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diff --git a/old/62312-h/62312-h.htm b/old/62312-h/62312-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 09b0dde..0000000 --- a/old/62312-h/62312-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5636 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and Farm, by Atlas Portland Cement Company - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - - h1,h2,h3,h4 { text-align: center; clear: both; } -h1 {page-break-before: always; } -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -p { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .49em; } -p.no-indent { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0em; margin-bottom: .49em;} -p.indent { text-indent: 1.5em;} -p.neg-indent { text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; padding-left: 1.5em;} -p.f110 { font-size: 110%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f120 { font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f150 { font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f200 { font-size: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f300 { font-size: 300%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.drop-cap:first-letter { color: transparent; visibility: hidden; margin-left: -2.5em; } - -.space-above1 { margin-top: 1em; } -.space-above2 { margin-top: 2em; } -.space-above3 { margin-top: 3em; } - -.space-below1 { margin-bottom: 1em; } -.space-below2 { margin-bottom: 2em; } -.space-below3 { margin-bottom: 3em; } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%; } -hr.r25 {width: 25%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%; } -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; } -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%; } - -ul.index {list-style-type: none;} -li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} -li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} - -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } - .tdl {text-align: left;} - .tdr {text-align: right;} - .tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} - -.blockquot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 1px;} -.bt {border-top: solid 1px;} -.bbox {border: solid 2px;} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; } -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} -img.drop-cap { float: left; margin: 0 0.5em 0 0; } - -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center; } - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: - 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -@media handheld { - p.drop-cap:first-letter { color: inherit; visibility: visible; margin-left: 0; } -} - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and the -Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Concrete Construction for the Home and the Farm - -Author: The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -Release Date: June 2, 2020 [EBook #62312] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="f200"><b><i>A Request</i></b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Should you find this book helpful in building with concrete, we would -consider it a favor to have you so inform us. Likewise, we would -appreciate a description (and a photograph if possible) of whatever you -have built in concrete.</p> - -<p>In this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope -we have helped you.</p> - -<p>If you do not fully understand any part of this book, or if you desire -further information, write us and we shall be glad to do anything else we can.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1>CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION<br /><i>for the</i> HOME<i> and the</i> FARM</h1> - -<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">“CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE”</p> - -<p class="center">1916</p> - -<p class="center space-above2"><big>THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY</big><br /> -30 Broad Street, New York 134 So. LaSalle Street, Chicago<br /> -Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2></div> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="f120"><b>Special Index to Directions</b></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Special Index." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bank-run gravel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cleaning forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Definition of concrete,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dry mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22-24</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gravel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hand mixing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17-21</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a>,<a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Measuring boxes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Measuring materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11-13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Medium mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mixing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15-22</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Natural mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13-20</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Placing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Proportions,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11-13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Protection of concrete after placing,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Publications issued by the Association,  </td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Quantities of materials,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Reinforcement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Runs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand as an aggregate,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Selecting lumber for forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Stone as an aggregate,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tools,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wet mixture,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>General Index</b></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Special Index." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Acetylene gas house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Alleyways,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Barns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Barn approach,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54-59</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Barn foundations,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Barnyard pavements,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Base for machinery,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87-89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bee cellars,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Carriage house entrance,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Carriage washing floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cellar steps and hatchway,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chimney,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chimney caps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cistern covers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cisterns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-73</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Coal house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cold-frame,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Concrete in the country,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5-8</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Corn crib floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Corner stones,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cow barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55-58</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Culverts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cyclone cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92-93</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dairy,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dipping vats and tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76-80</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dog kennel,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Drain tile outlet,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Drinking troughs and tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Driveway of concrete,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Drop gutters,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54-59</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Duck pond,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Engine base foundation,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Engine house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Entrance floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Feed cooker,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Feeding floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43-45</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Feeding troughs, racks and mangers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fence posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Field rollers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Field spring improvement,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53-56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Foundation gutter,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fruit cellars,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Garbage receiver,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gasoline engine base,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gate posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Granary floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gutters,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hatchway for cellar steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hay cap weights,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hen house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hens’ nests,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hitching post,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hog wallows,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Horse barn floors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hot-bed,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Housing for driven well,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hydraulic ram house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lawn roller,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mangers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Manure pits and cisterns,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Milk house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Milk vat,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nests for hens,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Old buildings and their repair,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36-38</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Porch floor,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Posts for fences and gates,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Posts, hitching,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Poultry house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ram house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Repairs to farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36-38</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Retaining wall and steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Roadways,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Root cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Rollers,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sanitary water supply,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67-75</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Septic tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sidewalks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28-34</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Silos,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Small farm buildings,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82-89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Smoke house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Snow fences,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Spraying tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Spring improvements,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steps,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Stones, corner,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Survey monuments,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Swimming pool,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tanks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tarpaulin weights,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tool house,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83-87</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Trash burner,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tree repair,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Troughs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vegetable cellar,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Walks,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28-34</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Walk specifications,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Watering troughs,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Weights for hay caps and tarpaulins,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Well cover,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Well protection,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67-70</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wind walls,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Window hatch,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wiring forms,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete in the Country</h2></div> - -<p class="f120"><b>How the American Farmer is Solving<br /> His Conservation Problem</b></p> - -<div> - <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-c.jpg" width="50" height="58" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Conservation</span> -is no new problem—it is as old as life itself. It becomes -a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the -resources scarcely supply the demands. Such is the situation in the -United States to-day. In the early days the removal of the forests -was necessary that much grain might be grown. The young Nation had -to have money, and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish -it, the natural fertility of the fields was reduced. But the money -thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the Bank of Natural -Resources. To-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of -the fields bear witness that the loan is now due. Hence the problem of -conservation. Strange as it may seem, the farmer is using one material -not only to replace lumber but also, in a way, to restore the fertility -of his fields—that material is concrete.</p> - -<p>The national and state governments and the railroads were the first to -make extensive use of concrete. Not only did the beauty and mystery -of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer, but he -concluded that the railroads did not use it, in preference to wood, -steel and stone, merely to decorate the landscape. He knew too much -about railroads. So strongly did the railroads’ idea of economy (the -dollar argument) appeal to him that the farmer of the West is now -building practically everything about the farm of concrete. At first, -and quite naturally, land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began -using this new form of construction; but, since its cheapness in first -cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known, a wave -of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire -country. A gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine.</p> - -<p>With little help other than looking and listening, the farmer grasped -the idea of a concrete walk, and being a natural inventor and -jack-of-all-trades, improved on the method by adding a small curb -next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white -walk. This walk was a blessing to the boy—all the time formerly given -to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted -to fishing. The yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying -buildings. Wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen -floors became a thing of the past. By simply increasing the width of -the walk, a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar. -This was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit -for that most immaculate of all places—the milk house. Concrete cellar -hatchway and steps, safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar, and -water-tight, were made in a manner similar to walks.</p> - -<p>Brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of Portland cement and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> -sand. As this kept the water out, the farmer reasoned that it would -keep the water in, and he started to build cistern floors, walls and -cover of Portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of -the old brick cistern.</p> - -<p>After a little more observation, he quit digging deep cistern-pits, -with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying -water—he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the -pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in -the kitchen and the bath room.</p> - -<p>Several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was -burned for fuel instead of coal. No consideration was then given to -the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots. If the mud became too deep, the -feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture. To be sure, as the -sod wore out, the feeding-place had to be changed; but somebody had -advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for -the soil. Many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found -them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned, -in the general health of the animal, and in the shortened time of -fattening. But two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them -and the constant need of repairs. In concrete the thoughtful farmer -saw the possibilities of an ideal floor—an easily cleaned, rat-proof, -disease-proof surface upon which his hogs, sheep, cattle and poultry -might consume the feed even to the smallest particle.</p> - -<p>So satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment -suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding, muddy holes in the -earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns. But -the careful horseman held up a bit: he was afraid that stamping at -the flies, his valuable Percherons, Shires and Morgans might stiffen -up their legs. He experimented by placing concrete floors in his open -sheds, which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy -weather, just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he -needed the sheds most, and found such floors satisfactory.</p> - -<p>To-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations -of the time. The virgin soil of the prairies, of the cleared woodlands -and of the broken-up ranges, for a few years produced immense crops -of cotton and grain. To build up the decreasing productiveness of the -fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing -at hand. The passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price -of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer, -especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return -to the soil, in the form of manure, all the fertility which had been -removed in the growing of grain. Leaving out the matter of foods, the -strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage. -Manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third -to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching, -due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock, and later because of -fermentation or “firing” brought about by the lack of sufficient moisture. -This fertilizer usually sells at from 75 cents to $1.00 per load.</p> - -<p>The farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit -in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be. He -extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that -they were so clean, so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> -is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in -such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease -germs carried in unclean milk. The drop gutters carry all the liquids, -the richest part of the manure, formerly wasted, to the manure pits. -Consequently, one load of manure, thus properly preserved, is easily -worth two loads as ordinarily stored. By confining the manure in -pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete, the farm has been rid -of the chief breeding-place of flies, gnats, mosquitos and disease. -Moreover, such an interior court, surrounded by buildings and concrete -wind walls, forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot.</p> - -<p>Government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm, in -spite of the fresh food and pure air, is greater than the death-rate in -the city. State University tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a -doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells -contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever. To -prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well, many -people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight -concrete. Others are sinking “driven” wells and protecting them with -concrete housings. The principle of deep wells for pure water, among -other things, has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm. -These engines and hydraulic rams at springs, firmly set and housed in -concrete, supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs -or elevated, reinforced pressure tanks. From these places of storage -water is distributed to float-controlled, rot-proof watering tanks and -troughs of the same material. With such a water supply animals never -suffer for water. Even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved -and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete.</p> - -<p>Thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful -attention to the health, comfort and convenience of his family. -Moreover, the care of the animals is not neglected. A concrete dipping -vat holds the liquids which free horses, cattle, sheep and hogs of -mange, lice, mites, ticks and fleas. The Department of Agriculture is -stamping out the Texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use -of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts. A hog wallow -with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded -by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera -often carried down from animals affected further up stream.</p> - -<p>The continual rotting off of wooden fence posts, the constantly -increasing cost of new ones, and the annual expense of fence repairs, -called for the introduction of some substitute. Land is entirely -too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts. -Even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the -possibilities of concrete in this line, a few venturesome farmers had -given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only -advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost, but more -profitable on account of their everlasting qualities. The Department -of Agriculture at Washington has thoroughly investigated the use and -methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin -describing the process. Such posts are also valuable in the culture of -grapes and hops.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> -The use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from -the ground upward. The drip soon rots out timber near the ground and -eventually crumbles away the brick foundation. At first, uselessly -making the walls as heavy as those of brick, the farmer gave concrete -a trial in foundations. Concrete is stronger than brick. As a wall it -kept the basement and back barn dry. The height of the foundation wall -increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft. Finally, after -a study of methods, of reinforcing, the entire barn—basement, walls, -floors, mangers, troughs, gutters, beams and even the shingles—became -concrete. Matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors -in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times. The oil will -burn until smothered out with a horse blanket, but no further damage -will be done.</p> - -<p>Poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on -account of rats. To free the farm of these destructive animals, as a -last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil, -the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs -and granaries. Corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept -perfectly on concrete. The rats had to go; they could not get through -such floors. And so we might continue, describing how farmers have -successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a -stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings.</p> - -<p>Just as there are right and wrong methods of farming, so, too, are -there right and wrong ways of using concrete. It is the aim of this -book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader -to build with concrete surely and successfully.</p> - -<p>“CONCRETE IN THE COUNTRY” does not pretend to fully cover the -subject—the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume. But -the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types -of concrete construction as is possible in the space available.</p> - -<p>Fuller details are given in other pamphlets, which will be furnished -free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of -this book.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="f110"><b>Publications issued by the Association of American<br /> -Portland Cement Manufacturers,<br /> Philadelphia, Pa.</b></p> - -<p>At the office of the above Association there are available books -dealing with concrete construction of all classes. These books describe -the construction of silos, fence posts, tanks, troughs, concrete roads, -and many other works. Upon request there will be sent a list of the -publications in print. The books, with one or two exceptions, are sent -free of cost.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">What is “Concrete”?</h2></div> - -<p>Concrete—a manufactured stone—is made by mixing together Portland -cement, sand and stone (or gravel). Various proportions of each are -used, depending upon the use to which the concrete is put. About half -an hour after mixing these materials together, the mass begins to -stiffen, until, in from half-a-day to a day, it becomes so hard that -you cannot dent it with the hand. By a month the mass is hard like -stone—indeed, harder than most stones.</p> - -<h3>Materials</h3> - -<p>Before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing -concrete, it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding -as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work, and how -best these may be selected.</p> - -<h3>Portland Cement</h3> - -<p>For domestic use, Portland Cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper -bags. When furnished in cloth sacks, the price per barrel includes -the cost of the sacks (four sacks making a barrel). When the sacks -are returned in good condition, the amount charged is rebated to the -customer. Where cement is furnished in paper bags, the price also -includes the cost of the paper bags which, however, are not returnable.</p> - -<p>Many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags, as it -does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and -sending them bade to the dealer for credit.</p> - -<p>The paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs 94 pounds, and four such -make a barrel of 376 pounds.</p> - -<p>The storage of cement is very important. It must be kept in a dry -place. Once wet, it becomes hard and lumpy, and in such condition is -useless. If, however, the lumps are caused by pressure in the store -house, the cement may be used with safety. Lumps thus formed can be -easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel.</p> - -<p>In storing cement, throw wooden blocks on the floor. Place boards -over them and pile the cement on the boards, covering the pile with a -canvas or a piece of roofing paper. Never, under any circumstances, -keep cement on the bare ground, or pile it directly against the outside -walls of buildings.