immense crops -of cotton and grain. To build up the decreasing productiveness of the -fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing -at hand. The passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price -of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer, -especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return -to the soil, in the form of manure, all the fertility which had been -removed in the growing of grain. Leaving out the matter of foods, the -strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage. -Manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third -to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching, -due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock, and later because of -fermentation or “firing” brought about by the lack of sufficient -moisture. This fertilizer usually sells at from 75 cents to $1.00 per -load. - -The farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit -in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be. He -extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that -they were so clean, so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection -is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in -such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease -germs carried in unclean milk. The drop gutters carry all the liquids, -the richest part of the manure, formerly wasted, to the manure pits. -Consequently, one load of manure, thus properly preserved, is easily -worth two loads as ordinarily stored. By confining the manure in -pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete, the farm has been rid -of the chief breeding-place of flies, gnats, mosquitos and disease. -Moreover, such an interior court, surrounded by buildings and concrete -wind walls, forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot. - -Government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm, in -spite of the fresh food and pure air, is greater than the death-rate in -the city. State University tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a -doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells -contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever. To -prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well, many -people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight -concrete. Others are sinking “driven” wells and protecting them with -concrete housings. The principle of deep wells for pure water, among -other things, has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm. -These engines and hydraulic rams at springs, firmly set and housed in -concrete, supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs -or elevated, reinforced pressure tanks. From these places of storage -water is distributed to float-controlled, rot-proof watering tanks and -troughs of the same material. With such a water supply animals never -suffer for water. Even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved -and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete. - -Thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful -attention to the health, comfort and convenience of his family. -Moreover, the care of the animals is not neglected. A concrete dipping -vat holds the liquids which free horses, cattle, sheep and hogs of -mange, lice, mites, ticks and fleas. The Department of Agriculture is -stamping out the Texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use -of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts. A hog wallow -with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded -by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera -often carried down from animals affected further up stream. - -The continual rotting off of wooden fence posts, the constantly -increasing cost of new ones, and the annual expense of fence repairs, -called for the introduction of some substitute. Land is entirely -too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts. -Even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the -possibilities of concrete in this line, a few venturesome farmers had -given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only -advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost, but more -profitable on account of their everlasting qualities. The Department -of Agriculture at Washington has thoroughly investigated the use and -methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin -describing the process. Such posts are also valuable in the culture of -grapes and hops.[1] - -[1] Farmers’ Bulletin 403, Concrete Fence Posts. Sent free on -application. - -The use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from -the ground upward. The drip soon rots out timber near the ground and -eventually crumbles away the brick foundation. At first, uselessly -making the walls as heavy as those of brick, the farmer gave concrete -a trial in foundations. Concrete is stronger than brick. As a wall it -kept the basement and back barn dry. The height of the foundation wall -increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft. Finally, after -a study of methods, of reinforcing, the entire barn—basement, walls, -floors, mangers, troughs, gutters, beams and even the shingles—became -concrete. Matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors -in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times. The oil will -burn until smothered out with a horse blanket, but no further damage -will be done. - -Poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on -account of rats. To free the farm of these destructive animals, as a -last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil, -the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs -and granaries. Corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept -perfectly on concrete. The rats had to go; they could not get through -such floors. And so we might continue, describing how farmers have -successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a -stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings. - -Just as there are right and wrong methods of farming, so, too, are -there right and wrong ways of using concrete. It is the aim of this -book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader -to build with concrete surely and successfully. - -“CONCRETE IN THE COUNTRY” does not pretend to fully cover the -subject—the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume. But -the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types -of concrete construction as is possible in the space available. - -Fuller details are given in other pamphlets, which will be furnished -free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of -this book. - - -=Publications issued by the Association of American Portland Cement -Manufacturers, Philadelphia, Pa.= - -At the office of the above Association there are available books -dealing with concrete construction of all classes. These books describe -the construction of silos, fence posts, tanks, troughs, concrete roads, -and many other works. Upon request there will be sent a list of the -publications in print. The books, with one or two exceptions, are sent -free of cost. - - - - -What is “Concrete”? - - -Concrete—a manufactured stone—is made by mixing together Portland -cement, sand and stone (or gravel). Various proportions of each are -used, depending upon the use to which the concrete is put. About half -an hour after mixing these materials together, the mass begins to -stiffen, until, in from half-a-day to a day, it becomes so hard that -you cannot dent it with the hand. By a month the mass is hard like -stone—indeed, harder than most stones. - - -Materials - -Before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing -concrete, it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding -as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work, and how -best these may be selected. - - -Portland Cement - -For domestic use, Portland Cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper -bags. When furnished in cloth sacks, the price per barrel includes -the cost of the sacks (four sacks making a barrel). When the sacks -are returned in good condition, the amount charged is rebated to the -customer. Where cement is furnished in paper bags, the price also -includes the cost of the paper bags which, however, are not returnable. - -Many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags, as it -does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and -sending them bade to the dealer for credit. - -The paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs 94 pounds, and four such -make a barrel of 376 pounds. - -The storage of cement is very important. It must be kept in a dry -place. Once wet, it becomes hard and lumpy, and in such condition is -useless. If, however, the lumps are caused by pressure in the store -house, the cement may be used with safety. Lumps thus formed can be -easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel. - -In storing cement, throw wooden blocks on the floor. Place boards -over them and pile the cement on the boards, covering the pile with a -canvas or a piece of roofing paper. Never, under any circumstances, -keep cement on the bare ground, or pile it directly against the outside -walls of buildings. - - -Sand - -Do not use very fine sand. If there is a large quantity of fine sand -handy, obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal -parts; this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone. - -Sometimes fine sand _must_ be used, because no other can be obtained; -but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be -used—sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required. For -example, in such a case, instead of using a concrete 1 part cement, 2 -parts sand, and 4 parts stone, use a concrete 1 part cement, I part -sand, and 2 parts stone. - -Besides being coarse, the sand should be clean, _i. e._, free from -vegetable matter. “But,” you say, “how shall I tell whether the sand is -what you call clean?” - -The presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a -little in the palm of the hand. If a little is emptied into a pail of -water, the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the -water. This can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth -of 4 inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch -of the top. After the jar has been well shaken, the contents should -be allowed to settle for a couple of hours. The sand will sink to the -bottom, but the mud, which can be easily recognized by its color, will -form a distinct layer on top of the sand, and above both will be a -clear depth of water. If the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in -thickness, the sand should not be used unless it is first washed. - -Having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean, and -provided you cannot readily obtain any that _is_ clean, you may use -what you have, provided you wash it in the following manner:— - -Build a loose board platform from 10 to 15 feet long, with one end a -foot higher than the other. On the lower end and on the sides, nail a -board 2 by 6 inches on edge, to hold the sand. Spread the sand over -this platform in a layer three or four inches thick, and wash it with -a hose. The washing should be started at the high end, and the water -allowed to run through the sand and over the 2 by 6-inch piece at the -bottom. A _small_ quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand, -but any amount over 5 per cent. does. - - -Stone or Gravel - -This is known as the “coarse aggregate” of concrete. Great care should -be used in its selection. The pebbles should be closely inspected -to see that there is no clay on their surface. A layer of such clay -prevents the “binding” of the cement. If necessary stone or gravel may -be washed in the same way as above described for sand. Indeed, it is -more easily done than sand, as the water flows through the larger voids -in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand. Dust may -be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the -strength of the cement, but care should be taken to see that such dust -is distributed evenly through the whole mass, and when dust is found in -stone, slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily. - -As to the size of stone or gravel, this must be determined by the -form of construction contemplated. For foundations or any large thick -structure, use anything from ½ to 2½ inches in diameter. For thin walls -use ¼ to 1-inch stone. - -The best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded -from small to large. By this means the spaces or voids between the -stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained. -Moreover, this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and -less cement. - - -Pure Water Necessary in Mixing - -Water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and -alkalies. It may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board -and placed on the concrete with a bucket. If you are at all in doubt -about the purity of the water that you contemplate using, it would be -well to make up a block of concrete as a test, and see whether the -cement “sets” properly. - - -Proportioning the Mixture - -That mixture in which all the spaces (called “voids”) between the stone -or gravel are filled with sand, and all the spaces between the sand -are filled with cement, is the ideal mixture. This mixture is rarely -attained, as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly, -and in order to be absolutely safe, it is well to use a little more -cement than will just fill the voids. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Quantities of cement, sand, and gravel in 1: 2: -4 concrete mixture, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts -crushed stone or gravel, and the resulting quantity of concrete, which -is only slightly greater in size than the gravel, the sand and cement -filling the voids in the gravel.] - - TABLE I. - - SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE RESULTING - AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH. - - Legend: - AA = Cement - BB = Sand - CC = Stone or Gravel - --------+-----------+----------------------------------------------- - |PROPORTIONS| - | BY PARTS. | TWO-BAG BATCH. - +---+---+---+-------------------+------+-------------+------ - | | | | | | Size of |Water - | | | | | | Measuring | in - KIND OF | | | | Materials. | | Boxes. | Gal- - CONCRETE | | | | | | Inside | lons - MIXTURE.| | | | | |Measurements.| for - | | | +-----+------+------+ +------+------+Medium - | | | | | | | Con- | | |Wet - |AA |BB |CC | AA | BB | CC |crete.| BB | CC |Mix- - | | | | | | | | | |ture. - --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------ - | | | |Bags.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.| | |Gal- - | | | | | | | | | |lons. - 1:2:4 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3¾ | 7½ | 8½ |2′×2′ | 2′×4′| 10 - Concrete| | | | | | | | 11½″ | 11½″| - | | | | | | | | | | - 1:2½:5 | 1 | 2½| 5 | 5 | 4¾ | 9½ | 10 |2′×2½′| 2′×5′| 12½ - Concrete| | | | | | | | 11½″ | 11½″| - --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------ - -As above explained, concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement, -a larger amount of sand, and a still larger amount of stone (or -gravel). To determine how much of each of these materials to use, we -must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake. For ordinary -work about the farm (silos, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, well curbs, -etc., etc.) use twice as much stone as sand, and twice as much sand as -cement. This is called a 1: 2: 4 mixture—meaning that there are in -that mixture: - - 1 part of cement, - 2 parts of sand, - 4 parts of stone or gravel. - -For sidewalks, gutters, etc., a “weaker” mixture is sometimes used, -consisting of: - - 1 part of cement, - 2½ parts of sand, - 5 parts of stone or gravel. - -The proportions should always be measured by volume, and the best way -to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made “measuring box,” -of any kind of rough boards having straight sides, but with no top -or bottom. The size of these measuring boxes is determined by the -proportion desired for your mixture. For such boxes you need the -following sized lumber: - - 4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet rough (ends of sand and - stone boxes). - 2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet rough (sides of sand box). - 2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 6 feet rough (sides of stone box). - -Note: The two pieces 4 feet long and the two pieces 6 feet long have an -extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in -Fig. 3. - -For a 1: 2½: 5 mixture, you require the following sized lumber: - - 4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet (ends of sand and stone - boxes). - 2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches (sides of sand - box). - 2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 7 feet (sides of stone box). - - Note: The two pieces 4 feet 6 inches long and the - two pieces 7 feet long have an extra foot in length - at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in Fig. 3. - - -To illustrate the use of the measuring box, let us once more assume -that a 1: 2: 4 mixture is required, and that the amount of finished -concrete needed is 8½ cubic feet. By referring to the table on page -11 it will be noted that two bags of cement are required, also 3¾ -cubic feet of sand and 7½ cubic feet of stone or gravel. Under “size -of measuring box” it is found that the sand should just fill a box 2 -feet by 2 feet by 11½ inches, and that the stone should fill a box 2 -feet by 4 feet by 11½ inches. Lay the sand box, or frame, on the mixing -platform and fill it. Then raise the box. Empty two bags of cement on -the sand and mix as described under “Mixing,” see pages 14-22. Even off -the mixture thus obtained with your shovel, place the stone measuring -box on top of the mixture and fill it. Raise the measuring box—and you -have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement -and sand. It is important to measure both the sand and stone _loose_ in -the box—never “pack” them. - -For purposes of explanation, size of mixture will be referred to as -a “_batch_” of so many bags of cement. Thus, a “two-bag batch of -concrete” would mean one requiring two bags of cement, with the sand -and stone proportioned accordingly, as shown above. - -For a “four-bag batch of concrete” it would be necessary to multiply -the amount of stone and gravel by 2, also multiplying the cubic -contents of the measuring box by 2, and using four bags of cement -instead of two. - -The table previously referred to also shows the amount of water for -different sized batches, but it is to be noted that the quantity of -this ingredient is only approximated. Use the amount indicated in -the table for the first batch, and if it proves too wet for the use -desired, reduce the amount of water; if too dry, increase the amount of -water. Always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water, as this -secures uniform results. - - -Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel - -Naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right -proportions for making concrete. Generally, however, there is far too -much sand for the gravel, and great care should be exercised in using -this class of material. Unless the mixture runs very even throughout -the bank, and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts -gravel, it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare -the materials in the usual way. - -Herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of -bank sand and gravel. The quantities can be found in the same way as in -Table I, on page 11. - - TABLE II. - - SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE - RESULTING AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH, USING - NATURAL MIXTURE OF BANK SAND AND GRAVEL. - - --------+---------------+------------------------------------------- - | PROPORTIONS | TWO-BAG BATCH FOR NATURAL MIXTURE OF - | BY PARTS. | BANK SAND AND GRAVEL. - +-------+-------+---------------+-------+----------+-------- - | | | | | Size of | - | | | Materials. | |Measuring | - KIND OF | | | | | Boxes. | - CONCRETE| | +-------+-------+ +----------+Water in - MIXTURE.| |Natural| |Natural| Con- | |Gallons - |Cement.|Mixture|Cement.|Mixture|crete. |Mixture of| for - | |of Sand| |of Sand| | Sand and |Medium - | | and | | and | | Gravel. |Wet - | |Gravel.| |Gravel.| | |Mixture. - --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+-------- - | | | Bags. |Cu. ft.|Cu. ft.| |Gallons - 1:2:4 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 7½ | 8½ |2′×4′×11½″| 10 - Concrete| | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - 1:2½:5 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 9½ | 10 |2′×5′×11½″| 12½ - Concrete| | | | | | | - --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+-------- - -There are three kinds of mixtures, in general, on concrete work:— - - 1st.—_Very Wet Mixture._—Concrete wet enough to be - mushy and run off the shovel when handling, used for - thin walls or for thin sections, etc. - - 2d.—_Medium Mixture._—Concrete just wet enough - to make it jelly-like, used for foundations, floors, - etc. To better describe this mixture it may be said - that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step - on top of the pile. - - 3d.—_Dry Mixture._—Concrete like damp earth, used - for foundations, etc., where it is important to have - the concrete “set” up as quickly as possible. - -The difference between the mixtures is, that the dryer the mixture the -quicker will the concrete “set up”—but in the long run, when carefully -mixed and “placed,” the results from any of the above mixtures will be -identical. It may be said, however, that a dry mixture is the harder to -handle, must be protected with greater care from the sun or from drying -too quickly; and lastly, is likely—unless used by most experienced -hands—to show voids or stone pockets in the face of the work when the -“Forms” are removed. The less the voids in the stone or gravel, the -greater will be the volume of the concrete. In general, the amount -of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown in the -table—especially when gravel is used. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Concrete Mixing Plant, showing Concrete Board, -Tools, etc., Necessary for Mixing Concrete by Hand.] - - -Tools - -One great advantage of concrete, so far as the farmer is concerned, -lies in the fact that, generally speaking, it necessitates no outlay -for tools, for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms of -concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses— - -Shovels—One for each man on the job. - -Wheelbarrows—At least two, preferably those with sheet iron bodies. - -Rake. - -Water Barrel. - -Several Water Buckets. - -A Tamper or Rammer—This is made of wood with handles nailed to it, as -shown in Fig. 2. The measurement is 4 inches by 2 inches by 2 feet 6 -inches. - -A Garden Spade. - -A Sand Screen, made by nailing a piece of ¼-inch mesh wire screen, 2½ -feet by 5 feet in size, to a frame made of 2-inch by 4-inch scantling. - -In addition to the above tools you will require a Mixing Board. This is -simply a water-tight platform. It should be (for a two batch mixture -and for two men to work on) about 10 feet square. Make it out of 1-inch -boards 10 feet long, surfaced on one side, using 5 cleats to hold the -boards together. The cleats should measure 2 inches by 4 inches by 9 -feet. If 1-inch by 6-inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained, -these will answer very nicely, provided they are fairly free from -knots. The object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or -turning easy. The boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling -to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards. The -boards must be drawn up close in nailing, so that no cement “grout” -will run through while mixing. - -For a larger job, a slightly larger mixing board will be needed. - -In setting up your mixing board, choose a place giving plenty of room -near the storage piles of sand and stone. Block up your concrete board -level, so that the cement grout will not run off on one side, and so -that the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the -concrete. - - -Wheelbarrow “Runs” - -You will also have to make wheelbarrow “runs” leading from your mixing -board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed. Do not use, for -these runs, any old boards that are handy. Make a good run—smooth, -and, if much above the ground, at least 20 inches wide. This one -feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent. - - -How to Mix Concrete - -Having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and -runs, the next step is the actual process of mixing. - -The proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types -of work have already been described on pages 11-13. In following -the mixing instructions here given, considerable assistance will be -obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are -interspersed. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Lifting off the Sand Measuring Box and Getting -Cement Ready.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Spreading the Cement Over the Sand.] - -The Hand Mixing Method - -There are many ways of “hand mixing,” all having the same good results. -The way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to -obtain good results with a minimum of labor. In this description, and -the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a “Two-Bag -Batch” of 1: 2: 4 concrete. - -First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile, wheel on to -the “Board,” and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about -two feet from one of the 10-foot sides of the board, as shown by the -diagram in Fig. 3. When the sand box is filled, lift it off and spread -the sand over the board in a layer 3 or 4 inches thick, as shown in -Fig. 4. Take the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly -as possible over the sand (see Fig. 4). With the two men at points -marked “x” and “xx” on the sketch below Fig. 4, start mixing the sand -and cement, each man turning over the half on his side of the line AA. -Starting at his feet and shoveling away from him, each man takes a -full shovel load, turning the shovel over at the points marked 1 and -2 respectively in Fig. 4. In turning the shovel, do not simply dump -the sand and cement at the points marked 1 and 2 in the diagram under -the cut, but shake the materials off the end and sides of the shovel, -so that the sand and cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great -assistance in mixing these materials. In this way the material is -shoveled from one side of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 5 -and 6. Fig. 5 shows the first turning, and Fig. 6 the second turning. - -The sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the stone -and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement out -carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as shown -in Fig. 7, and fill from the gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel -the gravel on top of the sand and cement, spreading it as evenly as -possible. With some experience, equally good results can be obtained -by placing the gravel measuring box on top of the carefully leveled -sand and cement mixture, and filling it, thus placing the gravel on -top without an extra shoveling. This method is shown in Fig. 8. Add -about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a bucket and -dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as evenly as -possible. (See Fig. 9). Be careful not to let too much water get near -the edges of the pile, as it will run off, taking some cement with it. -This caution, however, does not apply to a properly constructed mixing -board, as the cement and water cannot get away. Starting the same as -with the sand and cement, turn the materials over in much the same way, -except that instead of shaking the materials off the end of the shovel, -the whole shovel load is dumped as at points 1 or 2 in the diagram -under Fig. 4 and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point -of the shovel. This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet -gravel picking up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged -back by the shovel. (See Fig. 10). Add water to the dry spots as the -mixing goes on until all the required water has been used. Turn the -mass bade again, as was done with the sand and cement. With experienced -laborers, the concrete should be well mixed after three such turnings; -but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be turned again. After -the final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The concrete is now -ready for placing. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—First Turning, Sand and Cement.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Second Turning, Sand and Cement.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring -Box—First Method.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box -When on Top of Mixed Sand and Cement—Second Method.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9—Placing the Water on the Stone (or Gravel) which -is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement.] - - -Mixing Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel - -Spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will -readily permit, add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly, -spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel, and -turn over, as described previously, at least three times, adding the -rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the -materials are being turned. It requires some experience to work up a -natural mixture of bank sand and gravel, and if at all doubtful about -the concrete made from it, first screen the sand from the gravel, and -then mix in the regular way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and -Cement.] - - -Number of Men - -For the above operation only two men are required, although more can -be used to advantage. If three men are available, let two of them mix -as described above and the third man supply the water, help mix the -concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn -the concrete, help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel, -etc. Fig. 5 shows a third man on the board. In this illustration, he is -helping mix the sand and cement by raking it—a most effective practice. - -If four men are available, it is best to increase the size of the batch -mixed to a four-bag batch, doubling the quantities of all materials -used. The cement board should also be increased to 10 by 12 feet as -shown under “Tools.” In this case start the mixing in the middle of the -board, and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch, -except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it -is turned back on to the center of the board. When more than four men -are available, the rest may place the concrete, make new runs, load -wheelbarrows, etc., taking the concrete away from the board as fast as -it is mixed. In this case another small concrete board should be placed -next to the big “board,” so that in the last turning the batch can be -shoveled over on to the small board for placing, making room on the big -board to mix the next batch. The small platform need be only just big -enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete. - - -How to Determine Quantities of Materials Needed - -First figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required -for the work in question. Then by multiplying this number by the number -under the proper column and required mixture shown in Table III, the -amounts of cement, sand, and stone or gravel can be found. - - TABLE III. - - -------------------+------------------------------------------------ - | QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL IN 1 CU. FT. OF CONCRETE - +---------+--------------+----------------------- - MIXTURE | Cement, | Sand, | Stone or Gravel, - | Barrel | Cu. Yard | Cu. Yard - -------------------+---------+--------------+----------------------- - 1 : 2 : 4 Concrete| .058 | .0163 | .0326 - 1 : 2½ : 5 Concrete| .048 | .0176 | .0352 - -------------------+---------+--------------+----------------------- - - -=Example= - -Suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all 935 cubic -feet of concrete, of which 750 cubic feet is to be 1: 2: 4 concrete, -and 185 cubic feet is to be 1: 2½: 5 concrete. Also enough sand and -cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside, in all 400 -square yards of surface, with a 1: 1 mixture of sand and cement. One -cubic foot of 1: 1 mortar will paint about 15 square yards of surface -and requires 0.1856 barrels of cement and 0.0263 cubic yards of sand. - - -=Solution, Etc.= - -Thus the necessary quantities of materials are:— - - 57½ barrels of Portland cement. - 16½ cubic yards of sand. - 31 cubic yards of stone or gravel. - -It is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement, if the -dealer is at considerable distance, as this avoids any possible trouble -that a shortage might cause. Besides, any cement left over always comes -in handy for repair work around the house or barn. - - -Forms for Concrete - -Concrete is a plastic material and before hardening, takes the shape of -anything against which or in which it is placed. - -Naturally, the building of the Form is a most important item in the -success of the work. - -These Forms hold the concrete in place, support it until it has -hardened and give it its shape, as well as its original surface finish. - - -Kinds of Forms - -Almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a -Form. Concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches, -and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a Form. - -Molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work. Frequently colored -sands are used for this purpose, providing both the finished surface -and color to the concrete ornament. - -Cast, wrought or galvanized iron is used, where an extremely smooth -finish is desired, without further treatment upon the removal of the -Forms. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can be used a -greater number of times than those of wood. Rusty iron, however, should -not be used. - -By far the greatest number of Forms are made of wood, owing to the fact -that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained. - - -Requirements of a Good Form - -Plan your Forms so there will be no difficult measurements to -understand. Make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can, and -do not drive the Forms full of nails. If you do the Forms will be -difficult to take apart without splitting. - -Forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without -bulging out of shape. When they bulge, cracks open between the planks -and the water in the concrete, with some cement and sand, will leak -out. This weakens the concrete, and causes hollows in the surface which -look badly after the Forms are removed. - -Forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a -second time. A part of the erection cost of Forms is saved if the Forms -are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle. This saving -applies to their removal, as well as to their setting. Consequently, -the lightest Forms possible, with the largest surface area, are the -most economical. - - -How to Plan Forms - -[Illustration: Wiring Forms Prevents Bulging.] - -The first consideration in planning Forms is the use to which they are -to be put. Neglect of this point means waste of money and time. If they -are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat, the finish of -the surface is of small consideration, while the alignment of the Form -is all-important. - -If a tank or retaining wall is to be built, the fact that the Forms are -not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed. - -In planning Forms for large structures, the oftener each section is -used, the less the cost. You save money if they are rigid in alignment, -and well surfaced. In other words, if you count on using your Forms -over and over again, the more nearly perfect they are, the more often -they can be used, and the cheaper they become. - -If Forms are to be used only once, as is generally the case on the -farm, they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being -readily taken apart, and the lumber used for something else. If often -pays to put them together with screws. If nails are used, do not drive -them home. - - -Care Needed in Selecting Lumber for Forms - -The selection of lumber is of importance. If the Forms are to be used -over many times, surfaced lumber, matched, tongued, and grooved stuff, -free from loose knots, is an economy. If, however, they are to be used -only once, almost any old plank will do. By nailing a board on the -outside of the cracks or over the bad knot, and filling with a little -clay, the Form is made tight. - -Green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff. Seasoned -stuff, when wet (either by throwing water on the form before placing -the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete) warps, and -the shape and tightness of the Form are damaged. - -[Illustration] - -Originally only surfaced lumber was used for Forms, dependence being -placed on it for giving a finish to the work. While to-day other than -smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion, surfaced lumber has some -advantages. The Forms fit together better and are easier to erect. They -are more easily cleaned. They are easier to remove. All these items -reduce the cost of the work. The saving effected will of course depend -on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber. - - -How to Clean - -Particles of concrete stick to the Forms. In order to prevent this, -give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap. Linseed, -black or cylinder oil may be used. Never use kerosene. - -Before erecting, paint the Forms with the oil or soap. Then carefully -protect them from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, immediately -clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface. A -short-handled hoe will take off the worst, while a wire brush is most -effective for finishing. Be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning, -as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete. It will -not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use. Watch the -surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots. - -If chips or blocks of wood fall inside the Forms while erecting, -carefully remove them. The space inside the Forms is intended for the -concrete; and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed -there. - -The necessity of Forms presents a problem calling for the use of -that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed. Forms can be -economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be -given. A foundation Form in place is shown in the photograph. Note the -simple and easy method of bracing. Also note how lumber is saved from -cutting by allowing the sides to project, as well as the studding. - -For this building, 18 by 24 feet, trench 18 inches wide and 2 feet -deep—total cost of setting forms $4.00. The lumber was all on hand and -can be used again. - - - - -How to Place Concrete - - -No time should elapse between the “mixing” and the “placing.” -Directions for placing must of necessity be general, and the farmer -must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete -work, in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand. The -important thing to remember is, that the materials should not separate -in placing. - -You may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work; you -may shovel it into wheelbarrows, wheel it to position and dump, or you -may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus. - - -Directions for Placing - -[Illustration] - -Ordinarily speaking, concrete should be deposited in layers about 6 -inches thick. - -After placing concrete in the Form, it should be “tamped” _lightly_ -with a wooden or iron tamper (or rammer) until the water shows on the -top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar. - -In order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete, the mixture should be -carefully “spaded” immediately after “placing”—on the side next to the -Form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view. By “spading” -is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete -and the side of the Form, moving it to and fro, and up and down. This -forces the large stones away from the boarding, or Form, and brings -a coating of mortar next thereto, thus making the face of the work -present an even, smooth appearance. - - -The Necessary Tools - -On certain jobs—as, for instance, in the case of a 6-inch silo wall—a -spade cannot very well be used, on account of the narrowness of the -concrete section. In this event, use for surfacing, a thin wooden -paddle, made from a board 1 inch by 4 inches, and gradually sharpened -to a chisel edge at the end. The sharpening should be on one side only, -and in using this paddle place the flat side against the Form, as shown -in illustration. - -When the mixture is a _dry_ one, great care must be used in this -“spading” or surfacing, in order to obtain uniform results, but in -the case of a _wet_ mixture, spading is only required as an added -precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work, -and in many cases it is not necessary at all. - - -Protection of Concrete after Placing - -Green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has -been allowed to set for five or six days. Each day during that period -the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it, both in -the morning and afternoon. This is done so that the concrete on the -outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center -of the mass, and should be carried out carefully, especially during -the hot summer months. Old canvas, sheeting, burlap, etc., placed so -as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do -very well as a protection. Wet this, as well as the concrete. Often the -concrete Forms can be left in place a week or ten days; this protects -the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are -then unnecessary. - - -Points to Remember - -It may be well, in summing up, to emphasize the following points:— - - 1st. The materials must be perfectly clean. - 2d. The mixing must be in proportions carefully determined. - 3d. The mixture must be used while absolutely fresh. - -Good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement, nor will -the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean -sand and clean stone. - -Among the uninitiated, there is an all too prevalent idea that anything -is good enough for the making of concrete. Some will tell you that -sawdust, shavings, mud, clay, etc., will do to complete the mixture, -but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to -anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out. - - -Reinforcement - -_Principles involved_ - -Concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the -support of heavy burdens. On a solid foundation, loaded from above -and thus under direct pressure, a concrete column will withstand the -strain of an enormous load. A much smaller load so placed as to cause -stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause -it to snap off, for concrete is strong, but brittle. On the other -hand, steel is tough and elastic. In the form of rods or wire, steel -withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it, and thus displays -a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete -column. In modern construction these two valuable properties of -concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called -reinforced concrete. With steel properly buried in the concrete, the -column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it, but -one many times larger, and even though it is applied at any place along -its length. - -Reinforcement, therefore, is steel in the form of rods, bars or wires, -buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend -to stretch or to bend the concrete. A concrete fence post is merely a -small concrete column. Reinforced, it easily stands the strain from -usage in a fence line. - -[Illustration] - -The value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen -in the figure. If a load (L) is raised so that its weight is supported -on one side by a wooden post, the post will bend. The fibre in the -wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to -prevent the post from breaking, and when released the post will spring -back into its former position. In the third figure a No. 9 wire (W) -is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground -surface, and is supported along its length by the struts (S). If the -same load is applied, the post