</p> - -<h3>Sand</h3> - -<p>Do not use very fine sand. If there is a large quantity of fine sand -handy, obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal -parts; this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone.</p> - -<p>Sometimes fine sand <i>must</i> be used, because no other can be obtained; -but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be -used—sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required. For -example, in such a case, instead of using a concrete 1 part cement, 2 -parts sand, and 4 parts stone, use a concrete 1 part cement, I part -sand, and 2 parts stone.</p> - -<p>Besides being coarse, the sand should be clean, <i>i. e.</i>, free from -vegetable matter. “But,” you say, “how shall I tell whether the sand is -what you call clean?” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> - -<p>The presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a -little in the palm of the hand. If a little is emptied into a pail of -water, the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the -water. This can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth -of 4 inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch -of the top. After the jar has been well shaken, the contents should -be allowed to settle for a couple of hours. The sand will sink to the -bottom, but the mud, which can be easily recognized by its color, will -form a distinct layer on top of the sand, and above both will be a -clear depth of water. If the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in -thickness, the sand should not be used unless it is first washed.</p> - -<p>Having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean, and -provided you cannot readily obtain any that <i>is</i> clean, you may use -what you have, provided you wash it in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>Build a loose board platform from 10 to 15 feet long, with one end a -foot higher than the other. On the lower end and on the sides, nail a -board 2 by 6 inches on edge, to hold the sand. Spread the sand over -this platform in a layer three or four inches thick, and wash it with -a hose. The washing should be started at the high end, and the water -allowed to run through the sand and over the 2 by 6-inch piece at the -bottom. A <i>small</i> quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand, -but any amount over 5 per cent. does.</p> - -<h3>Stone or Gravel</h3> - -<p>This is known as the “coarse aggregate” of concrete. Great care should -be used in its selection. The pebbles should be closely inspected -to see that there is no clay on their surface. A layer of such clay -prevents the “binding” of the cement. If necessary stone or gravel may -be washed in the same way as above described for sand. Indeed, it is -more easily done than sand, as the water flows through the larger voids -in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand. Dust may -be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the -strength of the cement, but care should be taken to see that such dust -is distributed evenly through the whole mass, and when dust is found in -stone, slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily.</p> - -<p>As to the size of stone or gravel, this must be determined by the -form of construction contemplated. For foundations or any large thick -structure, use anything from ½ to 2½ inches in diameter. For thin walls -use ¼ to 1-inch stone.</p> - -<p>The best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded -from small to large. By this means the spaces or voids between the -stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained. -Moreover, this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and -less cement.</p> - -<h3>Pure Water Necessary in Mixing</h3> - -<p>Water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and -alkalies. It may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board -and placed on the concrete with a bucket. If you are at all in doubt -about the purity of the water that you contemplate using, it would be -well to make up a block of concrete as a test, and see whether the -cement “sets” properly. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Proportioning the Mixture</h3> - -<p>That mixture in which all the spaces (called “voids”) between the stone -or gravel are filled with sand, and all the spaces between the sand -are filled with cement, is the ideal mixture. This mixture is rarely -attained, as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly, -and in order to be absolutely safe, it is well to use a little more -cement than will just fill the voids.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="169" /> - <p class="blockquot">Fig. 1.—Quantities of cement, sand, and gravel in 1: 2: 4 - concrete mixture, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts - crushed stone or gravel, and the resulting quantity of concrete, which - is only slightly greater in size than the gravel, the sand and cement - filling the voids in the gravel.</p> -</div> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><a name="TABLE_I" id="TABLE_I"></a>TABLE I.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Showing the Quantities of Materials and the Resulting<br /> -Amount of Concrete for Two-bag Batch.</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols"> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="11"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Kind of<br />Concrete <br />Mixture.</span></th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3"> <span class="smcap">Proportions by Parts.</span> </th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="7"><span class="smcap">Two-bag Batch.</span></th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> S <br />a<br />n<br />d.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Stone<br />or<br /> Gravel. </th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3">Materials.</th> <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">Size of<br />Measuring<br />Boxes.<br />Inside<br /> Measurements. </th> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Water<br />in<br />Gallons<br />for<br />Medium<br />Wet<br />Mixture.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> Cement. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Sand. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Stone<br />or<br /> Gravel. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Concrete </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Sand.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Stone<br />or<br />Gravel.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Bags.</td> - <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td> - <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td> - <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> Gallons.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1:2:4 Concrete</td> <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">2 </td> <td class="tdc">4</td> - <td class="tdc">2</td> <td class="tdc">3¾</td> - <td class="tdc">7½</td> <td class="tdc">8½</td> - <td class="tdc">2′×2′ 11½″ </td> <td class="tdc">2′×4′ 11½″</td> - <td class="tdc">10</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1:2½:5 Concrete </td> <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">2½</td> <td class="tdc">5</td> - <td class="tdc">5</td> <td class="tdc">4¾</td> - <td class="tdc">9½</td> <td class="tdc">10 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 2′×2½′ 11½″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 2′×5′ 11½″ </td> - <td class="tdc">12½</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="11"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>As above explained, concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement, -a larger amount of sand, and a still larger amount of stone (or -gravel). To determine how much of each of these materials to use, we -must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake. For ordinary -work about the farm (silos, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, well curbs, -etc., etc.) use twice as much stone as sand, and twice as much sand as -cement. This is called a 1: 2: 4 mixture—meaning that there are in -that mixture:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">1 part of cement,</li> -<li class="isub2">2 parts of sand,</li> -<li class="isub2">4 parts of stone or gravel.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> -For sidewalks, gutters, etc., a “weaker” mixture is sometimes used, -consisting of:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">1 part of cement,</li> -<li class="isub2">2½ parts of sand,</li> -<li class="isub2">5 parts of stone or gravel.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The proportions should always be measured by volume, and the best way -to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made “measuring box,” -of any kind of rough boards having straight sides, but with no top -or bottom. The size of these measuring boxes is determined by the -proportion desired for your mixture. For such boxes you need the -following sized lumber:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet rough (ends of sand and stone boxes).</li> -<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet rough (sides of sand box).</li> -<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 6 feet rough (sides of stone box).</li> -</ul> - -<p>Note: The two pieces 4 feet long and the two pieces 6 feet long have an -extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in -<a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3.</a></p> - -<p>For a 1: 2½: 5 mixture, you require the following sized lumber:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet (ends of sand and stone boxes).</li> -<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches (sides of sand box).</li> -<li class="isub2">2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 7 feet (sides of stone box).</li> -</ul> - -<p class="blockquot"> Note: The two pieces 4 feet 6 inches long and the -two pieces 7 feet long have an extra foot in length at each end to be -made into a handle, as shown in <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3.</a></p> - -<p>To illustrate the use of the measuring box, let us once more assume -that a 1: 2: 4 mixture is required, and that the amount of finished -concrete needed is 8½ cubic feet. By referring to the <a href="#TABLE_I">table on page 11</a> -it will be noted that two bags of cement are required, also 3¾ -cubic feet of sand and 7½ cubic feet of stone or gravel. Under “size -of measuring box” it is found that the sand should just fill a box 2 -feet by 2 feet by 11½ inches, and that the stone should fill a box 2 -feet by 4 feet by 11½ inches. Lay the sand box, or frame, on the mixing -platform and fill it. Then raise the box. Empty two bags of cement on -the sand and mix as described under “<a href="#MIXING">Mixing</a>,” see pages 14-22. -Even off the mixture thus obtained with your shovel, place the stone measuring -box on top of the mixture and fill it. Raise the measuring box—and you -have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement -and sand. It is important to measure both the sand and stone <i>loose</i> in -the box—never “pack” them.</p> - -<p>For purposes of explanation, size of mixture will be referred to as -a “<i>batch</i>” of so many bags of cement. Thus, a “two-bag batch of -concrete” would mean one requiring two bags of cement, with the sand -and stone proportioned accordingly, as shown above.</p> - -<p>For a “four-bag batch of concrete” it would be necessary to multiply -the amount of stone and gravel by 2, also multiplying the cubic -contents of the measuring box by 2, and using four bags of cement -instead of two.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#TABLE_I">table previously referred to</a> also shows the amount -of water for different sized batches, but it is to be noted that the quantity of -this ingredient is only approximated. Use the amount indicated in -the table for the first batch, and if it proves too wet for the use -desired, reduce the amount of water; if too dry, increase the amount of -water. Always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water, as this -secures uniform results. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel</h3> - -<p>Naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right -proportions for making concrete. Generally, however, there is far too -much sand for the gravel, and great care should be exercised in using -this class of material. Unless the mixture runs very even throughout -the bank, and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts -gravel, it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare -the materials in the usual way.</p> - -<p>Herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of -bank sand and gravel. The quantities can be found in the same way as in -<a href="#TABLE_I">Table I, on page 11</a>.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="f120 space-above2">TABLE II.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"><span class="smcap">Showing the Quantities of Materials and the Resulting -Amount of Concrete for Two-bag Batch, Using Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel.</span></p> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols"> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="8"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Kind of<br />Concrete <br />Mixture.</span></th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2"> <span class="smcap"> Proportions <br />by Parts.</span> </th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Two-bag Batch for Natural Mixture<br />of Bank Sand and Gravel.</span></th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Natural<br />Mixture<br />of Sand<br />and<br />Gravel.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">Materials.</th> - - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"> C <br />o<br />n<br />c<br />r<br />e<br />t<br />e.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Size of<br />Measuring<br />Boxes.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Water<br />in<br />Gallons<br />for<br />Medium<br />Wet<br /> Mixture.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> C <br />e<br />m<br />e<br />n<br />t.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Natural<br />Mixture<br /> of Sand <br />and<br />Gravel.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Mixture<br />of Sand<br />and<br />Gravel.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> Bags. </td> - <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td> - <td class="tdc">Cu. ft.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> Gallons.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1:2:4 Concrete</td> <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">4</td> <td class="tdc">2</td> - <td class="tdc">7½</td> <td class="tdc"> 8½</td> - <td class="tdc">2′×4′ 11½″ </td> - <td class="tdc">10 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1:2½:5 Concrete </td> <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">5</td> <td class="tdc">2</td> - <td class="tdc">9½</td> <td class="tdc">10</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2′×5′ 11½″ </td> - <td class="tdc">12½</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="8"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>There are three kinds of mixtures, in general, on concrete work:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1st.—<i>Very Wet Mixture.</i>—Concrete wet enough to be -mushy and run off the shovel when handling, used for -thin walls or for thin sections, etc.</p> - -<p>2d.—<i>Medium Mixture.</i>—Concrete just wet enough -to make it jelly-like, used for foundations, floors, -etc. To better describe this mixture it may be said -that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step -on top of the pile.</p> - -<p>3d.—<i>Dry Mixture.</i>—Concrete like damp earth, used -for foundations, etc., where it is important to have -the concrete “set” up as quickly as possible.</p> -</div> - -<p>The difference between the mixtures is, that the dryer the mixture -the quicker will the concrete “set up”—but in the long run, when -carefully mixed and “placed,” the results from any of the above -mixtures will be identical. It may be said, however, that a dry mixture -is the harder to handle, must be protected with greater care from the -sun or from drying too quickly; and lastly, is likely—unless used by -most experienced hands—to show voids or stone pockets in the face of -the work when the “Forms” are removed. The less the voids in the stone -or gravel, the greater will be the volume of the concrete. In general, -the amount of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown -in the table—especially when gravel is used. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_2" name="FIG_2"> - <img src="images/i_014.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="351" /></a> - <p class="center">Fig. 2.—Concrete Mixing Plant, showing Concrete Board,<br /> - Tools, etc., Necessary for Mixing Concrete by Hand.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Tools</h3> - -<p>One great advantage of concrete, so far as the farmer is concerned, -lies in the fact that, generally speaking, it necessitates no outlay -for tools, for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms -of concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses—</p> - -<p>Shovels—One for each man on the job.</p> - -<p>Wheelbarrows—At least two, preferably those with sheet iron bodies.</p> - -<p>Rake.</p> - -<p>Water Barrel.</p> - -<p>Several Water Buckets.</p> - -<p>A Tamper or Rammer—This is made of wood with handles nailed to it, as -shown in <a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>. The measurement is 4 inches -by 2 inches by 2 feet 6 inches.</p> - -<p>A Garden Spade.</p> - -<p>A Sand Screen, made by nailing a piece of ¼-inch mesh wire screen, 2½ -feet by 5 feet in size, to a frame made of 2-inch by 4-inch scantling.</p> - -<p>In addition to the above tools you will require a Mixing Board. This is -simply a water-tight platform. It should be (for a two batch mixture -and for two men to work on) about 10 feet square. Make it out of 1-inch -boards 10 feet long, surfaced on one side, using 5 cleats to hold the -boards together. The cleats should measure 2 inches by 4 inches by 9 -feet. If 1-inch by 6-inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained, -these will answer very nicely, provided they are fairly free from -knots. The object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or -turning easy. The boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling -to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards. The -boards must be drawn up close in nailing, so that no cement “grout” -will run through while mixing.</p> - -<p>For a larger job, a slightly larger mixing board will be needed.</p> - -<p>In setting up your mixing board, choose a place giving plenty of room -near the storage piles of sand and stone. Block up your concrete board -level, so that the cement grout will not run off on one side, and so that -the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the concrete.</p> - -<h3>Wheelbarrow “Runs”</h3> - -<p>You will also have to make wheelbarrow “runs” leading from your mixing -board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed. Do not use, for -these runs, any old boards that are handy. Make a good run—smooth, -and, if much above the ground, at least 20 inches wide. This one -feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent.</p> - -<h3><a name="MIXING" id="MIXING"></a>How to Mix Concrete</h3> - -<p>Having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and -runs, the next step is the actual process of mixing.</p> - -<p>The proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types -of work have already been <a href="#Page_11">described on pages 11-13</a>. In -following the mixing instructions here given, considerable assistance will be -obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are interspersed. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_3" name="FIG_3"> - <img src="images/i_016a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /></a> - <img src="images/i_016b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="191" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 3.—Lifting off the Sand Measuring Box and Getting Cement Ready.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_4" name="FIG_4"> - <img src="images/i_016c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="360" /></a> - <img src="images/i_016d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="203" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 4.—Spreading the Cement Over the Sand.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> - -<h3>The Hand Mixing Method</h3> - -<p>There are many ways of “hand mixing,” all having the same good results. -The way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to -obtain good results with a minimum of labor. In this description, and -the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a “Two-Bag -Batch” of 1: 2: 4 concrete.</p> - -<p>First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile, wheel on -to the “Board,” and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about -two feet from one of the 10-foot sides of the board, as shown by the -diagram in <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a>. When the sand box is -filled, lift it off and spread the sand over the board in a layer 3 or -4 inches thick, as shown in <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>. Take -the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly as possible -over the sand (<a href="#FIG_4">see Fig. 4</a>). With the two -men at points marked “x” and “xx” on the sketch below <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>, -start mixing the sand and cement, each man turning over the half on -his side of the line AA. Starting at his feet and shoveling away from -him, each man takes a full shovel load, turning the shovel over at the -points marked 1 and 2 respectively in <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>. -In turning the shovel, do not simply dump the sand and cement -at the points marked 1 and 2 in the diagram under the cut, but shake -the materials off the end and sides of the shovel, so that the sand and -cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great assistance in mixing -these materials. In this way the material is shoveled from one side -of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. <a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a> -shows the first turning, and <a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6</a> the second turning.</p> - -<p>The sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the -stone and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement -out carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as -shown in <a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a>, and fill from the -gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel the gravel on top of the sand -and cement, spreading it as evenly as possible. With some experience, -equally good results can be obtained by placing the gravel measuring -box on top of the carefully leveled sand and cement mixture, and -filling it, thus placing the gravel on top without an extra shoveling. -This method is shown in <a href="#FIG_8">Fig. 8</a>. -Add about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a -bucket and dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as -evenly as possible. (<a href="#FIG_9">See Fig. 9</a>). Be -careful not to let too much water get near the edges of the pile, as it -will run off, taking some cement with it. This caution, however, does -not apply to a properly constructed mixing board, as the cement and -water cannot get away. Starting the same as with the sand and cement, -turn the materials over in much the same way, except that instead of -shaking the materials off the end of the shovel, the whole shovel load -is dumped as at points 1 or 2 in the diagram under <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a> -and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point of the shovel. -This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet gravel picking -up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged back by the -shovel. (<a href="#FIG_10">See Fig. 10</a>). Add water to the dry -spots as the mixing goes on until all the required water has been -used. Turn the mass bade again, as was done with the sand and cement. -With experienced laborers, the concrete should be well mixed after -three such turnings; but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be -turned again. After the final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The -concrete is now ready for placing. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_5" name="FIG_5"> - <img src="images/i_018a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" /></a> - <img src="images/i_018b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="207" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 5.—First Turning, Sand and Cement.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_6" name="FIG_6"> - <img src="images/i_018c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="362" /></a> - <img src="images/i_018d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="199" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 6.—Second Turning, Sand and Cement.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_7" name="FIG_7"> - <img src="images/i_019a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="351" /></a> - <img src="images/i_019b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 7.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box—First Method.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_8" name="FIG_8"> - <img src="images/i_019c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="350" /></a> - <img src="images/i_019d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="206" /> - <p class="center">Fig. 8.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box When<br /> - on Top of Mixed Sand and Cement—Second Method.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_9" name="FIG_9"> - <img src="images/i_020a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="360" /></a> - <p class="center">Fig. 9—Placing the Water on the Stone (or Gravel)<br /> - which is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement.</p> -</div> - -<h3>Mixing Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel</h3> - -<p>Spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will -readily permit, add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly, -spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel, and -turn over, as described previously, at least three times, adding the -rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the -materials are being turned. It requires some experience to work up a -natural mixture of bank sand and gravel, and if at all doubtful about -the concrete made from it, first screen the sand from the gravel, and -then mix in the regular way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a id="FIG_10" name="FIG_10"> - <img src="images/i_020b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="362" /></a> - <p class="center">Fig. 10.—Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and Cement.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Number of Men</h3> - -<p>For the above operation only two men are required, although more can -be used to advantage. If three men are available, let two of them mix -as described above and the third man supply the water, help mix the -concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn -the concrete, help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel, -etc. <a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a> shows a third man on the board. -In this illustration, he is helping mix the sand and cement by raking -it—a most effective practice.</p> - -<p>If four men are available, it is best to increase the size of the batch -mixed to a four-bag batch, doubling the quantities of all materials -used. The cement board should also be increased to 10 by 12 feet as -shown under “Tools.” In this case start the mixing in the middle of the -board, and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch, -except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it -is turned back on to the center of the board. When more than four men -are available, the rest may place the concrete, make new runs, load -wheelbarrows, etc., taking the concrete away from the board as fast as -it is mixed. In this case another small concrete board should be placed -next to the big “board,” so that in the last turning the batch can be -shoveled over on to the small board for placing, making room on the big -board to mix the next batch. The small platform need be only just big -enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete.</p> - -<h3>How to Determine Quantities of Materials Needed</h3> - -<p>First figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required -for the work in question. Then by multiplying this number by the number -under the proper column and required mixture shown in <a href="#TABLE_III">Table III</a>, -the amounts of cement, sand, and stone or gravel can be found.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><a name="TABLE_III" id="TABLE_III"></a>TABLE III.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Quantity of Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols"> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2"><big><span class="smcap">Mixture.</span></big></th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3"> <big><span class="smcap">Quantities of Material in 1 Cu. Ft. of Concrete</span></big></th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Cement,<br />Barrel</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Sand,<br />Cu. Yard</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Stone or Gravel,<br />Cu. Yard</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc">1 : 2 : 4 Concrete</td> - <td class="tdc">.058</td> - <td class="tdc">.0163</td> - <td class="tdc">.0326</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">1 : 2½ : 5 Concrete</td> - <td class="tdc">.048</td> - <td class="tdc">.0176</td> - <td class="tdc">.0352</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="center"><b>Example</b></p> - -<p>Suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all 935 cubic -feet of concrete, of which 750 cubic feet is to be 1: 2: 4 concrete, -and 185 cubic feet is to be 1: 2½: 5 concrete. Also enough sand and -cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside, in all 400 -square yards of surface, with a 1: 1 mixture of sand and cement. One -cubic foot of 1: 1 mortar will paint about 15 square yards of surface -and requires 0.1856 barrels of cement and 0.0263 cubic yards of sand. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center"><b>Solution, Etc.</b></p> - -<p>Thus the necessary quantities of materials are:—</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">57½ barrels of Portland cement.</li> -<li class="isub2">16½ cubic yards of sand.</li> -<li class="isub2">31 cubic yards of stone or gravel.</li> -</ul> - -<p>It is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement, if the -dealer is at considerable distance, as this avoids any possible trouble -that a shortage might cause. Besides, any cement left over always comes -in handy for repair work around the house or barn.</p> -</div> - -<h3>Forms for Concrete</h3> - -<p>Concrete is a plastic material and before hardening, takes the shape of -anything against which or in which it is placed.</p> - -<p>Naturally, the building of the Form is a most important item in the -success of the work.</p> - -<p>These Forms hold the concrete in place, support it until it has -hardened and give it its shape, as well as its original surface finish.</p> - -<h4>Kinds of Forms</h4> - -<p>Almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a -Form. Concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches, -and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a Form.</p> - -<p>Molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work. Frequently colored -sands are used for this purpose, providing both the finished surface -and color to the concrete ornament.</p> - -<p>Cast, wrought or galvanized iron is used, where an extremely smooth -finish is desired, without further treatment upon the removal of the -Forms. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can be used a -greater number of times than those of wood. Rusty iron, however, should -not be used.</p> - -<p>By far the greatest number of Forms are made of wood, owing to the fact -that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained.</p> - -<h4>Requirements of a Good Form</h4> - -<p>Plan your Forms so there will be no difficult measurements to -understand. Make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can, and -do not drive the Forms full of nails. If you do the Forms will be -difficult to take apart without splitting.</p> - -<p>Forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without -bulging out of shape. When they bulge, cracks open between the planks -and the water in the concrete, with some cement and sand, will leak -out. This weakens the concrete, and causes hollows in the surface which -look badly after the Forms are removed.</p> - -<p>Forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a -second time. A part of the erection cost of Forms is saved if the Forms -are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle. This saving -applies to their removal, as well as to their setting. Consequently, -the lightest Forms possible, with the largest surface area, are the -most economical. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> - -<h4>How to Plan Forms</h4> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="WIRE_FORMS" id="WIRE_FORMS"></a> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="274" /> - <p class="center">Wiring Forms Prevents Bulging.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first consideration in planning Forms is the use to which they are -to be put. Neglect of this point means waste of money and time. If they -are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat, the finish of -the surface is of small consideration, while the alignment of the Form -is all-important.</p> - -<p>If a tank or retaining wall is to be built, the fact that the Forms are -not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed.</p> - -<p>In planning Forms for large structures, the oftener each section is -used, the less the cost. You save money if they are rigid in alignment, -and well surfaced. In other words, if you count on using your Forms -over and over again, the more nearly perfect they are, the more often -they can be used, and the cheaper they become.</p> - -<p>If Forms are to be used only once, as is generally the case on the -farm, they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being -readily taken apart, and the lumber used for something else. If often -pays to put them together with screws. If nails are used, do not drive -them home.</p> - -<h4>Care Needed in Selecting Lumber for Forms</h4> - -<p>The selection of lumber is of importance. If the Forms are to be used -over many times, surfaced lumber, matched, tongued, and grooved stuff, -free from loose knots, is an economy. If, however, they are to be used -only once, almost any old plank will do. By nailing a board on the -outside of the cracks or over the bad knot, and filling with a little -clay, the Form is made tight.</p> - -<p>Green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff. Seasoned -stuff, when wet (either by throwing water on the form before placing -the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete) warps, and -the shape and tightness of the Form are damaged. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="FOUNDATION" id="FOUNDATION"></a> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="441" /> -</div> - -<p>Originally only surfaced lumber was used for Forms, dependence being -placed on it for giving a finish to the work. While to-day other than -smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion, surfaced lumber has some -advantages. The Forms fit together better and are easier to erect. They -are more easily cleaned. They are easier to remove. All these items -reduce the cost of the work. The saving effected will of course depend -on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber.</p> - -<h4>How to Clean</h4> - -<p>Particles of concrete stick to the Forms. In order to prevent this, -give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap. Linseed, -black or cylinder oil may be used. Never use kerosene.</p> - -<p>Before erecting, paint the Forms with the oil or soap. Then carefully -protect them from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, immediately -clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface. A -short-handled hoe will take off the worst, while a wire brush is most -effective for finishing. Be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning, -as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete. It will -not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use. Watch the -surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots.</p> - -<p>If chips or blocks of wood fall inside the Forms while erecting, -carefully remove them. The space inside the Forms is intended for the -concrete; and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed -there.</p> - -<p>The necessity of Forms presents a problem calling for the use of -that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed. Forms can be -economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be -given. A foundation Form in place is <a href="#FOUNDATION">shown in the photograph</a>. -Note the simple and easy method of bracing. Also note how lumber is saved from -cutting by allowing the sides to project, as well as the studding.</p> - -<p>For this building, 18 by 24 feet, trench 18 inches wide and 2 feet -deep—total cost of setting forms $4.00. The lumber was all on hand and -can be used again. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">How to Place Concrete</h2></div> - -<p>No time should elapse between the “mixing” and the “placing.” -Directions for placing must of necessity be general, and the farmer -must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete -work, in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand. The -important thing to remember is, that the materials should not separate -in placing.</p> - -<p>You may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work; you -may shovel it into wheelbarrows, wheel it to position and dump, or you -may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus.</p> - -<h3>Directions for Placing</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="382" /> -</div> - -<p>Ordinarily speaking, concrete should be deposited in layers about 6 -inches thick.</p> - -<p>After placing concrete in the Form, it should be “tamped” <i>lightly</i> -with a wooden or iron tamper (or rammer) until the water shows on the -top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar.</p> - -<p>In order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete, the mixture should be -carefully “spaded” immediately after “placing”—on the side next to the -Form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view. By “spading” -is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete -and the side of the Form, moving it to and fro, and up and down. This -forces the large stones away from the boarding, or Form, and brings -a coating of mortar next thereto, thus making the face of the work -present an even, smooth appearance.</p> - -<h3>The Necessary Tools</h3> - -<p>On certain jobs—as, for instance, in the case of a 6-inch silo wall—a -spade cannot very well be used, on account of the narrowness of the -concrete section. In this event, use for surfacing, a thin wooden -paddle, made from a board 1 inch by 4 inches, and gradually sharpened -to a chisel edge at the end. The sharpening should be on one side only, -and in using this paddle place the flat side against the Form, as shown -in illustration.</p> - -<p>When the mixture is a <i>dry</i> one, great care must be used in this -“spading” or surfacing, in order to obtain uniform results, but in -the case of a <i>wet</i> mixture, spading is only required as an added -precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work, -and in many cases it is not necessary at all. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Protection of Concrete after Placing</h3> - -<p>Green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has -been allowed to set for five or six days. Each day during that period -the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it, both in -the morning and afternoon. This is done so that the concrete on the -outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center -of the mass, and should be carried out carefully, especially during -the hot summer months. Old canvas, sheeting, burlap, etc., placed so -as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do -very well as a protection. Wet this, as well as the concrete. Often the -concrete Forms can be left in place a week or ten days; this protects -the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are -then unnecessary.</p> - -<h3>Points to Remember</h3> - -<p>It may be well, in summing up, to emphasize the following points:—</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">1st. The materials must be perfectly clean.</li> -<li class="isub2">2d. The mixing must be in proportions carefully determined.</li> -<li class="isub2">3d. The mixture must be used while absolutely fresh.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement, nor will -the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean -sand and clean stone.</p> - -<p>Among the uninitiated, there is an all too prevalent idea that anything -is good enough for the making of concrete. Some will tell you that -sawdust, shavings, mud, clay, etc., will do to complete the mixture, -but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to -anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out.</p> - -<h3>Reinforcement</h3> - -<p class="center"><i>Principles involved</i></p> - -<p>Concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the -support of heavy burdens. On a solid foundation, loaded from above -and thus under direct pressure, a concrete column will withstand the -strain of an enormous load. A much smaller load so placed as to cause -stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause -it to snap off, for concrete is strong, but brittle. On the other -hand, steel is tough and elastic. In the form of rods or wire, steel -withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it, and thus displays -a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete -column. In modern construction these two valuable properties of -concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called -reinforced concrete. With steel properly buried in the concrete, the -column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it, but -one many times larger, and even though it is applied at any place along -its length.</p> - -<p>Reinforcement, therefore, is steel in the form of rods, bars or wires, -buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend -to stretch or to bend the concrete. A concrete fence post is merely a -small concrete column. Reinforced, it easily stands the strain from -usage in a fence line. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="265" /> -</div> - -<p>The value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen -in the figure. If a load (L) is raised so that its weight is supported -on one side by a wooden post, the post will bend. The fibre in the -wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to -prevent the post from breaking, and when released the post will spring -back into its former position. In the third figure a No. 9 wire (W) -is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground -surface, and is supported along its length by the struts (S). If the -same load is applied, the post will not bend, because the wire takes -up the bending or stretching strain. This is precisely the case with -the reinforcement in a concrete post. Supported along its length by the -concrete, the wire (W) or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or -stretching strains. Since the load which causes bending or stretching -may come from any direction, concrete posts are reinforced on every -side; otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that -in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the -proper side of the post.</p> - -<p>In the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more -reinforcement than is absolutely necessary. This adds needlessly to the -cost, for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older.</p> - -<h3>Kinds of Reinforcement</h3> - -<p>With regard to the roughness of the outside, metallic reinforcing -materials are divided into two classes, smooth and corrugated or -deformed. The general result of the many tests carried on in testing -laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond, if the -concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed, smooth surfaces give -satisfactory results. Two kinds of reinforcement are much used—bars -and wire.</p> - -<p><i>Bars.</i>—Round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in -diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm. The stock on hand -at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that -stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement. -Companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish -both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads.</p> - -<p><i>Wire.</i>—The development of the wire fence has produced a material well -suited for reinforcing purposes. Of equal size, such wire will produce -a stronger reinforcement than the material above described. In order -to obtain straight wire of the necessary length, the coils ordinarily -placed on the market should not be straightened out. Straight wire -can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire; that -is, either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables, and of the -length desired. The plain, ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper -kind, for galvanization adds nothing to the strength, and the metal -will not rust when incased in the concrete. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="SIDEWALKS" id="SIDEWALKS"></a> -Concrete Sidewalks and Floors</h2></div> - -<p>Concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size, and are -formed by casting slabs in place.</p> - -<p>The description given is an economical and practical method of laying -sidewalks or floors, easily adapted to any use where concrete is found -advantageous. This description will therefore apply not only to the -building of sidewalks, but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on -the ground.</p> - -<h3>Lasting Qualities</h3> - -<p>Concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent. To -accomplish this, good materials must be used, and proper methods of -mixing and placing must be followed. Only in this way can settlement -cracks, upheaval by frost or roots of trees, contraction cracks, -crumbling, and general failure be avoided.</p> - -<h3>Settlement Cracks</h3> - -<p>To avoid settlement cracks, thoroughly ram the ground after excavating -for the foundation. This gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab.</p> - -<h3>Upheaval by Frost</h3> - -<p>To prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone, hard -furnace cinders, brick bats broken to about a 2-inch size, broken tile -or any other hard porous material, should be laid in such a way as to -obtain perfect drainage. Never use ashes.</p> - -<p>If freezing occurs, room is in this way provided between the pieces of -stone for the expansion of the ice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" /> -</div> - -<p>If this foundation is placed in clay soil, side outlets or blind drains -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> -of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are -necessary, leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone, -which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated -water. Clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation, -and if it becomes entirely full of water, the ice formed during -freezing weather will upheave the walk.</p> - -<h3>Upheaval by Tree Roots</h3> - -<p>Upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots -which run under the pavement at a less depth than 18 inches below the -surface of the ground.</p> - -<h3>Contraction Cracks</h3> - -<p>Cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the -same way as steel. It is, therefore, necessary to cut joints which will -allow for this expansion and contraction. The concrete must be cut -entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel, cleaver or -other instrument, the joint formed being from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch wide. -Blocks formed in this way should not be greater than 6 feet square (36 -square feet).</p> - -<h3>Scaling or Crumbling of the Surface</h3> - -<p>The principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper -mixing, drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the -use of bad materials.</p> - -<p>Cement needs water not only when mixed, but after being placed and -tamped, and until it has entirely hardened. If concrete is not kept -continually wet until hard, it is weakened, and the surface of such a -walk scales or becomes soft and chalky.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Specifications</h2></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Drainage Foundation</span></h3> - -<p>Stake out the lines of the walk, or dimensions of the floor. Excavate -to a depth of 16 inches, ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly -and fill in 12 inches with clean large cinders, broken stone, pebbles, -brick bats, broken tile or other material selected. Place in position -wooden forms made of 2 by 4’s, these 2 by 4’s to be set on edge and -held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground, the top edge to -be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope -of the walk or floor.</p> - -<p>A walk should be higher in the center, or at one edge, to insure the -water running off. This slope should be ¼ of an inch to the foot.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Selection of Materials</span></h3> - -<p>Particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and -their mixing.</p> - -<p>The concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of -which will pass through a ¾-inch mesh screen, and be collected on a -¼-inch mesh; sand, free from loam and preferably coarse, and a grade of -Portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the Standard -Specifications as adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials -and the American Society of Civil Engineers.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Proportions</span></h3> - -<p>The strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness. The -greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -crushed stone, sand and Portland cement, so that all the spaces between -the stone are filled with sand and cement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_030.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="457" /> -</div> - -<p>The Portland cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed -in proportions, if the sand is not very coarse, of 1: 2: 4—which -means, 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel or crushed -stone, all passing a ¾-inch mesh and all collected on a ¼-inch mesh. If -the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size -of particles, it may be mixed in proportions of 1 part Portland cement, -2½ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or broken stone. All proportions are -measured by volume.</p> - -<p>Bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work, particularly where a -good bank can be found on the farm. It is safer, if this material be -used, to screen out the pebbles, using them as stone, measuring the -quantities of stone and sand as described above. Concrete should not be -laid in freezing weather. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="404" /> -</div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Consistency of Concrete</span></h3> - -<p>Mix the concrete as described on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> to a consistency -that when tamped, it will not quake, but it should be sufficiently wet so that -some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Placing</span></h3> - -<p>Divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms. -The cross forms can be made of 2 by 4’s. These provide for expansion -and contraction joints. Hold these forms in place by driving stakes -through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where -the concrete is to be placed. Spread the concrete over the drainage -foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor, and in slabs not over -6 feet square. The thickness of a walk should be 4 inches, a driveway -6 inches, a floor over which a wagon may be driven 6 inches, and all -other floors 4 inches.</p> - -<p>Fill in every other slab, placing enough forms to use up all the -concrete mixed in one batch. No batch should stand longer than one half -hour before being placed.</p> - -<p>Tamp the concrete thoroughly. Use a template, with ends resting on the -side forms, and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> -The concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the -template. If one edge of the walk is made higher than the other, use a -straight edge resting on the side forms. Tamp the concrete to conform -to the straight edge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_032a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="400" /> -</div> - -<p>Mix another batch of concrete, remove the cross forms and place the -concrete between each slab, forming a continuous walk. Use the template -or straight edge and tamp as before. Immediately after placing the -closing slab, work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire -depth of the concrete between each slab, thus insuring a perfect -contraction joint. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_032b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="407" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_033a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /> -</div> - -<p>A neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a -jointer along the top, thus smoothing the edges. Do this before the -concrete gets too hard. The sides of the walk may be smoothed in the -same way by use of an edger.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_033b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> -</div> - -<p>When the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of -oakum or a stiff brush, removing the marks of the float and giving a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -good even wearing surface which will not be slippery. In using oakum -or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone. If -surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens -the walk to too great an extent, allow the walk to harden a little more -before finishing in this way. At the end of each day’s work see that -the last slab is entirely filled and finished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_034a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" /> -</div> - -<p>All interior floors, such as floors of cellar, barns and stables -require no contraction joints. They are made by laying a solid -continuous sheet of concrete. All outside floors should have -contraction joints forming slabs not over 6 feet square. These are -provided the same as in sidewalks. A feeding floor is formed merely -by sidewalk pavements set side by side. Instead of using a template -for crowning the surface, use a straight edge, each end resting on the -extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor. Contraction -joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks. -The concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same -way as sidewalks. When completed the walk or floor must be continuously -protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three -days, so that it will not dry out at any time. This can be easily -done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay, straw, or old -carpet. This covering should be thoroughly soaked with water, and kept -wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_034b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="138" /> -</div> - -<p>While the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to -prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on it. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_035a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">A Foundation Gutter and Walk</h2></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_035b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="356" /> -</div> - -<p>Foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the -building, quickly carry it away, and, by preventing “seepage,” keep the -cellar, basement, or ground-floor dry. In sloppy, muddy weather, they -also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings.</p> - -<p>Determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation -of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms, or from -local conditions, such as location of outlet into underground drain. -Excavate a trench 1 foot 6 inches in width, 10 inches deep on each -side, and hollowed out to 13 inches deep in the middle. Use a straight -edge or a grade cord, together with a spirit level, to give the bottom -of the trench the desired slope or “fall.” For each foot of length a -slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient.</p> - -<p>Clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush.</p> - -<p>In the bottom of the trench place a 6-inch foundation of well-“tamped” -gravel, brickbats or crushed stone.