will not bend, because the wire takes -up the bending or stretching strain. This is precisely the case with -the reinforcement in a concrete post. Supported along its length by the -concrete, the wire (W) or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or -stretching strains. Since the load which causes bending or stretching -may come from any direction, concrete posts are reinforced on every -side; otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that -in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the -proper side of the post. - -In the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more -reinforcement than is absolutely necessary. This adds needlessly to the -cost, for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older. - - -Kinds of Reinforcement - -With regard to the roughness of the outside, metallic reinforcing -materials are divided into two classes, smooth and corrugated or -deformed. The general result of the many tests carried on in testing -laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond, if the -concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed, smooth surfaces give -satisfactory results. Two kinds of reinforcement are much used—bars -and wire. - -_Bars._—Round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in -diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm. The stock on hand -at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that -stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement. -Companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish -both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads. - -_Wire._—The development of the wire fence has produced a material well -suited for reinforcing purposes. Of equal size, such wire will produce -a stronger reinforcement than the material above described. In order -to obtain straight wire of the necessary length, the coils ordinarily -placed on the market should not be straightened out. Straight wire -can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire; that -is, either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables, and of the -length desired. The plain, ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper -kind, for galvanization adds nothing to the strength, and the metal -will not rust when incased in the concrete. - - - - -Concrete Sidewalks and Floors - - -Concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size, and are -formed by casting slabs in place. - -The description given is an economical and practical method of laying -sidewalks or floors, easily adapted to any use where concrete is found -advantageous. This description will therefore apply not only to the -building of sidewalks, but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on -the ground. - - -Lasting Qualities - -Concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent. To -accomplish this, good materials must be used, and proper methods of -mixing and placing must be followed. Only in this way can settlement -cracks, upheaval by frost or roots of trees, contraction cracks, -crumbling, and general failure be avoided. - - -Settlement Cracks - -To avoid settlement cracks, thoroughly ram the ground after excavating -for the foundation. This gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab. - - -Upheaval by Frost - -To prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone, hard -furnace cinders, brick bats broken to about a 2-inch size, broken tile -or any other hard porous material, should be laid in such a way as to -obtain perfect drainage. Never use ashes. - -If freezing occurs, room is in this way provided between the pieces of -stone for the expansion of the ice. - -[Illustration] - -If this foundation is placed in clay soil, side outlets or blind drains -of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are -necessary, leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone, -which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated -water. Clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation, -and if it becomes entirely full of water, the ice formed during -freezing weather will upheave the walk. - - -Upheaval by Tree Roots - -Upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots -which run under the pavement at a less depth than 18 inches below the -surface of the ground. - - -Contraction Cracks - -Cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the -same way as steel. It is, therefore, necessary to cut joints which will -allow for this expansion and contraction. The concrete must be cut -entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel, cleaver or -other instrument, the joint formed being from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch wide. -Blocks formed in this way should not be greater than 6 feet square (36 -square feet). - - -Scaling or Crumbling of the Surface - -The principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper -mixing, drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the -use of bad materials. - -Cement needs water not only when mixed, but after being placed and -tamped, and until it has entirely hardened. If concrete is not kept -continually wet until hard, it is weakened, and the surface of such a -walk scales or becomes soft and chalky. - - -Specifications - - -DRAINAGE FOUNDATION - -Stake out the lines of the walk, or dimensions of the floor. Excavate -to a depth of 16 inches, ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly -and fill in 12 inches with clean large cinders, broken stone, pebbles, -brick bats, broken tile or other material selected. Place in position -wooden forms made of 2 by 4’s, these 2 by 4’s to be set on edge and -held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground, the top edge to -be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope -of the walk or floor. - -A walk should be higher in the center, or at one edge, to insure the -water running off. This slope should be ¼ of an inch to the foot. - - -SELECTION OF MATERIALS - -Particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and -their mixing. - -The concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of -which will pass through a ¾-inch mesh screen, and be collected on a -¼-inch mesh; sand, free from loam and preferably coarse, and a grade of -Portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the Standard -Specifications as adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials -and the American Society of Civil Engineers. - - -PROPORTIONS - -The strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness. The -greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or -crushed stone, sand and Portland cement, so that all the spaces between -the stone are filled with sand and cement. - -[Illustration] - -The Portland cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed -in proportions, if the sand is not very coarse, of 1: 2: 4—which -means, 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel or crushed -stone, all passing a ¾-inch mesh and all collected on a ¼-inch mesh. If -the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size -of particles, it may be mixed in proportions of 1 part Portland cement, -2½ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or broken stone. All proportions are -measured by volume. - -Bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work, particularly where a -good bank can be found on the farm. It is safer, if this material be -used, to screen out the pebbles, using them as stone, measuring the -quantities of stone and sand as described above. Concrete should not be -laid in freezing weather. - -[Illustration] - - -CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE - -Mix the concrete as described on page 15 to a consistency that when -tamped, it will not quake, but it should be sufficiently wet so that -some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping. - - -PLACING - -Divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms. -The cross forms can be made of 2 by 4’s. These provide for expansion -and contraction joints. Hold these forms in place by driving stakes -through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where -the concrete is to be placed. Spread the concrete over the drainage -foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor, and in slabs not over -6 feet square. The thickness of a walk should be 4 inches, a driveway -6 inches, a floor over which a wagon may be driven 6 inches, and all -other floors 4 inches. - -Fill in every other slab, placing enough forms to use up all the -concrete mixed in one batch. No batch should stand longer than one half -hour before being placed. - -Tamp the concrete thoroughly. Use a template, with ends resting on the -side forms, and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown. -The concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the -template. If one edge of the walk is made higher than the other, use a -straight edge resting on the side forms. Tamp the concrete to conform -to the straight edge. - -[Illustration] - -Mix another batch of concrete, remove the cross forms and place the -concrete between each slab, forming a continuous walk. Use the template -or straight edge and tamp as before. Immediately after placing the -closing slab, work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire -depth of the concrete between each slab, thus insuring a perfect -contraction joint. Smooth the surface with a wooden float. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -A neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a -jointer along the top, thus smoothing the edges. Do this before the -concrete gets too hard. The sides of the walk may be smoothed in the -same way by use of an edger. - -[Illustration] - -When the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of -oakum or a stiff brush, removing the marks of the float and giving a -good even wearing surface which will not be slippery. In using oakum -or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone. If -surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens -the walk to too great an extent, allow the walk to harden a little more -before finishing in this way. At the end of each day’s work see that -the last slab is entirely filled and finished. - -[Illustration] - -All interior floors, such as floors of cellar, barns and stables -require no contraction joints. They are made by laying a solid -continuous sheet of concrete. All outside floors should have -contraction joints forming slabs not over 6 feet square. These are -provided the same as in sidewalks. A feeding floor is formed merely -by sidewalk pavements set side by side. Instead of using a template -for crowning the surface, use a straight edge, each end resting on the -extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor. Contraction -joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks. -The concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same -way as sidewalks. When completed the walk or floor must be continuously -protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three -days, so that it will not dry out at any time. This can be easily -done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay, straw, or old -carpet. This covering should be thoroughly soaked with water, and kept -wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit. - -[Illustration] - -While the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to -prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on -it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -A Foundation Gutter and Walk - - -[Illustration] - -Foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the -building, quickly carry it away, and, by preventing “seepage,” keep the -cellar, basement, or ground-floor dry. In sloppy, muddy weather, they -also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings. - -Determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation -of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms, or from -local conditions, such as location of outlet into underground drain. -Excavate a trench 1 foot 6 inches in width, 10 inches deep on each -side, and hollowed out to 13 inches deep in the middle. Use a straight -edge or a grade cord, together with a spirit level, to give the bottom -of the trench the desired slope or “fall.” For each foot of length a -slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient. - -Clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush. - -In the bottom of the trench place a 6-inch foundation of well-“tamped” -gravel, brickbats or crushed stone. - -Make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions, 1: 2½: 5. Have the -mixture just wet enough to tamp well. - -[Illustration] - -Place a 4-inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter 3 -inches deep in the middle. Every five feet, make an expansion joint ⅛ -of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than 7 inches wide -and 18 inches long, or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete -with a straight spade. Smooth the surface with a wooden float. - -[Illustration] - - =Materials Required= - One cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel; - ½ cubic yard sand; - 6 bags of Portland cement, for a 50-foot section. - - - - -Repairs to Farm Buildings - - -Since wood always fails first at the ground, the use of concrete on -the farm has developed from the ground up. After a farmer has had to -replace several sills or blocks of wood, he begins to look about him -for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced. -Concrete is his natural selection. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Support the building by temporary struts, alongside of the post to be -removed. Saw off post entirely above rotten part. Dig a hole directly -under the post 2 feet deep, and slightly larger than the post itself. -Build a box with sides only, with the same inside measurement as the -hole already dug. The box must be long enough to reach from the ground -to a few inches above the bottom of post. - -Fill hole with concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Then place the box in -position, and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off -post is embedded about ½ an inch in the mixture. Leave the forms in -place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have -been used as temporary support for the building. The concrete should be -mixed fairly wet, and churned with a stick while being placed. - -The bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top, by simply -sloping one side of the box form—giving the effect shown in the -photograph. - - -Why Concrete Should be Used to Repair Farm Buildings - -Repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape. -Concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose, -whether large or small, without first having to be cut to the shape and -size desired. Consequently there is no cheaper known material for this -kind of work. - -[Illustration] - - -Replacing an Entire Foundation with Concrete - -The work can be done by the farmer, with the help of his own farm -labor, at times when more important work is not claiming his attention. - -Foundations of concrete are indestructible. - -At necessary points, remove a few stones or bricks, as the case may -be, inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the -building. Carefully raise the building, by this means, until it stands -free of all foundations. Remove all the old stone or brick foundation -to be replaced, and set in place the forms for the concrete. - -Small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working -room, whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete. -The mixture should be a wet one. (Proportions, 1: 2: 4.) - -Where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by “jacking,” to a -sufficient height to give head-room, it will be found necessary to make -the foundations 3 inches wider than the sill. Carry the forms to the -desired height and utilize this extra 3 inches of width for placing the -concrete in the forms. The top board of the forms may also be left off -until you are ready to place the last of the concrete. In this case the -last batch of the concrete should be very wet. Tamp the concrete until -it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill, to the entire width of -the wall. - -Be sure to leave a space in the concrete wall, under and on the sides -of the underpinning support, so that the building may later be lowered -back onto the new foundation and the timber removed. This opening must -be slightly larger than the underpinning support. After the building -has been lowered fill these openings with concrete. Lower the building -after the foundation has been in two weeks. - - - - -A Concrete Entrance Floor - - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -At a point 3 feet from the building, dig a trench 6 inches wide and -18 inches deep—the length of this trench to be 2 feet greater than -the width of the doorway of the building. From the edge of the trench -nearest to the building, dig away the earth between trench and building -to a depth of 1 foot, and place here, to a depth of 6 inches, a fill -of either coarse gravel or crushed rock. Do not, however, place any of -this gravel fill in the trench. Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5, and lay same, -first in the trench, and then on top of the gravel fill; sloping the -surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway. Before -the concrete has had time to set, provide a runway slot for the sliding -doors—or better, build little guides or humps with the concrete, -to hold the doors in position. If the doors happen to be swinging -ones, place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete, for a -“shove-fastener.” - -Note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door. This prevents the -gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach -and getting in the way of the doors. To build this curb, use 1-inch -planks placed on top of the concrete floor, to serve as forms to hold -concrete in place. - - =Materials Required= - One cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel; - 2½ cubic yards of sand; - 5 bags of Portland cement. - -This entrance floor was constructed in half a day, by one man. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Farm Buildings Should be Connected by a Concrete Driveway - - -By using concrete to connect up buildings, this farmer has a solid, -substantial roadway that will last for all time—instead of the usual -muddy, untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings. - -To construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm, first -excavate a trench 12 inches deep, this trench being the exact width -that you wish the finished driveway to be. Six feet is a convenient -width; but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the -corners to provide for turning of vehicles. - -Place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches and tamp -it well. On top of the gravel fill, place your concrete mixture, to a -depth of 6 inches on the sides, and 7 inches at the center. - -[Illustration] - -For this work, concrete should be mixed in proportions 1: 2½: 5, and -wet enough to pack well. - -[Illustration] - -To finish, no mortar is needed. Leave the surface rough, so as to -afford a better footing for the horses and cattle. - - =Materials Required= - 5 bags of Portland cement } - ½ cubic yard of sand } make a section of roadway - 1 cubic yard of crushed stone or } 6 by 10 feet - screened gravel } - -Approximate cost, at current prices of materials, 6 cents per square -foot of surface. - - - - -Alleyways Between Buildings - - -The farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience. About the home, -mud is the greatest of all nuisances. In the spring and winter, the -driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings -become so muddy that they are often impassable. As a result the -grassy lawns and lots are driven over, cut to pieces, and the general -appearance of the farm is ruined. Moreover, in bad weather the chores -cannot be done unless the “hands” wear rubber boots. The women and -children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the -poultry. Muddy feet track up the house walks and floors. - -Alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways -with this exception—they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that -the driveway is crowned. This carries the roof water away from the -buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Carriage Washing Floors - - -Nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig -except water. People have at times tried to remove this mud by -scraping, but have found that after the mud has once dried a large -amount of the varnish comes off with it and the “looks” of the carriage -is ruined. - -Convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of -the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply. All -of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot, and, as this -is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing -more nor less than a mud hole. To avoid this a concrete floor should be -built. - -This floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig -but the shafts or tongue as well. Unlike feeding and other floors, this -floor is built with a slope toward the center, with a catch basin under -the middle, from which a drain leads. Thus all of the water, together -with the mud coming off the wagon, flows into the basin. This basin -should be protected with a grating, with holes in same not less than ¼ -of an inch. This grating should be removable so that the mud, which is -bound to flow into the basin, can be removed. A pipe less than 6 inches -should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch -outlet. This will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years. A -slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of ⅛ of an inch to the -foot should be made. To lay the floor proceed exactly as described in -“Sidewalks,” and, as the floor is exposed to the weather, contraction -joints must be provided, as in Feeding Floors. - -After the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft, make -grooves in it, running from the basin to the edges of the floor. This -can be done by taking a V-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the -concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper. This strip of wood -should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having -the concrete stick to its surface. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements - - -The saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by -successful breeders and feeders of live stock. The trouble, heretofore, -has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor -construction. - - -Disadvantages of Wooden Floors - -Wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only -saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and -otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal. However, in a -short time, the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with -disease germs. Often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog -cholera. - - -Advantages of Concrete - -In concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material. -Such floors not only effect a saving in feed, a shortening in the -time of fattening and a decrease in labor, but also afford perfect -protection to the health of the animal. Concrete floors do not soak up -water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs. Their -surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils -and dips. Rats cannot nest under them. Careful tests have shown that -concrete floors, through the saving of grain and manure alone, pay for -themselves in the short period of one year. - - -How to Build Feeding Floors - -Feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side, and the -same general rules of construction (given under SIDEWALKS, page 28) -apply to them. Choose a site in the lot where the ground is slightly -sloping, well drained and wind protected, and convenient to feed and -water. - - -Drainage Foundation - -Excavate to a depth of 12 inches for the drainage foundation, and -around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench 12 inches -wide and 18 inches deep. (This trench, filled with concrete, prevents -hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting -under it.) Fill all of this space (except the trench) to the natural -ground level with well tamped coarse gravel, crushed rock, tile culls -or brickbats. This fill forms the drainage foundation as described for -sidewalks. - - -Grading the Floor - -The floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on -it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the -gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit. (To shape the -gutter, make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat -side of a 6-foot length of a 4 by 6-inch timber.) A gentle slope, -toward the low corner, of ¼ of an inch for each foot of length or width -is sufficient. This is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at -each corner of the floor, a straight edge or a grade line, and a spirit -level. - -It is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above -ground. Make light floors 4 inches and floors subject to heavy loads -6 inches thick. For the forms use 2-inch lumber of a width equal to -the floor thickness. Begin on a low side of the floor. Mark the grade -height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched -from stake to stake. Use only good materials and mix the concrete 1: -2½: 5 according to direction on page 15. - - -Placing the Concrete - -Always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor, so that -the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly -placed concrete. Fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with -concrete. Bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge -with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the -other on the finished concrete. Four inches in from the edge, on each -of the low sides, temporarily embed the rounded 4 by 6-inch gutter mold -and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the -slab section of the floor. Remove the mold, finish with a wooden float -and cure the floor as described on pages 31-34. Connect the gutters -with the manure pit by means of a trough, another gutter, or by large -drain tile laid underground. - -[Illustration] - -On the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a -6-inch floor 24 by 36 feet, amply large to accommodate 50 hogs. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel, 20 cubic yards @ $1.10 $22.00 - Sand, 10 cubic yards @ $1.00 10.00 - Portland cement, 28 barrels @ $2.50 70.00 - ------- - $102.00 - -Mixing the concrete by hand, 5 men can usually finish this floor in two -days. Depending upon the price of labor and materials and the thickness -of the concrete, the floor will cost 6 to 12 cents for each square foot -of surface. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Manure Pits and Cisterns - - -For restoring the fertility of the fields, there is nothing better than -barnyard manure. By the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground -or storing it in wooden pens, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the manure’s -strength is wasted. This loss is brought about in two ways: - - First—By “leaching” or washing out, due to heavy rains. - Second—By heating or “firing,” caused by lack of sufficient - moisture. - -Since concrete pits are waterproof, manure can be kept in them as moist -as necessary. Moreover, with concrete pits the supply of manure is -increased, as all the liquid manure, from the gutters of the barns, -barnyard pavements and feeding floors, is saved. - - -How to Build - -Locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure -from the outside floors. Two pits may be better than one. Excavate the -hole to the desired size and depth. (Manure pits are seldom over 4 feet -deep.) Dig a sump hole 3 feet square and 2 feet deep at one corner of -the pit. Slope the floor toward this hole, from which a pump will draw -the liquid manure. Frame forms of 1-inch siding on 2 by 4-inch studding -spaced 2 feet, so as to mold a wall 8 inches thick. If the dirt sides -stand firm, they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an -inside form will be required. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 (see page 11). -Lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece 6 inches thick. No -contraction joints will be necessary. Without delay, set up the forms, -brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under DIPPING -VATS, pages 76-80. If a very large pit is needed, build it with sloping -concrete ends sufficiently wide to accommodate a manure spreader. Let -the inclines be gentle, and, to give the horses a firm footing, embed -iron cleats every 18 inches in the slopes, the same as for dipping -tanks. Cisterns for liquid manure only, may be made like ordinary -CISTERNS, page 68. However, the solid manure rots more quickly and is -better for the fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same -pit. An ordinary pump, with a pipe leading to the sump hole, covered -with a grating, is a convenient means of removing the liquid. Liquid -manure is especially good for the vegetable and flower garden, since it -contains no weed seed. Cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked -with water, so as to remove the principal breeding places of the house -and barn fly. - -[Illustration] - -The manure pit shown in the photograph is located in the side of a -little hill. It is 21 feet long, 14 feet wide, 10 feet deep on the -hillside and 6 feet deep on the low side. The bottom is 6 inches and -the walls 8 inches thick. Four men built the pit in two days. - - =Materials Required= - Screened gravel or crushed rock 17 cubic yards at $1.10 $18.70 - Sand 8½ cubic yards at $1.00 8.50 - Portland cement 30 barrels at $2.50 75.00 - ------- - $102.20 - - -The Value of Manure Pits - -Rotten manure not only enriches the ground, but also increases the -water-holding capacity of the soil. One load of well rotted manure from -a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Concrete Barnyards - - -The advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers -who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire -barnyards were surfaced with concrete. - -It is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn -lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip -to the water trough. - -The effect is bad on all kinds of livestock, especially on fattening -animals and dairy cattle. “Feeders” must have an abundance of water -to fatten quickly. Insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk -given by dairy cows. Lack of enough exercise further decreases the -yield. An occasional trip through this mud to the trough, so cakes the -cows’ udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing -them—and they must be washed, if one would have clean, wholesome milk. -Continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying, but -often produces that irritation on horses’ legs known as “scratches.” -Suddenly frozen, such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable. -Moreover, the old barnyard—with its surface worked up year after -year—becomes a storage place, which carries over the disease germs -from one season to another. The “droppings” are entirely lost, and, -mixed with the earth, tend to make the lot muddier the following year. -To keep up the fertility of the soil, all the manure produced on a farm -should be saved and returned to the fields. - - -Concrete Floors Increase Profits - -A concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather -and always affords a dry spot for the animal’s bed. Every shower washes -the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits. -Concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife, as there is no mud to -be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor. The use of rubber boots is -unnecessary. On concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted. -The way to the water trough is always dry, smooth and passable. -Concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and -increase the profits of farming, stock raising and dairying. - -[Illustration] - - -Construction - -The construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of FEEDING -FLOORS, page 43, except that the work is on a larger scale. Often -the entire lot is not paved in one season, but from year to year as -the farmer has time. In excavating for the drainage foundation (see -SIDEWALKS, page 29), be careful to remove all manure and straw which -may be tramped into the ground and which may be so solid as to resemble -earth. In time any kind of manure decays, shrinks, causes the floor to -settle and forms water and ice pockets on its surface. Dig the trench -for the foundation apron as for FEEDING FLOORS—there is no material so -rat-proof as concrete. - -With the drainage foundation ready, set the forms in the manner -described for SIDEWALKS. Even if the whole lot is not to be paved -at one time, plan the grading for the entire barnyard so that the -completed pavement may have perfect surface drainage. Build and cure -the pavement and make provision for saving the manure the same as for -concrete FEEDING FLOORS. Do not be too particular about giving the -surface a smooth finish—a rougher finish affords the animals a better -footing. The cost per square foot is no more than that of feeding -floors—the investment yields a greater profit. - - - - -Feeding Troughs, Racks and Mangers - - -With a progressive farmer, the health of his livestock is second in -importance only to that of his family. Concrete is a great factor in -promoting and preserving health. With concrete troughs, animals are -seldom “off their feed”: there are no slivers to stick into their gums. -Even with wet feed, concrete troughs are never sour. - -Concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs. Such -troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them. - - -Troughs for Horses, Cattle, and Sheep - -In general, the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for -horses and cattle is practically the same as for WATERING TROUGHS AND -TANKS, page 74. An outdoor trough, suitable for feeding grain or silage -to cattle and horses, is shown on page 48. (However, most farmers will -prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence corner.) This trough -is 10 feet long and 2 feet 2 inches wide, outside measurements. The -bottom is 4 inches thick as also are the side and end walls at the top, -but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of 6 inches at the -bottom. This extra thickness makes not only a stronger feeding trough, -but also one more easily cleaned out. The entire trough is reinforced -with heavy woven wire fencing laid within 1 inch of the bottom and the -same distance from the inside face of the side walls. The trough is -held 1 foot 4 inches above ground by concrete benches, 2 feet 2 inches -wide, 1 foot thick, and extending 3 feet below the ground or feeding -floor surface. - -In locating troughs, follow the same principles laid down under FEEDING -FLOORS. Dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the -concrete (mixed 1: 2: 4) to the necessary height by means of open box -forms similar to the one shown on page 36. Use a spirit level to get -the tops of these supports even. Immediately set the outside trough -form, previously made with openings in the bottom board, to match the -concrete supports. Provide a 2-inch drain hole, corked with a greased, -tapering wooden plug long enough to extend through the concrete. Place -1 inch of concrete over the bottom, lay the heavy woven wire fencing -so that it will extend up into the side walls. Tamp in the bottom the -remaining 3 inches of concrete. Finish this concrete with a steel -trowel. At once set in the sloping inside mold, built as one piece -and without a bottom. Fill the space between the inside and outside -forms with wet concrete. After the concrete is hard enough to bear -considerable pressure of the thumb (usually five to seven hours), -carefully remove the inside mold. No painting with neat cement (cement -mixed with water) or plastering will be needed if the inside form is -smooth. Do not take down the outside forms for two weeks. To make this -same trough of suitable height for small calves or sheep, place around -it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth. Two men can build such a -trough in less than a day. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel 1 cubic yard at $1.10 $1.10 - Sand ½ cubic yard at $1.00 .50 - Portland cement 1½ barrels at $2.50 3.75 - ----- - $5.35 - - -Feeding Troughs for Hogs - -[Illustration] - -Feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding -floor, according to the plan shown, and similar to WATERING -TROUGHS, page 74. - - -[Illustration] - - -A Fire-protected Feed Cooker - -[Illustration] - -Concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires. - -The photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed -cooker for hogs and poultry is installed. - -Discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to -thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that -most fireproof material—concrete. - -The old wooden floor was first torn out, a fill of coarse gravel tamped -in, and a 5-inch floor of concrete laid on top, mixed 1: 2½: 5. -Immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down 8 -inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about. - -At the back of the cooker, on the 2 by 4-inch studding, heavy woven -wire was securely fastened, and by temporarily placing a wooden wall 4 -inches in front, to act as a form, an 8-inch concrete wall was built. -This wall was made 8 feet wide and 5 feet high. The foundation for the -wall extends 3 feet below the floor level. - -[Illustration] - -On the top of this wall rests the chimney. The chimney is 12 by 14 -inches on the outside, with a single flue 8 inches round, and is 10 -feet high. This height is sufficient to clear the roof. For the inside -form 8-inch sewer pipe was used and left in place (stovepipe or drain -tile could also be used). Ordinary box forms were used for the outside -forms, made as described on page 36. - -The chimney was reinforced with a ½-inch rod running from top to bottom -in each corner, 1½ inches from the edge. The lower ends of these rods -are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests. - -As this improvement was made by the farm hands, the cost of the floor -was only 5 cents a square foot, while the wall and chimney cost $5.00. - -Not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night -been overcome, but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most -cleanly condition at all times. - -Rats, the greatest pest known to the farmer, are driven away. These -animals cannot nest in concrete. - - -[Illustration] - - -Hog Wallows—Automatic Dipping Tanks - -A wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being. -A clean bath benefits the health of a hog, especially if the wallow is -filled with a dipping solution. This combination not only saves the -lives of fat hogs on hot days, but also aids greatly in preventing -cholera. See DIPPING TANKS, page 76. - -Locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply. A level, -well drained spot, where the mud will not wash into it, is best. (The -wallow shown in the photograph is in the hog house, and is a large dish -in the concrete floor.) Make the wallow 8 by 12-feet. Dig out the hole -with straight sides to the depth of 2 feet 2 inches. Lay a drainage -foundation 10 inches thick—see SIDEWALKS, page 29. Set a 10-inch board -around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from crumbling in on -the concrete. - -Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and place a 6-inch floor in the hole. As the -concrete is laid, embed woven wire in it 1 inch from the bottom. Have -the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and -dimensions—4 inches thick at the top and 10 inches at the floor line. -The sloping sides make cleaning easy. Keep all animals away from the -wallow for two weeks. Three men built this wallow easily in one day. - - =Materials Required= - Screened gravel or crushed rock 2½ cubic yards @ $1.10 $2.75 - Sand 1¼ cubic yards @ $1.00 1.25 - Portland cement 4½ barrels @ $2.50 11.25 - ------ - $15.25 - - -[Illustration] - - - - -A Corn Crib Floor of Concrete - - -Rats love grain; and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat -headquarters of the farm. By building corn cribs and granary floors of -concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination. - -Lay out the building: for the foundation wall, dig a trench 12 inches -wide and from 2 to 3 feet below ground level. Set box forms, so as to -bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor 1½ to 2 feet -above ground level, according to the height of the “drag” conveyor used -by local corn-shellers. - -As the floor will only be 6 inches thick, fill in between the -foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of 6 inches of top -of forms. Soak this fill thoroughly, and tamp and roll it well, before -placing concrete on top. - -Mix concrete (1: 2: 4) and fill the foundation forms. Beginning at -one end of the building, lay the concrete floor in sections 4 feet -wide, and continue until the entire floor is placed. - -In order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the -concrete floor, insert ¾-inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent -like capital =Z=’s at the necessary points in the green concrete -of foundation. The bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the -sill and to receive nuts and washers. The straps are long enough to be -spiked to the uprights. - -[Illustration] - -Finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel, so as to render -scooping of the grain an easy matter. - -Approximate cost per square foot of floor surface, 12 cents. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Concrete Barn Floors - - -Investigations of the Department of Agriculture have disclosed the -fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria, often considered -unaccountable in their origin, are the result of the germs being -carried by the house-fly. Screens, flypaper, and poisons are all very -well, in a small way, but to free the place of flies means getting rid -of the conditions which produce them. Leaving out the manure pile (see -MANURE PITS, page 45), the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul -floors of the cow and horse barns. The barn can be almost entirely rid -of flies by building floors and manure pits of concrete. - - -The Advantages of Concrete Floors - -There are no flies to make the horses stamp. - -Rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors. - -No other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor. Concrete -floors may be finished as rough or corrugated, as may be desired. - -Concrete floors do not soak up water. The liquids run into the gutters -and thence to the manure pits. The floor may be flushed with water and -kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor. - -All kinds of barn floors must be bedded down. Concrete floors are -warmer and cleaner than any other kind, for they are always dry. -Besides, heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete. - -Concrete floors afford good fire protection. No fire can be started on -concrete floors by a shiftless farm “hand” dropping cigarette stubs or -matches on their surface. - -Good farm “hands” prefer to work where there are concrete floors: they -lighten the labor. Concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the -scoop and to ruffle the temper. - - -[Illustration] - - - - -Concrete in the Cow Barn - - -With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of -floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor -for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of -concrete. On account of many epidemics of “catching” diseases, directly -traceable to milk, city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman -to decide—concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified -milk. - -The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite -rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each -other. - -The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in -feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows’ -heads toward each other. If the dairyman prefers the other arrangement, -the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches -provides sufficient room for a manure spreader. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -How to Build Dairy Barn Floors - -Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other. - -Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps -of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the -direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction -of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends -may be used as working space. - -On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4½feet from the side walls of -the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the -entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven -firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall. -By means of a carpenter’s spirit level and a grade line, see that the -tops of these boards have an even slope (say ⅛-inch per foot) toward -the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set -up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting -stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2 -inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will -later be constructed. - - -The Alleyway - -Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even -off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building -of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping ½ inch from the wall toward the -gutter. Mix the concrete 1: 2½: 5, tamp into place, and finish the -surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface -thus produced gives the cows a good footing. - - -The Stall Floor - -With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the -stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is -4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet -6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than ½ inch toward -the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion -fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall. -The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet -8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger -wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will -be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form -for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same -manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas pipe stall divisions are to be -used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping -the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when -the concrete has stiffened. - -[Illustration] - - -The Manger - -[Illustration] - -As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the -concrete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new -stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already -in place serves as the outer wall form. “Toe nail” two 1 by 6-inch -boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the -other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall -floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger -wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary -drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new -concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting the -stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until -the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger -may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion. - -[Illustration] - -Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the -floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner. - - -The Feedway - -With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If -possible, this should be at least 8 feet wide. - -As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor -and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above -the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped) -to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of -the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the -mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the -manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top. -These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers -and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5-inch floor -of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. See -SIDEWALKS, page 31. - - -Horse Barn Floors - -Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for -the cow stable. The same principles govern the floor construction. -Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls -are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to -the drop gutter. - -As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk -flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide -and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3 -inches are sufficient. - - -Concrete Mangers - -Many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete. -“Stump suckers” lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers. - -[Illustration] - -The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for OUTDOOR -FEEDING TROUGHS, page 48. A form satisfactory for building horse barn -mangers is shown in the photograph. The feed trough can be molded as a -part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding -trough, but 6 inches wider and without end pieces. Saw out the manger -forms so that the box will fit the opening. When the manger forms have -been filled with concrete to the feed trough level, place 1 inch of -concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay in a strip of heavy -woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining 2 inches of the 3-inch -bottom. Immediately set upon this concrete a bottomless box with end -pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch manger wall and the 3-inch -side walls of the trough. Fill both manger and trough forms and embed -a ½-inch rod in the side walls of the trough 1 inch from the top. Make -holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by inserting a 2-inch -greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot length of ½-inch rod in the -concrete above this hole. - -Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other -animal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world -over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If -rats have no nesting place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice -cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete -barn walls. - -In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime -instead of stamping at flies. - -[Illustration] - - -Farmers Build Barn Approaches of Concrete - -[Illustration] - -For purposes of drainage, concrete barns are often built on the side -of a hill, the lower story being used for the livestock, while the -second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage. This -arrangement necessitates a “barn approach.” Originally these approaches -were simply of earth, piled up in front of the door; and quite often -the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn. - -By not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn, -the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and -ventilation on all four sides. - -The concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools; while a root -cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach. - -Such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its -surroundings. - -Economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold -the earth in position—and concrete naturally came into use for the -purpose. - -The earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut -out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the -ground level to a depth of 2½ or 3 feet, and 1 foot wide. - -Only outside forms are needed, as the earth fill in the barn approach -acts as an inside form. These outside forms may be made up in sections -as large as desired, of 1-inch planks, with the necessary upright -studding. - -[Illustration] - -Mix concrete 1: 2: 4. - -Place the concrete in the foundation, erect the forms, holding these in -position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground. -The concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of -the earth fill that forms the approach. In shoveling into the form, be -careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen -side, as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible -strength. - - -A Concrete Barn Foundation - -[Illustration] - -On account of convenient arrangement, economy of space, and protection -to the stock, second story barns have become very popular. - -At first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was -looked upon with doubt. It might be damp. It might make a cold stable. -Yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was -tried, found entirely satisfactory, and to-day is being used for the -lower story of thousands of barns every year. As this arrangement does -not give a perfect fire protection to the stock, a ceiling of concrete -is provided, furnishing a floor for the carriage house, hay loft and -granary, through which rats cannot gnaw. With this floor of concrete, -the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe. - -[Illustration] - -Excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line, twenty -inches wide. Fill with concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5. On this foundation -erect the forms for the side walls, spaced in such a way as to make the -wall 12 inches thick. These forms are made of 1-inch siding, with 2 by -4-inch studs, spaced 18 inches apart. Fasten the forms securely at top -and bottom as described in forms for “Small Farm Buildings,” page 82. -While erecting the forms, place in position frames for the window and -door openings. These frames are removed after the concrete has become -hard and the windows and doors placed. If the concrete extends above -the windows, place three ½-inch iron rods 3 inches above each opening, -and extending 18 inches beyond its sides. Insert bent iron rods in the -concrete around the corners, at intervals of every 2 feet of height. -Having carried the wall to the desired height, provide for attaching -the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every 5 feet in -the concrete while it is yet soft. These should be placed with the -head down, allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient -distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and -washer. - -If a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable, erect forms in -the same way as for a cistern cover described on page 69. This ceiling -will have to be carefully reinforced, and if there is any doubt about -the quantity and position of this reinforcing, a competent engineer -should be consulted. - -Entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers. If -so built, the fire danger for that barn is forever removed. A barn of -concrete, however, with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof. If -the hay catches fire in such a barn, the roof is burned up. - -Any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can -build a concrete roof as well. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Wind Walls and Their Importance - - -[Illustration] - -To be healthy, stock need exercise—in winter as well as summer. But -few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected -against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place. - -The exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings. -Erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often -come. Probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in -sections of 10 feet in length. The wall will be 3 inches thick at top, -12 inches thick at the base, 7 feet above and 3 below ground, with the -slope side toward exercise lot. - -To securely brace the sections of this wall, large posts (called -buttresses) are needed. These posts are the full height of the wall -and are 12 by 18 inches square. The narrow side is set with the line -of fence, and the buttresses are placed 11 feet apart from center to -center. The forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate -posts, with the exception that a beveled 2 by 4-inch timber is nailed -vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form, 3 inches from -the back board. This leaves a slot in the finished buttress, into -which the slab sections of the wall are later “keyed.” Through these -2 by 4’s, at points 3 and 15 inches below the tops, bore ⅝-inch holes -through which ½-inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to -project into the wall proper about 18 inches. - -[Illustration] - -Locate the points for the centers of the buttresses, the first buttress -at the beginning of the wall. Dig a hole for each buttress 12 by 18 -inches and 4 feet deep and erect the buttress forms. Fill the forms -with wet concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Do not forget to insert at the -proper time the 3-foot lengths of ½-inch rods in the ¾-inch holes -above mentioned. Brace the forms securely, to keep them in position. -After the first two buttresses are in place, dig out the 1 by 4-foot -foundation trench and, over it and between the buttresses, erect the -box forms for the slab sections, with the sloping side next to the lot. -These forms are made of 1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding -securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top. -On the working side, add the siding as needed, so as to facilitate the -placing of the concrete. - -Remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for -wall proper. In the center of wall, within 6 inches of the top, embed a -10-foot length of ½-inch iron rod. After the wall is one week old, take -down the wall forms, erect them between the next two buttresses, and -proceed with the construction in the same manner. - -Wind walls are often made with straight sides. While this takes more -concrete, the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this -additional cost. - -The materials required for each 10-foot section of wall and 1 buttress -are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel, 1 cubic yard -sand, 12 bags of Portland cement. Approximate cost, $15.00. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Concrete and the Silo - - -A silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state, for -feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture—that is in -winter and in the hot, dry months of summer. By the use of silos fodder -is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables. - -Concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo, providing -the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting, -possessed by silos built of no other material. For instruction in -building silos, see Bulletin No. 21 of the Association of American -Portland Cement Manufacturers, sent free on application. - -Space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a -concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo, -and show how concrete fills them all. - -Silos must be air-tight. The admission of air causes the fodder to -mould, and the stock will not eat it. - -Air cannot leak through a concrete silo. - -Silos must be water-tight. If they are not, the juices, so necessary to -keep the fodder green, will leak out, and the fodder spoils. - -[Illustration] - -Concrete, properly mixed, is water-tight. - -Silos must be smooth on the inside. A silo with a rough inside surface, -catches the cornstalks, and prevents proper packing. - -Concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other -materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand. - -The fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature. Concrete does -not conduct heat or cold. It keeps the heat in the fodder in winter, -and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer. Nature provides the -fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly. - -Rats nesting in the silage ruin it. - -Concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known. - -In addition to these reasons, concrete silos are not attacked by the -juices coming from the fodder. They do not rot by alternate wetting and -drying. - -Fire, that greatest of farm scourges, cannot destroy the crop if stored -in a concrete silo. A farmer may rebuild a barn, but the crops lost -through the burning of the building are lost forever. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Sanitary Water Supply - - -As the laws of health become better understood, greater precautions are -taken to prevent sickness. For years all evidence has been pointing to -drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal -means of spreading sickness. Every well, spring and cistern, open -to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which -surface water can seep, is liable to contain disease germs. Concrete -walls and covers are water-tight: they afford perfect protection for -both man and beast. - - -How to Protect Wells - -Many bored and dug wells, sunk years ago, afford such excellent water -that their owners prefer to keep them. This is often made possible by -the use of concrete. Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay -through which water will not run, usually not more than 6 feet. If the -earthen wall stands firm, only one form, fitting inside the brick wall, -is needed. Make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the -inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates, and long enough -to extend 2 feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed -and 4 inches above the ground level. If the earthen wall shows signs -of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground to the -necessary depth and use an outside form. Lower the forms into place and -fill them with 1: 2: 4 concrete. In placing the concrete follow the -directions given under UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68. - -The steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to -keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing. This construction -exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water. Concrete -walls or housings are the only means of protection. Make the forms and -build the housing according to the rules laid down for UNDERGROUND -CISTERNS, pages 68-70. The housing shown in the photograph is 5 -by 6 feet by 4 feet deep, sufficiently roomy for inspecting, adjusting -and repairing pipe connections. The walls and floor are of 1: 2: 4 -concrete 6 inches thick. One-half inch bolts project 2½ inches above -the walls for fastening the wooden cover. A 4-inch removable cover of -concrete, molded in two pieces, makes a more sanitary covering. The -service pipes were laid in 4-inch drain tile slightly above the floor -of the housing. A tile of the same size, laid on a grade, carries away -all the leakage of the fittings. Two men built the housing in one day. - -[Illustration] - - =Materials Required= - Screened gravel or crushed rock 3 cubic yards at $1.10 $3.30 - Sand 1½ cubic yards at $1.00 1.50 - Portland cement 5½ barrels at $2.50 13.75 - ------ - $18.55 - -Well platforms are made like cistern covers (see page 69) except that -they are not molded fixed in place, but loose and removable, so that -the well can be cleaned at any time. Concrete well covers keep mice and -frogs out of the well. Even scrub water cannot seep in. - - -Underground Cisterns and Cistern Platforms - -[Illustration] - -Underground cisterns are useless if they leak. In dry weather they -are empty, and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the -“soft” water as “hard” as that from the well. Concrete cisterns have no -joints to leak: they are built in one solid piece. - -In placing the cistern, select a site convenient to the principal -down-spout and the kitchen. Do not forget to make allowance for 8-inch -walls in laying out the plan. If the ground in which the pit is dug -is sufficiently firm to stand alone, no outside form will be needed. -Otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form -built similar to the inside one. Make the inside form of 1-inch boards -on 2 by 4-inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth -walls. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay a 6-inch floor on the earth -bottom. Immediately set the wall forms on all sides. In filling the -wall space, be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen -wall: dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall. - -[Illustration] - -After the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level, set -a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern, so as to -hold the concrete for the platform. Saw off the uprights of the inside -form 6 inches below the finished top of the concrete cover, and nail -2 by 4-inch floor joists even with their tops. Floor the joists with -1-inch boards. Braces, to keep the wooden platform from sagging, may -be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing. To -provide for a manhole opening, build a bottomless box 5 inches deep, -2 feet square at the top and 18 inches square at the bottom—outside -measurements,—or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form 5 -inches deep, 2 feet in diameter at the top and 18 inches at the bottom, -just like a large dishpan without a bottom. - -Begin at one side of the platform, tamp in 1½ inches of concrete, and -upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing. Allow the edges of the wire to -extend within 1 inch of the outside lines of the platform. Bring the -platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining -3½ inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop for any reason -until the cistern cover is completed. As the work progresses, finish -the surface with a wooden float. Grease the manhole frame and place it -where the opening is desired. Strengthen the floor around the manhole -opening by laying four short ½-inch iron rods, placed criss-cross, 2 -inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from -the edges of the hole. If the tin form is used, the manhole cover may -be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor. Reinforce -the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of ½-inch -rods laid in the form of a square. Have on hand an old bridle bit or -hitching post ring, which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete -cover. In placing the ring in position, provide it with a knob of -twisted wire, or with a nut and large washer, to fix it firmly in the -concrete. If the wooden manhole form is used, carefully remove it after -5 hours. After 3 days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin -form, with this important exception—place heavy paper, cardboard or -leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete -of the cover from sticking to it. Set bolts for a pump base according -to directions given for GASOLINE ENGINE BASES, pp. 87, 88. The -necessary openings for down spouts and for removing water may be made -by embedding tile, of the proper diameter and length, in the concrete -platform or side walls. - -When the platform is two weeks old, remove the manhole cover, bore a -hole in the wooden floor, saw an opening, descend and loosen the roof -form, passing it out through the manhole. - -[Illustration] - -If the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking, provide -a filter on the outside of the cistern wall. Construct the filter -similar to the cistern, of dimensions 4 by 3 feet and 4 feet deep. -While building the cistern wall, lay an 8-inch tile through it, at the -proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter -wall at its floor, and place a removable screen of ¼-inch mesh over the -opening. Fill in 2 feet of coarse charcoal. Cover the charcoal with 1 -foot of sand and gravel. Lead the water from the roof into the top of -the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab. - -Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep, with a 6-inch -floor and a 5-inch platform, in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels -of 31½ gallons. - - =Materials Required= - Screened gravel or crushed rock 8 cubic yards at $1.10 $8.80 - Sand 4 cubic yards at $1.00 4.00 - Portland cement 13 barrels at $2.50 32.50 - ------ - $45.30 - -“Soft” water is not only better for the bath, but also makes the -washing easier and the clothes whiter. Mischievous children cannot -remove concrete manhole covers. - - -Making Spring Water Sanitary - -To the planter and stockman, a flowing spring is worth a great deal of -money. Properly cared for, it will afford cold, sweet water for the -house, the dairy, and the watering tanks. Improperly protected, it is -not merely a mud hole, a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows, but is -too frequently the cause of disease. - -[Illustration] - -To improve a spring, first open up the channel and drain out all the -water possible. Clean out the spring so as to increase its flow. Lay -the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn. Wall up the well of the -spring with concrete blocks, laid without mortar to a point just above -the in-flow streams of the spring. Complete the walls with blocks laid -in 1: 2 cement-sand mortar, or, using wooden forms, with a 6-inch -solid wall of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Carry these walls high enough to keep -surface water out of the spring well. If the spring is to be used as -a drinking tank for stock, make the walls equal to the usual depth of -such tanks. (See WATERING TROUGHS AND TANKS, page 74.) Lay a -4-inch floor of 1: 2½: 5 concrete (on a drainage foundation) 10 feet -around the field spring on all sides. - -At the edges of the floor, turn down a concrete “apron” or foundation, -2 feet into the ground, the same as for FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. This -prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it. - -Make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to -the stream by a gutter in the floor, or by a drain tile under it. - -With such improvement, since there is no mud, the stock cannot mire and -the udders of the dairy cows are always clean. - -To keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn -for house use, provide a concrete cover like that described for -UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. For small springs this cover is often -made removable as shown in the photograph on page 73. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -New Style Cistern Built on Top of Ground - -The photograph shows a cistern, 6 by 6 by 12 feet, inside dimensions, -with 8-inch walls, 6-inch floor, and 4-inch roof. - -Dig a pit 12 inches deep, and of the size of cistern desired. Cover the -bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches. Mix -concrete 1: 2: 4 and place it to a depth of 2 inches over the surface -of the fill. On top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing. -This wire should be laid in such a way as to extend 6 inches beyond -the outside edge of foundation—the ends being bent up, so as to stand -upright, 3 inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already -placed. Immediately lay the remaining 4 inches of concrete floor. Give -the surface a finish with a wooden float to within 6 inches of edges. - -Without delay, set the forms, made up in the required sections, resting -the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the -ground. Place the inside form first. After setting the inside form, -place woven fence wire, supporting it against the inside form by means -of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire 4 inches -away from it. Care should be taken in placing the concrete that the -wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall. This reinforcement -is carried 1 foot beyond top of wall. The projecting wire mesh will -later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls. The timber -required for the forms will be 1-inch siding and 2 by 4 uprights, -spaced every 18 inches. - -In placing the concrete in the forms, it will be easier to leave off -the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches -its level. Then add this planking and fill the two top feet. The -concrete will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of -buckets. - -The luxury of soft water for the bath, and its advantages for laundry -purposes, are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins. -Cisterns were originally built in the ground, but a thinking farmer -used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground, no doubt taking -the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel. While it requires more -forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground, yet -the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved. As the water is piped -to the house, direct water pressure is provided, thereby giving the -farm-house all the advantages of a city water system. - -[Illustration] - -Build a wooden platform inside the cistern, in the same manner as -directed in UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. The materials required for -the concrete are 10 yards of crushed rock or screened gravel, 5 yards -of sand, and 17 barrels of Portland cement. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -Watering Troughs and Tanks - - -All thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete. -Such troughs never rot, rust, or leak. - -By using concrete, tanks of any size and shape can be made. - - -Watering Tank for Horses and Cattle - -Most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape. -Having decided upon the size, locate the tank in a handy, well drained, -wind-sheltered place. - -To build a tank like the one shown in the picture, lay out the trough -5 by 16 feet. Make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed -under SIDEWALKS, page 29. Around the outside dig a 10-inch trench 2 feet -6 inches deep. Lay all in-flow and over-flow pipes (not less than 1½ -inches in diameter) so that the ends, fitted for connections, will be -even with the finished bottom of the tank. - -Build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before -mixing any concrete. The tank is 5 by 16 feet by 2½ feet deep with an -8-inch bottom. The walls are 5 inches thick at the top and 10 inches -at the bottom. (The sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides -instead of pushing directly against them.) Consequently the inside -forms at the bottom are 5 inches shorter at each end than at the top. - -The forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of -1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding spaced not more than -2 feet apart. The sides of the forms may be made separate and put -together in place; or, if there is sufficient help, each form may be -entirely completed and set up as one piece. The forms are held in -position by 2 by 4-inch liners at top and bottom, and if necessary by -sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground. Cut strips of -heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to -project up into the walls. - -[Illustration] - -With the forms ready, mix a batch of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Beginning at -one end, fill the trench, and upon the gravel foundation place a 2-inch -layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire. Upon -this concrete lay a section of wire. Tamp in the remaining 6 inches -of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the -ends will project up into the future side walls. Continue laying the -concrete in sections until the bottom is completed. Finish the surface -with a wooden float. - -Immediately set the wall forms in place, and set them level by using a -carpenter’s level. Fill the wall space with concrete. Half way up the -side and 1 inch from the outside, lay a ½-inch iron rod entirely around -the tank. Again 2 inches from the top, and 1 inch from both inner and -outer edges, lay two rods of the same size. If a tank cover is desired, -set bolts in the concrete as directed under CORN CRIB FLOORS, -page 53. - -To prevent mud holes, surround the tank with a concrete floor. (See -FEEDING FLOORS, page 43.) Protect the green tank from drying -out according to instructions under SIDEWALKS, pages 28-34. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel 7 cubic yards at $1.10 $7.70 - Sand 3½ cubic yards at 1.00 3.50 - Portland cement 11½ barrels at 2.50 28.75 - ------ - $39.95 - - -Watering Troughs for Hogs - -Troughs for hogs are built in two styles—wedge-shaped, like the feed -trough shown on page 49, or like troughs for cattle except smaller. -Use short lengths of 1-inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out of the -trough. Set bolts, properly spaced, in the soft concrete sides, so that -the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron -over the bolts. - -[Illustration] - - -Dipping Vats and Tanks - -The younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of Texas -or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago, -killed thousands of cattle, and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and -ranchmen in its wake. Government experts found that this deadly disease -is caused by ticks, which infest cattle in certain localities. They -also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals -in chemical solutions.[2] - -[2] For free bulletins on dipping write the Agricultural Department, -Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. - -Dipping cures not only Texas (known as “splenetic”) fever, but also -the lip and leg disease, mange, and scab or scabies of both sheep and -cattle. Certain solutions free horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs of lice, -mites, fleas, and flies. The only method of applying these chemicals, -surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal, is by giving him a -plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid. Since the dip is the -most costly part of the process, and since it must be applied once or -twice every year, some permanent form of tank is needed—one that will -not rot or rust out, leak or heave in during winter. Concrete vats, -built ten years ago, without one cent’s worth of repair, are still as -good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction. - -[Illustration] - -There are four important points to be considered in the building of a -dipping tank: - - First—An entering slide, steep enough to shoot the - animal in, without a direct drop. A direct drop, the - entire depth of the tank, is likely to injure the - animal. - - Second—The tank must be narrow enough to prevent - the animal turning around when once in, long enough - to keep him in from one to two minutes, and deep - enough not only to make him swim, but also that he - may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge. - - Third—The slope at the leaving end must be gentle - and the footing roughened or cleated so that the - animal may easily scramble to the dripping pens. - - Fourth—As the liquid dip is the most expensive - part of dipping, there must be provided two dripping - pens draining back into the tank. - -Select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small, -well-fenced lot or corral. At the narrow end of the chute and in line -with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the -chute. - -[Illustration] - -Often the chute is built on a curve, so that the animals cannot see -where they are going. - -They are generally constructed with a hump in the floor. This prevents -the animal from jumping into the dip, and gives the necessary length to -the slide, without increasing the depth of the tank. Choose the proper -dimensions from the diagrams and table according to whether the tank is -to be used for horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. - -The lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute, usually -a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease. Where a longer -treatment is desired, most ranchmen, instead of building tanks of -greater length, provide a drop gate working in a groove, as shown in -the photograph, by means of which the animal is kept in the tank as -long as necessary. Likewise, rather than build a separate tank for -sheep and hogs, stockmen insert a temporary division fence, running the -full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank. This fence should -be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around -in the tank. In this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses, -cattle, sheep, and hogs. - -Dig the deep part of the hole first, and then slope the earth for the -slide and climb. Lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow -bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom. -Tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing -concrete. - -[Illustration] - -The side walls only will require forms. If the banks stand firm, inside -forms alone will be needed. Make these of 1-inch boards on 2 by 4-inch -uprights. Steel reinforcing, preferably wire cloth or hog wire, is -placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the -concrete wall. Floor, sides, and ends should all be thus reinforced to -prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations. -Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay the floor and slopes directly on -the solid earth. No fill is necessary. The concrete for the sloping -ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in -position without the use of forms. With the bottom and slopes built, -lower the side wall forms into the pit. Take care to jar no dirt upon -the concrete already placed. Space the forms properly and cross-brace -them firmly upon each other. Fill the wall space with concrete. - -In placing this concrete, be sure that it strikes the wood form instead -of the earthen side, as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak, leaky -wall. Carry the walls 6 inches above the surrounding ground to prevent -flood water from running into the tank. - -The entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank -without skinning them up. Finish this surface with a wooden float and -steel trowel. Some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a -polished steel plate, the edges of which are sunk into the concrete -when the slide is built. To aid the animals in climbing out, embed in -the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles -similar to a capital “U.” Old wagon tires, cut in lengths not greater -than 20 inches and turned up 4 inches at each end, will do. Leave 1 -inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete. -Space the cleats 18 inches for horses and cattle and 10 inches for -sheep and hogs. - -At the leaving end of the tank, lay out the two dripping pens with -their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank, so -that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen, when it is full, -and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty pen. Use -concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no replacing. -Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and build a 6-inch -concrete floor according to the directions given under SIDEWALKS, -page 28, and FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. Slope the floors, ¼ inch to -each foot in length or width, so that the dip running off the animals -will be saved and returned to the tank. Corrugate or groove the floor -to the depth of ½ inch, every 8 inches, in one direction. During the -construction of the floor, mold around the outside a concrete curb, -commonly called a splashboard, 6 inches above the floor and 4 inches -wide. Where the dip from the floor empties into the tank, place a -removable wire screen or strainer to keep the droppings and wool tags -out of the vat. Cure the floors and slopes according to directions -under FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. The wall forms may be removed after one -week, but the tank should not be used until it is three weeks old. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - DIMENSIONS OF GROUND PIT FOR DIPPING TANKS - -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+ - Kind | W | N | D | L | E | B | A | I | - -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+ - | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - Horses |5′ 10″|3′ 4″|8′ 8″|55′ 0″|7′ 6″|31′ 0″|16′ 6″|8′ 8″| - Cattle |5′ 4″|3′ 4″|7′ 8″|51′ 0″|6′ 8″|31′ 0″|13′ 4″|7′ 8″| - Sheep |3′ 4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|46′ 0″|5′ 0″|31′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″| - Hogs |3′ 4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|36′ 0″|5′ 0″|21′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″| - -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+ - -------+------+-----+---------+----------+---------- - Kind | O | T | Cement | Sand | Rock - -------+------+-----+---------+----------+---------- - | | | Barrels | Cu. yds. | Cu. yds. - Horses |18′ 7″|0′ 8″| 38 | 11 | 22 - Cattle |15′ 4″|0′ 8″| 36 | 10½ | 21 - Sheep |11′ 6″|0′ 8″| 22 | 6½ | 13 - Hogs |11′ 6″|0′ 8″| 19 | 5½ | 11 - -------+------+-----+---------+----------+---------- - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -At first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to -dip, but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom -necessary. Experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that -dipping increases the market value of their steers $5 per head. The -cost of dipping on the farm is only 1½ to 3 cents per head—in the -stock yards the charge is 15 to 20 cents. One large ranchman, who lost -28 per cent. of his herd (several thousand) in one winter with the -mange, found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this -disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer. -The use of dips has become so general in the South and West that the -Government has raised the quarantine in most sections. - -[Illustration] - - -The Construction of a Concrete Milk Vat - -Dig a pit to a depth of 1 foot 6 inches and place wooden forms in -such a way as to provide for tank walls 6 inches thick and 1 foot 8 -inches in height. This will bring the walls only 8 inches above ground -level—which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out. - -[Illustration] - -Use a wet mixture of concrete, of proportions 1: 2: 4. Place as -described on page 74; and be sure to build walls and floor at the same -time. The floor should be 6 inches thick. - -The vat described has a partition 6 inches thick, dividing the tank -into two chambers, each chamber being 6 feet 9 inches long. An iron -grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation -of cooling water around and under the milk cans. Arrangements must be -made for inlets and outlets. The inlet pipe can be simply placed above -one end of tank. - -The pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when -lifting heavy cans from the tank. - -A hole must be provided at the other end of tank, in the bottom, and -connecting, by an iron pipe, with the drain tile. Into this hole a -removable upright iron pipe is fitted, the length of pipe depending -on the depth of water desired for the cans. This allows the water to -come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the -proper height. The pipe must fit tightly into the hole. - -Time required to build:—one day with three men on the job. - -Approximate cost, at current prices of materials and including labor, -$16.00. - -The materials required are 2 cubic yards of crushed rock or screened -gravel, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 5 barrels of Portland cement. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Small Farm Buildings - - -Numerous small structures are required on the farm. Dog kennels, tool -houses, coal houses, ice houses, hydraulic ram houses, smoke houses, -acetylene gas plant houses, gasoline storage houses, milk houses and -many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm. -Such structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of -concrete. - -When once constructed of this material durability and freedom from -fire are assured. For such buildings as milk houses built of concrete -instead of wood, there is the added advantage of cleanliness. Modern -dairying demands absolute cleanliness. Concrete meets this demand. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -Milk Houses - -Milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in, causing a very disagreeable -odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat. Concrete does not absorb -milk splashed on it. Such walls can be kept free from tainting odors -by simply washing them down. In concrete dairy houses, with concrete -vats, the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other -material. Dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the -place of concrete for such purposes. - -The illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls, floor -and vat, all of concrete. This house is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide and -8 feet high with a rise to the roof peak of 5 feet. - -LOCATION - -The milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a -clean water supply. Care must be taken to provide for the outflow of -the water from the vat. This can be done by leading a line of pipe -from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking -troughs for the stock. - -Often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet -to the house, providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and -sweet. - -FOUNDATION - -To build such a milk house as shown, dig a trench for the foundation 3 -feet deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the trench to the ground level with -1: 2½: 5 concrete. The foundation should be laid out in such a way as -to extend 3 inches beyond the inside and 3 inches beyond the outside of -the walls of the house. - -WALLS - -As soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support -them, erect the wall forms. These forms consist of 1-inch siding nailed -to 2 by 4-inch studding. The studs should be spaced 2 feet apart and -the 1-inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward -the concrete. For small buildings it is often easier to build an -entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position. -The bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held -in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven -firmly into the ground. The distance the inside and outside forms are -spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired. Sloping braces -leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging -and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms -the correct distance apart. Bulging of forms can also be prevented by -wiring them together as shown on page 23. On page 22 is a description -of the general method of building forms. Especial care must be taken to -hold the forms in position while placing the concrete. The studs in the -side wall forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the -walls. With the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete. - -DOORS AND WINDOWS - -A space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows. This is -done by placing between the wall forms, frames or boxes without top or -bottom made of 1-inch boards. When the wall form has been filled to -the level of the bottom of the opening a frame, the size and shape of -the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured -around it. After the wall reaches a level 2 inches above the frame lay -in the fresh concrete two ½-inch iron bars. These pieces should be long -enough to extend 8 inches beyond each side of the frame. A piece of old -wagon tire can be used instead. - -The sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box -extending out from the side form. The concrete should be placed for the -sill at the same time that the wall is being built. For buildings such -as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary. - -FINISHING TOP OF WALL - -When the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete -has set, shove ½-inch bolts 18 inches long down into it. Space these -bolts 24 inches apart, 9 inches of the length being in the concrete. -The end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof, -and are filled to the top. While placing the concrete in the walls it -should be continually spaded as described on page 25. - -[Illustration: =DETAILS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS=] - -BUILDING THE ROOF - -The roof is built by nailing 2 by 4 rafters to the inside studs of the -side wall forms, on a line 1 inch lower than the bottom of the roof. -The rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof, and are securely -fastened where they meet at the ridge. To stiffen the roof form until -the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the -bottom (with a 1-inch strip) in the form of a capital “A.” One-inch -boards are nailed on the rafters. The cornice shown in the sketch -extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the -width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and -end walls. To hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built -nail a 5-inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board. Bend -the bolts projecting above the walls down to within 1 inch of the roof -boards. Spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire -roof, allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice. Wire the -fencing securely to the bent bolts. Place two ½-inch steel rods near -the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof, and fasten -these securely to the woven wire fencing. The roof should be made 3 -inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger -than ½ inch. - -[Illustration] - -Mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice, -working toward the ridge. Spread the concrete out in a thin layer and -then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so -that the concrete is 1 inch thick below the wire. Cover the rods and -wire with more concrete to a depth of 2 inches. When finished the -roof will then be 3 inches thick, 1 inch below the wire and 2 inches -over it. Always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the -complete depth of 3 inches at once. Imbed a width of woven wire fencing -lengthwise over the ridge of the roof 1 inch beneath the surface. The -work must be carried on without interruption. The concrete must not be -allowed to dry along an unfinished edge, as there is danger of a leak -where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard. Tamp the concrete -until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof -with a wooden float and steel trowel. - -The forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete -in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is -hardening. A method for doing this is described on page 26 under -SIDEWALKS. - -FLOOR - -[Illustration] - -When the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can -be laid. Excavate the ground to a depth of 4 inches below the finished -floor level. Mix and lay the concrete as described on page 31. - -The concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of -the floor. See description on page 82. - -ENGINE BASE - -Engines, cream separators, pumps and other pieces of machinery -require solid bases. These bases must be permanent, and free from any -vibration. A base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages. - -[Illustration] - -To form a base for the support of a small engine, first excavate a -pit 2 feet 4 inches deep, and 1 foot larger both in length and width -than the dimensions of the engine base. Fill the pit with a mixture of -concrete, (1: 2½: 5), and then construct a form which will carry the -concrete to a height 4 inches above the floor level or to the height -desired. - -Bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries, these being -sufficiently long to bend 4 inches at right angles, and to extend 1 -foot deep into the concrete, with bent end down. They should be placed -with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of -the bolt, and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of -the concrete. The open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will -allow for slight errors in locating bolts, so as to meet the holes in -the engine base. - -Keep the concrete wet for 24 hours after placing, by sprinkling. After -six days, set the engine, adjust the bolts, and fill the spaces around -the bolts with cement mortar, mixed 1 part cement, 1 part sand. Do not -use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old. - -[Illustration: Concrete Ice House] - -A concrete base adds years of service to the life of a gasoline engine -or cream separator. - -[Illustration: Grain Elevator Approach and Engine House] - -METHOD APPLIES TO ALL BUILDINGS - -The method just described for building a milk house applies equally -well to any of the small houses mentioned above. It is not always -necessary to build a peaked roof; sometimes a flat roof will answer the -purpose; but the general method in all cases is the same. The drawings -show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the -windows can be made to slide up and down. - -[Illustration: Hydraulic Ram House] - -ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE - -Concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such -buildings as smoke houses, where there is always great danger from fire. - -Oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms. Acetylene -and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light. These plants are -built either above or below ground. In either case concrete is the -ideal material, since it is both fire and waterproof. - -The durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings -as hydraulic ram houses, which must always be located near streams, -and ice houses, where there is always moisture. Wood quickly rots, but -moisture has no effect on concrete. - -For tool houses, coal houses, and buildings subjected to rough usage, -nothing equals concrete. - -Concrete, for small buildings, meets the three great demands of the -farmer—cleanliness, freedom from fire, and durability. - -[Illustration] - - -Concrete Cellar Steps and Hatchway - -Cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar. -This cannot happen if they are made of concrete. There are no -cracks through which the water can come. Wooden steps last no time, -particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up -and down. As wooden or brick areaways are always damp, the steps rot -quickly, thus requiring constant renewal. Few things are more dangerous -to limb, and even to life, than a step giving way under the weight of a -heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar. - -[Illustration] - -Concrete steps are safe under any load. - -Owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape, -it is particularly desirable for this purpose. Some people like steps -with a low rise and a particularly wide tread, while others prefer a -high rise and narrow tread. Concrete can easily be fitted to either. -The determining feature is usually the space to be occupied. The door -into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken, and -therefore the height of the risers; while the room the cellarway is to -take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread. If -possible, the rise of each step should be from 6 to 8 inches, while the -width of the tread should be from 9 to 12 inches. - -_Note_: See page 112 for Window Hatchway. - - -[Illustration] - -In erecting, first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired, -plus one foot. This allows for a 6-inch wall on either side. Slope the -ground from 1 foot back of where the top step is to come to 1 foot back -of where the bottom step will be. To form the steps, saw out a board -just as you would a “horse” for steps, and nail planks where the risers -come, holding the two “horses” the proper distance apart. This is -placed upside down, resting on the top and bottom, with the edge of the -top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come. Fill -this form and the space back of it with 1: 2: 4 concrete, starting -with the bottom step, and continuing upward to the top, bringing the -concrete in each step to the top of rise. Side forms for the 6-inch -walls may now be placed, braced apart in the center properly, and -resting on the back of the horses. These can be carried to any height -desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and -snow. Forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above -the ground line to hold the concrete in place. Before the concrete sets -in the side walls, bolts should be placed, with heads in the concrete, -by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening -the cellar doors by strap hinges. If the bottom step does not come to -the wall line, the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a -5-inch thickness of concrete. Here is a convenient place to locate a -drain, to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps, and any -which may leak through the cellar doors. - -The cellar hatchway shown in the photograph and in the drawing is 5 -feet wide, built according to directions above. The side walls at the -cellar are 7 feet high and 10 feet long. The slope for the cellar doors -is 2 feet 4 inches. There are 7 steps of 8-inch rise and 10-inch tread -and a landing 3 feet 2 inches wide. Two men built this hatchway in 1½ -days. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel 2¼ cubic yards at $1.10 $2.48 - Sand 1⅛ cubic yards at $1.00 1.13 - Portland cement 3¾ barrels at $2.50 9.37 - ------ - $12.98 - -[Illustration] - - -Root Cellars of Concrete - -The increasing use of roots, as winter feed for animals, has brought -about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this -valuable food. A root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep -roots from freezing or rotting. By building the cellar below ground -the warmth is greatly increased. To do this, however, a material must -be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot. For these -reasons use concrete. - -The cellar shown in the illustration on page 91 extends 5 feet below, -and 2 feet above ground level. The walls are 5 inches thick, and are -made of concrete proportioned 1: 2: 4. - -[Illustration] - -Choose a well drained site, and dig a pit in the earth to the desired -depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for -concrete steps, which will have a rise of 7 inches and a tread of 10 -inches. - -Build a floor of the same thickness as the walls. Set inside box form -and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with -the wet concrete, the same as for UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page -68. - -Above the ground level an outside form must be used. The roof is built -in the way described on page 86 except the thickness is increased to 5 -inches. - -Ventilators are provided in the roof, by imbedding lengths of sewer -pipe in the concrete. Add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain. - -By referring to page 90, there will be found a description of how to -build a hatchway and steps. - -Immediately after the side wall forms have been erected, the door frame -should be set in its required position, before placing concrete. - -Similar structures are also used as bee, vegetable, fruit and cyclone -cellars. Concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples, -potatoes and cabbage. By adjusting the ventilator openings, the -temperature can always be kept at just the right point. Moreover, since -rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar, there -is no waste causing decay, and the vegetables keep better. - -In cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter, lest they freeze -to death. By no other means than underground cellars can they be safely -brought through the winter. The bee cellar must be dry, in order that -the bees stay in good health. In no way, can there be provided so even -a temperature or so dry an atmosphere, as by the use of concrete. Bees -kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel 11 cubic yards at $1.10 $12.10 - Sand 5½ cubic yards at $1.00 5.50 - Portland cement 15 barrels at $2.50 37.50 - ------ - $55.10 - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -Poultry Houses - -The high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable. But to -have laying hens they must be carefully tended. Their houses must be -clean, and free from draughts. Young chickens must be protected from -rats, skunks and foxes. - -[Illustration] - -Concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house. To -clean a house of concrete, spray it with oil and burn it out. Concrete -is fireproof. Rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk. In -a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift, -or in which lice and bedbugs can hide. - -[Illustration] - -Locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where -the concrete poultry yard (see FEEDING FLOORS, page 43) may be wind -protected. Build the house as directed under SMALL BUILDINGS, page -82. As the walls are being placed, insert short pieces of gas pipe at -convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests (one style of -nest shown on page 94) and the rails for the roosts. If desired, a -one-way-slope concrete roof may be made. - -Make the floor on an 8-inch fill of gravel, or of slabs built on a -smooth floor and later set in place. Lay heavy wire fencing in the -concrete slab 1 inch from the under side. - - -Poultry Watering Troughs - -To rid the farm of cholera and roup, nothing aids more than concrete -drinking troughs. Occasionally scrub the troughs, spray them with oil -and burn them out. - - -Duck Ponds - -Ducks and geese need water, yet if they are allowed to go to a nearby -stream, many are lost. Poultrymen are building ponds of concrete, -attached to the water supply in such a way as to provide fresh water at -all times. For building, see instructions under HOG WALLOWS, -page 52. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -Retaining Wall and Steps - -Terraces, if too steep, will not stay sodded, and if too flat, take up -room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn. The neatest way is to -place a retaining wall along the terrace edge. This wall is built in -the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described -on page 60. - -[Illustration] - -If the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary. A most -convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with -the face of the wall, making it impossible to fall over one or two -projecting steps in the dark. - -In building, insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to -prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall. The -bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the -wall sufficient to form the first step. - -After the concrete for the wall is placed, remove the section of the -form where the steps are to come, and dig out the earth to a depth -sufficient to hold them. - -The remaining steps are built in the manner described on page 90. - -After the concrete is placed, the steps should be closed to traffic for -at least one week. - -In the background of the photograph on page 72 may be seen a double -terrace wall of concrete, each wall 5 feet high. - -[Illustration] - - -Concrete Chimney Caps - -As a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney, -it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as -possible. It can be made entirely so by building it of concrete. If -this is not convenient, at least let the chimney cap be of concrete. - -[Illustration] - -These caps are cast in one piece, on the ground, and in any shape -desired. - -The outside form is a wooden box, with inside dimensions corresponding -with the outside dimensions of the desired cap. Usually the cap is 6 -inches thick, and has an “over-hang” or “drip” extending on all sides -beyond the outside of the chimney.[3] Thus, if top of chimney, over -all, is 18 inches square, make outer form 22 inches square, an extra -allowance of 2 inches on all sides, thus obtaining a cap that will have -an “over-hang” of 2 inches all the way around. - -[3] A simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is -described on page 50. - -The inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile. If more -than one opening is desired in the cap, use two pieces of tile or as -many as there are to be openings. - -Mix concrete 1: 2: 4, the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one. Place -in the form, after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may -be easily removed. Leave undisturbed for two days. Remove forms and -place cap in position, attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement -mortar, one part cement to one part sand. - -[Illustration] - - -Concrete Makes an Excellent Porch Floor - -When even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear, either -from use or exposure to the elements, build it of concrete. - -[Illustration] - -Porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground; and, even -if they do not rot, through constant use they become splintered and -faulty. - -As concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without -cutting, it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size -and shape. Its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and -exposure have been so often mentioned, it seems useless to refer to -them again. - -[Illustration] - -Remove the old wooden floor, first placing props to support the porch -roof, with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch -floor. The pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to -be replaced by concrete. - -The floor is laid in exactly the same way as a feeding floor described -on page 43. As the size is usually small, however, the floor can be -laid in a single slab without joints. If a smooth surface is wished -for, finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel. - -Do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing. If you do, small -cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the -floor. - -No material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a -school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily. - -A porch of concrete is free from vermin, fireproof, easily scrubbed, -and needs no repairs. - - -Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames - -Fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every -suburbanite, if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame. By their use early -spring plants can also be given a good start. Since the bed must be -placed partly in the damp ground, the only material to be considered -for this purpose is concrete, which does not rot out and which, being -free from cracks and joints, makes the warmest bed in cold weather. - -Locate the bed on the sunny side of a building, if possible, on the -south side. Dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed, not less -than 3 feet deep. The one shown is 39 feet long and divided into 3 -equal compartments. Make box forms of 1-inch lumber to carry the south -(front) wall 6 inches and the north (back) wall 15 inches above ground. -The end walls slope to the others. If the bed is not near a building, -extend the back wall 2 feet higher to serve as a wind-break. Before -filling the forms with concrete, test their width by laying on a sash. -See that it laps full 2 inches at each end. - -[Illustration] - -Mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions 1: 2½: 5. Fill the forms -without stopping for anything. Tie the walls together at the corners -by laying old iron rods in them bent at right angles. During the -placing of the concrete set ½-inch bolts about 2 feet apart to hold -the wooden framing to the concrete; or make grooves in the tops of -the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of the concrete, -allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance. This can be -done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden strip of -the necessary width and thickness. Remove the forms after six days. -Divisions may be built along with the walls or later as convenient. One -and one-half days were required for two men to build a