</p> - -<p>Make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions, 1: 2½: 5. Have the -mixture just wet enough to tamp well. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" /> -</div> - -<p>Place a 4-inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter 3 -inches deep in the middle. Every five feet, make an expansion joint ⅛ -of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than 7 inches wide -and 18 inches long, or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete -with a straight spade. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_036b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="423" /> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">One cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel;</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">½ cubic yard sand;</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">6 bags of Portland cement, for a 50-foot section.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Repairs to Farm Buildings</h2></div> - -<p>Since wood always fails first at the ground, the use of concrete on -the farm has developed from the ground up. After a farmer has had to -replace several sills or blocks of wood, he begins to look about him -for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced. -Concrete is his natural selection. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_037a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_037b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="323" /> -</div> - -<p>Support the building by temporary struts, alongside of the post to be -removed. Saw off post entirely above rotten part. Dig a hole directly -under the post 2 feet deep, and slightly larger than the post itself. -Build a box with sides only, with the same inside measurement as the -hole already dug. The box must be long enough to reach from the ground -to a few inches above the bottom of post.</p> - -<p>Fill hole with concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Then place the box in -position, and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off -post is embedded about ½ an inch in the mixture. Leave the forms in -place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have -been used as temporary support for the building. The concrete should be -mixed fairly wet, and churned with a stick while being placed.</p> - -<p>The bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top, by simply -sloping one side of the box form—giving the effect shown in the -photograph.</p> - -<h3>Why Concrete Should be Used to Repair Farm Buildings</h3> - -<p>Repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape. -Concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> -whether large or small, without first having to be cut to the shape and -size desired. Consequently there is no cheaper known material for this -kind of work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" /> -</div> - -<h3>Replacing an Entire Foundation with Concrete</h3> - -<p>The work can be done by the farmer, with the help of his own farm -labor, at times when more important work is not claiming his attention.</p> - -<h3>Foundations of concrete are indestructible.</h3> - -<p>At necessary points, remove a few stones or bricks, as the case may -be, inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the -building. Carefully raise the building, by this means, until it stands -free of all foundations. Remove all the old stone or brick foundation -to be replaced, and set in place the forms for the concrete.</p> - -<p>Small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working -room, whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete. -The mixture should be a wet one. (Proportions, 1: 2: 4.)</p> - -<p>Where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by “jacking,” to a -sufficient height to give head-room, it will be found necessary to make -the foundations 3 inches wider than the sill. Carry the forms to the -desired height and utilize this extra 3 inches of width for placing the -concrete in the forms. The top board of the forms may also be left off -until you are ready to place the last of the concrete. In this case the -last batch of the concrete should be very wet. Tamp the concrete until -it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill, to the entire width of -the wall.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">Be sure to leave a space in the concrete -wall, under and on the sides of the underpinning support, so that -the building may later be lowered back onto the new foundation and -the timber removed. This opening must be slightly larger than the -underpinning support. After the building has been lowered fill these -openings with concrete. Lower the building after the foundation has -been in two weeks. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">A Concrete Entrance Floor</h2></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_039a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_039b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="227" /> -</div> - -<p>At a point 3 feet from the building, dig a trench 6 inches wide and -18 inches deep—the length of this trench to be 2 feet greater than -the width of the doorway of the building. From the edge of the trench -nearest to the building, dig away the earth between trench and building -to a depth of 1 foot, and place here, to a depth of 6 inches, a fill -of either coarse gravel or crushed rock. Do not, however, place any of -this gravel fill in the trench. Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5, and lay same, -first in the trench, and then on top of the gravel fill; sloping the -surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway. Before -the concrete has had time to set, provide a runway slot for the sliding -doors—or better, build little guides or humps with the concrete, -to hold the doors in position. If the doors happen to be swinging -ones, place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete, for a -“shove-fastener.”</p> - -<p>Note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door. This prevents the -gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach -and getting in the way of the doors. To build this curb, use 1-inch -planks placed on top of the concrete floor, to serve as forms to hold -concrete in place.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">One cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel;</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2½ cubic yards of sand;</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">5 bags of Portland cement.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>This entrance floor was constructed in half a day, by one man. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_040a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Farm Buildings Should be -Connected by a Concrete Driveway</h2></div> - -<p>By using concrete to connect up buildings, this farmer has a solid, -substantial roadway that will last for all time—instead of the usual -muddy, untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings.</p> - -<p>To construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm, first -excavate a trench 12 inches deep, this trench being the exact width -that you wish the finished driveway to be. Six feet is a convenient -width; but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the -corners to provide for turning of vehicles.</p> - -<p>Place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches and tamp -it well. On top of the gravel fill, place your concrete mixture, to a -depth of 6 inches on the sides, and 7 inches at the center.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_040b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="219" /> -</div> - -<p>For this work, concrete should be mixed in proportions 1: 2½: 5, and -wet enough to pack well. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" /> -</div> - -<p>To finish, no mortar is needed. Leave the surface rough, so as to -afford a better footing for the horses and cattle.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">5 bags of Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">make a section of roadway 6 by 10 feet</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">½ cubic yard of sand</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1 cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Approximate cost, at current prices of materials, 6 cents per square -foot of surface.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Alleyways Between Buildings</h2></div> - -<p>The farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience. About the home, -mud is the greatest of all nuisances. In the spring and winter, the -driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings -become so muddy that they are often impassable. As a result the -grassy lawns and lots are driven over, cut to pieces, and the general -appearance of the farm is ruined. Moreover, in bad weather the chores -cannot be done unless the “hands” wear rubber boots. The women and -children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the -poultry. Muddy feet track up the house walks and floors.</p> - -<p>Alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways -with this exception—they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that -the driveway is crowned. This carries the roof water away from the -buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Carriage Washing Floors</h2></div> - -<p>Nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig -except water. People have at times tried to remove this mud by -scraping, but have found that after the mud has once dried a large -amount of the varnish comes off with it and the “looks” of the carriage -is ruined.</p> - -<p>Convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of -the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply. All -of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot, and, as this -is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing -more nor less than a mud hole. To avoid this a concrete floor should be -built.</p> - -<p>This floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig -but the shafts or tongue as well. Unlike feeding and other floors, this -floor is built with a slope toward the center, with a catch basin under -the middle, from which a drain leads. Thus all of the water, together -with the mud coming off the wagon, flows into the basin. This basin -should be protected with a grating, with holes in same not less than ¼ -of an inch. This grating should be removable so that the mud, which is -bound to flow into the basin, can be removed. A pipe less than 6 inches -should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch -outlet. This will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years. A -slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of ⅛ of an inch to the -foot should be made. To lay the floor proceed exactly as described in -“<a href="#SIDEWALKS">Sidewalks</a>,” and, as the floor is exposed to the -weather, contraction joints must be provided, as in Feeding Floors.</p> - -<p>After the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft, make -grooves in it, running from the basin to the edges of the floor. This -can be done by taking a V-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the -concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper. This strip of wood -should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having -the concrete stick to its surface. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="407" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="FEED_FLOOR" id="FEED_FLOOR"></a> -Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements</h2></div> - -<p>The saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by -successful breeders and feeders of live stock. The trouble, heretofore, -has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor -construction.</p> - -<h3>Disadvantages of Wooden Floors</h3> - -<p>Wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only -saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and -otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal. However, in a -short time, the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with -disease germs. Often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog -cholera.</p> - -<h3>Advantages of Concrete</h3> - -<p>In concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material. -Such floors not only effect a saving in feed, a shortening in the -time of fattening and a decrease in labor, but also afford perfect -protection to the health of the animal. Concrete floors do not soak up -water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs. Their -surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils -and dips. Rats cannot nest under them. Careful tests have shown that -concrete floors, through the saving of grain and manure alone, pay for -themselves in the short period of one year.</p> - -<h3>How to Build Feeding Floors</h3> - -<p>Feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side, and the -same general rules of construction (given under <a href="#SIDEWALKS"> -<span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>,page 28) apply to them. Choose -a site in the lot where the ground is slightly sloping, well drained and -wind protected, and convenient to feed and water. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Drainage Foundation</h3> - -<p>Excavate to a depth of 12 inches for the drainage foundation, and -around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench 12 inches -wide and 18 inches deep. (This trench, filled with concrete, prevents -hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting -under it.) Fill all of this space (except the trench) to the natural -ground level with well tamped coarse gravel, crushed rock, tile culls -or brickbats. This fill forms the drainage foundation as described for -sidewalks.</p> - -<h3>Grading the Floor</h3> - -<p>The floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on -it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the -gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit. (To shape the -gutter, make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat -side of a 6-foot length of a 4 by 6-inch timber.) A gentle slope, -toward the low corner, of ¼ of an inch for each foot of length or width -is sufficient. This is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at each -corner of the floor, a straight edge or a grade line, and a spirit level.</p> - -<p>It is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above -ground. Make light floors 4 inches and floors subject to heavy loads -6 inches thick. For the forms use 2-inch lumber of a width equal to -the floor thickness. Begin on a low side of the floor. Mark the grade -height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched -from stake to stake. Use only good materials and mix the concrete 1: -2½: 5 according to direction on page 15.</p> - -<h3>Placing the Concrete</h3> - -<p>Always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor, so that -the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly -placed concrete. Fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with -concrete. Bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge -with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the -other on the finished concrete. Four inches in from the edge, on each -of the low sides, temporarily embed the rounded 4 by 6-inch gutter mold -and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the -slab section of the floor. Remove the mold, finish with a wooden float -and cure the floor as <a href="#Page_31">described on pages 31-34</a>. -Connect the gutters with the manure pit by means of a trough, another -gutter, or by large drain tile laid underground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="223" /> -</div> - -<p>On the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a -6-inch floor 24 by 36 feet, amply large to accommodate 50 hogs. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel, 20 cubic yards @ $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$22.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand, 10 cubic yards @ $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">10.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement, 28 barrels @ $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">70.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $102.00</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below2">Mixing the concrete by hand, 5 men can usually -finish this floor in two days. Depending upon the price of labor and -materials and the thickness of the concrete, the floor will cost 6 to -12 cents for each square foot of surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="MANURE_PIT" id="MANURE_PIT"></a> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="MANURE" id="MANURE"></a> -Manure Pits and Cisterns</h2></div> - -<p>For restoring the fertility of the fields, there is nothing better than -barnyard manure. By the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground -or storing it in wooden pens, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the manure’s -strength is wasted. This loss is brought about in two ways:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub1">First—By “leaching” or washing out, due to heavy rains.</li> -<li class="isub1">Second—By heating or “firing,” caused by lack of sufficient moisture.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Since concrete pits are waterproof, manure can be kept in them as moist -as necessary. Moreover, with concrete pits the supply of manure is -increased, as all the liquid manure, from the gutters of the barns, -barnyard pavements and feeding floors, is saved.</p> - -<h3>How to Build</h3> - -<p>Locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure -from the outside floors. Two pits may be better than one. Excavate the -hole to the desired size and depth. (Manure pits are seldom over 4 feet -deep.) Dig a sump hole 3 feet square and 2 feet deep at one corner of -the pit. Slope the floor toward this hole, from which a pump will draw -the liquid manure. Frame forms of 1-inch siding on 2 by 4-inch studding -spaced 2 feet, so as to mold a wall 8 inches thick. If the dirt sides -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> -stand firm, they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an -inside form will be required. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 (<a href="#Page_11">see page 11</a>). -Lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece 6 inches thick. -No contraction joints will be necessary. Without delay, set up the -forms, brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under -<a href="#DIPPING"><span class="smcap">Dipping Vats</span></a>, pages 76-80. If a -very large pit is needed, build it with sloping concrete ends sufficiently wide to -accommodate a manure spreader. Let the inclines be gentle, and, to give the horses -a firm footing, embed iron cleats every 18 inches in the slopes, the -same as for dipping tanks. Cisterns for liquid manure only, may be made -like ordinary <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Cisterns</span></a>, page 68. -However, the solid manure rots more quickly and is better for the -fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same pit. An ordinary -pump, with a pipe leading to the sump hole, covered with a grating, is -a convenient means of removing the liquid. Liquid manure is especially -good for the vegetable and flower garden, since it contains no weed -seed. Cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked with water, so as -to remove the principal breeding places of the house and barn fly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> -</div> - -<p>The <a href="#MANURE_PIT">manure pit shown in the photograph</a> is located -in the side of a little hill. It is 21 feet long, 14 feet wide, 10 feet deep -on the hillside and 6 feet deep on the low side. The bottom is 6 inches and -the walls 8 inches thick. Four men built the pit in two days.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock </td> - <td class="tdl">17 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$18.70</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl">8½ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">8.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">30 barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">75.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $102.20</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3>The Value of Manure Pits</h3> - -<p>Rotten manure not only enriches the ground, but also increases the -water-holding capacity of the soil. One load of well rotted manure from -a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete Barnyards</h2></div> - -<p>The advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers -who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire -barnyards were surfaced with concrete.</p> - -<p>It is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn -lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip -to the water trough.</p> - -<p>The effect is bad on all kinds of livestock, especially on fattening -animals and dairy cattle. “Feeders” must have an abundance of water -to fatten quickly. Insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk -given by dairy cows. Lack of enough exercise further decreases the -yield. An occasional trip through this mud to the trough, so cakes the -cows’ udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing -them—and they must be washed, if one would have clean, wholesome milk. -Continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying, but -often produces that irritation on horses’ legs known as “scratches.” -Suddenly frozen, such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable. -Moreover, the old barnyard—with its surface worked up year after -year—becomes a storage place, which carries over the disease germs -from one season to another. The “droppings” are entirely lost, and, -mixed with the earth, tend to make the lot muddier the following year. -To keep up the fertility of the soil, all the manure produced on a farm -should be saved and returned to the fields.</p> - -<h3>Concrete Floors Increase Profits</h3> - -<p>A concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather -and always affords a dry spot for the animal’s bed. Every shower washes -the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits. -Concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife, as there is no mud to -be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor. The use of rubber boots is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> -unnecessary. On concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted. -The way to the water trough is always dry, smooth and passable. -Concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and -increase the profits of farming, stock raising and dairying.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="HOG_TROUGH" id="HOG_TROUGH"></a> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" /> -</div> - -<h3>Construction</h3> - -<p>The construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of -<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43, except that -the work is on a larger scale. Often the entire lot is not paved in one season, but from -year to year as the farmer has time. In excavating for the drainage -foundation (<a href="#SIDEWALKS">see <span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 29), -be careful to remove all manure and straw which may be tramped into the ground and which -may be so solid as to resemble earth. In time any kind of manure decays, -shrinks, causes the floor to settle and forms water and ice pockets on -its surface. Dig the trench for the foundation apron as for -<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>—there -is no material so rat-proof as concrete.</p> - -<p>With the drainage foundation ready, set the forms in the manner -described for <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>. -Even if the whole lot is not to be paved at one time, plan the grading -for the entire barnyard so that the completed pavement may have perfect -surface drainage. Build and cure the pavement and make provision for -saving the manure the same as for concrete <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>. -Do not be too particular about giving the surface a smooth finish—a -rougher finish affords the animals a better footing. The cost per -square foot is no more than that of feeding floors—the investment -yields a greater profit.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="FEED_TROUGH" id="FEED_TROUGH"></a> -Feeding Troughs, Racks and Mangers</h2></div> - -<p>With a progressive farmer, the health of his livestock is second in -importance only to that of his family. Concrete is a great factor in -promoting and preserving health. With concrete troughs, animals are -seldom “off their feed”: there are no slivers to stick into their gums. -Even with wet feed, concrete troughs are never sour.</p> - -<p>Concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs. Such -troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Troughs for Horses, Cattle, and Sheep</h3> - -<p>In general, the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for -horses and cattle is practically the same as for <span class="smcap">Watering -Troughs and Tanks</span>, page 74. An outdoor trough, suitable for feeding -grain or silage to cattle and horses, is shown on <a href="#Page_48">page 48</a>. -(However, most farmers will prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence -corner.) This trough is 10 feet long and 2 feet 2 inches wide, outside -measurements. The bottom is 4 inches thick as also are the side and end -walls at the top, but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of -6 inches at the bottom. This extra thickness makes not only a stronger -feeding trough, but also one more easily cleaned out. The entire trough -is reinforced with heavy woven wire fencing laid within 1 inch of the -bottom and the same distance from the inside face of the side walls. -The trough is held 1 foot 4 inches above ground by concrete benches, -2 feet 2 inches wide, 1 foot thick, and extending 3 feet below the ground -or feeding floor surface.</p> - -<p>In locating troughs, follow the same principles laid down under -<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>. -Dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the concrete -(mixed 1: 2: 4) to the necessary height by means of open box forms -similar to the one shown on <a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>. Use a -spirit level to get the tops of these supports even. Immediately set -the outside trough form, previously made with openings in the bottom -board, to match the concrete supports. Provide a 2-inch drain hole, -corked with a greased, tapering wooden plug long enough to extend -through the concrete. Place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom, lay -the heavy woven wire fencing so that it will extend up into the side -walls. Tamp in the bottom the remaining 3 inches of concrete. Finish -this concrete with a steel trowel. At once set in the sloping inside -mold, built as one piece and without a bottom. Fill the space between -the inside and outside forms with wet concrete. After the concrete is -hard enough to bear considerable pressure of the thumb (usually five -to seven hours), carefully remove the inside mold. No painting with -neat cement (cement mixed with water) or plastering will be needed if -the inside form is smooth. Do not take down the outside forms for two -weeks. To make this same trough of suitable height for small calves or -sheep, place around it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth. Two men -can build such a trough in less than a day.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel </td> - <td class="tdl">1 cubic yard at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$1.10</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> ½ cubic yard at $1.00 </td> - <td class="tdr">.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">1½ barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">3.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $5.35</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3>Feeding Troughs for Hogs</h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="228" /> -</div> - -<p>Feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding -floor, according to the plan shown, and similar to <a href="#WATER_TROUGH"> -<span class="smcap">Watering Troughs</span></a>, page 74. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_050a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> -</div> - -<h3>A Fire-protected Feed Cooker</h3> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_050b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="326" /> -</div> - -<p>Concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires.</p> - -<p>The photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed -cooker for hogs and poultry is installed.</p> - -<p>Discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to -thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that -most fireproof material—concrete.</p> - -<p>The old wooden floor was first torn out, a fill of coarse gravel tamped -in, and a 5-inch floor of concrete laid on top, mixed 1: 2½: 5. -Immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down 8 -inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> - -<p>At the back of the cooker, on the 2 by 4-inch studding, heavy woven -wire was securely fastened, and by temporarily placing a wooden wall 4 -inches in front, to act as a form, an 8-inch concrete wall was built. -This wall was made 8 feet wide and 5 feet high. The foundation for the -wall extends 3 feet below the floor level.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="409" /> -</div> - -<p>On the top of this wall rests the chimney. The chimney is 12 by 14 -inches on the outside, with a single flue 8 inches round, and is 10 -feet high. This height is sufficient to clear the roof. For the inside -form 8-inch sewer pipe was used and left in place (stovepipe or drain -tile could also be used). Ordinary box forms were used for the outside -forms, made as described on <a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>.</p> - -<p>The chimney was reinforced with a ½-inch rod running from top to bottom -in each corner, 1½ inches from the edge. The lower ends of these rods -are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests.</p> - -<p>As this improvement was made by the farm hands, the cost of the floor -was only 5 cents a square foot, while the wall and chimney cost $5.00.</p> - -<p>Not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night -been overcome, but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most -cleanly condition at all times.</p> - -<p>Rats, the greatest pest known to the farmer, are driven away. These -animals cannot nest in concrete. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="HOG_WALLOW" id="HOG_WALLOW"></a> - <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" /> -</div> - -<h3>Hog Wallows—Automatic Dipping Tanks</h3> - -<p>A wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being. -A clean bath benefits the health of a hog, especially if the wallow is -filled with a dipping solution. This combination not only saves the -lives of fat hogs on hot days, but also aids greatly in preventing -cholera. See <span class="smcap">Dipping Tanks</span>, page 76.</p> - -<p>Locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply. A level, -well drained spot, where the mud will not wash into it, is best. (The -wallow <a href="#HOG_WALLOW">shown in the photograph</a> is in the hog house, and -is a large dish in the concrete floor.) Make the wallow 8 by 12-feet. Dig out the -hole with straight sides to the depth of 2 feet 2 inches. Lay a drainage -foundation 10 inches thick—see <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, -page 29. Set a 10-inch board around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from -crumbling in on the concrete.</p> - -<p>Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and place a 6-inch floor in the hole. As the -concrete is laid, embed woven wire in it 1 inch from the bottom. Have -the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and -dimensions—4 inches thick at the top and 10 inches at the floor line. -The sloping sides make cleaning easy. Keep all animals away from the -wallow for two weeks. Three men built this wallow easily in one day.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock </td> - <td class="tdl">2½ cubic yards @ $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$2.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl">1¼ cubic yards @ $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">1.25</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">4½ barrels @ $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">11.25</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $15.25</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_053a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" /> -</div> - -<h3><a name="CORN_CRIB" id="CORN_CRIB"></a>A Corn Crib Floor of Concrete</h3> - -<p>Rats love grain; and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat -headquarters of the farm. By building corn cribs and granary floors of -concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination.</p> - -<p>Lay out the building: for the foundation wall, dig a trench 12 inches -wide and from 2 to 3 feet below ground level. Set box forms, so as to -bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor 1½ to 2 feet -above ground level, according to the height of the “drag” conveyor used -by local corn-shellers.</p> - -<p>As the floor will only be 6 inches thick, fill in between the -foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of 6 inches of top -of forms. Soak this fill thoroughly, and tamp and roll it well, before -placing concrete on top.</p> - -<p>Mix concrete (1: 2: 4) and fill the foundation forms. Beginning at -one end of the building, lay the concrete floor in sections 4 feet -wide, and continue until the entire floor is placed.</p> - -<p>In order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the -concrete floor, insert ¾-inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent -like capital <b>Z</b>’s at the necessary points in the green concrete -of foundation. The bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the -sill and to receive nuts and washers. The straps are long enough to be -spiked to the uprights.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_053b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="229" /> -</div> - -<p>Finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel, so as to render -scooping of the grain an easy matter.</p> - -<p>Approximate cost per square foot of floor surface, 12 cents. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete Barn Floors</h2></div> - -<p>Investigations of the Department of Agriculture have disclosed the -fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria, often considered -unaccountable in their origin, are the result of the germs being -carried by the house-fly. Screens, flypaper, and poisons are all very -well, in a small way, but to free the place of flies means getting rid -of the conditions which produce them. Leaving out the manure pile -(<a href="#MANURE">see <span class="smcap">Manure Pits</span></a>, page 45), -the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul floors of the cow and -horse barns. The barn can be almost entirely rid of flies by building floors -and manure pits of concrete.</p> - -<h3>The Advantages of Concrete Floors</h3> - -<p>There are no flies to make the horses stamp.</p> - -<p>Rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors.</p> - -<p>No other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor. Concrete -floors may be finished as rough or corrugated, as may be desired.</p> - -<p>Concrete floors do not soak up water. The liquids run into the gutters -and thence to the manure pits. The floor may be flushed with water and -kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor.</p> - -<p>All kinds of barn floors must be bedded down. Concrete floors are -warmer and cleaner than any other kind, for they are always dry. -Besides, heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete.</p> - -<p>Concrete floors afford good fire protection. No fire can be started on -concrete floors by a shiftless farm “hand” dropping cigarette stubs or -matches on their surface.</p> - -<p>Good farm “hands” prefer to work where there are concrete floors: they -lighten the labor. Concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the -scoop and to ruffle the temper. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_055a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete in the Cow Barn</h2></div> - -<p>With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of -floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor -for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of -concrete. On account of many epidemics of “catching” diseases, directly -traceable to milk, city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman -to decide—concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified milk.</p> - -<p>The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite -rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each other.</p> - -<p>The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in -feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows’ -heads toward each other. If the dairyman prefers the other arrangement, -the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches -provides sufficient room for a manure spreader.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_055b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="256" /> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<h3>How to Build Dairy Barn Floors</h3> - -<p>Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other.</p> - -<p>Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps -of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the -direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction -of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends -may be used as working space.</p> - -<p>On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4½feet from the side walls of -the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the -entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven -firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall. -By means of a carpenter’s spirit level and a grade line, see that the -tops of these boards have an even slope (say ⅛-inch per foot) toward -the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set -up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting -stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2 -inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will -later be constructed.</p> - -<h3>The Alleyway</h3> - -<p>Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even -off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building -of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping ½ inch from the wall toward the -gutter. Mix the concrete 1: 2½: 5, tamp into place, and finish the -surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface -thus produced gives the cows a good footing.</p> - -<h3>The Stall Floor</h3> - -<p>With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the -stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> -4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet -6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than ½ inch toward -the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion -fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall. -The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet -8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger -wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will -be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form -for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same -manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas pipe stall divisions are to be -used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping -the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when -the concrete has stiffened.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_057a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /> -</div> - -<h3>The Manger</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_057b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="287" /> -</div> - -<p>As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the -concrete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new -stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already -in place serves as the outer wall form. “Toe nail” two 1 by 6-inch -boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the -other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall -floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger -wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary -drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new -concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> -stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until -the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger -may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" /> -</div> - -<p>Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the -floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner.</p> - -<h3>The Feedway</h3> - -<p>With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If -possible, this should be at least 8 feet wide.</p> - -<p>As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor -and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above -the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped) -to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of -the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the -mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the -manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top. -These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers -and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5-inch floor -of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. See -<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 31.</p> - -<h3>Horse Barn Floors</h3> - -<p>Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for -the cow stable. The same principles govern the floor construction. -Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls -are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to -the drop gutter.</p> - -<p>As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk -flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide -and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3 -inches are sufficient. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> - -<h3>Concrete Mangers</h3> - -<p>Many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete. -“Stump suckers” lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CONCRETE_MANGER" id="CONCRETE_MANGER"></a> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="446" /> -</div> - -<p>The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for -<a href="#FEED_TROUGH"><span class="smcap">Outdoor Feeding Troughs</span></a>, page 48. -A form satisfactory for building horse barn mangers is <a href="#CONCRETE_MANGER">shown in -the photograph</a>. The feed trough can be molded as a part of the manger by using a box -form like an ordinary wooden feeding trough, but 6 inches wider and without end -pieces. Saw out the manger forms so that the box will fit the opening. -When the manger forms have been filled with concrete to the feed trough -level, place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay -in a strip of heavy woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining -2 inches of the 3-inch bottom. Immediately set upon this concrete a -bottomless box with end pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch -manger wall and the 3-inch side walls of the trough. Fill both manger -and trough forms and embed a ½-inch rod in the side walls of the trough -1 inch from the top. Make holes in the manger wall for the hitching -strap by inserting a 2-inch greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot -length of ½-inch rod in the concrete above this hole.</p> - -<p>Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other -animal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world -over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If -rats have no nesting place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice -cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete -barn walls.</p> - -<p>In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime -instead of stamping at flies. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_060a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<h3>Farmers Build Barn Approaches of Concrete</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_060b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="305" /> -</div> - -<p>For purposes of drainage, concrete barns are often built on the side -of a hill, the lower story being used for the livestock, while the -second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage. This -arrangement necessitates a “barn approach.” Originally these approaches -were simply of earth, piled up in front of the door; and quite often -the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn.</p> - -<p>By not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn, -the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and -ventilation on all four sides.</p> - -<p>The concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools; while a root -cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach.</p> - -<p>Such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its -surroundings.</p> - -<p>Economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold -the earth in position—and concrete naturally came into use for the purpose.</p> - -<p>The earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut -out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the -ground level to a depth of 2½ or 3 feet, and 1 foot wide.</p> - -<p>Only outside forms are needed, as the earth fill in the barn approach -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -acts as an inside form. These outside forms may be made up in sections -as large as desired, of 1-inch planks, with the necessary upright studding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_061a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" /> -</div> - -<p>Mix concrete 1: 2: 4.</p> - -<p>Place the concrete in the foundation, erect the forms, holding these in -position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground. -The concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of -the earth fill that forms the approach. In shoveling into the form, be -careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen side, -as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible strength.</p> - -<h3>A Concrete Barn Foundation</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_061b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="316" /> -</div> - -<p>On account of convenient arrangement, economy of space, and protection -to the stock, second story barns have become very popular.</p> - -<p>At first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was -looked upon with doubt. It might be damp. It might make a cold stable. -Yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was -tried, found entirely satisfactory, and to-day is being used for the -lower story of thousands of barns every year. As this arrangement does -not give a perfect fire protection to the stock, a ceiling of concrete -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -is provided, furnishing a floor for the carriage house, hay loft and -granary, through which rats cannot gnaw. With this floor of concrete, -the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="420" /> -</div> - -<p>Excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line, twenty -inches wide. Fill with concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5. On this foundation -erect the forms for the side walls, spaced in such a way as to make the -wall 12 inches thick. These forms are made of 1-inch siding, with 2 by -4-inch studs, spaced 18 inches apart. Fasten the forms securely at top -and bottom as described in forms for “<a href="#SMALL">Small Farm Buildings</a>,” -page 82. While erecting the forms, place in position frames for the window and -door openings. These frames are removed after the concrete has become -hard and the windows and doors placed. If the concrete extends above -the windows, place three ½-inch iron rods 3 inches above each opening, -and extending 18 inches beyond its sides. Insert bent iron rods in the -concrete around the corners, at intervals of every 2 feet of height. -Having carried the wall to the desired height, provide for attaching -the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every 5 feet in -the concrete while it is yet soft. These should be placed with the -head down, allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient -distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and washer.</p> - -<p>If a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable, erect forms in -the same way as for a cistern cover described on <a href="#Page_69">page 69</a>. -This ceiling will have to be carefully reinforced, and if there is any doubt -about the quantity and position of this reinforcing, a competent engineer -should be consulted.</p> - -<p>Entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers. If -so built, the fire danger for that barn is forever removed. A barn of -concrete, however, with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof. If -the hay catches fire in such a barn, the roof is burned up.</p> - -<p>Any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can -build a concrete roof as well. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_063a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Wind Walls and Their Importance</h2></div> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="421" /> -</div> - -<p>To be healthy, stock need exercise—in winter as well as summer. But -few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected -against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place.</p> - -<p>The exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings. -Erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often -come. Probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in -sections of 10 feet in length. The wall will be 3 inches thick at top, -12 inches thick at the base, 7 feet above and 3 below ground, with the -slope side toward exercise lot.</p> - -<p>To securely brace the sections of this wall, large posts (called -buttresses) are needed. These posts are the full height of the wall -and are 12 by 18 inches square. The narrow side is set with the line -of fence, and the buttresses are placed 11 feet apart from center to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> -center. The forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate -posts, with the exception that a beveled 2 by 4-inch timber is nailed -vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form, 3 inches from -the back board. This leaves a slot in the finished buttress, into -which the slab sections of the wall are later “keyed.” Through these -2 by 4’s, at points 3 and 15 inches below the tops, bore ⅝-inch holes -through which ½-inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to -project into the wall proper about 18 inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" /> -</div> - -<p>Locate the points for the centers of the buttresses, the first buttress -at the beginning of the wall. Dig a hole for each buttress 12 by 18 -inches and 4 feet deep and erect the buttress forms. Fill the forms -with wet concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Do not forget to insert at the -proper time the 3-foot lengths of ½-inch rods in the ¾-inch holes -above mentioned. Brace the forms securely, to keep them in position. -After the first two buttresses are in place, dig out the 1 by 4-foot -foundation trench and, over it and between the buttresses, erect the -box forms for the slab sections, with the sloping side next to the lot. -These forms are made of 1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding -securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top. -On the working side, add the siding as needed, so as to facilitate the -placing of the concrete.</p> - -<p>Remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for -wall proper. In the center of wall, within 6 inches of the top, embed a -10-foot length of ½-inch iron rod. After the wall is one week old, take -down the wall forms, erect them between the next two buttresses, and -proceed with the construction in the same manner.</p> - -<p>Wind walls are often made with straight sides. While this takes more -concrete, the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this -additional cost.</p> - -<p>The materials required for each 10-foot section of wall and 1 buttress -are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel, 1 cubic yard -sand, 12 bags of Portland cement. Approximate cost, $15.00. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="481" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Concrete and the Silo</h2></div> - -<p>A silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state, for -feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture—that is in -winter and in the hot, dry months of summer. By the use of silos fodder -is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables.</p> - -<p>Concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo, providing -the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting, -possessed by silos built of no other material. For instruction in -building silos, see Bulletin No. 21 of the Association of American -Portland Cement Manufacturers, sent free on application.</p> - -<p>Space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a -concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo, -and show how concrete fills them all.</p> - -<p>Silos must be air-tight. The admission of air causes the fodder to -mould, and the stock will not eat it.</p> - -<p>Air cannot leak through a concrete silo.</p> - -<p>Silos must be water-tight. If they are not, the juices, so necessary to -keep the fodder green, will leak out, and the fodder spoils. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="428" /> -</div> - -<p>Concrete, properly mixed, is water-tight.</p> - -<p>Silos must be smooth on the inside. A silo with a rough inside surface, -catches the cornstalks, and prevents proper packing.</p> - -<p>Concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other -materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand.</p> - -<p>The fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature. Concrete does -not conduct heat or cold. It keeps the heat in the fodder in winter, -and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer. Nature provides the -fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly.</p> - -<p>Rats nesting in the silage ruin it.</p> - -<p>Concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known.</p> - -<p>In addition to these reasons, concrete silos are not attacked by the -juices coming from the fodder. They do not rot by alternate wetting and -drying.</p> - -<p>Fire, that greatest of farm scourges, cannot destroy the crop if stored -in a concrete silo. A farmer may rebuild a barn, but the crops lost -through the burning of the building are lost forever. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="WELL_HOUSING" id="WELL_HOUSING"></a> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">Sanitary Water Supply</h2></div> - -<p>As the laws of health become better understood, greater precautions are -taken to prevent sickness. For years all evidence has been pointing to -drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal -means of spreading sickness. Every well, spring and cistern, open -to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which -surface water can seep, is liable to contain disease germs. Concrete -walls and covers are water-tight: they afford perfect protection for -both man and beast.</p> - -<h3>How to Protect Wells</h3> - -<p>Many bored and dug wells, sunk years ago, afford such excellent water -that their owners prefer to keep them. This is often made possible by -the use of concrete. Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay -through which water will not run, usually not more than 6 feet. If the -earthen wall stands firm, only one form, fitting inside the brick wall, -is needed. Make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the -inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates, and long enough -to extend 2 feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed -and 4 inches above the ground level. If the earthen wall shows signs -of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground to the -necessary depth and use an outside form. Lower the forms into place and -fill them with 1: 2: 4 concrete. In placing the concrete follow the -directions given under <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, -page 68.</p> - -<p>The steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to -keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing. This construction -exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water. Concrete -walls or housings are the only means of protection. Make the forms and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> -build the housing according to the rules laid down for <a href="#CISTERNS"> -<span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, pages 68-70. -The housing <a href="#WELL_HOUSING">shown in the photograph</a> is 5 by 6 feet -by 4 feet deep, sufficiently roomy for inspecting, adjusting and repairing pipe -connections. The walls and floor are of 1: 2: 4 concrete 6 inches -thick. One-half inch bolts project 2½ inches above the walls for -fastening the wooden cover. A 4-inch removable cover of concrete, -molded in two pieces, makes a more sanitary covering. The service pipes -were laid in 4-inch drain tile slightly above the floor of the housing. -A tile of the same size, laid on a grade, carries away all the leakage -of the fittings. Two men built the housing in one day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock </td> - <td class="tdl">3 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$3.30</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl">1½ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">1.