hot-bed 5½ by -12¼ feet in the clear. - - =Materials Required= - Screened gravel or broken stone 2½ cubic yards at $1.10 $2.75 - Sand 1¼ cubic yards at $1.00 1.25 - Portland cement 3½ barrels at $2.50 8.75 - ------ - $12.75 - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - -Tree Repair - -[Illustration] - -Nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good -shade trees. But trees are like teeth—they need attention. Boring -insects often cause decay. The hollow becomes larger. The wind blows -the weakened tree down. The “looks” of the place is ruined. It takes at -least a lifetime to produce another such tree. - -By means of concrete, many famous old trees, seemingly about gone, are -now saved. Open up the cavity with a hand-axe. With a mallet and chisel -cut out every bit of the rotten wood, and stop the flow of sap by -painting the cavity with liquid asphalt. Reinforce small cavities with -nails as shown in the photograph, larger cavities with rods, wire and -spikes. Carefully fill every crevice with a 1: 3 cement-sand mortar. -By slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling, once or -twice a season, the bark will grow entirely over the concrete. - -[Illustration] - - -Rollers of Concrete - -Frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into -humps. If these are not rolled down at once, the lawn is rough all -summer. - -Rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood. These -were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers, purchased in the -nearest town. To-day farmers are again making rollers, but are using -concrete. An iron roller with a cylinder from 2 to 3 feet in length -will cost from $15 to $20, whereas one of the same size constructed of -concrete will cost practically nothing. - -Obtain a length of sewer pipe, of the size of roller wished for. A tile -from 12 to 24 inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose. Set -this tile on end, small end down, on a wooden platform. Through a hole -bored in the platform insert a 1-inch round iron bar, long enough to -project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide -bearings and attachment for the handles. Care should be taken to get -the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete, -and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed. Make a wet -mixture of concrete (1: 2: 4), and fill the tile with this mixture, -up to the “bell” of the tile. Allow the concrete to set for ten days, -when the roller may be placed on side, and the bell of pipe chipped off -with a cold chisel and hammer. Attach a forked handle, as shown in the -illustration. As the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller, the -fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes, within which the -axle can turn. - -A roller 18 inches in diameter and 2 feet long will weigh about 600 -pounds. If a lighter roller is desired, use a smaller sized sewer -pipe; or place several small pipes inside the large one, depositing -the concrete around them on the outside. They will form hollow spaces -inside the roller and lessen its weight. - -By increasing the size pipe, or by using a steel mold and attaching -a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle, horse rollers for -crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made. - -[Illustration] - - -Hay Caps and Tarpaulin Weights - -With the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent -occurrence of showers, to secure sweet, unmolded hay it has become -necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover. The -best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete. Mix the -concrete 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand, mold them like -doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop, and set them aside -in a damp place for 7 days before using. - - -Trash Burner or Garbage Receiver - -[Illustration] - -Trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding -property. A concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means. - -Dig out the dirt to the depth of 6 inches. For forms choose two -barrels, one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all -sides of 6 inches. Adjust the height by cutting off their butts. Make -an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which -an iron door can be hung. Fill the foundation hole and the forms with -1: 2: 4 concrete. Remove the outside form after two weeks. The fire -will later take care of the inner form. After three weeks the burner -may be used. - -[Illustration] - - -Concrete Posts - -When a man buys a farm, he examines first the condition of its general -improvements. If the fences are “all run down,” he must take into -consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them—a matter of no -small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and -lumber. The cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost. -Intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last -longest with least repairs. - -A railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any -single property owner, and to avoid damage suits, the fences must at -all times be in perfect repair. As fast as their wooden fences rot out -and burn down, they are replacing them with concrete. Not only has the -lasting quality of concrete recommended itself, but the ever increasing -shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden -posts impossible, and the cost of poor posts high. - -Concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden -posts. The life of a wooden post is from 3 to 5 years, while concrete -posts last forever. Weather and fire do not injure them. Even forest -fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts. - -The United States Government, recognizing the importance of this -subject, has issued Farm Bulletin No. 403, entitled Concrete Fence -Posts. This bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the -Agricultural Department, or to your Congressman. - -Hitching posts, made in a slightly larger box form, with a bolt and -ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened, add neatness to -the house surroundings. Gate posts of concrete, nothing more than heavy -fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence, prevent sagging -gates, so hard to open. A concrete clothes post is ready for the -clothes line and the wash every Monday morning. The weight of the wet -clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag. Clothes never -have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt. - -[Illustration] - - -Corner Stones and Survey Monuments - -[Illustration] - -To property owners, as well as engineers, survey monuments which last -forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks, are of -the utmost importance. Expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be -avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable, permanent, -and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks. The use of -concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any -other material. - -Get from the proper public official (usually the county engineer or -surveyor) the exact location of corner stones. Drive four stakes in the -ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross -each other directly over the original monument. - -Remove the old monument, and, with a post auger, bore a hole deep -enough to reach below the frost line (at least 3 feet deep), where the -old monument stood. - -Fill the hole with concrete mixed 1: 2: 4, rounding the top with -the hands so it will extend 3 or 4 inches above the level of the -surrounding ground. - -While placing the last foot of concrete, imbed a harrow tooth, iron -bolt, or gas pipe, with its top just showing above the finished -concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross. Protect the -monument from damage by stock for one week, by placing a box over it. - - -Drain Tile Outlet Walls - -In developing the lowlands for farm purposes—and such lands are now -most valuable—immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile. - -Where drain tile empty into an open ditch, the banks of the ditch -around the drain tile gradually wash away, and often two and three -lengths of tile become disjointed, allowing the water from them to -further cut away the field land. These exposed tile are often crushed -by livestock. Moreover, clay and shale tile freeze, crumble, and mixed -with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet. Muskrats, -skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place, and the drain becomes -stopped up and drowns out the crops. - -[Illustration] - -All of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in -building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile -from washing out and to protect it. - -Choose the dry season of the year, immediately after the laying or -cleaning of the string of tile, when little water is in the ditch. - -Dig a trench 12 inches wide along the edge of the open ditch 2 feet -below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile. This trench -should extend along the bank for from 4 to 6 feet, with wings turned -into the bank at its ends, sufficiently long to prevent water from -getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out. - -Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5—wet enough to tamp well. - -Fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level. Should the trench -be full of water, place this part of the concrete dry. - -Set box forms, made of 1-inch siding and 2 by 4-inch studding. These -forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top -of the ditch banks. At the proper height to meet the string of tile, -place a first-class drain tile (at least one size larger than the -regular string) through the forms so that the front end will be flush -with the outside wall after concrete is placed. - -Bore two small holes in the forms above this tile, and place in them -well greased pegs of wood. After the forms are filled with concrete, -these pegs are removed, the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap -gate to keep animals out of the line of tile. Fill the forms with -concrete, and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel. - -Remove the forms after one week, and fill in earth behind the wall to -its top. - -[Illustration] - - -Spraying Tanks - -San José scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray -their orchards. To get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the -handling of warm solutions, orchardmen are building elevated concrete -tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the -tank bottoms. With such a plant, there is no delay—and time counts in -the spraying season. - -The tank shown stands on 10 by 12-inch columns, 6 feet clear of the -ground. It has two compartments, each 5 by 5 feet by 4 feet deep -holding 750 gallons. The side walls are 4 inches thick. Beneath the -4-inch bottom, on all sides, are 8 by 12-inch concrete beams. - -Locate the tank convenient to the water supply. Dig the column holes 12 -inches square, 3 feet deep, 11 feet out to out on the longer side and 5 -feet on the shorter. Have all forms ready before placing any concrete. -Fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four ½-inch iron -rods 10 feet long so that they will come right for the columns and -extend through them. Set up the 10 by 12-inch by 6-foot column forms -with their tops level with each other. Join them together with the -solidly framed 8 by 12-inch beam forms. - -Keeping the rods 1 inch from the corners, fill concrete in the column -forms up to the floor beams. Spread 1 inch of concrete over the bottom -of the beam forms and lay in two ½-inch rods 1½ inches from each side -wall. Bend these rods around those in the columns. Without delay fill -the beam forms. - -Erect the forms for the tank proper as for WATERING TANKS, -page 74. In the bottom of each tank set a 1½-inch flange pipe coupling. -Place 1 inch of concrete, then strips of heavy woven wire, and the -remaining 3 inches of concrete. Fill the side walls and, 1 inch from -the outside, imbed similar wire fencing. Protect the green concrete -according to directions under watering tanks. - -The materials required are: screened gravel or crushed rock, 4½ cubic -yards; sand, 2¼ cubic yards; and Portland cement, 7½ barrels. - - -[Illustration] - - -Culverts are Permanent When Made of Concrete - -The secret of good roads is good drainage. Standing water soaks into -the road bed, softens the road surface and causes ruts. To keep well -made roads in first-class condition, get the water to the highway drain -tile as fast as it falls. This can be accomplished only by means of -culverts. - -The perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out, which does -not crush down and clog up the opening, which lasts forever. Concrete -is the only material which fills the bill. - -The best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer. They -can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the -amount of water which must be removed quickly. Usually openings 12 to -18 inches are large enough. Set the culvert as deep in the road bed as -possible, but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the -ditch into which the culvert drains. To keep the culvert well beneath -the road bed, if necessary, make the side ditch deeper at the inlet -end. Determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom. Only a -little slope is needed. Dig the trench 6 inches deeper than the grade -line and as wide and long as necessary. The width of the trench depends -upon the size of the culvert to be built, and its length upon the width -of roadway under which the water is to be carried. The concrete walls -are each 6 inches thick, so the width of the trench will be 1 foot -greater than the clear width of the culvert. Fill this trench with -concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5, and, while it is still wet place in the -center of it a U-shaped box, turned upside down, of 1-inch boards, the -outside of which is the size of the culvert desired. Fill concrete into -the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and -tamp concrete over the top to a depth of 8 inches. Road culverts should -not be less than 18 inches below the surface of the roadway. - -To prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into -the culvert, small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end. -To do this dig an 8-inch trench 3 feet deep, at each end of the culvert -along the end of the culvert barrel. Frame a form, the width and height -necessary, against the end of the box or pipe. Make another form, of -the same size, but U-shaped, with the opening just large enough to -fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel. Set this form 8 -inches inside the first. Plumb both forms and brace them securely. Nail -boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete. -For one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert. Allow -the forms to remain in place for two weeks. Replace the road material -over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has -become solid. Since there are usually many culverts to be built, it is -cheaper to use a collapsible form, adjustable to several sized culverts. - -[Illustration] - -The box culvert shown in the illustration on page 108 has an opening 18 -inches wide and 16 inches deep. The length is 20 feet. The retaining -walls are 8 inches thick, 2 feet high (from the barrel opening), and -do not extend beyond the culvert walls. The bottom and the side walls -are 6 inches thick; the top, 8 inches. Three men, with a highway -commissioner as superintendent, built this culvert in two days. - - =Materials Required= - Crushed rock or screened gravel 3 cubic yards at $1.10 $3.30 - Sand 1½ cubic yards at $1.00 1.50 - Portland cement 4 barrels at $2.50 10.00 - ------ - $14.80 - -Concrete bridges last forever. With all the bridges and culverts of -concrete, tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes. - -[Illustration] - - -Septic Tanks - -The proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important -question on the farm. Cess-pools, simply pits dug in the ground, are -great disease spreaders. The liquids from them seep through the ground, -carry germs from the pool to the well, render “the best drinking-water -in the country” unfit for use, and often cause the spread of disease. - -The modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice. -Cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities, where immense sums of -money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage. It is not possible -to provide farms with these expensive plants, nor is it necessary. -Through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences -of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger -from sewage removed. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Septic tanks are nothing but long underground, water-tight cisterns -through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly. Located -underground, they are warm and dark—ideal conditions for the -development of the bacteria, little germs which eat up the sewage and -render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to -ferment. To prevent the bacteria (which live in the frothy sludge) from -being disturbed cross-walls, called baffle boards, are placed to break -up the current of the inflowing sewage. The purified sewage, merely -clear water, may be discharged into the farm drain tile. - -Locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side -walls underground and out of danger of flood waters. For a family of 8 -to 10, plan a tank with 8-inch walls, 5 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 10 -feet long—all dimensions in the clear. Lay out the tank and construct -it in exactly the same manner as UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68. - -Before filling the forms, set in the 6-inch inlet and outlet drains -at the same height, 2 feet 6 inches below the ground level. To aid -further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air, use -elbow bends, so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of -the tile. In the side forms, at a distance of 2 and 4 feet from the -inlet wall, set ¾-inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be -attached. These boards reach entirely across the tank, project above -the sewage, and extend to within 1 foot of the bottom. While building -the manhole covers, for the needed ventilation, insert in them four -short lengths of 1-inch gas pipe. - -Remove the forms the same as for underground cisterns. - -[Illustration: Concrete Hydrant Sink] - -[Illustration] - - -Window Hatches - -Window hatches should be protected by a flap cover, to close in times -of heavy rain or snow. - -[Illustration] - - -An Outdoor Swimming Pool - -These are built exactly as an underground cistern. A pool near home -affords a safe “swimming hole” for the children. - - - - - =_How will you know?_= - - - You are going to build—now or some - time—and you want to build well and - economically. - - You will choose between temporary and - permanent construction. - - _Why you should build in concrete._ - - First, because of _permanence_. It is fireproof, - strong, and lasting—proof against wear-and-tear and - depreciation. It lasts and lasts—against wind, water, - and fire. - - Second, because of _cleanliness and sanitation_. - This means healthy stock and better products, which sell - at higher prices. - - Third, because of _economy_. Concrete is - lower in ultimate cost because, once built, it - requires no painting or up-keep, no repairs, no - attention. Being proof against fire, concrete - secures the lowest insurance rates. - - [Illustration] - - “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._” - - _Why you should use ATLAS._ - - First, because Atlas Portland Cement is the - most-used cement—high in quality and always - uniform and reliable. - - Second, because Atlas Portland Cement has - demonstrated its worth. Our own government - selected it for the Panama Canal, after careful - investigation and tests. Nearly seven million - barrels have been used so far for this project. - Severe government tests have been made of every - hundred barrels, but not a single barrel has - been rejected. - - [Illustration] - - “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._” - - _Free help for you._ - - This book will give much valuable information - about concrete. But naturally, your particular - needs may require further information. - - Let us furnish this information you need. - Tell us what you want to build and what you - would like to know. We will gladly give you - all the necessary help. - - So far, we have sent information to over - two million farmers. Why shouldn’t you avail - yourself of this help, which is offered to you - without any obligation? - - Whenever you buy cement, look for the Atlas - trade mark as your guide—the black trade mark - with yellow letters. - - =_The Atlas Portland Cement Company_= - - _New York Chicago Philadelphia Boston_ - _St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines_ - - [Illustration] - - “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._” - - - =_Warning_= - - There are many brands of Portland cement, - and some people are confused, and as a result - accept any cement bearing the word “Portland.” - - The word “Portland” signifies _only_ the - kind of cement, _but does not designate the - brand and quality_. - - Specify “ATLAS” Portland Cement when you buy, - and you will get the best. - - =Atlas Portland Cement= - - is always uniform in strength, color and quality. - It is the cement that has done most to make - concrete and its uses so satisfactory and well - known. That is why Atlas is “The Standard by - which all other makes are measured.” - - [Illustration] - - “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._” - - - =Ask Your - Dealer for - ATLAS= - - [Illustration] - - “_The Standard by which all_ - _other makes are measured_” - - - “_The Standard By Which All_ - _Other Makes Are Measured._” - - [Illustration] - - =ATLAS= - used exclusively by the - United States Government - on the Panama Canal - - =ATLAS= - used exclusively on the - great Keokuk Dam across - the Mississippi River - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and -the Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM *** - -***** This file should be named 62312-0.txt or 62312-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/1/62312/ - -Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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