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">5½ barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $18.55</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Well platforms are made like cistern covers (<a href="#Page_69">see page 69</a>) -except that they are not molded fixed in place, but loose and removable, so that -the well can be cleaned at any time. Concrete well covers keep mice and -frogs out of the well. Even scrub water cannot seep in.</p> - -<h3><a name="CISTERNS" id="CISTERNS"></a>Underground Cisterns and Cistern Platforms</h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_069a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="247" /> -</div> - -<p>Underground cisterns are useless if they leak. In dry weather they -are empty, and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the -“soft” water as “hard” as that from the well. Concrete cisterns have no -joints to leak: they are built in one solid piece. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> - -<p>In placing the cistern, select a site convenient to the principal -down-spout and the kitchen. Do not forget to make allowance for 8-inch -walls in laying out the plan. If the ground in which the pit is dug -is sufficiently firm to stand alone, no outside form will be needed. -Otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form -built similar to the inside one. Make the inside form of 1-inch boards -on 2 by 4-inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth -walls. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay a 6-inch floor on the earth -bottom. Immediately set the wall forms on all sides. In filling the -wall space, be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen -wall: dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="431" /> -</div> - -<p>After the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level, set -a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern, so as to -hold the concrete for the platform. Saw off the uprights of the inside -form 6 inches below the finished top of the concrete cover, and nail -2 by 4-inch floor joists even with their tops. Floor the joists with -1-inch boards. Braces, to keep the wooden platform from sagging, may -be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing. To -provide for a manhole opening, build a bottomless box 5 inches deep, -2 feet square at the top and 18 inches square at the bottom—outside -measurements,—or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form 5 -inches deep, 2 feet in diameter at the top and 18 inches at the bottom, -just like a large dishpan without a bottom.</p> - -<p>Begin at one side of the platform, tamp in 1½ inches of concrete, and -upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing. Allow the edges of the wire to -extend within 1 inch of the outside lines of the platform. Bring the -platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining -3½ inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop for any reason -until the cistern cover is completed. As the work progresses, finish -the surface with a wooden float. Grease the manhole frame and place it -where the opening is desired. Strengthen the floor around the manhole -opening by laying four short ½-inch iron rods, placed criss-cross, 2 -inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from -the edges of the hole. If the tin form is used, the manhole cover may -be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor. Reinforce -the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of ½-inch -rods laid in the form of a square. Have on hand an old bridle bit or -hitching post ring, which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete -cover. In placing the ring in position, provide it with a knob of -twisted wire, or with a nut and large washer, to fix it firmly in the -concrete. If the wooden manhole form is used, carefully remove it after -5 hours. After 3 days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> -form, with this important exception—place heavy paper, cardboard or -leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete of -the cover from sticking to it. Set bolts for a pump base according to -directions given for <a href="#ENGINE"><span class="smcap">Gasoline Engine Bases</span></a>, -pp. 87, 88. The necessary openings for down spouts and for removing -water may be made by embedding tile, of the proper diameter and -length, in the concrete platform or side walls.</p> - -<p>When the platform is two weeks old, remove the manhole cover, bore a -hole in the wooden floor, saw an opening, descend and loosen the roof -form, passing it out through the manhole.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="450" /> -</div> - -<p>If the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking, provide -a filter on the outside of the cistern wall. Construct the filter -similar to the cistern, of dimensions 4 by 3 feet and 4 feet deep. -While building the cistern wall, lay an 8-inch tile through it, at the -proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter -wall at its floor, and place a removable screen of ¼-inch mesh over the -opening. Fill in 2 feet of coarse charcoal. Cover the charcoal with 1 -foot of sand and gravel. Lead the water from the roof into the top of -the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab.</p> - -<p>Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep, with a 6-inch -floor and a 5-inch platform, in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels -of 31½ gallons.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or crushed rock </td> - <td class="tdl"> 8 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$8.80</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 4 cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">4.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">13 barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">32.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $45.30</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>“Soft” water is not only better for the bath, but also makes the -washing easier and the clothes whiter. Mischievous children cannot -remove concrete manhole covers.</p> - -<h3>Making Spring Water Sanitary</h3> - -<p>To the planter and stockman, a flowing spring is worth a great deal of -money. Properly cared for, it will afford cold, sweet water for the -house, the dairy, and the watering tanks. Improperly protected, it is -not merely a mud hole, a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows, but is -too frequently the cause of disease.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="WATER_SOURCE" id="WATER_SOURCE"></a> - <img src="images/i_071a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" /> -</div> - -<p>To improve a spring, first open up the channel and drain out all the -water possible. Clean out the spring so as to increase its flow. Lay -the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn. Wall up the well of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> -spring with concrete blocks, laid without mortar to a point just above -the in-flow streams of the spring. Complete the walls with blocks laid -in 1: 2 cement-sand mortar, or, using wooden forms, with a 6-inch -solid wall of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Carry these walls high enough to keep -surface water out of the spring well. If the spring is to be used as -a drinking tank for stock, make the walls equal to the usual depth of -such tanks. (<a href="#WATER_TROUGH">See <span class="smcap">Watering Troughs and Tanks</span></a>, -page 74.) Lay a 4-inch floor of 1: 2½: 5 concrete (on a drainage foundation) -10 feet around the field spring on all sides.</p> - -<p>At the edges of the floor, turn down a concrete “apron” or foundation, -2 feet into the ground, the same as for <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, -page 43. This prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it.</p> - -<p>Make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to -the stream by a gutter in the floor, or by a drain tile under it.</p> - -<p>With such improvement, since there is no mud, the stock cannot mire and -the udders of the dairy cows are always clean.</p> - -<p>To keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn -for house use, provide a concrete cover like that described for -<a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, page 69. -For small springs this cover is often made removable as <a href="#WELL_COVER"> -shown in the photograph</a> on page 73.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_071b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="167" /> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" /> -</div> - -<h3>New Style Cistern Built on Top of Ground</h3> - -<p>The photograph shows a cistern, 6 by 6 by 12 feet, inside dimensions, -with 8-inch walls, 6-inch floor, and 4-inch roof.</p> - -<p>Dig a pit 12 inches deep, and of the size of cistern desired. Cover the -bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches. Mix -concrete 1: 2: 4 and place it to a depth of 2 inches over the surface -of the fill. On top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing. -This wire should be laid in such a way as to extend 6 inches beyond -the outside edge of foundation—the ends being bent up, so as to stand -upright, 3 inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already -placed. Immediately lay the remaining 4 inches of concrete floor. Give -the surface a finish with a wooden float to within 6 inches of edges.</p> - -<p>Without delay, set the forms, made up in the required sections, resting -the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the -ground. Place the inside form first. After setting the inside form, -place woven fence wire, supporting it against the inside form by means -of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire 4 inches -away from it. Care should be taken in placing the concrete that the -wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall. This reinforcement -is carried 1 foot beyond top of wall. The projecting wire mesh will -later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls. The timber -required for the forms will be 1-inch siding and 2 by 4 uprights, -spaced every 18 inches.</p> - -<p>In placing the concrete in the forms, it will be easier to leave off -the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches -its level. Then add this planking and fill the two top feet. The concrete -will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of buckets.</p> - -<p>The luxury of soft water for the bath, and its advantages for laundry -purposes, are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins. -Cisterns were originally built in the ground, but a thinking farmer -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> -used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground, no doubt taking -the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel. While it requires more -forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground, yet -the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved. As the water is piped -to the house, direct water pressure is provided, thereby giving the -farm-house all the advantages of a city water system.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="WELL_COVER" id="WELL_COVER"></a> - <img src="images/i_073a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<p>Build a wooden platform inside the cistern, in the same manner as -directed in <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, -page 69. The materials required for the concrete are 10 yards of crushed rock -or screened gravel, 5 yards of sand, and 17 barrels of Portland cement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_073b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="394" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="399" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="WATER_TROUGH" id="WATER_TROUGH"></a> -Watering Troughs and Tanks</h2></div> - -<p>All thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete. -Such troughs never rot, rust, or leak.</p> - -<p>By using concrete, tanks of any size and shape can be made.</p> - -<h3>Watering Tank for Horses and Cattle</h3> - -<p>Most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape. -Having decided upon the size, locate the tank in a handy, well drained, -wind-sheltered place.</p> - -<p>To build a tank like the one shown in the picture, lay out the trough -5 by 16 feet. Make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed -under <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 29. -Around the outside dig a 10-inch trench 2 feet 6 inches deep. Lay all -in-flow and over-flow pipes (not less than 1½ inches in diameter) so -that the ends, fitted for connections, will be even with the finished -bottom of the tank.</p> - -<p>Build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before -mixing any concrete. The tank is 5 by 16 feet by 2½ feet deep with an -8-inch bottom. The walls are 5 inches thick at the top and 10 inches -at the bottom. (The sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides -instead of pushing directly against them.) Consequently the inside -forms at the bottom are 5 inches shorter at each end than at the top.</p> - -<p>The forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of -1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding spaced not more than -2 feet apart. The sides of the forms may be made separate and put -together in place; or, if there is sufficient help, each form may be -entirely completed and set up as one piece. The forms are held in -position by 2 by 4-inch liners at top and bottom, and if necessary by -sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground. Cut strips of -heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to -project up into the walls. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" /> -</div> - -<p>With the forms ready, mix a batch of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Beginning at -one end, fill the trench, and upon the gravel foundation place a 2-inch -layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire. Upon -this concrete lay a section of wire. Tamp in the remaining 6 inches -of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the -ends will project up into the future side walls. Continue laying the -concrete in sections until the bottom is completed. Finish the surface -with a wooden float.</p> - -<p>Immediately set the wall forms in place, and set them level by using a -carpenter’s level. Fill the wall space with concrete. Half way up the -side and 1 inch from the outside, lay a ½-inch iron rod entirely around -the tank. Again 2 inches from the top, and 1 inch from both inner and -outer edges, lay two rods of the same size. If a tank cover is desired, -set bolts in the concrete as directed under <a href="#CORN_CRIB"> -<span class="smcap">Corn Crib Floors</span></a>, page 53.</p> - -<p>To prevent mud holes, surround the tank with a concrete floor. (See -<a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43.) -Protect the green tank from drying out according to instructions under -<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, pages 28-34.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel </td> - <td class="tdl"> 7 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$7.70</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 3½ cubic yards at 1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">3.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl">11½ barrels at 2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">28.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $39.95</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3>Watering Troughs for Hogs</h3> - -<p>Troughs for hogs are built in two styles—wedge-shaped, like the feed -trough <a href="#HOG_TROUGH">shown on page 49</a>, or like troughs for cattle -except smaller. Use short lengths of 1-inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out -of the trough. Set bolts, properly spaced, in the soft concrete sides, so that -the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron -over the bolts. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<h3><a name="DIPPING" id="DIPPING"></a>Dipping Vats and Tanks</h3> - -<p>The younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of Texas -or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago, -killed thousands of cattle, and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and -ranchmen in its wake. Government experts found that this deadly disease -is caused by ticks, which infest cattle in certain localities. They -also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals -in chemical solutions.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>Dipping cures not only Texas (known as “splenetic”) fever, but also -the lip and leg disease, mange, and scab or scabies of both sheep and -cattle. Certain solutions free horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs of lice, -mites, fleas, and flies. The only method of applying these chemicals, -surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal, is by giving him a -plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid. Since the dip is the -most costly part of the process, and since it must be applied once or -twice every year, some permanent form of tank is needed—one that will -not rot or rust out, leak or heave in during winter. Concrete vats, -built ten years ago, without one cent’s worth of repair, are still as -good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction.</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_077a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="397" /> -</div> - -<p>There are four important points to be considered in the building of a -dipping tank:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>First—An entering slide, steep enough to shoot the animal in, -without a direct drop. A direct drop, the entire depth of the tank, is -likely to injure the animal.</p> - -<p>Second—The tank must be narrow enough to prevent the animal turning -around when once in, long enough to keep him in from one to two -minutes, and deep enough not only to make him swim, but also that he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> -may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge.</p> - -<p>Third—The slope at the leaving end must be gentle and the footing -roughened or cleated so that the animal may easily scramble to the -dripping pens.</p> - -<p>Fourth—As the liquid dip is the most expensive part of dipping, -there must be provided two dripping pens draining back into the tank.</p> -</div> - -<p>Select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small, -well-fenced lot or corral. At the narrow end of the chute and in line -with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the chute.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <a name="DROP_GATE" id="DROP_GATE"></a> - <img src="images/i_077b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="337" /> -</div> - -<p>Often the chute is built on a curve, so that the animals cannot see -where they are going.</p> - -<p>They are generally constructed with a hump in the floor. This prevents -the animal from jumping into the dip, and gives the necessary length to -the slide, without increasing the depth of the tank. Choose the proper -dimensions from the <a href="#DIP_TANK">diagrams and table</a> according -to whether the tank is to be used for horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs.</p> - -<p>The lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute, usually -a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease. Where a longer -treatment is desired, most ranchmen, instead of building tanks of -greater length, provide a drop gate working in a groove, as -<a href="#DROP_GATE">shown in the photograph</a>, by means of which the animal is -kept in the tank as long as necessary. Likewise, rather than build a separate tank -for sheep and hogs, stockmen insert a temporary division fence, running the -full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank. This fence should -be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around -in the tank. In this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses, -cattle, sheep, and hogs. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> - -<p>Dig the deep part of the hole first, and then slope the earth for the -slide and climb. Lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow -bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom. -Tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing -concrete.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="453" /> -</div> - -<p>The side walls only will require forms. If the banks stand firm, inside -forms alone will be needed. Make these of 1-inch boards on 2 by 4-inch -uprights. Steel reinforcing, preferably wire cloth or hog wire, is -placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the -concrete wall. Floor, sides, and ends should all be thus reinforced to -prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations. -Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay the floor and slopes directly on -the solid earth. No fill is necessary. The concrete for the sloping -ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in -position without the use of forms. With the bottom and slopes built, -lower the side wall forms into the pit. Take care to jar no dirt upon -the concrete already placed. Space the forms properly and cross-brace -them firmly upon each other. Fill the wall space with concrete.</p> - -<p>In placing this concrete, be sure that it strikes the wood form instead -of the earthen side, as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak, leaky -wall. Carry the walls 6 inches above the surrounding ground to prevent -flood water from running into the tank.</p> - -<p>The entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank -without skinning them up. Finish this surface with a wooden float and -steel trowel. Some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a -polished steel plate, the edges of which are sunk into the concrete -when the slide is built. To aid the animals in climbing out, embed in -the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles -similar to a capital “U.” Old wagon tires, cut in lengths not greater -than 20 inches and turned up 4 inches at each end, will do. Leave 1 -inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete. -Space the cleats 18 inches for horses and cattle and 10 inches for -sheep and hogs.</p> - -<p>At the leaving end of the tank, lay out the two dripping pens with -their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank, -so that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen, when it -is full, and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty -pen. Use concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no -replacing. Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and -build a 6-inch concrete floor according to the directions given under -<a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>, page 28, -and <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, page 43. -Slope the floors, ¼ inch to each foot in length or width, so that the -dip running off the animals will be saved and returned to the tank. -Corrugate or groove the floor to the depth of ½ inch, every 8 inches, -in one direction. During the construction of the floor, mold around -the outside a concrete curb, commonly called a splashboard, 6 inches -above the floor and 4 inches wide. Where the dip from the floor empties -into the tank, place a removable wire screen or strainer to keep the -droppings and wool tags out of the vat. Cure the floors and slopes -according to directions under <a href="#FEED_FLOOR"><span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, -page 43. The wall forms may be removed after one week, but the tank should -not be used until it is three weeks old. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_079a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="168" /> - <img src="images/i_079b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="146" /> -</div> -<div><a name="DIP_TANK" id="DIP_TANK"> </a></div> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Concrete Materials." cellpadding="0" rules="cols"> -<caption><b>DIMENSIONS OF GROUND PIT FOR DIPPING TANKS</b></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="14"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Kind</th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>W</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>N</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>D</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>L</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>E</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>B</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>A</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>I</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>O</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>T</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Cement </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Sand</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Rock</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Barrels</td> - <td class="tdc"> Cu. yds. </td> - <td class="tdc"> Cu. yds. </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Horses </td> - <td class="tdc"> 5′ 10″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 3′ 4″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 8′ 8″ </td> - <td class="tdc"> 55′ 0″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 7′ 6″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 31′ 0″ </td> - <td class="tdc"> 16′ 6″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 8′ 8″ </td> <td class="tdc"> 18′ 7″ </td> - <td class="tdc"> 0′ 8″ </td> <td class="tdc">38</td> <td class="tdc">11</td> - <td class="tdc">22</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cattle</td> - <td class="tdc">5′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">3′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">7′ 8″</td> - <td class="tdc">51′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">6′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">31′ 0″</td> - <td class="tdc">13′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">7′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">15′ 4″</td> - <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">36</td> <td class="tdc"> 10½</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sheep</td> - <td class="tdc">3′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">2′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> - <td class="tdc">46′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">31′ 0″</td> - <td class="tdc">10′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">11′ 6″</td> - <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">22</td> <td class="tdc"> 6½</td> - <td class="tdc">13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hogs</td> - <td class="tdc">3′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">2′ 4″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> - <td class="tdc">36′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">21′ 0″</td> - <td class="tdc">10′ 0″</td> <td class="tdc">5′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">11′ 6″</td> - <td class="tdc">0′ 8″</td> <td class="tdc">19</td> <td class="tdc"> 5½</td> - <td class="tdc">11</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="14"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_080a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_080b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="407" /> -</div> - -<p>At first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to -dip, but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom -necessary. Experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that -dipping increases the market value of their steers $5 per head. The -cost of dipping on the farm is only 1½ to 3 cents per head—in the -stock yards the charge is 15 to 20 cents. One large ranchman, who lost -28 per cent. of his herd (several thousand) in one winter with the -mange, found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this -disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer. -The use of dips has become so general in the South and West that the -Government has raised the quarantine in most sections. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_081a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<h3><a name="MILK_VAT" id="MILK_VAT"></a>The Construction of a Concrete Milk Vat</h3> - -<p>Dig a pit to a depth of 1 foot 6 inches and place wooden forms in -such a way as to provide for tank walls 6 inches thick and 1 foot 8 -inches in height. This will bring the walls only 8 inches above ground -level—which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_081b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="446" /> -</div> - -<p>Use a wet mixture of concrete, of proportions 1: 2: 4. Place as -described on <a href="#Page_74">page 74</a>; and be sure to build walls -and floor at the same time. The floor should be 6 inches thick.</p> - -<p>The vat described has a partition 6 inches thick, dividing the tank -into two chambers, each chamber being 6 feet 9 inches long. An iron -grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation -of cooling water around and under the milk cans. Arrangements must be -made for inlets and outlets. The inlet pipe can be simply placed above -one end of tank.</p> - -<p>The pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when -lifting heavy cans from the tank.</p> - -<p>A hole must be provided at the other end of tank, in the bottom, and -connecting, by an iron pipe, with the drain tile. Into this hole a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> -removable upright iron pipe is fitted, the length of pipe depending -on the depth of water desired for the cans. This allows the water to -come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the -proper height. The pipe must fit tightly into the hole.</p> - -<p>Time required to build:—one day with three men on the job.</p> - -<p>Approximate cost, at current prices of materials and including labor, -$16.00.</p> - -<p>The materials required are 2 cubic yards of crushed rock or screened -gravel, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 5 barrels of Portland cement.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_082a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak"><a name="SMALL" id="SMALL"></a>Small Farm Buildings</h2></div> - -<p>Numerous small structures are required on the farm. Dog kennels, tool -houses, coal houses, ice houses, hydraulic ram houses, smoke houses, -acetylene gas plant houses, gasoline storage houses, milk houses and -many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm. Such -structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of concrete.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">When once constructed of this material -durability and freedom from fire are assured. For such buildings as -milk houses built of concrete instead of wood, there is the added -advantage of cleanliness. Modern dairying demands absolute cleanliness. -Concrete meets this demand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_082b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="231" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_083.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="442" /> -</div> - -<h3>Milk Houses</h3> - -<p>Milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in, causing a very disagreeable -odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat. Concrete does not absorb -milk splashed on it. Such walls can be kept free from tainting odors -by simply washing them down. In concrete dairy houses, with concrete -vats, the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other -material. Dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the -place of concrete for such purposes.</p> - -<p>The illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls, floor -and vat, all of concrete. This house is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide and -8 feet high with a rise to the roof peak of 5 feet.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Location</span></h4> - -<p>The milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a -clean water supply. Care must be taken to provide for the outflow of -the water from the vat. This can be done by leading a line of pipe -from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking -troughs for the stock. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> - -<p>Often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet -to the house, providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and sweet.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Foundation</span></h4> - -<p>To build such a milk house as shown, dig a trench for the foundation 3 -feet deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the trench to the ground level with -1: 2½: 5 concrete. The foundation should be laid out in such a way as -to extend 3 inches beyond the inside and 3 inches beyond the outside of -the walls of the house.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Walls</span></h4> - -<p>As soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support -them, erect the wall forms. These forms consist of 1-inch siding nailed -to 2 by 4-inch studding. The studs should be spaced 2 feet apart and -the 1-inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward -the concrete. For small buildings it is often easier to build an -entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position. -The bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held -in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven -firmly into the ground. The distance the inside and outside forms are -spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired. Sloping braces -leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging -and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms -the correct distance apart. Bulging of forms can also be prevented by -wiring them together as shown on <a href="#WIRE_FORMS">page 23</a>. -On <a href="#Page_22">page 22</a> is a description of the general -method of building forms. Especial care must be taken to hold the forms -in position while placing the concrete. The studs in the side wall -forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the walls. With -the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Doors and Windows</span></h4> - -<p>A space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows. This is -done by placing between the wall forms, frames or boxes without top or -bottom made of 1-inch boards. When the wall form has been filled to -the level of the bottom of the opening a frame, the size and shape of -the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured -around it. After the wall reaches a level 2 inches above the frame lay -in the fresh concrete two ½-inch iron bars. These pieces should be long -enough to extend 8 inches beyond each side of the frame. A piece of old -wagon tire can be used instead.</p> - -<p>The sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box -extending out from the side form. The concrete should be placed for the -sill at the same time that the wall is being built. For buildings such -as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Finishing Top of Wall</span></h4> - -<p>When the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete -has set, shove ½-inch bolts 18 inches long down into it. Space these -bolts 24 inches apart, 9 inches of the length being in the concrete. -The end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof, -and are filled to the top. While placing the concrete in the walls it -should be continually spaded as described on <a href="#Page_25">page 25</a>. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="327" /> - <p class="f120"><b>DETAILS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS</b></p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Building the Roof</span></h4> - -<p>The roof is built by nailing 2 by 4 rafters to the inside studs of the -side wall forms, on a line 1 inch lower than the bottom of the roof. -The rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof, and are securely -fastened where they meet at the ridge. To stiffen the roof form until -the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the -bottom (with a 1-inch strip) in the form of a capital “A.” One-inch -boards are nailed on the rafters. The cornice shown in the sketch -extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the -width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and -end walls. To hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built -nail a 5-inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board. Bend -the bolts projecting above the walls down to within 1 inch of the roof -boards. Spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire -roof, allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice. Wire the -fencing securely to the bent bolts. Place two ½-inch steel rods near -the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof, and fasten -these securely to the woven wire fencing. The roof should be made 3 -inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger -than ½ inch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice, -working toward the ridge. Spread the concrete out in a thin layer and -then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so -that the concrete is 1 inch thick below the wire. Cover the rods and -wire with more concrete to a depth of 2 inches. When finished the -roof will then be 3 inches thick, 1 inch below the wire and 2 inches -over it. Always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the -complete depth of 3 inches at once. Imbed a width of woven wire fencing -lengthwise over the ridge of the roof 1 inch beneath the surface. The -work must be carried on without interruption. The concrete must not be -allowed to dry along an unfinished edge, as there is danger of a leak -where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard. Tamp the concrete -until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof -with a wooden float and steel trowel.</p> - -<p>The forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete -in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is -hardening. A method for doing this is described on <a href="#Page_26">page 26</a> -under <a href="#SIDEWALKS"><span class="smcap">Sidewalks</span></a>. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Floor</span></h4> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_087a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="414" /> -</div> - -<p>When the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can -be laid. Excavate the ground to a depth of 4 inches below the finished -floor level. Mix and lay the concrete as described on <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a>.</p> - -<p>The concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of -the floor. <a href="#MILK_VAT">See description on page 82</a>.</p> - -<h4><a name="ENGINE" id="ENGINE"></a><span class="smcap">Engine Base</span></h4> - -<p>Engines, cream separators, pumps and other pieces of machinery -require solid bases. These bases must be permanent, and free from any -vibration. A base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_087b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="188" /> -</div> - -<p>To form a base for the support of a small engine, first excavate a -pit 2 feet 4 inches deep, and 1 foot larger both in length and width -than the dimensions of the engine base. Fill the pit with a mixture of -concrete, (1: 2½: 5), and then construct a form which will carry the -concrete to a height 4 inches above the floor level or to the height -desired.</p> - -<p>Bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries, these being -sufficiently long to bend 4 inches at right angles, and to extend 1 -foot deep into the concrete, with bent end down. They should be placed -with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of -the bolt, and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of -the concrete. The open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will -allow for slight errors in locating bolts, so as to meet the holes in -the engine base.</p> - -<p>Keep the concrete wet for 24 hours after placing, by sprinkling. After -six days, set the engine, adjust the bolts, and fill the spaces around -the bolts with cement mortar, mixed 1 part cement, 1 part sand. Do not -use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_088a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /> - <p class="f120">Concrete Ice House</p> -</div> - -<p>A concrete base adds years of service to the life of a <a href="#ENGINE">gasoline engine</a> -or cream separator.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_088b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> - <p class="f120">Grain Elevator Approach and Engine House</p> -</div> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Method Applies to All Buildings</span></h4> - -<p>The method just described for building a milk house applies equally -well to any of the small houses mentioned above. It is not always -necessary to build a peaked roof; sometimes a flat roof will answer the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> -purpose; but the general method in all cases is the same. The drawings -show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the -windows can be made to slide up and down.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="408" /> - <p class="f120">Hydraulic Ram House</p> -</div> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Advantages of Concrete</span></h4> - -<p>Concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such -buildings as smoke houses, where there is always great danger from fire.</p> - -<p>Oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms. Acetylene -and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light. These plants are -built either above or below ground. In either case concrete is the -ideal material, since it is both fire and waterproof.</p> - -<p>The durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings -as hydraulic ram houses, which must always be located near streams, -and ice houses, where there is always moisture. Wood quickly rots, but -moisture has no effect on concrete.</p> - -<p>For tool houses, coal houses, and buildings subjected to rough usage, -nothing equals concrete.</p> - -<p>Concrete, for small buildings, meets the three great demands of the -farmer—cleanliness, freedom from fire, and durability. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CELLAR01" id="CELLAR01"></a> - <img src="images/i_090a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -</div> - -<h3>Concrete Cellar Steps and Hatchway</h3> - -<p>Cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar. -This cannot happen if they are made of concrete. There are no -cracks through which the water can come. Wooden steps last no time, -particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up -and down. As wooden or brick areaways are always damp, the steps rot -quickly, thus requiring constant renewal. Few things are more dangerous -to limb, and even to life, than a step giving way under the weight of a -heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CELLAR02" id="CELLAR02"></a> - <img src="images/i_090b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="314" /> -</div> - -<p>Concrete steps are safe under any load.</p> - -<p>Owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape, -it is particularly desirable for this purpose. Some people like steps -with a low rise and a particularly wide tread, while others prefer a -high rise and narrow tread. Concrete can easily be fitted to either. -The determining feature is usually the space to be occupied. The door -into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken, and -therefore the height of the risers; while the room the cellarway is to -take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread. If -possible, the rise of each step should be from 6 to 8 inches, while the -width of the tread should be from 9 to 12 inches.</p> - -<p><i>Note</i>: <a href="#Page_112">See page 112</a> for Window Hatchway. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_091.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" /> -</div> - -<p>In erecting, first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired, -plus one foot. This allows for a 6-inch wall on either side. Slope the -ground from 1 foot back of where the top step is to come to 1 foot back -of where the bottom step will be. To form the steps, saw out a board -just as you would a “horse” for steps, and nail planks where the risers -come, holding the two “horses” the proper distance apart. This is -placed upside down, resting on the top and bottom, with the edge of the -top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come. Fill -this form and the space back of it with 1: 2: 4 concrete, starting -with the bottom step, and continuing upward to the top, bringing the -concrete in each step to the top of rise. Side forms for the 6-inch -walls may now be placed, braced apart in the center properly, and -resting on the back of the horses. These can be carried to any height -desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and -snow. Forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above -the ground line to hold the concrete in place. Before the concrete sets -in the side walls, bolts should be placed, with heads in the concrete, -by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening -the cellar doors by strap hinges. If the bottom step does not come to -the wall line, the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a -5-inch thickness of concrete. Here is a convenient place to locate a -drain, to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps, and any -which may leak through the cellar doors.</p> - -<p>The cellar hatchway shown in the <a href="#CELLAR01">photograph</a> -and in the <a href="#CELLAR02">drawing</a> is 5 feet wide, built according -to directions above. The side walls at the cellar are 7 feet high and -10 feet long. The slope for the cellar doors is 2 feet 4 inches. There -are 7 steps of 8-inch rise and 10-inch tread and a landing 3 feet 2 -inches wide. Two men built this hatchway in 1½ days.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel </td> - <td class="tdl"> 2¼ cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$2.48</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 1⅛ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">1.13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl"> 3¾ barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">9.37</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $12.98</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_092a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" /> -</div> - -<h3>Root Cellars of Concrete</h3> - -<p>The increasing use of roots, as winter feed for animals, has brought -about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this -valuable food. A root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep -roots from freezing or rotting. By building the cellar below ground -the warmth is greatly increased. To do this, however, a material must -be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot. For these -reasons use concrete.</p> - -<p>The cellar shown in the illustration on page 91 extends 5 feet below, -and 2 feet above ground level. The walls are 5 inches thick, and are -made of concrete proportioned 1: 2: 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_092b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="236" /> -</div> - -<p>Choose a well drained site, and dig a pit in the earth to the desired -depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for concrete -steps, which will have a rise of 7 inches and a tread of 10 inches. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> - -<p>Build a floor of the same thickness as the walls. Set inside box form -and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with -the wet concrete, the same as for <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap">Underground Cisterns</span></a>, -page 68.</p> - -<p>Above the ground level an outside form must be used. The roof is built -in the way described on <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a> except the thickness -is increased to 5 inches.</p> - -<p>Ventilators are provided in the roof, by imbedding lengths of sewer -pipe in the concrete. Add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain.</p> - -<p>By <a href="#Page_90">referring to page 90</a>, there will be found -a description of how to build a hatchway and steps.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the side wall forms have been erected, the door frame -should be set in its required position, before placing concrete.</p> - -<p>Similar structures are also used as bee, vegetable, fruit and cyclone -cellars. Concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples, -potatoes and cabbage. By adjusting the ventilator openings, the -temperature can always be kept at just the right point. Moreover, since -rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar, there -is no waste causing decay, and the vegetables keep better.</p> - -<p>In cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter, lest they freeze -to death. By no other means than underground cellars can they be safely -brought through the winter. The bee cellar must be dry, in order that -the bees stay in good health. In no way, can there be provided so even -a temperature or so dry an atmosphere, as by the use of concrete. Bees -kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel </td> - <td class="tdl"> 11 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$12.10</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 5½ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">5.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl"> 15 barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">37.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $55.10</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="270" /> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_094a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" /> -</div> - -<h3>Poultry Houses</h3> - -<p>The high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable. But to -have laying hens they must be carefully tended. Their houses must be -clean, and free from draughts. Young chickens must be protected from -rats, skunks and foxes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="NEST" id="NEST"></a> - <img src="images/i_094b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<p>Concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house. To -clean a house of concrete, spray it with oil and burn it out. Concrete -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -is fireproof. Rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk. In -a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift, -or in which lice and bedbugs can hide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_095a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> -</div> - -<p>Locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where -the concrete poultry yard (<a href="#FEED_FLOOR">see <span class="smcap">Feeding Floors</span></a>, -page 43) may be wind protected. Build the house as directed under -<a href="#SMALL"><span class="smcap">Small Buildings</span></a>, page 82. -As the walls are being placed, insert short pieces of gas pipe at -convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests (one style of -nest <a href="#NEST">shown on page 94</a>) and the rails for the -roosts. If desired, a one-way-slope concrete roof may be made.</p> - -<p>Make the floor on an 8-inch fill of gravel, or of slabs built on a -smooth floor and later set in place. Lay heavy wire fencing in the -concrete slab 1 inch from the under side.</p> - -<h3>Poultry Watering Troughs</h3> - -<p>To rid the farm of cholera and roup, nothing aids more than concrete -drinking troughs. Occasionally scrub the troughs, spray them with oil -and burn them out.</p> - -<h3>Duck Ponds</h3> - -<p class="space-below2">Ducks and geese need water, yet if they are -allowed to go to a nearby stream, many are lost. Poultrymen are -building ponds of concrete, attached to the water supply in such a way -as to provide fresh water at all times. For building, see instructions -under <span class="smcap">Hog Wallows</span>, page 52.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_095b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="150" /> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_096a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -</div> - -<h3>Retaining Wall and Steps</h3> - -<p>Terraces, if too steep, will not stay sodded, and if too flat, take up -room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn. The neatest way is to -place a retaining wall along the terrace edge. This wall is built in -the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described -on <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_096b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="384" /> -</div> - -<p>If the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary. A most -convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with -the face of the wall, making it impossible to fall over one or two -projecting steps in the dark.</p> - -<p>In building, insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to -prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall. The -bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the -wall sufficient to form the first step.</p> - -<p>After the concrete for the wall is placed, remove the section of the -form where the steps are to come, and dig out the earth to a depth -sufficient to hold them.</p> - -<p>The remaining steps are built in the manner described on <a href="#Page_90">page 90</a>.</p> - -<p>After the concrete is placed, the steps should be closed to traffic for -at least one week.</p> - -<p>In the background of the <a href="#WATER_SOURCE">photograph on page 72</a> -may be seen a double terrace wall of concrete, each wall 5 feet high. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_097a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -</div> - -<h3>Concrete Chimney Caps</h3> - -<p>As a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney, -it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as -possible. It can be made entirely so by building it of concrete. If -this is not convenient, at least let the chimney cap be of concrete.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="278" /> -</div> - -<p>These caps are cast in one piece, on the ground, and in any shape -desired.</p> - -<p>The outside form is a wooden box, with inside dimensions corresponding -with the outside dimensions of the desired cap. Usually the cap is 6 -inches thick, and has an “over-hang” or “drip” extending on all sides -beyond the outside of the chimney.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Thus, if top of chimney, over -all, is 18 inches square, make outer form 22 inches square, an extra -allowance of 2 inches on all sides, thus obtaining a cap that will have -an “over-hang” of 2 inches all the way around.</p> - -<p>The inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile. If more -than one opening is desired in the cap, use two pieces of tile or as -many as there are to be openings.</p> - -<p>Mix concrete 1: 2: 4, the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one. Place -in the form, after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may -be easily removed. Leave undisturbed for two days. Remove forms and -place cap in position, attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement -mortar, one part cement to one part sand. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_098a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="455" /> -</div> - -<h3>Concrete Makes an Excellent Porch Floor</h3> - -<p>When even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear, either -from use or exposure to the elements, build it of concrete.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_098b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" /> -</div> - -<p>Porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground; and, even -if they do not rot, through constant use they become splintered and -faulty.</p> - -<p>As concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without -cutting, it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -and shape. Its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and -exposure have been so often mentioned, it seems useless to refer to -them again.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -</div> - -<p>Remove the old wooden floor, first placing props to support the porch -roof, with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch -floor. The pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to -be replaced by concrete.</p> - -<p>The floor is laid in exactly the same way as a <a href="#FEED_FLOOR">feeding floor -described on page 43</a>. As the size is usually small, however, the floor can be -laid in a single slab without joints. If a smooth surface is wished -for, finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel.</p> - -<p>Do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing. If you do, small -cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the floor.</p> - -<p>No material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a -school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily.</p> - -<p>A porch of concrete is free from vermin, fireproof, easily scrubbed, -and needs no repairs.</p> - -<h3>Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames</h3> - -<p>Fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every -suburbanite, if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame. By their use early -spring plants can also be given a good start. Since the bed must be -placed partly in the damp ground, the only material to be considered -for this purpose is concrete, which does not rot out and which, being -free from cracks and joints, makes the warmest bed in cold weather.</p> - -<p>Locate the bed on the sunny side of a building, if possible, on the -south side. Dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed, not less -than 3 feet deep. The one shown is 39 feet long and divided into 3 -equal compartments. Make box forms of 1-inch lumber to carry the south -(front) wall 6 inches and the north (back) wall 15 inches above ground. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> -The end walls slope to the others. If the bed is not near a building, -extend the back wall 2 feet higher to serve as a wind-break. Before -filling the forms with concrete, test their width by laying on a sash. -See that it laps full 2 inches at each end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_100a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /> -</div> - -<p class="space-below1">Mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions 1: -2½: 5. Fill the forms without stopping for anything. Tie the walls -together at the corners by laying old iron rods in them bent at right -angles. During the placing of the concrete set ½-inch bolts about 2 -feet apart to hold the wooden framing to the concrete; or make grooves -in the tops of the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of -the concrete, allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance. This -can be done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden -strip of the necessary width and thickness. Remove the forms after -six days. Divisions may be built along with the walls or later as -convenient. One and one-half days were required for two men to build a -hot-bed 5½ by 12¼ feet in the clear.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Screened gravel or broken stone </td> - <td class="tdl"> 2½ cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$2.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 1¼ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">1.25</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl"> 3½ barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">8.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $12.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_100b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="239" /> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CAVITY" id="CAVITY"></a> - <img src="images/i_101a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" /> -</div> - -<h3>Tree Repair</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_101b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="372" /> -</div> - -<p>Nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good -shade trees. But trees are like teeth—they need attention. Boring -insects often cause decay. The hollow becomes larger. The wind blows -the weakened tree down. The “looks” of the place is ruined. It takes at -least a lifetime to produce another such tree.</p> - -<p>By means of concrete, many famous old trees, seemingly about gone, are -now saved. Open up the cavity with a hand-axe. With a mallet and chisel -cut out every bit of the rotten wood, and stop the flow of sap by -painting the cavity with liquid asphalt. Reinforce small cavities with -nails as <a href="#CAVITY">shown in the photograph</a>, larger cavities with rods, -wire and spikes. Carefully fill every crevice with a 1: 3 cement-sand mortar. -By slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling, once or -twice a season, the bark will grow entirely over the concrete. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="402" /> -</div> - -<h3>Rollers of Concrete</h3> - -<p>Frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into -humps. If these are not rolled down at once, the lawn is rough all summer.</p> - -<p>Rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood. These -were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers, purchased in the -nearest town. To-day farmers are again making rollers, but are using -concrete. An iron roller with a cylinder from 2 to 3 feet in length -will cost from $15 to $20, whereas one of the same size constructed of -concrete will cost practically nothing.</p> - -<p>Obtain a length of sewer pipe, of the size of roller wished for. A tile -from 12 to 24 inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose. Set -this tile on end, small end down, on a wooden platform. Through a hole -bored in the platform insert a 1-inch round iron bar, long enough to -project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide -bearings and attachment for the handles. Care should be taken to get -the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete, -and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed. Make a wet -mixture of concrete (1: 2: 4), and fill the tile with this mixture, -up to the “bell” of the tile. Allow the concrete to set for ten days, -when the roller may be placed on side, and the bell of pipe chipped off -with a cold chisel and hammer. Attach a forked handle, as shown in the -illustration. As the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller, the -fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes, within which the -axle can turn.</p> - -<p>A roller 18 inches in diameter and 2 feet long will weigh about 600 -pounds. If a lighter roller is desired, use a smaller sized sewer -pipe; or place several small pipes inside the large one, depositing -the concrete around them on the outside. They will form hollow spaces -inside the roller and lessen its weight.</p> - -<p>By increasing the size pipe, or by using a steel mold and attaching -a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle, horse rollers for -crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_103a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="312" /> -</div> - -<h3>Hay Caps and Tarpaulin Weights</h3> - -<p>With the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent -occurrence of showers, to secure sweet, unmolded hay it has become -necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover. The -best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete. Mix the -concrete 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand, mold them like -doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop, and set them aside -in a damp place for 7 days before using.</p> - -<h3>Trash Burner or Garbage Receiver</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_103b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="298" /> -</div> - -<p>Trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding -property. A concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means.</p> - -<p>Dig out the dirt to the depth of 6 inches. For forms choose two -barrels, one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all -sides of 6 inches. Adjust the height by cutting off their butts. Make -an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which -an iron door can be hung. Fill the foundation hole and the forms with -1: 2: 4 concrete. Remove the outside form after two weeks. The fire -will later take care of the inner form. After three weeks the burner -may be used. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" /> -</div> - -<h3>Concrete Posts</h3> - -<p>When a man buys a farm, he examines first the condition of its general -improvements. If the fences are “all run down,” he must take into -consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them—a matter of no -small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and -lumber. The cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost. -Intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last -longest with least repairs.</p> - -<p>A railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any -single property owner, and to avoid damage suits, the fences must at -all times be in perfect repair. As fast as their wooden fences rot out -and burn down, they are replacing them with concrete. Not only has the -lasting quality of concrete recommended itself, but the ever increasing -shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden -posts impossible, and the cost of poor posts high.</p> - -<p>Concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden -posts. The life of a wooden post is from 3 to 5 years, while concrete -posts last forever. Weather and fire do not injure them. Even forest -fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts.</p> - -<p>The United States Government, recognizing the importance of this -subject, has issued Farm Bulletin No. 403, entitled Concrete Fence -Posts. This bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the -Agricultural Department, or to your Congressman.</p> - -<p>Hitching posts, made in a slightly larger box form, with a bolt and -ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened, add neatness to -the house surroundings. Gate posts of concrete, nothing more than heavy -fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence, prevent sagging -gates, so hard to open. A concrete clothes post is ready for the -clothes line and the wash every Monday morning. The weight of the wet -clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag. Clothes never -have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_105a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /> -</div> - -<h3>Corner Stones and Survey Monuments</h3> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_105b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="305" /> -</div> - -<p>To property owners, as well as engineers, survey monuments which last -forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks, are of -the utmost importance. Expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be -avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable, permanent, -and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks. The use of -concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any -other material.</p> - -<p>Get from the proper public official (usually the county engineer or -surveyor) the exact location of corner stones. Drive four stakes in the -ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross -each other directly over the original monument.</p> - -<p>Remove the old monument, and, with a post auger, bore a hole deep -enough to reach below the frost line (at least 3 feet deep), where the -old monument stood. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> - -<p>Fill the hole with concrete mixed 1: 2: 4, rounding the top with -the hands so it will extend 3 or 4 inches above the level of the -surrounding ground.</p> - -<p>While placing the last foot of concrete, imbed a harrow tooth, iron -bolt, or gas pipe, with its top just showing above the finished -concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross. Protect the -monument from damage by stock for one week, by placing a box over it.</p> - -<h3>Drain Tile Outlet Walls</h3> - -<p>In developing the lowlands for farm purposes—and such lands are now -most valuable—immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile.</p> - -<p>Where drain tile empty into an open ditch, the banks of the ditch -around the drain tile gradually wash away, and often two and three -lengths of tile become disjointed, allowing the water from them to -further cut away the field land. These exposed tile are often crushed -by livestock. Moreover, clay and shale tile freeze, crumble, and mixed -with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet. Muskrats, -skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place, and the drain becomes -stopped up and drowns out the crops.</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="332" /> -</div> - -<p>All of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in -building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile -from washing out and to protect it.</p> - -<p>Choose the dry season of the year, immediately after the laying or -cleaning of the string of tile, when little water is in the ditch.</p> - -<p>Dig a trench 12 inches wide along the edge of the open ditch 2 feet -below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile. This trench -should extend along the bank for from 4 to 6 feet, with wings turned -into the bank at its ends, sufficiently long to prevent water from -getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out.</p> - -<p>Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5—wet enough to tamp well.</p> - -<p>Fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level. Should the trench -be full of water, place this part of the concrete dry.</p> - -<p>Set box forms, made of 1-inch siding and 2 by 4-inch studding. These -forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top -of the ditch banks. At the proper height to meet the string of tile, -place a first-class drain tile (at least one size larger than the -regular string) through the forms so that the front end will be flush -with the outside wall after concrete is placed.</p> - -<p>Bore two small holes in the forms above this tile, and place in them -well greased pegs of wood. After the forms are filled with concrete, -these pegs are removed, the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap -gate to keep animals out of the line of tile. Fill the forms with -concrete, and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel.</p> - -<p>Remove the forms after one week, and fill in earth behind the wall to its top. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<h3>Spraying Tanks</h3> - -<p>San José scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray -their orchards. To get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the -handling of warm solutions, orchardmen are building elevated concrete -tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the -tank bottoms. With such a plant, there is no delay—and time counts in -the spraying season.</p> - -<p>The tank shown stands on 10 by 12-inch columns, 6 feet clear of the -ground. It has two compartments, each 5 by 5 feet by 4 feet deep -holding 750 gallons. The side walls are 4 inches thick. Beneath the -4-inch bottom, on all sides, are 8 by 12-inch concrete beams.</p> - -<p>Locate the tank convenient to the water supply. Dig the column holes 12 -inches square, 3 feet deep, 11 feet out to out on the longer side and 5 -feet on the shorter. Have all forms ready before placing any concrete. -Fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four ½-inch iron -rods 10 feet long so that they will come right for the columns and -extend through them. Set up the 10 by 12-inch by 6-foot column forms -with their tops level with each other. Join them together with the -solidly framed 8 by 12-inch beam forms.</p> - -<p>Keeping the rods 1 inch from the corners, fill concrete in the column -forms up to the floor beams. Spread 1 inch of concrete over the bottom -of the beam forms and lay in two ½-inch rods 1½ inches from each side -wall. Bend these rods around those in the columns. Without delay fill -the beam forms.</p> - -<p>Erect the forms for the tank proper as for <a href="#WATER_TROUGH"> -<span class="smcap">Watering Tanks</span></a>, page 74. In the bottom -of each tank set a 1½-inch flange pipe coupling. Place 1 inch of -concrete, then strips of heavy woven wire, and the remaining 3 inches -of concrete. Fill the side walls and, 1 inch from the outside, -imbed similar wire fencing. Protect the green concrete according to -directions under watering tanks.</p> - -<p>The materials required are: screened gravel or crushed rock, 4½ cubic -yards; sand, 2¼ cubic yards; and Portland cement, 7½ barrels. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<h3>Culverts are Permanent When Made of Concrete</h3> - -<p>The secret of good roads is good drainage. Standing water soaks into -the road bed, softens the road surface and causes ruts. To keep well -made roads in first-class condition, get the water to the highway drain -tile as fast as it falls. This can be accomplished only by means of -culverts.</p> - -<p>The perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out, which does -not crush down and clog up the opening, which lasts forever. Concrete -is the only material which fills the bill.</p> - -<p>The best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer. They -can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the -amount of water which must be removed quickly. Usually openings 12 to -18 inches are large enough. Set the culvert as deep in the road bed as -possible, but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the -ditch into which the culvert drains. To keep the culvert well beneath -the road bed, if necessary, make the side ditch deeper at the inlet -end. Determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom. Only a -little slope is needed. Dig the trench 6 inches deeper than the grade -line and as wide and long as necessary. The width of the trench depends -upon the size of the culvert to be built, and its length upon the width -of roadway under which the water is to be carried. The concrete walls -are each 6 inches thick, so the width of the trench will be 1 foot -greater than the clear width of the culvert. Fill this trench with -concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5, and, while it is still wet place in the -center of it a U-shaped box, turned upside down, of 1-inch boards, the -outside of which is the size of the culvert desired. Fill concrete into -the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and -tamp concrete over the top to a depth of 8 inches. Road culverts should -not be less than 18 inches below the surface of the roadway.</p> - -<p>To prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> -the culvert, small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end. -To do this dig an 8-inch trench 3 feet deep, at each end of the culvert -along the end of the culvert barrel. Frame a form, the width and height -necessary, against the end of the box or pipe. Make another form, of -the same size, but U-shaped, with the opening just large enough to -fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel. Set this form 8 -inches inside the first. Plumb both forms and brace them securely. Nail -boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete. -For one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert. Allow -the forms to remain in place for two weeks. Replace the road material -over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has -become solid. Since there are usually many culverts to be built, it is -cheaper to use a collapsible form, adjustable to several sized culverts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" /> -</div> - -<p>The box culvert shown in the illustration on page 108 has an opening 18 -inches wide and 16 inches deep. The length is 20 feet. The retaining -walls are 8 inches thick, 2 feet high (from the barrel opening), and -do not extend beyond the culvert walls. The bottom and the side walls -are 6 inches thick; the top, 8 inches. Three men, with a highway -commissioner as superintendent, built this culvert in two days.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"><big><b>Materials Required</b></big></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crushed rock or screened gravel </td> - <td class="tdl"> 3 cubic yards at $1.10</td> - <td class="tdr">$3.30</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sand</td> - <td class="tdl"> 1½ cubic yards at $1.00</td> - <td class="tdr">1.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Portland cement</td> - <td class="tdl"> 4 barrels at $2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">10.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr bt"> $14.80</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Concrete bridges last forever. With all the bridges and culverts of -concrete, tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_110a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> -</div> - -<h3>Septic Tanks</h3> - -<p>The proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important -question on the farm. Cess-pools, simply pits dug in the ground, are -great disease spreaders. The liquids from them seep through the ground, -carry germs from the pool to the well, render “the best drinking-water -in the country” unfit for use, and often cause the spread of disease.</p> - -<p>The modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice. -Cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities, where immense sums of -money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage. It is not possible -to provide farms with these expensive plants, nor is it necessary. -Through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences -of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger -from sewage removed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_110b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="242" /> - <img src="images/i_111a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="282" /> -</div> - -<p>Septic tanks are nothing but long underground, water-tight cisterns -through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly. Located -underground, they are warm and dark—ideal conditions for the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> -development of the bacteria, little germs which eat up the sewage and -render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to -ferment. To prevent the bacteria (which live in the frothy sludge) from -being disturbed cross-walls, called baffle boards, are placed to break -up the current of the inflowing sewage. The purified sewage, merely -clear water, may be discharged into the farm drain tile.</p> - -<p>Locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side -walls underground and out of danger of flood waters. For a family of 8 -to 10, plan a tank with 8-inch walls, 5 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 10 -feet long—all dimensions in the clear. Lay out the tank and construct -it in exactly the same manner as <a href="#CISTERNS"><span class="smcap"> -Underground Cisterns</span></a>, page 68.</p> - -<p>Before filling the forms, set in the 6-inch inlet and outlet drains -at the same height, 2 feet 6 inches below the ground level. To aid -further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air, use -elbow bends, so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of -the tile. In the side forms, at a distance of 2 and 4 feet from the -inlet wall, set ¾-inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be -attached. These boards reach entirely across the tank, project above -the sewage, and extend to within 1 foot of the bottom. While building -the manhole covers, for the needed ventilation, insert in them four -short lengths of 1-inch gas pipe.</p> - -<p>Remove the forms the same as for <a href="#CISTERNS">underground cisterns</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_111b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="300" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Concrete Hydrant Sink</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_112a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" /> -</div> - -<h3>Window Hatches</h3> - -<p class="space-below2">Window hatches should be protected by a flap cover, -to close in times of heavy rain or snow.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_112b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="421" /> -</div> - -<h3>An Outdoor Swimming Pool</h3> - -<p>These are built exactly as an <a href="#CISTERNS">underground cistern</a>. -A pool near home affords a safe “swimming hole” for the children.</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="f200"><b><i>How will you know?</i></b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You are going to build—now or some time—and you want to build well -and economically.</p> - -<p>You will choose between temporary and permanent construction.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Why you should build in concrete.</i></p> - -<p>First, because of <i>permanence</i>. It is fireproof, strong, and -lasting—proof against wear-and-tear and depreciation. It lasts and -lasts—against wind, water, and fire.</p> - -<p>Second, because of <i>cleanliness and sanitation</i>. This means healthy -stock and better products, which sell at higher prices.</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Third, because of <i>economy</i>. Concrete is lower in ultimate cost -because, once built, it requires no painting or up-keep, no repairs, -no attention. Being proof against fire, concrete secures the lowest -insurance rates.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> - -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p> - -<hr class="full" /> -<p class="f150 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Why you should use ATLAS.</i></p> - -<p>First, because Atlas Portland Cement is the most-used cement—high in -quality and always uniform and reliable.</p> - -<p>Second, because Atlas Portland Cement has demonstrated its worth. -Our own government selected it for the Panama Canal, after careful -investigation and tests. Nearly seven million barrels have been used so -far for this project. Severe government tests have been made of every -hundred barrels, but not a single barrel has been rejected.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> - -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="f120 space-above1 space-below1"><i>Free help for you.</i></p> - -<p>This book will give much valuable information about concrete. But -naturally, your particular needs may require further information.</p> - -<p>Let us furnish this information you need. Tell us what you want to -build and what you would like to know. We will gladly give you all the -necessary help.</p> - -<p>So far, we have sent information to over two million farmers. Why -shouldn’t you avail yourself of this help, which is offered to you -without any obligation?</p> - -<p>Whenever you buy cement, look for the Atlas trade mark as your -guide—the black trade mark with yellow letters.</p> -</div> - -<p class="f150"><b><i>The Atlas Portland Cement Company</i></b></p> -<p class="center"><i>New York Chicago Philadelphia Boston</i><br /> -<i>St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="f200"><b><i>Warning</i></b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>There are many brands of Portland cement, and some people are -confused, and as a result accept any cement bearing the word “Portland.”</p> - -<p>The word “Portland” signifies <i>only</i> the kind of cement, <i>but does -not designate the brand and quality</i>.</p> - -<p>Specify “ATLAS” Portland Cement when you buy, and you will get the best.</p> - -<p class="f120"><b>Atlas Portland Cement</b></p> - -<p class="no-indent">is always uniform in strength, color and quality. It is the -cement that has done most to make concrete and its uses so satisfactory and -well known. That is why Atlas is “The Standard by which all other makes -are measured.”</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all other makes are measured.</i>”</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="f200"><b>Ask Your<br />Dealer for<br />ATLAS</b></p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all<br />other makes are measured.</i>”</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="f120 space-below1">“<i>The Standard by which all<br />other makes are measured.</i>”</p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/atlas_logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="183" /> -</div> - -<p class="f300"><b>ATLAS</b></p> -<p class="center">used exclusively by the<br />United States Government<br />on the Panama Canal</p> -<hr class="r25" /> - -<p class="f300"><b>ATLAS</b></p> -<p class="center">used exclusively on the<br />great Keokuk Dam across<br /> -the Mississippi River</p> -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="footnotes space-below2"> -<p class="f150"><b>Footnotes:</b></p> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -Farmers’ Bulletin 403, Concrete Fence Posts. Sent free on application.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -For free bulletins on dipping write the Agricultural Department, -Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -A simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is described on -<a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="transnote bbox"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p> -<p class="indent">The advertisements between pages 48 and 49 in the original text have - been moved to the end of the text.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Concrete Construction for the Home and -the Farm, by The Atlas Portland Cement Company - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR HOME AND FARM *** - -***** This file should be named 62312-h.htm or 62312-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/1/62312/ - -Produced by MFR, Paul Marshall and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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